ANCIENT

ART AND ITS REMAINS;

MANUAL OF THE ARCHiEOLOGY OF ART.

BY C. 0. MtJLLER,
Author of " The Histoty unil Antiquities of the Doric Race," " A Scientific System of
Mythology,"' &c

NEW EDITION-WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS
BY F. G. WELCKER.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
BY JOHN LEITCH.

LONDON:
A. FULLARTON AND CO., NEWGATE STREET.
1850.

^3oF\o\o

liRlNEUIlGH:
KULLAKTON AND 5IACMAB, PRINTEES, LEITH WAtK,

DEDICATED TO
THE EIGHT HOSOOJIABLE
SIR ROBERT PEEL, BART., M.P.,
WITH
SINCERE ADMIRATION OE
HIS VIRTUES AND TALENTS,
BY
THE TEANSLATOE.

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

In this Translation I have endeavoured to avoid, as much as pos
sible, the introduction of new words; but, in the original, various
technical terms occur, with which, notwithstanding their novelty to
the English reader, I could not dispense; because their rejection
would occasion, in some measure, a sacrifice of sense, or a disturb
ance of the system pursued by the author, — as in Tectonics and
Architectonics for example. I may also mention the word scalpture.
It is not, I believe, in use in our language, but as scalptura designates
a particular branch of ancient art, I did not hesitate to Anglicise it.
It may be proper also to explain, that throughout the work a dis
tinction is kept up between column and pillar, the former denoting
the circular supporting member of the different orders of architec
ture, the latter the square pier. The words formative and plastic,
likewise, are employed as convertible epithets, except in a few in
stances where the latter is used in its original and more restricted
sense; in these, however, its meaning may be discovered from the
context. The most learned of my readers will be most ready to make
allowance for the difficulties of my task, which were greatly en
hanced, at least in the notes, by the author's desire to express his
ideas in the briefest possible manner. By the perhaps too unspar
ing use of ellipsis he has frequently rendered his meaning obscure
or ambiguous. In some instances I was enabled to discover the
sense by my recollection of the monuments described, in many
others by reference to the author's sources, and in some cases I have
derived considerable benefit from the suggestions of Professor
Donaldson, whose valuable works on the architectural remains of
Greece and Italy are so frequently referred to by MUller, and to
whom I take this opportunity of offering my warmest thanks for
his obliging assistance. Nevertheless I cannot flatter myself that 1
have always succeeded in overcoming the difficulties I have had to
encounter, and, in glancing over the work, I still find passages
which I should have wished to amend.

vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
It would certainly have been desirable to have the references
throughout the work verified, but I was withheld from making this
addition to my labour, by their immense number, my other engage
ments, and the difficulty of getting access to the works referred to,
many of which are not to be found in any of our public libraries.
However, I have in numerous instances consulted the authorities
quoted, when I wished to clear up any doubt or obscurity; and on
such occasions I have very rarely discovered any inaccuracy in the
citation. When I was aware of any foreign work having been
translated into English I transferred the reference to the translation.
The present work will probably be followed by Miiller and Oes-
terley's " Monuments of Ancient Art," when the original work,
which is now in course of publication at Gbttingen, will have been
completed. It is intended as a companion to this Manual, and con
tains numerous plates illustrating the different periods of art, ac
cording to the system here pursued.
London, 22 Welbeck Street,
July, 1847.

The present edition of this work, besides containing all the addi
tions in the last German edition, which were partly derived from
the manuscripts of the lamented author, and in great part contri
buted by the Editor, Professor Welcker of Bonn, is enriched with
a considerable number of additions which that eminent archasologist
was so obliging as to transmit to me while the translation was pass
ing through .the press. It will be easy to distinguish his share in
the work, as his contributions are all enclosed within brackets. The
paragraph on Nineveh was written before the publication of Capt.
Layard's work, and his discoveries, therefore, are not mentioned.
I very recently requested from Mr. Welcker a supplementary no
tice of them, which I would have appended to the book, but he
thinks it better to be silent until he can obtain a more connected
and leisurely view of those important discoveries, and be thus enabled
to treat the subject in a more complete and satisfactory manner. •
The additions, which are with very few exceptions confined to
the notes, amount altogether to several thousands, and this edition
is nearly a fourth larger than the last. J. L.
Rothesay, May 1850.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

As the book which I now present for a second time to the public,
has been found useful in its earlier form, I have allowed the latter
to remain on the whole unaltered, and have even marked several
new paragraphs (§. 75*. 157*. 241*. 324*. 345*. 345**.) so as
that the previous arrangement might not be disturbed by them. I
am indeed aware that much other information on inscriptions, coins,
and the topographical references of monuments might be expected
in a Manual of Archseology; but I have been forced by my plan to
exclude everything whereby our knowledge of the formative art in
antiquity was not immediately advanced, and have been obliged,
therefore, for example, to treat coins merely as highly important re
mains of ancient art, but not as monuments of the political life and
commerce of the ancients — the chief consideration, and which has
been still too little brought into view, in this study. On the other
hand, I am in like manner convinced, that far more can be done
than this Manual attempts, in the exposition of the internal princi
ples by which the artists were guided, consciously or unconsciously,
in the development of their ideas. However, I have also, in this
new edition, adhered to the opinion that its object should be nothing
more than to collect the sum and substance of the previous treat
ment of the science, and, therefore, that it should only communicate
the most certain and evident observations on these questions, which
have not yet been sufficiently examined in their higher connexion.
I have considered it my duty to practise a similar self-denial in re
gard to the mythology of art, on which my views still differ widely
from those which are held, for the most part, by the present genera
tion of archaeological inquirers. If, as they assert, the sculptors of
antiquity sought consciously and designedly to express in their
works certain fundamental ideas of heathendom, which are therefore
to be interpreted, so to speak, as hieroglyphics of a physical theo
logy, we ought not, in my opinion, to expect from the artists of the
best era of Greek art a greater knowledge of their hereditary faith
than we should from any person among the people; but every thing
else was, with the creative spirits among the artists, an activity as
free and peculiar to them, dependent only on the requirements of
their art, as the development of any mythus into a Sophoclean tra
gedy. In whatever way this question, which ought to receive in
our time a thorough investigation, may be decided, the adherents of
this doctrine cannot bring against the present Manual the reproach

viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
that it gives little information regarding an ancient system of theo
logy which can be discovered alone from works of art.
But I have so much the more endeavoured to complete, define
more precisely, and arrange more accurately the facts which should
find a place in my book. The great additions to our knowledge of
ancient art during the last few years have not been patched on, in
notices hastily raked together, but have, with continued attention,
been interwoven with the whole. The numerous criticisms to which
the work has been subjected on the part of various learned archaso-
logists, have also been carefully turned to account. But, altogether,
I may say that the labour attending this second edition has been
scarcely less than that which was at first expended on the entire
work. I cannot flatter myself that I have always hit the proper medium
between scantiness and superfluity of materials. Those who possess
a knowledge of the subject will readily discover the principles which
I laid down for myself as to the facts and monuments which the
work should embrace; but in many cases, however, I might be
guided merely by a subjective, sometimes by a momentary feeling.
My task was rendered more difficult from the circumstance that I
intended my book to form at the same time a basis for oral exposi
tions and a Manual for the private student, as a separation of the
two objects might not be advisable in the present state of our
studies. Hence there is more matter given in this book than can
be developed and exhausted in an academical course of a hundred
lectures; and although, perhaps, it might be made the basis of
archaeological prelections of very different kinds, yet each lecturer
might still employ a free and independent method of his own; in
deed, the author himself has latterly found it the best plan to anti
cipate in the first or historical part what it is most important to
know on the technics, forms and subjects of ancient art, without be
ing the less convinced on that account that the systematic arrange
ment of the second part is of essential advantage to the study.
GoTTiSGEN, January 1835.

EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS AND METHODS
OF CITATION.

C. A. stands for Catalogus Artiiicum (by Sillig).
C. I. — Corpus Inscriptionum Grsecarum (by Bockh).
D. N. — ¦ Doctrina Numorum (by Eckhel).
D. A. K. — • Denkmaler der Alten Kunst, see page 18.
G. — Galerie, Galeria. G. M. — Galerie Mythologique (by Millin).
g. — gens (in the so-called family coins).
Inst. — Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, see page 1 7.
M. — Museum, Musee, Museo.
M. I. Mon. In. — Monumenti Inediti, Monumens ine'dits.
N. — Numi. N. Brit. — Veterum popul. et regum numi, qui in Mu
seo Britannico asservantur (by T. Combe).
N. H. — Naturalis Historia (by Pliny).
N. Pomp. — Pompeiana, New Series (by Sir W. Gell).
No. — Number (in the enumeration of Monuments).
01. — • Olympiad.
P. gr. — Pierres gravees.
PCI. M. PCI. — n Museo Pio-Clementino, see page 17.
V. — ViUa.
In the titles of books B. denotes Berlin, F. Firenze, L. Loudon, N. Napoli, P.
Paris, E. Koma, V. Venezia.
In the Mythological Division the single initial letters constantly denote the
deity named at the beginning and in the heading of the Section.
The figures accompanying the Letter L. denote the numbers of the antiquities
in the Mus^e Royal in the Louvre according to the Description of 1830. (see p.
288.), those with the antiquities of Dresden, the numbers in the Catalogue of
1833 (see p. 292.), and those marking the antiquities of Munich are taken from
the Description of the Glyptotheca by Klenze and Schorn. The antiquities in
the British Museum are sometimes quoted by the numbers which they had in
the year 1822.
R. with a number cites the remark on the paragraph; the number alone re
fers to the division of the §. itself. The Remarks always belong to that divi
sion of the §. which has the corresponding No. on the margin.

X EXPLANATIONS OF ABBRBYIATIONS, &o.
Bouill. The work of Bouillon the painter (see p. 17.) is, for the sake of
brevity, always quoted so as that the numbers of the plates run on from the
beginning to the end of each volume.
Micali's Engravings (see p. 160.) ai'e always quoted in the new and enlarged
form of the work, if the earlier edition is not expressly mentioned.
Mionnet's Empr. refers to the impressions of coins enumerated in the Cata
logue d'une Collection d'Empreintes. Paris an. 8., and which are in the archseo-
logical collection of Gottingen, together with numerous additional impressions
from the same hand. The latter are quoted by the numbers which they bear in
Mionnet's Description de Me'dailles antiques Grecques et Romaines. Mionnet
PI. denotes the volume of engravings which accompanies the Description.
In the enumeration of monuments of one kind a semicolon between the re
ferences denotes the difference of the monument. For example two different
statues are indicated by M. PCI. ii, 30. ; M. Cap. iii, 32. one and the same by
M. PCI. i, 12. Bouill. i, 15.

CONTENTS,

INTRODUCTION.
A. THEORETICAL PORTION. Page
1. Analysis of the Idea of Art. §. 1 sqq. .... 1
2. The simplest and most general Laws of Art. §.9. . . 3
3. Division of Art. §.15. . . . . . .5
4. General reflections on the Historical appearance of the Arts, especially
the Formative. §.29. . . . . . 11
B. LITERARY INTRODnOTION. §. 35. . . . . 12

HISTORY OP ART IN ANTIQUITY.

THE GREEKS.
FIRST PERIOD, TILL ABOUT THE 50tH OLYMPIAD.
1. General Conditions and Main Features of the Development of Art.
§.40 
2. Architectonics. §. 45. ......
3. Tectonics. §. 56. .
4. Formative Art. §.64. . . ...
5. Beginnings of Painting. §. 73. .

19
20 29
33 41

SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE 50th TO THE 80tH OLYMPIAD.
1. The Character of the Age in general. §. 76.
2. Architectonics. §. 80. .
3. The Plastic Art.
a. Its extended cultivation. §. 82.
b. Religious Statues. §. 83.
c. Statues of Honour. §. 87.
d. Mythological Figures as consecrated gifts.
e. Sculptures of Temples. §. 90.
f. Style of the Formative Art. §.91.
g. Remains of the Plastic Art. §. 96.
The Art of Engraving Stones and Dies. §. 97.
4. Painting. §. 99. ...

. 43
45

. 48

50

. 52
§. 89. .
54
. 54
58
. 60
65
. 67
xii CONTENTS.
THIRD PERIOD. FROM THE 80TH TO THE IUtH OLYMPIAD. Page
1. The Events and Spirit of the Age in relation to Art. §. lOO. . 70
2. Architectonics. §. 105. . . .73
3. The Plastic Art.
a. The age of Phidias and Polyclitus. §.112. . .81
b. The age of Praxiteles and Lysippus. §. 124. . . 95
The Art of Engraving Stones and Dies. §. 131. . 109
4. Painting. §. 133. . . . . .111
FOURTH PERIOD. i'ROM THE lllTH TO THE THIRD YEAR OF THE 158th OL.
1. Events and Character of the Period. §. 144. . . .120
2. Architectonics. §. 149. ...... 123
3. The Plastic Art. §. 154. . . . . . .128
The Art of Engraving Stones and Dies. §.161. . . .136
4. Painting. §. 163. .... . . 137
Pillage and devastation in Greece. §. 164. . 140
EPISODE. ON GREE:C ART AMONG THE ITALIAJf NATIONS BEFORE OLYMPIAD
158, 3.
1. Original Greek race. §. 166. . . . . . .144
2. The Etruscans. §. 167. ...... 145
3. Rome before the year of the city 606. §.179. . , .161
FIFTH PERIOD. FROM THE YEAR OF THE CITY (OLYMPIAD 1 58, 3.) TILL
THE MIDDLE AGES.
1 . General reflections on the character and spirit of the time. §.183. . 165
2. Architectonics. §. 188. . . . . .168
3. The Plastic Art. §. 196. . . ... 182
4. Painting. §. 208. ... . . 200
Destruction of Works of Art. §.214. . . . 207
APPENDIX. THE NATIONS NOT OF GREEK RACE.
I. EGYPTIANS.
1. General remarks. §. 215. . . 209
2. Architectonics. §. 219. ...... 217
3. The Plastic Arts and Painting.
a. The Technics and Treatment of Forms. §. 228. . . 226
b. Subjects. §. 232. . . . . . .231
II. THE SYRIAN RACES. §. 234. . . .238
A. BABYLONIANS.
1. Architectonics. §. 235. . . . 238
2. The Plastic Alt. §. 237. . . .240
B, PH(ENIOIAN AND NEIGHBOURING TRIBES.
1, Architectonics. §. 239. . . 243
2. The Plastic Art. §. 240. ... 244
C. ASIA MINOR. §.241*. . . . _ 247
III. THE NATIONS OF THE ARIAN RACE. §. 242. . 248
1. Architectonics. §. 243. . . . 249
2. The Plastic Art; §. 245*. ... ' ^52

CONTENTS. xiii
Pngc
IV. THE INDIANS. §. 249. . . . 257

SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT OF ANCIENT ART.
PRELIMINARY DIVISION. GEOGRAPHY OF" ANCIENT MONU
MENTS OF ART.
1. General remarks. §.251. . 261
2. Greece. §. 252. ... 262
3. Asia and Africa. §. 255. . . . 267
4. Italy. §. 257. . . .269
5. The West of Europe. §. 262. . . .286
6. Germany and the North. §. 264. ... 292
FIRST MAIN DIVISION. TECTONICS. §. 266. . 299
I. BUILDINGS.-, ARCHITECTONICS. §• 267. 299
1 . Building materials. §. 268. . . 300
2. The simple geometric fundamental forms. §. 273. . 303
3. The architectural members. §. 275. . . . 305
4. Kinds of Buildings. §.286. . 315
XL FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. §• 297. . . 334
SECOND MAIN DIVISION. THE FORMATIVE ART.
§. 303. . . . 343
FIRST PART. OF THE TECHNICS OF ANCIENT ART. §. 304. . 343
I. MECHANICAL TECHNICS.
A. OF THE PLASTIC ART IN ITS MORE EXTENDED SENSE.
1. The Plastic Art strictly so-called, or modelling in soft or softened
masses.
a. Working in Clay and other materials. §. 305. . 344
b. Metal-casting. §. 306. . . 346
2. Working in hard masses.
a. Wood-carving. §. 308. . . . . .350
b. Sculpture. §. 309. . . . .351
c. Working in Metals and Ivory. §. 311. . 354
d. Working in Precious Stones. §. 313. . . 359
e. Working in Glass. §. 316. . . 365
f. Art of Die-cutting. §. 317. . . . . 366
E. DRAWING ON A PLANE SURFACE.
1. By laying on colouring stuffs of a soft and fluid nature.
a. Monochrome Drawing and Painting. §.318. . 368
b. Painting in Water-colours. §. 319. . . . 368
c. Encaustic Painting. §. 320. ... 371
d. Vase-painting. §. 321. . . . . . 374
2. Designingby the junction of solid materials, Mosaic-work. §.322. 376
II. OPTICAL TECHNICS. §. 323. . . .379
SECOND PART. ON THE FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART. §. 324. 382

CONTENTS.

I. POEMS OP NATURE AND LIFE.

A. OF THE HUMAN BODY.

1. General principles. §. 325. .
2. Character and beauty of individual forms.
a. Studies of the ancient artists. §. 328.
b. Treatment of the countenance. §.329.
c. Treatment of the rest of the body. §.331. .
d. Proportions. §. 332. ....
e. Colouring. §. 333. .....
f. Combination of human with other forms. §. 334.
g. The body and features in action. §. 335.
B. DRAPERY.
1 . General principles. §. 336.
2. Grecian male costume. §. 337.
3. Female costume. §. 339. ....
4. Roman costume. §. 341 . . . .
5. Military costume. §. 342.
6. Treatment of the drapery. §. 343.
C. OF ATTRIBUTES AND ATTRIBUTIVE ACTIONS. §. 344.
II. FORMS CREATED BT ART. §. 343.

383
385
386390
391393
394395
397
399
403
406 407
409410412

THIRD PART. ON THE SUBJECTS OF THE FORMATIVE ART. §. 346. 417
I. MYiriOLOQIOAL SUBJECTS. §. 347. . 417
A. THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN DEITIES.
1. Zeus, or Jupiter. §. 349.
2. Hera, or Juno. §. 352.
3. Poseidon, or Neptune. §. 354.
4. Demeter, or Ceres. §. 357.
5. Apollo. §. 359.
6. Artemis, or Diana. §. 363.
7. Hephtestus, or Vulcan. §. 366.
8. Pallas Athena, or Minerva. §. 368. .
9. Ares, or Mars. §. 372.
10. Aphrodite, or Venus. §. 374.
11. Heraies, or Mercury. §. 379. ....
12. Hestia, or Vesta. §. 382.

E. THE OTHER DEITIES.
1. Dionysian cycle.
a. Dionysus, or Bacchus. §. 383.
b. Satyrs. §. 385. ....
c. Sileni. §. 386.
d. Pans. §. 387.
e. Female figures. §. 388.
f. Centaurs. §. 389.
g. The Thiasos of Dionysus in general. §. 390.
2. Cycle of Eros, or Cupid. §.391.
3. The Muses. §. 393.
4. Gods of health. §. 394.
5. The primeval world; creation of Man. §. 395.
C. The Lower World and Death. §. 397.
7. Destiny and government of the world. §. 398.

419428
431435441
452458
460469472
481487

488496499
501 503505507
509
515518520524528

CONTENTS.

XV

8. Time. §. 399.
9. Beings of light. §. 400.
10. The Winds. §. 401.
H. The element of Water. §. 402.
1 2. Tlie Vegetation of the Country. §. 404.
13. Country, City and House. §. 405.
14. Human activities and conditions. §. 406.
15. The Gods of early Italy. §. 407,
1 6. Foreign Oriental Deities. §. 408.
C. HEROES. §. 409.
1. Hercules. §. 410.
2. The other Heroic Cycles. §, 412.

Pago 530531 534
53.''> 540 542546 549549 552 553 562

II. SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE.
A. OF AN INDIVIDUAL KIND.
1 . Historical representations. §. 419.
2. Portraits. §. 420.
B. REPRESENTATIONS OP A GENERAL KIND.
1. Religious transactions. §. 422.
2. Agones. §. 423. ....
3. War. §. 426. ....
4. The chase, country life, economical occupations. §. 427.
5. Domestic and married life. §. 428.
6. Death. §.431.

593 596602 606612614 616
620

III. SUBJECTS PROM THE BEST OP NATURE.
1. Animals and Plants. §. 433.
2. Arabesques, Landscape. §. 435.
3. Amulets, Symbols. §. 436.
Index.

622
625
627 629

INTRODUCTION.

A. THEORETICAL PORTION.
I. ANALYSIS OF THE IDEA OF ART.
§. 1. Art is a representation, that is an activity by means 1
of •which something internal or spiritual is revealed to sense. —
Its only object is to represent, and it is distinguished by its 2
being satisfied therewith from all practical activities which
are directed to some particular purpose of external life.
2. Because the exercise of art is aimless it is often called, especially
among nations of a practical turn of mind, a sport, Indus. Useful in
contradistinction to fine art is mere handicraft.

2. The more immediate determination in art depends espe- 1
cially on the kind of connexion between the internal and the
external, the representing and the ^represented. This con- 2
nexion must absolutely be one impanted of necessity in the
nature of man, not assumed from arbitrary regulation. It is 3
not a subject of acquisition, although it may exercise greater
or less influence on different natures and different stages of
civilization. 3. The spiritual significance of a series of tones, the character and
expression of a countenance, are not learned, although more strongly
and delicately felt by one than another. Nature herself has established
this sympathy of the mind with sensible forms, and on it all art depends.
3. At the same time this correspondence in art is so close 1
and intimate that the internal or spiritual momentum imme
diately impels to the external representation, and is only com
pletely developed in the mind by the representation. Hence 2
the artistic activity is from the very beginning in the soul
directed to the external manifestation, and art is universally
regarded as a making, a creating (art, r'syvr^.
1. The artistic representation, according to Kant, Kritik der Urtheil-
skraft, s. 251, is a representation properly so called, {/¦jrori'Truais, exhihitio,
and not a characterism, Uke language which is only a means for the re
production of notions, and does not immediately represent them,
A

2 INTRODUCTION.
1 4. The external or representing in art is a sensible form.
2 Now the sensible form which is capable of expressing an
internal life can be created by the fancy, or present itself to
3 the external senses in the world of reality. But as even or
dinary vision, and much more every artistic exercise of sight,
is at the same time an activity of the fancy, the form-creat
ing fancy in general must be designated as the chief faculty
of representation in art.
3. " The painter really paints with the eye ; his art is the art of see
ing with regularity and beauty. Seeing is here entirely active, quite a
formative activity." Novalis ii. s. 127. The difierence, therefore, be
tween imitative and freely-creative art is not so distinct as it may ap
pear. 5. The creative fanciful conception of the artistic form is
accompanied by a subordinate but closely connected activity
— the representation of the form in the materials — which we
call execution.
For example, the representation of the musical tone by song or instru
ments, of the form of an organic body in stone or by colours. The less
the artistic activity is developed, the less is the execution separate from
the creation of the form, and the fashioning in the materials seems to be
the first, the original object.
6. To the internal or represented in art — the spiritual
life whose corresponding and satisfying expression is the ar
tistic form, the soul of this body — we apply the term artistic
idea, understanding thereby, in quite a general way, the mood
and activity of the mind from which proceeds the conception
of the particular form.
Even a work of art copied from nature has still, however, its internal
life in the artistic idea, that is, in the mental emotion to which the con
templation of the object gave rise.
7. The artistic idea is never an idea in the ordinary sense
(Die Kunstidee ist niemals ein Begriff), inasmuch as the lat
ter is a frame into which different phenomena may fit, whereas
the artistic idea must stand in the most intimate agreement
with the altogether particular form of the work (§. 3), and
therefore must itself be altogether particular; hence also the
idea of a work of art can never be rendered in a thoroughly
satisfactory manner by language, which is merely the expres
sion of ideas or notions.
This idea has no expression except the work of art itself. Represen
tation of notions in art (for example, truth) is only apparent. A notion
is not represented by a work of art, but rather a sum of concrete ideas
and impressions which lie at the bottom of it. Allegory which indicates
notions by external shapes, with the consciousness of their difference, is

THEORY OP ART. 3
a play of the intellect which does not, strictly speaking, lie within the
sphere of the artistic activity.
8. The artistic idea is rather an idea of a peculiar indim- ;
dual kind, which is at the same time united with a strong
and lively feeling of the soul, so that sometimes idea and
feeling lie combined in one spiritual condition (an obscure
mood), sometimes the idea comes forward more detached,
but yet in the creation as well as the adoption of the artistic
form the feeling remains predominant.
1. Schiller, in his correspondence with Gothe (vol. vi. Letter 784, p.
34), speaks in an interesting manner of the obscure total idea which pre
cedes the production of a work of art, as the germ goes before the plant.
Schiller's Auserlesene Briefe iii. s. 228.
2. The artistic idea of a simple melody which expresses a certain
mood of the soul may be compared with that of a kindred work in sculp
ture. The music of a dithyramb and a Bacchian group have to repre
sent nigh-related ideas, but the group, even without taking into account
the more fixed sensible impression of the artistic forms, represents the
idea on which it is based in more perfect development and with greater
distinctness.

n. THE SIMPLEST AND MOST GENERAL LAWS OF ART.
9. The laws of art are nothing else than the conditions 1
under which alone the sensibility of the soul can be excited
to agreeable emotions by external forms; they determine the 2
artistic form according to the demands of sensibility, and
have their foundation therefore in the constitution of the
sensitive faculty.
2. This constitution is here merely recognised in its manifestations ;
the investigation of it belongs to psychology.
10. The artistic form must in the first place, in order to
excite a connected emotion in the sensitive faculty, possess a
general conformity to laws, which is manifested in the obser
vance of mathematical relations or organic forms of life;
without this regularity it ceases to be artistic form.
Music affects us only by incorporating itself with mathematical rela
tions, and sculpture only by investing itself with the organic forms of
nature ; if they tear themselves away from these they lose the ground
on which they can find access to our minds.
II. But this conformity to law is not in itself capable of
expressing an internal life; it is only a condition of repre
sentation, the boundary of the artistic forms which range to
and fro within, modifying, but on the whole preserving this
conformity.

4 INTRODUCTION.
This is the relation of the harmonic laws to melody, of the law of
equilibrium in rhythm to the multiplicity of measures, of the organic
fundamental form to the particular formations of the plastic art; viz.
that these laws indeed condition the representation, but do not yet con
tain any representation in themselves.
12. Whilst this regularity is the first requisite in the ar
tistic form generally, beauty is a more immediate predicate
of the artistic form in reference to sensation. We call those
forrns beautiful which cause the soul to feel in a manner that
is grateful, truly salutary and entirely conformable to its
nature, which, as it were, produce in it vibrations that are in
accordance with its inmost structure.
Although the theory of art, by such a definition, consigns the further
inquiry into the nature of the beautiful to sesthetios as a part of psy
chology ; it may be seen, however, even from what has been laid down,
how the beautiful severs itself from that which merely pleases the senses,
and also why desire and personal interest are shut out from its enjoy
ment. " I wish some one would try to banish the notion and even the
word heauty from use, and as is right put truth in its most complete sense
in its place." SohiUer, Briefwechsel II. s. 293.
13. As the soul naturally strives after this grateful and
salutary emotion in its sensitive life, so the beautiful is cer
tainly a principle of art, without, however, being ever in itself
an object of representation, artistic idea in the above sense,
as the latter (§. 7) is always an absolutely particular idea and
sensation. On the contrary, beauty, carried to the highest
point, even stands in direct hostility against every endeavour
to produce something particular.
2. Hence the profound apophthegm of Winckelmann (vii. 76), that
perfect beauty, Uke the purest water, must have no peculiarity. It has
been disputed whether the beautiful or characteristic is an important
principle of art. A thorough destruction of beauty and regularity by
exaggerated characterizing is caricature ; on the contrary a partial, on
the whole self-neutralizing destruction (dissonance, arrhythmy, apparent
disproportion in architecture) may become an important means of repre
sentation. 14. The sublime and the graceful may be regarded as op
posite points in the chain of sensations which is denoted by
the beautiful ; the former demands from the soul an energy
of feeling wound up to the limits of her power, the latter
draws her of itself, without any exaltation of her force, into
a circle of agreeable sensations.
15._ It lies in the notion of a work of art as an intimate
combination of an artistic idea with external forms, that it
must have a unity to which everything in the work may be
referred, and by which the different parts, whether succes
sively or simultaneously existing, may be so held together.

THEORY OF ART.

that the one, as it were, demands the other and makes it
necessary. The work must be one and a whole.

III. DIVISION OF ART.

16. The division of art is especially dependent on the 1
nature of the forms by means of which it represents, although
it is not to be doubted that even artistic ideas, in intimate
agreement with artistic forms, are of different kinds in dif
ferent arts, at their .first dawning. Now, all forms to 2
which belongs a definite conformity to laws, are fitted to be
come artistic forms, particularly the mathematical forms and
proportions, on which depend in nature the figures of the
celestial bodies and their systems, and the forms of mineral
bodies; and, 2dly, the organic shapes in which life on our
earth is more largely and highly developed. In this way art
appears, as it were, a second nature which repeats and renews
her processes.
17. In connexion herewith we note the circumstance, that 1
the more obscure and undeveloped the conception contained
in the artistic idea, the more do the mathematical relations
sufiice for its representation; but the clearer and more defi
nite that conception becomes, the more are the forms borrowed
from more highly and largely developed organic nature. Now, 2
as the scientific intellect completely penetrates only those
mathematical relations, and, on the other hand, can never re
solve organic life in the same degree into comprehension, so
also the artistic fancy appears only in those forms freely cre
ative, independent of external nature, whereas in the latter
it is more fettered and altogether confined to the observation
of what is externally present.
1. Rhythmic, music and architecture, which operate by mathematical
proportions, represent ideas of a more obscure description — which are
less developed and articulate. The fundamental forms of the universe,
but not of any individual life, are forms of the same kind in time and
space. The forms of vegetative life (landscape-painting) admit of more
distinctness of conception ; but those of the highest animal life in the
greatest degree (historical painting, sculpture). We even find that the
animal kingdom is not shut out from the enjoyment of artistic forms of
the first kind ; there are musical and architectonic, but no plastic in
stincts. Every art fails when it would employ its forms otherwise than
agreeably to their destination ; music, for instance, when it paints.

18. Every form presupposes a quantity, which may be l
either given in time or in space, in succession or co-existence.
Time only comes to view and separate measurable quantity
by movement. And indeed movement is so much the more

6 INTRODUCTION.
to be regarded as a pure time-magnitude, the less that which
belongs to space — the moving body and the line of movement
— comes into consideration. Such a pure time-magnitude is
the musical tone in reality, which, as such, rests altogether on
the degree of rapidity in the regular vibrations of the sound
ing body. The art which obtains the most perfect expression
of artistic ideas from the succession and combination of these
quicker or slower vibrations is music.
3. Musice est exercitium arithmetics occvZtum nescientis se numerare ani-
mi, Leibnitz. Kant (p. 217) limits too much this correct observation
when he maintains that Mathematics is merely the conditio sine qua non
of the musical impression, but " has not the slightest participation in
the charms and mental emotions to which music gives rise." With the
musical tone, which alone cannot make itself manifest, sound is neces
sarily combined in production ; that is the wave of sound striking on
the ear, which is evidently formed differently in different instruments,
and is not defined in a purely quantitative and measurable, but in a really
qualitative manner.
19. The musical tone may be called a disguised time-
magnitude, inasmuch as the difference of tones, which is but
quantitative in reality, is, from the constitution of our sense,
changed ere it reaches the mind into an apparently qualita
tive difference. On the other hand, the tones again are de
termined in their duration by another species of artistic forms
in which the quantitative, the measuring of a time-magnitude
distinctly presents itself to the mind, — in which we have the
consciousness of measuring and counting. The art which ex
presses its ideas by this kind of measures is rhythmic, which
can never by itself alone appear as an art, but must enter into
combination with all arts that represent by movement.
2. Rhythmic measures tones and movements of bodies. Moreover
the notion of rhythm finds application also in the arts which represent
in space, and here denotes a simple easily comprehended relation of
quantities to one another. Rhythmic applied to language and condi
tioned by this material is metric.

1 20. Another series of arts with time conjoins space, with
the measure of movement its quality or kind and manner.
Man can only realize such a representation in time and space
2 simultaneously by the movement of his own body. This series
of arts reaches its highest point in mimic orchestics, an ex
pressive art of dancing in which, besides the rhythm of the
movement, its quality or manner, the beautiful and signifi-
3 cant gesture is artistic form. But manifestations of such an
artistic activity pervade in greater or less degree, according to
the dispositions of individuals and nations, the whole of life,
and are combined with various arts.

THEORY OF ART. 7
2. The mimic art in itself, when combined with the oratorical arts, is
called declamation, among the Greeks irnfisix, sy^vjf^a.ra,.
3. Every movement and gesture speaks to us involuntarily ; without
design we constantly represent spiritual life. To regulate this involun
tary representation ^as a main point in Greek education. It was ex
pected that by habituating to outward dignity and a noble bearing the
mind would be also tuned to <ia<p^oavvti and x.a.'Kax.a.yaSiiot,. Gymnastics
likewise, especially in the exercise of the Pentathlon, took the form of
an artistic representation allied to orchestics. We find that the arts in
which man appears acting by voice and gesture were on the whole much
earlier developed than the operative arts which require an outward ma
terial. Only the former, therefore, belonged in Greece to general liberal
education. Comp. Wachsmuth Hellen. Alterthumskunde, II, ii. s. 311 ff.
But the living plastics of the gymnic games and choral dances were after
wards promoted and exalted in a surprising manner by sculpture in stone
and brass.
21. The arts which exhibit in space alone (those of de- 1
sign) cannot, like music, represent by pure (arithmetical) quan
tity, inasmuch as what belongs to space must always be at
the same time defined as figure, and therefore qualitative.
They have only two means of representing, viz. by the form 2
that admits of geometric definition, and the organic corporeal
form which is closely combined with the conception of life.
1. Time corresponds to the line in space — ^leaving out of view its par
ticular direction and inclination — therefore to a thing unsusceptible of
external representation and nowhere existing.
2. The organic in its more enlarged sense comprehends the vegeta
tive. 22. Geometric forms may unquestionably even by them- 1
selves be cultivated according to artistic laws and become
artistic form ; however, this species of artistic forms appears,
for reasons which lie in the relation of art to the remaining
life of men and nations, almost never independent and purely
representative, but in general fettered to a creative industry
which aims at satisfying a particular want of life (§ 1, 2). From 2
this alliance springs a series of arts which form and perfect
vessels, implements, dwellings, and places of assembly, on the
one hand indeed agreeably to the end for which they are de
signed, but, on the other, in conformity with sentiments and
artistic ideas. We call this class of artistic activities tec- 3
tonics. Their highest point is architectonics, which rises
most above the trammels of necessity and may become power
fully representative of deep feelings.
3. I have here tried to introduce the expression tectonics to denote a
scientific notion which we can scarcely dispense with, although in doing so
I did not overlook the fact that among the ancients, masons and joiners in
deed, but not workers in clay and metal, were called rUnni in special use

8 INTRODUCTION.
of the term. I have in this work employed it in the general sense which
lies in the etymology of the word. Comp. Welcker, Rhein. Museum fiir
Phil. Bd. ii. s. 453. [B. Curtius in Cotta's Kunstblatt, 1845, s. 41.]— Ar
chitecture clearly shows what influence may be exercised over the hu
man mind by geometric forms and proportions. But so soon as it leaves
the geometrically constructible figure, it appropriates a foreign art, as in
animal and vegetable ornaments. Antiquity, with correct sentiment,
first admitted the latter in portable articles, cauldrons, thrones, and the
like. The art of gardening may be called an application of architecture
to vegetable life.
23. The peculiar character of these arts rests on the union
of conformity to the proposed end with the artistic represen
tation, two principles which are still but little distinguished
from each other in the simpler works of the kind; but in
the higher problems they always stand more distinctly apart
without however losing their necessary connexion. Hence
the chief law of those arts is that the artistic idea of the work
must naturally spring from its destination to satisfy a lively
and deep feeling.
1. A vessel for a simple object will, for the most part, be beautiful
from the very circumstance that it is fitted for its end ; and the inti
mate dependence of venusias and dignitas on utilitas also in architecture
is finely brought out by Cicero de Or. iii, 46. However, in the rites per
taining to the worship the artistic idea naturally first separates itself from
external usefulness. The Gothic church is not indebted to utility for its
height, the striving upwards of all its parts. Here necessity often gives
merely the occasion, and the fancy appears almost freely creative in the
composition of geometric forms.

24. Those arts which represent by the organic natural forms
derived from life, are essentially imitative (§. 1 7, 2) and depend
on the artistic study of nature, as only the actual, organic,
natural form stands in that necessary and intimate connexion
with spiritual life (§. 2, 8), possesses that universal signifi
cance from which art takes its rise. But the artist is capable
of attaining a conception of the organic form which shall
stand above individual experience, and find therein the fun
damental form of the most exalted ideas.
2. A perfectly developed natural form is just as little furnished by ex
perience as a pure mathematical proportion, but it may be felt out from
what has been experienced, and seized in the moment of inspiration.
The true and genuine ideality of the best Greek art rests on the striving
after such a conception of organism. C. P. von Rumohr speaks with
much discernment of the opposite tendencies of the idealists and realists
in art and theory. Italienische Forschungen i. s. 1 — 157. [Letters of P.
Thiersch and Rumohr in Creuzer Zur Archiiol. ii. s. 82 — 99. and Creuzer
i. s. 59 ff. in direct opposition to Rumohr.] — The combinations of the
lower forms of nature with one another and with those of man (griffins

THEORY OF ART. 9
centaurs, winged figures) are partly justified by religious belief, and they
belonged in the best times to decorative sculpture. In Arabesque the ma
thematical ground-linfes of buildings and vessels are for purposes of de
coration played over in a free manner into vegetable and even animal
forms. " A kind of painting which employs all natural forms in fantas
tic composition and combination, to express allegorical forms merely in
an ftjlusive manner." Schorn, Umriss einer Theorie der bild. Kunst.
1835. s. 38.
25. Now these arts are distinguished from one another in 1
this, that the one, sculpture or the plastic art, places bodily
before us the organic forms themselves (only that the differ- 2
ence of material often makes changes of form necessary in
order to attain a similar impression), and that the other, de- 3
sign or the graphic art, merely produces by means of light
and shade the appearance of bodies on a surface, inasmuch as
the eye only perceives corporeal forms by means of light and
shade. 1. nxaiTT/x^, originally used in a more restricted sense (see below,
§. 305) had already this wider signification in the later rhetoricians and
sophists. Jacobs and Welcker ad PhUostr. p. 195.
2. The essentially different impression of the animate and inanimate
body forbids a perfectly true stereometric representation ; different mate
rials, however, admit herein of different degrees of approximation.
3. Design is happily called by Kant the art of illusion (Sinnen-
schoin) ; however, the eye also transforms every plastic work into a pic
ture, while regarding it from a particular point of view.
26. Colour, so far as regards external possibility, can in- 1
deed be combined with both arts, but in sculpture it operates
with so much the less advantage the more it tries to approach
nature, because in this endeavour to represent the body com
pletely, the want of life only strikes us the more disagree
ably; on the other hand it enters quite naturally into com- 2
bination with design, which in itself represents more imper
fectly, and does not represent bodies, but merely the effects
of light upon them, to which colour itself belongs, and ele
vates design to the art of painting. Colour, in its nature, 3
effects, and laws, has a great resemblance to sound.
1. Hence the repulsiveness of wax figures; the illusion aimed at is
precisely what here revolts. The painted wooden images of elder Greek
art did not try to attain this faithful imitation of local colours.
3. Colours also probably only differ quantitatively (according to Euler
by the number of vibrations in the ethereal fluid). They form a kind
of octave, produce concord and discord, and give rise to sensations simi
lar to those awakened by tones. — Comp. Gothe's Farbenlehre, especially
the 6th section " Sinnlich-sittliche Wirkung der Parben."
27. The relation of sculpture and painting, as regards 1
their capabilities and destination, is already hereby defined

10 INTRODUCTION.
2 in its main features. The plastic art represents the organic
form in highest perfection, and justly holds by its apex, the
form of man. It must always represent completely and
roundly and leave nothing undefined; a certain restricted-
ness in its subjects, but, on the other hand, great clearness
i belongs to its character. Painting, which immediately repre
sents light (in whose wonders it rightly shows its greatness),
and in exchange is satisfied with the appearance thereby pro
duced in the corporeal form, is capable of drawing much more
into its sphere and making all nature a representation of
ideas; it is more suggestive, but does not designate so dis-
: tinctly. The plastic art is in its nature more directed to the
quiescent, the fixed, painting more to the transient; the lat
ter can also, in that it combines far and near, admit of more
movement than the former. Sculpture is therefore better
adapted for the representation of character (^Sos), painting
for expression (ra va^ri). Sculpture is always bound to a
strict regularity, to a simple law of beauty; painting may
venture on a greater apparent disturbance in detail (§. 13,
note), because it has richer means of again neutralizing it in
the whole.
5. The pictorial is by moderns often opposed to the beautiful, the
plastic never.
The bas-relief (basso-, mezzo-, alto-relievo), whose laws are difficult to
determine, hovers between both arts. Antiquity treated it rather in a
plastic manner, and modern times, in which painting predominates,
often pictoriaUy. Tolken ueber das Basrelief. Berlin 1815. Scalpture
(the art of cutting stones and dies) is in general nothing else than the
art of producing mediately a relief in miniature.

28. The oratorical arts differ more from the others in
their forms of representation than these do from one another.
They also represent outwardly, sensibly, and follow external
laws of form (euphony, rhythmic), but this external represen
tation (the sound striking on the ear) is so little essential
and necessary that the enjoyment of the artistic production
is even possible without it. The activity of the poet is cer
tainly more complicated than that of other artists, and it in
a manner makes double the way, inasmuch as certain series
of spiritual views, images of fancy spring out of the spiritual
basis, the artistic idea, and language then proceeds to seize,
describe, and communicate these by notions.
2. It cannot, likewise, be denied that every discourse which excites
emotions in a satisfactory and agreeable manner bears affinity to a work
of art ; this holds good not merely of eloquence, properly so called, but
also of clear philosophical exposition. Such a production is not, how
ever, on that account, strictly speaking, to be called a work of art.

THEORY OF ART. 11
IV. GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON THE HISTORICAL APPEAR
ANCE OF THE ARTS, ESPECIALLY THE FORMATIVE.
29. The whole artistic activity, in so far as it depends on
the spiritual life and habits of a single person, becomes indi-
mdual, on those of an entire nation, national. It is deter- :
mined by both in the artistic ideas as well as in the concep
tion of forms, and is determined in different ways according
to the changes in the life of individuals and nations at dif
ferent times and stages of development. This determination
which art thereby receives We call style.
3. For example, the Egyptian, the Grecian style ; the style of Greek
art at particular epochs ; that of Phidias, of Praxiteles. He only has a
style whose peculiarity is sufficiently powerful to determine energeti
cally his whole artistic activity. The style conditions the conception
not merely of the forms but also of the idea, although it has been re
cently attempted to confine it entirely to fulfilment of the conditions of
the material (§. 25, 2). Schorn Umriss, s. 40. defines style: regular
beauty, the musical or rhythmical element of form-creation. On the
other hand, manner is a false blending of the personal with the artistic
activity from indolent habits or morbid tendencies of feeling, whereby
the form is always modified in a similar way without regard to the re
quirements of the subject.
30. The spiritual life which expresses itself in art is con
nected in the closest manner with the whole life of the spirit,
only the constantly active impulse to representation makes
the artist. However, art universally stands most especially
in connexion with religious life, with the conceptions of deity,
because religion opens up to man a spiritual world which
does not appear externally in experience, and yet longs for
an outward representation which it more or less finds in art
according to the different tendency of nations.
Thus the exercise of architecture, sculpture, music, poetry, orchestics,
and gymnastics, was connected in Greece with the religious worship by
temple, statue, hymn, chorus, pompce, and agones.
31. Religion will be the more artistic, and in particular
the more plastic, the more its conceptions are representable
in an adequate manner in the forms of the organic world.
A religion in which the life of deity is blended with that
which exists in nature and finds its consummation in man
(as the Greek religion was), is doubtless especially favourable
to the plastic art. However, even such a religion still recog-
^ nises at the same time something unrepresentable in deity,
something that is not adequate to those forms; and all parts
and phases of it do not surrender themselves in the same
manner to artistic representation.

12 INTRODUCTION.
3. The religious feeling which dispenses with adequate forms, we
call mystical; when it seeks external forms they are for the most part
designedly strange and deformed.
32. Whilst the genuine artistic form demands an entire
correspondence and intimate combination of the spiritual sig
nificance with the external representation, the symbol rests
on a bolder conjunction of the conceptions of divine beings
with outward objects, which can only be explained by the
efforts of the religious feeling to gain external aids and rest
ing points for the aspirations of the soul.
Of this description are the animal symbols of Greek deities ; only he
who is penetrated by the particular feeling and faith sees the divine
life in the animal. Religious worship in the strict sense is symbolical ;
art only links itself to it, and the symbolical becomes subordinate in
art the more the latter is developed.

33. As the artistic ideas grow out of conceptions which
have been formed and established among nations in an his
torical manner, they are of a positive nature; however, all
peculiar artistic life would cease if they were completely po
sitive, wherewith would necessarily be connected the estab
lishment of altogether defined, and ever-repeated forms (§. 3.
7). Forms of this kind, which are established by regulation
or custom, and which set bounds to the free activity of art,
are called types.
2. A type is adhered to in the imitation without emanating sponta
neously from the mind of the artist as the most suitable form. The so-
called ideals of the Grecian gods are not types ; they do not preclude the
freedom of the artist ; they rather contain the strongest impulse to new
genial creations.

34. It is clear from every thing that a people and a time
in which a deep and at the same time stirring life, which is
more supported than fettered by the positive in religion and
customs, coincides with a living and enthusiastic conception
of natural forms and with the necessary mastery over the
materials, will be favourable to the cultivation of art.

B. LITERARY INTRODUCTION.
35. The arts of design were even in antiquity made a
subject of learning and science, although never in that gen
eral connexion with which it is at the present day attempted
to treat them. We here distinguish the following classes of
writers: 1st, Artists who communicated rules of their art

LITERATURE. 13
and reflections on works of excellence. 2d, Historical inquir
ers into the history of artists. 3d, Periegetic authors who
described remarkable objects in places famed for art 4th,
Sophists who took occasion for rhetorical compositions from
works of art. 5th, Learned collectors.
1. There were ancient writings, commentarii, of architects on parti
cular buildings erected by them, originating probably in reports (comp.
Corp. Insor. n. 160), by Theodorus of Samos (1) about 01. 45, Chersiphon
and Metagenes (?) about 55, Ictinus and Carpion, 85, Philo, 115, and
others in Vitruvius vii. Prasf. The Nsd) JJoimis which was ascribed to
the ancient Theodorus or Philo, contained, according to a fragment (in
Pollux X, 52, 188. comp. Hemsterh.), general instruction in sacred archi
tecture ; o'7rXo9)jx») of Philo. M. Vitruvius Pollio, engineer under Cassar
and Augustus, De Architectura libri x. Publ. by L. Marini, 1837, Annali
d. Inst. Archeol. viii. p. 130. Bullett. 1837. p. 188. The artists Antigonus,
Mensechmus, Xenocrates, after Alexander, and others. De Toreutice,
PUn. Elench. auctor. xxxiii. Pasiteles (a. u. 700) wrote mirabUia opera.
Scientific painters, Parrhasius (01. 95), Euphranor (107), Apelles (112),
and others, wrote on their art (PI. El. xxxv). Writings by painters and
sculptors, Euphranor, Silanion (114) on symmetry, Plin. xxxv, 40, 25.
Vitruvius vii. Prsef. Laas xejJ 'Ki^uu yXy(p^f, Bekker Anecd. Gr. p. 1182.
2. O/ •7rohv%^a.yfAovv)noLmi^ o-ToySj? rat sg Toiig TrT^aarocg, PauS. V, 20, 1.
Historians, treating of particular epochs, quote from these the contem
porary artists. On the connoisseurship of the ancients, see §. 184, 6.
3. The first source are the Ciceroni, i^ny/irsii, •rriDiriynrTxi, fivarayuyol,
oi km ^itufixiriv (see Cic. Verr. iv, 59. Mystagogi Jovis Olympiae et
Minervse Athenis, Yarro ap. Non. p. 419), who lived by mythi and anec
dotes of art (Lucian Philops. 4). Comp. Facius Colleotan. 198. Thorla-
cius De gustu Grsecorum antiquitatis ambitioso, 1797. Bottiger Archaol.
der Mahlerei, 299. — Periegetic authors : the searching and comprehen
sive Polemon, o Tri^imyrir^s, ffTuXoxoVosj, about 01. 138, HeUodorus on
Athens, Hegesandrus, Alcetas on Delphi, and numberless others. See
L. Preller Polemonis Perieg. fragm. Lpz. 1838. Pausanias the Lydian,
under Hadrian and the Antonines, an accurate and very intelligent
writer, but who must be altogether conceived as a, periegetes,' 'ETAalas
•TTi^iriyvtty&ug, /3. /.
4. Descriptions of pictures by the rhetorician Philostratus (about 220
p. C.) and the son of his daughter, the younger Philostratus. In oppo
sition to Welcker Passow Zschr. f. A. W. 1836. s. 571., from ignorance of
ancient art. [Kayser in his ed. of Philostr. 1844, in the prooemium to
the Pictures.] ' 'E.x.^^x.aug of Libanius (314 — 390) and other rhetori
cians. Comp. Petersen's four Programmes De Libanio, Havnise 1827,
1828. The most ingenious of the kind are some writings of Lucian. Of
a kindred description are the greater part of epigrams on works of art,
regarding which see Heyne, Commentat. Soc. Gott. x. p. 80 sqq.
5. M. Terentius Varro De novem Disciplinis, among these De Archi
tectura. Plinius Nat. Hist, xxxiii — xxxvii. (Cod. Bamberg. Sohorn's
Kunstblatt 1833. N. 32 — 51). J. Chr. Bister Proleg. ad exc. Pliniana ex.
1. xxxv. Programme by Helmstadt 1838.

14 INTRODUCTION.
I 36. The modern treatment of ancient art since the love
for classic antiquity was revived, may be divided into three
periods.
2 I. The artistic, from about 1450 to 1600. Ancient works
of art were taken up with joy and love, and collected with
zeal. A noble emulation was kindled therein. There was
little interest felt in them as historical monuments; enjoy
ment was the object. Hence the restorations of works of art.
2. Henrici Commentatt. vii. de statuis ant. mutilatis recentiori
manu refectis. Viteb. 1803 sqq. 4to. Works of art were at no time
during the middle ages entirely disregarded; Nicola Pisano (died 1273)
studied ancient sarcophagi (Cicognara, Storia deUa Scult. i. p. 356) ; no
thing was done, however, towards guarding and preserving. The history
of the destruction of ancient Rome does not even close with Sixtus IV.
(died 1484 ; comp. Niebuhr's Kl. Schriften 433) ; however, they went to
work in a more and more sparing spirit. Gibbon's 71st cap. " Prospect
of the Ruins of Rome in the fifteenth century." Collections began as
early as Cola Rienai, that aper of antiquity (1347), with Petrarca (died
1374 ; coins) ; more considerable ones with Lorenzo di Medici (1472-92,
statues, busts, but especially gems ; see Heeren Gesoh. der Classischen
Literatur ii. 68) ; even earlier at Rome, as BUano Spinola's under Paul
II. Poggius (d. 1459) only knew about five statues in Rome, according
to his work De fortunse varietate urbis Romse, edited by Dom. Georgi
1723. On Poggius Florent. De varietate fortunse, see Heumann, Poecile
ii. p. 45 sq. Zeal of the popes Julius II. and Leo. X. Raphael's magni
ficent plan for laying open ancient Rome. (Raphael's Letter to Leo X.
in Bunsen's Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. i. 266. Leo's Commission to
Raphael, P. Bembo, Epistolse, no. 21). Michael Angelo's, Benvenuto Cel
lini's enthusiasm for antiques. By far the greatest number of antiques,
especially statues, were found between 1450 and 1650. Giovanni Agnolo
Montorsoli, about 1532, the principal restorer (on the Apollo Belvedere,
Laoooon). Numerous palaces were filled with them (comp. Piorillo's
History of Painting, i. 126 sqq. ii. 52 sqq.). Ostentation took the place
of genuine love for art. Restoration was practised in a mechanical
manner.
1 37. IL The antiquarian, from about 1600 to 1750. The
antiquary, who was at first principally employed as nomen-
clator of the statues to be erected, gradually attained more
importance; however, those who were most distinguished for
their knowledge of antiquity did not give themselves much
2 concern about art. The endeavours to explain ancient works
of art, although not without merit, were generally too much
applied to what was external and trifling, and as they did not
proceed from an accurate knowledge of Grecian life, were
3 busied in false directions. That period also attended to the
making collections known, at first negligently, but gradually
with more care and skill.
2. Rome was the central point of these studies ; hence the early in-

LITERATURE. 15
terest in the topography of Rome (from PL Biondo 1449 downwards;
comp. §. 258, 3); but hence also the mania for always interpreting ancient
works of art from Roman history: — Andr. Fulvius Raphael's contem
porary, was the first that took the name of antiquary. — Hadr. Junius
(1511—1575). Fulv, Ursinus (1529— 1600). Jacques Spon (with Wheler
in Greece 1675) subdivides the whole materials in a rough way into
Numismato-Epigrammato-Architeotono-Icono-Glypto-Toreumato-Biblio- Angeiography. Miscellanea antiquit. Lugd. Bat. 1685. Recherches Curi-
euses d'Antiquit6' contenues en plusieurs dissertations — par. M. Spon.
Lyon 1683. A similar treatment prevails in the writings of Laur. Beger,
Thesaurus Brandeburg. Berl. 1696. In Montfaucon's Antiquity expliqu6e
et representee en figures, 1st pt. 1719, 2d ed. 1722. 5 vols. f. (Supplement
in 5 vols. 1724), art is merely employed to present to view the externals
of ancient life. This antiquarian spirit also prevails in Ernesti's Archse-
ologia Literaria (ed. alt. by G. H. Martini. Leipz. 1790), and Christ's
Abhandlungen iiber die Litteratur und Kuntswerke, vornehmUch des
Alterthums (edited by Zeune. Leipz. 1776). Works of art were only
regarded as monuments of commemoration like inscriptions. Notices
of discoveries from a Manuscript of Ghibroti, Bullett. d. Inst. 1837,
p. 67.
3. The earlier works with engravings of statues are at the present
day only of importance in regard to the history of their preservation
and restoration. At first insigniv/m virorum imagines were in especial
request (after coins and busts). Of more value are Engravings by Agos-
tino Veneto (de' Musis) after drawings by Marc. Ant.,(Bartsch Peintre
graveur xiv. p. 176.3 Lafrerii Speculum Rom. magnitudinis Rom«
[plates engraved singly from 1544-75, Aldroandi statue di Roma 1556.]
Ant. statuarum urbis Romse icones. R. ex typis Laur. Vaccarii 1584. T.
ii. 1621 ex typis Gott. de Scaichis. Cavaleriis Antiques statuse urbis
Romse (1585), Boissard's Antiqu. Romanss, 6 vols. f. 1579 — 1627. Franc.
Perrier's Segmenta nobil. signorum et statuarum (1638), and Icones et
segmenta Ulustr. e marmore tabularum (1645). Insigniorum statuarum
urbis Romse icones by Io. lac. de Rubeis (1646). Signorum vet. icones
by Episcopius (Jan de Bischop). Gio. Batt. Rossi Antiq. statuarum
urbis Romse i. et ii. Ub. 1668 f. Sandrart's Teutsche Academic der Bau-
Bild-und Malereikunst. 4 vols. i. Niirnberg 1676-76. The designs and
engravings of Pietro Santi Bartoli, mostly accompanied with explana^
tions by G. P. Bello?ii, the Columnse, Lucernes, the Pitture, the Admir-
anda Romanorum antiquitatis (an excellent collection of reKefs, first ed.
by Jac. de Rubeis, second by Domen. de Rubeis R. 1693, especially
valuable) and others form an epoch. Racoolta di statue antiche da
Domen. de Rossi, illustr. di Paolo Aless. Maffei. R. 1704. Statuse insig-
niorcs by Preisler, 1734. Ant. Franc. Gori (the Etruscan antiquary's)
Museum Florentinum, 6 vols. fo. 1731 — 1742. Recueil des Marbres
antiques— Ji Dresde by le Plat. 1733 (bad). Antiche statue, che nell'
antisala della libreria di S. Marco e in altri luoghi pubblici di Venezia si
trovano, by the two Zanettis, 2 vols. fo. 1740. 43. Mich. Ang. Causei (de
la Chausse) Romanum Museum. R. 1746, a motley antiquarian collection.
(Graevii Thesaur. T. v. xii.). [Prange Magazin der Alterth. Halle 1783
f.] Of the works on architectural remains especially : Les restes de I'an-
oienne Rome, drawn and engraved by Bonavent. d'Overbeke. Amsterd.
1709. 3 pts. fo.

16 INTRODUCTION.
38. III. The scientific, 1750—. This age enjoyed the ad
vantage of the greatest external aids, to which belonged the
excavation of the buried cities skirting Vesuvius, a more
accurate knowledge of the architectural monuments and lo
calities of Greece, and the discovery and acquisition of most
important sculptures from Grecian temples ; moreover, a more
widely-extended knowledge of Egypt and the East, and —
latest of all — the unexpectedly great discovery of Etruscan
tombs. On the other hand, we are indebted to this period
for the design of a history of ancient art which emanated
from the great mind of Winckelmann ; as well as numerous
attempts to investigate more deeply the art of the Greeks
both philosophically and historically ; and also a more circum
spect explanation of art, and built on more accurate bases.
1. The excavation of Herculaneum begun in 1711, but not recom
menced till 1736. — Stuart (1751, at Athens) and Bevett's Antiquities
of Athens, the first vol. Lond. 1762. Undertakings of the Society of
Dilettanti founded in 1734 (Ionian antiquities 1769-97. Uned. Antiq.
of Attica 1817). Investigations of English, French, and other travel
lers : Chandler, Choiseul-Gouffier, Cockerell, Sir W. Gell, Leake, DodweU,
Pouqueville, von Stackelberg, Bronsted ; the French expedition to the
Morea. — ^Discovery in jEgina in 1811, at Phigalia in 1812. Acquisition
of the Elgin collection (1801) for the British Museum 1816.— The Egyp
tian expedition 1798. — The sepulchres of Vulci 1828.
2. Winckelmann, born 1717, died 1768, went in 1755 from Dresden
to Rome. Antiquario della camera apostolica. The Monumenti inediti
1767 form an epoch in archseological interpretation. The History of Art
1764. Principal edition of his works at Dresden 1808-20, 8 vols, (by
Fernow, H. Meyer, Schulze, Siebelis). Notes by 0. Pea [New ed. Dres
den, 2 vols. 4to. 1829-1847]. — Count Caylus, his contemporary, distin
guished for technical knowledge and taste, Recueil d' Antiq. Egyptiennes,
Etrusques, Grecques et Romaines 1762-67, 7 vols. 4to. Lessing (1729-81)
tried to reduce the peculiarities of Grecian art to precise notions, some
times one-sided : Laocoon, or on the Limits of Painting and Poetry, 1766.
Heyne (1729 — 1812) completed Winckelmann's work, especially in the
chronological department (Antiquar. Abhandl. ; Comment. Soc. Gott. ;
Opusc. Academ.), and made archseology, after attempts by Christ (died
1756), a subject of philological instruction. Akad. Vorlesungen ueber
die Archaol. der Kunst. Braunschweig 1822. Ennio Quirino Visconti,
a learned and tasteful illustrator of art, especially in the Museum Pio
Clem. His labours in France and England. Publication of his works at
Milan 1818-19. Minor works collected and published by Labus. Zoega,
distinguished for depth and solidity. BassiriUevi Antichi. 1807, sqq.
Milliu's writings invaluable for the diffusion of a knowledge of works of
art and for popularizing it. Gothe's exertions for the preservation of a
genuine love for ancient art. Propylseon ; Kunst und Alterthum. Bot-
tiger's services to learned archseology, Hirt's chiefiy, but not merely, for
architecture, Welcker's, Millingen's and others for the illustration of art.
Symbolical method of explanation (Payne Knight, Christie, Creuzer).
H. Meyer's (W. K. P.) Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste bei den Griechen

LITERATURE. 17
von ihrem ersten Urspnlnge bis zum hflchsten Flor. 1824 [with engrav
ings 1825, and a General View in Tables 1826, fol.], a further development
of Winckelmann's views [3 parts publ. by Riemer 1836.]. An attempt
at a new system : Thiersch, ueber die Epochen der bildenden Kunst unter
den Griechen (2d edit. 1829). Compare Wiener Jahrb. xxxvi-xxxviii.—
Die Geschichte der bildenden Kunste bei den Alten von A. Hirt. Berl.
1833. '
The publication of antiques in single or different museums by means
of engravings is going on and becoming more complete. Museum Capi-
tolinum T. i— iii. 1748-55, by Gio. Bottari, T. iv. by Nic. Foggini. Gale
ria Giustiniana, R. 1631, 2 vols. fo. Barbault les plus beaux Monumens
de Rome Ancienne, R. 1761, fo., and other works by him. Giambatt. Pir-
anesi's (till 1784) and his son Francesco's sumptuous works on Roman
architecture. Raccolta d'antiche Statue, Busti, Bassirilievi ed altre scul-
ture restaurate da Bartol. Cavaceppi, R. 3 vols. 1768-72. Monum. Mat-
thseiana (bad engravings) 3 vols. fo. 1779, with expl. by Rudolph Venuti
and Gio. Chr. Amaduzzi. II Museo Pio-Olementino descritto da Giam
batt. Visconti, T. i. 1782, da Enn. Quir. Vise. T. ii— vii. 1784 — 1807.
Museo Chiaramonti, by Fil. Aur. Visconti and Gius. Ant. Guattani, T. i.
1808. [T. ii. by A. Nibby 1837, in fol. and 4to.] Guattani's Monum.
Inediti (1784^9, 1806, in 4to) and Memorie enciclopediche Romane
1806-17, 4to. Augusteum ; Dresden's Antike Denkmaler von W. G.
Becker, 3 vols. fo. 1804^11. [Corrections and additions by W. A. Becker
1837-8.] Principal works on the antiquities collected at Paris by Napo
leon : Musee Prangois publ. par RobiUard-Peronville et P. Laurent, P.
1803-11. Text by Croze-Magnan, Visconti and Emm. David. As a con
tinuation Musee Royal publ. par H. Laurent [One antique always ac
companied by 3 pictures]. Musee des Antiques dessine et grave par B.
Bouillon, peintre, avec des notices explicatives par J. B. de Saint Victor.
Paris, 3 tomes, 1812-1817. — Specimens of ancient Sculpture by the soci
ety of Dilettanti. London 1809 [vol. ii. 1835]. Ancient Marbles of
the British Museum by Taylor Combe, 6 parts, 1812-1830 [7, 8. 1839].
Ancient unedited monuments by James Millingen, 1822 (a model of a
work). Monumens Inedits d'Antiquite figuree recueiUis et publics par
Raoul-Rochette, 2 vols. fo. 1828, 1829. Antike Bildwerke zum erstenmale
bekannt gemacht von Bduard Gerhard, begun in 1827 [ended in 1839. E.
Braun, Ant. Marmorwerke zum erstenmal bekannt gemacht, 1. 2. decade
Lpz. 1843 fo. By the same, Zwolf Basreliefs aus Pallast Spada u. s. w.
Rom. 1845. fol. comp. Bullett. 1846. p. 54]. The establishment of the In
stituto di Correspondenza archeologica (Gerhard, Panofka, the Due de
Luynes) forms an epoch in regard to the rapid circulation of archseologi
cal intelligence and ideas. Monumenti Inediti, Annali and Bullettini
dell'Instituto from 1829 downwards. [1846, 18 vols, of the Ann. and the
same number of the Bull. Also Nouvelles Annales de la Section Frangaise
1836. 1838. 2 vols. 8vo. with 24 pi. fol.] Memorie dell'Inst. Faso. i. 1832.
[2. 3. BuUettiuo Napoletano since 1842 entirely the work of Avellino, in
4to, confined to the monuments of the kingdom ; Gerhard's Archaol. Zeit
4to from 1843, R6vue Archeol. P. 1844 up to this time, 3 vols. 8vo.]
39. The main object of this Manual is to reduce to scien
tific order the materials contained in archaeological literature,
and which have been sufficiently illustrated by special under-
B

18 INTRODUCTION.
takings, strictly confining itself to the arts of design among
the ancients.
Other literary aids. Millin Introduction k I'etude des Monumens an
tiques, 1796 and 1826. Gurlitt's General Introduction in his archKolo-
gical works, edited by Corn. Miiller, pp. 1 — 72. Joh. Phil. Siebenkees
Handbuch der Archaologie. Niirnberg 1799, 2 vols, (not very critical).
Chr. Dan. Beck Grundriss der Archaologie. Leipz. 1816 (not completed).
Bottiger Andeutungen zu vierundzwanzig Vorlesungen iiber die Arch
aologie, Dresd. 1806. Gio. Batt. Vermiglioli Lezioni elementari di Arch-
eologia, Tom. 1, 2. Milano 1824. (Archseology as the knowledge of monu
ments). N. Schow Laerebog i Archseologia. Kiobenh. 1826. Champol-
lion Figeac Resume complet de I'Archeologie, 2 vols. P. 1826. (In Ger
man by Mor. Fritsoh. Lpz. 1828.) Nibby Blementi di Aroheologia, R.
1828 (mostly topography). R. Bochette Oours d'Arch6olo^e. P. 1828
(twelve lectures). Fr. C. Petersen AUgem. Einleitung in das studium
der Archaol. Translated from the Danish by Friedrichsen. Lpz. 1829.
A. von Steinbiiohel Abriss der Alterthumskunde. Vienna 1829 (also
mythology and geographical numismatics), with a large antiquarian at
las. [A. W. Schlegel Lejons sur I'histoire et la theorie des beaux arts trad.
par Couturier, P. 1830.] Levezow on ArchEeol. criticism and interpreta
tion, a treatise in the Berl. Acad, der Wiss. 1833. B. 1834.— The Denk
maler der Alten kunst von K. 0. Miiller und K. Oesterley, bSgun in 1832,
stands in connexion with this manual. [After Bd. ii. heft 2. continued
by Wieseler, heft 3. 1846. The manual is made use of by Ross in his
' Ey;^£/^/3/oj/ T^f (iqx^toK(iyicx.g run ri%v2iv, \ta.uo^'/\ Tr^arv]. 'A^sjyjjff/ 1841.
1st part. Bottiger's Kl. Schriften Archaol. u. antiq. Inhalts gesammelt
von Sillig 3 bde. 1837-38. Fr. Creuzer's deutsche Schr. 2 Abth. Zur
Archaol. oder zur Gesoh. u. Erkl. der a. K. 1. 2. Th. 1846. Th. 3. 1847.]
These lectures were late of publication, and should not indeed have been
published at all.

HISTORY OF ART IN ANTIQUITY,
THE GREEKS.
FIRST PERIOD, THX ABOUT THE 50th OLYMPIAD (580 A. C).
1. GENERAL CONDITIONS AND MAIN FEATURES OF THE DEVELOP
MENT OF ART.
40. Of all the branches of the Indo-Germanic race, the
Greeks were that in which sensible and spiritual, internal and
external life were found in the finest equipoise ; hence they
appear to have been from the first most peculiarly fitted for
the independent cultivation of artistic forms, although, it re
quired a long process of development and many favourable
circumstances before this feeling for art, which showed its
activity so early in poetry and mythology, could be also trans
ferred to external matters and ripen into sculpture.
41. This people from a very early age dwelt in Greece
Proper, in Lower Italy, and partly also on the coast of Asia
Minor, as a settled agricultural nation founding fixed habita
tions with temples and citadels (¦^oXe/s). These settlements
belonged, for the most part, to the original tribe of Pelasgians.
"Agyof, the name of several Pelasgian countries ; Ai^iaira. (also Axtrat
according to Hesyohius, from Xaj), the name of citadels. To^ug in Crete
(nixioicax, II. ii, 646) was also called Larissa and K^iifiuia. The citadel
of Mycense was about 1,000 feet in length, that of Tiryns 220 yards, ac
cording to Sir W. Gell.
42. Even in the heroic period which rested on the domin- i
ion of Hellenic races, especially those of a warlike character,
a certain splendour of life was unfolded in the houses of the
Anaktes, which was partly derived from the close connexion 2
with Asia Minor, and thereby with the further East. In the 3
construction of their dwellings and the workmanship of their
furniture it was exhibited in a style of architectonics and
tectonics which aimed at magnificence (§. 22).

20 HISTORY OF GREEK ART.
2. The city of Sipylus (Cyclopean Ruins, Millin's Magas. Encyclop.
1810, V. p. 349. Raoul-Rochette, Hist, de I'^tabl. des Col. Grecques, iv. p.
384), was the ancient seat of the Tantalidse. The Heraclidse (properly
speaking, the Sandonidse) of Lycia were an Assyrian dynasty. Gold,
silver, ivory. Pontic metals (Alybe) came early to Greece. Phoenician
commerce. The gold-abounding Mycense and Orchomenos Minyeios
(II. ix, 381. Minyas, son of Ohryses).
I 43. Through the so-called return of the Heraclidas, the
Dorians, descending from the mountains of Northern Greece,
became the most powerful tribe in that country. They were
a race in which the Hellenic sense of strict order and due
proportion appears to have been most cultivated, with a pre
dominant tendency to the earnest, the dignified and the so-
2 lemn. From this disposition sprang the Doric temple-archi
tecture as a refinement and exaltation of earlier architectonic
undertakings, in complete harmony with the Dorian political
life, the Dorian musical mode, and the Dorian festal dances
3 and songs. It was not till about the end of the period that
by the side of the Doric was unfolded the richer and spright-
lier Ionic, which in like manner corresponded to the genius
of the Ionian race, which was more effeminate and volatile,
and more exposed to the influence of oriental manners and
art. 1. The Dorian migration 80 years after Troy, 328 before the 1st 01.
The Ionian migration to Asia 140, 268.
I 44. The plastic art, on the contrary, appears throughout
this entire period to have been merely occupied, partly in or
namenting vessels (8aiddXXii>), partly in manufacturing idols
for the services of religion, wherein it was not the object to
represent externally the notion of the deity which floated
before the mind of the artist, but only to reproduce an accus-
2 tonied figure. The plastic art, therefore, long remained sub
ordinate to a mechanical activity directed to the attainment
of external objects, and the genuine spirit of sculpture existed
3 only in the germ. That feeling for what is significant and
beautiful in the human form, and which was so deeply rooted
in the Greek mind, found its gratification in the food afforded
to it by the orchestic arts. Design, therefore, long continued
rude and ill-proportioned.

2. ARCHITECTONICS.

1

45. The giant-walls of the Acropoleis must be regarded
as the oldest works of Greek hands. By posterity, which
could not conceive them to be the works of man, they were
called in Argolis Cyclopean walls, but doubtless they were

ARCHITECTONICS. 21
for the most part erected by the Pelasgians, the aboriginal
but afterwards subjugated inhabitants ; hence they are also
found in great numbers in Arcadia and Epirus, the chief
countries of the Pelasgians.
1. T/fi/Kf rsix'oiaax II. ii, 669. STrix^rifii/oi/ rii}co; Pherecydes Schol. Od.
xxi, 23. Ti^vD^iov TT'hiii^iv/.itt Hesych. Vi xuxKuTrei'x Argolis in Burip.
Orest. 953. Kvny^aTrsiccoi/^amnrsixyiEleotrallGT. Kvx.Xii'irav AufiiT^ai Iph.
Aul. 152. KvK7\.u7ri» ¦ffjdSuj* EujuffSs'a; Pindar Fr. inc. 151. Kuxfiairuoi/
Tgo^cdi' Sophocles in Hesych. s. v. x.iix.'hovs. Turres Cyclopes inven. Arist.
in Plin. vii, 57. On their supposed origin (from Curetis, Thrace, Ly
cia) : ad ApoUod. ii, 2, 1. 'Ciyuyta. d^x"^^" t^'x^ Hesych.
2. UiyixayiKO'j or IlsXajy/xoj/ riixos in Athens. [Gottling in the Rhein.
Mus. f. Philologie 1843, iv. s. 321, 480. The same Die Gallerien und die
Stoa von Tirynth, Archaol. Zeit 1845, N. 26. Taf. 26. Bxp^d. de la Moree
II. p. 72.] Ten Cyclopean ruins in Argolis ("Ajyof neJiacrydj.) On the
age and fortification of Lycosura in Arcadia, Pausan. viii, 38. Dodwell
ii. p. 395. Sir W. Gell; City walls, pi. 11. On the very numerous Epi-
rotic walls (Ephyra) Pouqueville Voyage dans la Grfece, T. i. p. 464 sqq.
and elsewhere, Hughes' Travels, ii. p. 313.
46. The enormous, irregular, and polygonal blocks of 1
these walls are not, in the rudest and most ancient style,
connected by any external means, and are entirely unhewn
(agyo/), and the gaps are filled up with small stones (at
Tiryns) ; in the more improved style, on the contrary, they
are skilfully hewn and fitted to one another with great nicety
(at Argos and partly at Mycense), from whence resulted the
most indestructible of walls. The gates are mostly pyramidal ; 2
regular towers could not be easily employed. This mode of 3
building passed through various intermediate stages into the
square method, which was in later times the prevailing one,
although it is not to be denied that in all ages polygonal
blocks were occasionally employed in substructions.
1. In the first and ruder style the main thing was the quarrying and
removing of stones with levers (|«oj^?v£i/£;y Tlrjouf Burip. Cycl. 241 . conf.
Od. ix, 240). The Cyclopean walls of Mycense, on the contrary, were
formed, according to Burip. Here. Fur. 948 (Nonnus xii, 269), by means
of the measuring-line and stone-axe, (poimx.! nxtiim xxi tux-oi; ii^fioafiha..
The stones were larger than x/^x^ixhi. The walls of Tiryns from 20 to
24^ feet thick.
2. In the gates the jambs and lintels are mostly single blocks, the
stone-door was mortised in the middle. In regard to towers, an angular
one is to be found at the termination of a wall at Mycense, and it is said
that there was a semicircular one at Sipylus. In the walls of Mycense
and Larissa, and especially at Tiryns (in Italy also), are to be found
gable-shaped passages formed of blocks resting against each other. [Gott
ling, das Thor von Mykena:, N. Rhein. Mus. i, S. 161. The gateway of
Mycense, cleared away in 1842, is 5 paces in breadth, and proportionately
long ; there are wheel tracks visible in the smooth slabs of the floor.] The

22 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I.
coursing of the stones too has often somewhat of the form of an arch. At
Nauplia there were a%'iihai«, x,a.l h auroig oUolo,u.yiroi Xx/3iqi:/Boi called Cy-
clopeia, Strab. viii. p. 369, 373. Probably quarries used as places of burial.
Cyriacus of Ancona (1435) Insoriptiones sen Bpigr. Grseca et Lat.
reperta per Illyricum, etc. Romse 1747 (MS. in the Barber. Library).
Winckelmann Anmerk. iiber die Baukuns't. Th. i. §. 357, 535. Petit-
Radel in the Magasin Encyclop. 1804. T. v. p. 446. 1806. T. vi. p. 168.
1807. T. V. p. 425. 1810. T. v. p. 340. (Controversy with Sickler, Mag.
Enc. 1810. T. i. p. 242. T. iii. p. 342. 1811. T. ii. p. 49, 301.) in the
Moniteur 1812, No. 110, in the Mus6e-Napoleon, T. iv. p. 16, in Voyage
dans les principals villes de Fltalie, P. 1816, and the Ann. dell' Inst. i.
p. 343. Comp. Memoires de I'lnstitut Royal, T. ii. Classe d'hist. p. 1.
Raoul-Rochette Hist, de I'^tabl. des col. Gr. T. iv. p. 379 sqq., and Notice
sur les Nuraghes de la Sardaigne. Paris 1826. Rapport de la 3e Classe
de I'lnstitut an 1809. Rapport fait % la CI. des Beaux Arts 14 Aout
1811. W. Gell Argolis. L. 1810. Probestiicke von Stiidtemauern des al
ten Griechenlands. Miinohenl831. Dodwell's Classical Tour. His Views
and descriptions of Cyclopean or Pelasgic remains in Greece and Italy,
with constructions of a later period. L. 1834 fo. 131 pi. [Petit-Radel
Les Murs P^Iasg. de I'lt. in the Memorie d. Inst, archeol. i. p. 63. Rech.
sur les mon. Cycl. et desor. de la coll. des modules en relief composant la
galerie Pelasg. de la bibl. Mazarine par Petit-Radel, publi6es d'aprfes les
MSS. de I'auteur. P. 1841. 8vo.] Squire in Walpole's Memoirs, p. 315.
Leake, Morea, T. ii. p. 349, 368, 377, &c. Hirt in Wolf's Analecta, v. i.
p. 163. Gesoh. der Baukunst Bd. i. s. 195. pi. 7. — With regard to those
of Italy, §. 166. Sacreduess of building with d^yoi 7i/9o; in altars. In
like manner Exod. xx. 25. Deut. xxvii. 6.

1 47. The taste for magnificence which manifested itself in
the erection of these walls, was also displayed in the con
struction of the extensive and spacious palaces of the princes
2 in the heroic times [jdaaikiia in Pausanias] which were built
3 for the most part on the acropoleis; it was here united with a
great_ love for bright metal ornaments — a characteristic fea
ture in the architecture of the heroic times.
2. Homer's description of Odysseus' palace is certainly correct as a
general poetical picture. Comp. Voss, Homer, v. iv. pi. 1, Plirt. i. p. 209,
pi. 7. "E^Kos, xij-h'/i with altar of Zeif 'E?>c£?of, colonnades, xBovux against
the house, -^^iSiuqov, large ftiyx^ou with rows of pillars, Sa}\a^o; or more
secret chambers. The upper portion of the house for the women, the
v-!r€iJoia, did not extend, like our stories, over the entire ground-floor. 'The
house of Odysseus on the acropolis of Ithaca, discovered by Gell (Ithaca,
p. 50 sq.) ; Goodisson, however, did not discover anything. Many iso
lated buildings around. In Priam's house fifty ^^y^xfioi ^e^roh 7„'%io of
the sons, opposite to them in the aula twelve riymi S«A. |. x. of the sons-
in-law beside each other. II. vi. 243, [not less poetical invention, as may
be seen from the mythic numbers, than in the palace of Alcinous].
3. To7f S" ^j- ;iiaA;t£« ^h riiixsx, x^^xioi Is re oUoi Hesiod E. 152. X«.7ikov
n (TTSfOTT^v xcti UfixTX yix-^surx xZ'Jooi r nhUr(>ov n xcti x^yu^ou ijS"

ARCHITECTONICS. 23
£?J®«i»TOf. Od, iv. 72. Xa?\x6o; ,«£» yoij Tol)coi e^.nf^ci.'ixr h^cc x«i h^a If
fiuxon j| owSou' ¦s-sji Ss S)^iy»6s Kuai/oia. ;,;fiJo-s(«; Ss S«g«( ttvkiuou lofcov hro;
hqyou- x^yv^ioi ii trrx^fioi ku x^-yMt^ 'iirrxaxu ovi^, ajyiljeoi/ S' i(p' iive^^v^iou,
X^vaim Ii Ko^iim, in the fairy palace of Alcinous, Od. vii. 86, i-hs(pxn6liroi
lifioi in Asia, Eurip. Iph. Aul. 683. Comp. §. 48. Rem. 2. 3. §. 49, 2.
48. The most remarkable of these princely fabrics of the 1
heroic ages Avere the treasuries, dome -shaped buildings
which seem to have been destined for the preservation of
costly armour, goblets, and other family heir-looms {xii,u,nXia).
Similar to these generally subterranean buildings were the 2
O'j8ot of many ancient temples, cellar-like and very massive
constructions, which likewise served in an especial manner for
the preservation of valuable property. Finally, corresponding 3
forms were not unfrequently given to the thalami, secret
chambers for the women, and even to the prisons of that
early period.
1. Thesaurus of Mintas (Paus, ix, 38. Squire in Walpole's Memoirs,
p. 336. DodweU i. p. 227) of white marble, 70 feet in diameter. Views, pi.
13; — of Atreus and his sons at Mycenae (Paus. ii, 16.), one of which was
opened by Lord Elgin (s. Gell, Argolis, t. 4 — 6. Squire, p. 652. Dodwell
ii. p. 236. Views, pi. 9, 10. Descr. de la Mor6e, ii, 66 sqq. Pouqueville iv.
p. 162 ; above all Donaldson, Antiq. of Athens : Supplement, p. 25). Dia
meter and height about 48 feet. The ruins of three others are to be seen
there. Leake, Morea, ii. p 382 sqq. Views, pi. 11. [Comp. §.291 R. 5, and
also Col. Mure on the royal tombs of the heroic age in the Rhein. Mus.
1838. vi. S. 240, who makes a striking comparison with the dungeon of
Antigone in Sophocles, a fiuyif'Uo'j x,a.ra,ysioii according to Aristophanes of
Byzantium in substance. Col. Leake, Peloponnesiaca, a supplem. 1846.
p. 268, opposed to his view. But it receives a strong confirmation from a
tomb at Caere, together with which Canina (Cere ant, tv. 3 — 5. 9) also gives
a representation of that at Mycense, see p. 94, also Em. Braun, Bull. 1836,
p. 67. 68. 1838. p. 173, and Abeken, Bull. 1841. p. 41, and MitteHtalieu
s. 234.] — of Hyrieus and Augeas built by the Minyans Trophonius and
Agamedes (Orchomenus, p. 95. Comp. the Cyolian Bugammon in Proclus).
— Thesaurus (of Menelaus) discovered by Gropius not far from Amyclse ;
[W. Mure, Tour in Greece, ii, 246, Tomb of Menelaus, who was buried
according to tradition at Amyclse, or of Amyclas, of the ancient Amy-
clseean kings :] traces at Pharsalus. Autolycus, son of Dsedalion (the In
genious), wXelsTx xXiTrrau i^naxu^il^si/, Pherecyd. Fragm. 18 st. Od. xix,410.
2. OySo'f) foundation, socle, hence household, but also a subterranean
repository ; the XaiVoj ouio; at Delphi was a thesaurus, II. ix, 404, which
the Minyan architects are said to have built with Cyclopean masses of
rock (Hymn to the Pyth. Ap. 115. Staph. B. s. v. A5A(pt>/). [It is stated
by others as well as L. Ross in his ''Eyx^i^iii'"', §. 67, 2, that this is not cor
rect.] Even the ;i(;«Ax£Of oiSoV of Colonos in Sophocles is also conceived
as a walled abyss (comp. II. viii, 15. Theog. 811. l6ft.aio tqsis a-ivroi with
treasures, H. in Merc. 247). The u-^6^ocpos Sid>^xfios of Odysseus, Menelaus,
Priam, placed deep in the earth and filled with all sorts of valuable things
(Od. ii, 337. xv, 98. xxi, 8. II. vi, 288), is also a sort of thesaurus. Ac
cording to Burip. Hecabe 1010, a treasury at Ilium was indicated by a

24 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I.
black stone jutting out of the ground. Subterranean store-houses of fruits
and other things were also everywhere common, as the arsi^oi for corn
in Thrace, Philo Mathem. vett. p. 88. the favissse in Italy, the Aaxxo; for
fruits, wine, and oil at Athens, the German cellars. Tacit. Germ. 16. Phry
gians and Armenians even dwelt under the earth (Vitruv. ii. 1, 5. comp.
Schol. Nicand. Alexiph. 7. Xenoph. Anab. iv, 5, 26, <fec.).
3. To these belong the pyramidal thalamus of Cassandra (Lycophr.
350), the brazen one of Danae, that of Alcmene, of the Proetides. Paus.
o'xf?!)! Tra^^evaiue; comp. Iph. Aul. 738. [The pyramids, not far from
the Brasinos and Lernse, of which Mure gives a drawing. Tour in
Greece, ii, 196. as a monument of the heroic period, simOar to another in
Argolis, Gel. p. 102. and that mentioned by Paus. ii, 36. Comp. L. Ross.
Reisen in Peloponnes. S. 142. Stackelberg La Grfece P. 1829. vignette,
comp. §. 294 R. 6.]— The brazen cask of the Aloidse (II. v, 387), and of
Burystheus (Apollod. ii, 6, 1), is conceived as a kind of building. [Welcker
Kl. Schr. ii. s. cxv.] In later times also there was used as a prison at
Messene (Liv. xxxix, 50. Plut. Philopcemen 19) a thesaurus publicus sub
terra, saxo quadrate septus. Saxum ingens, quo operitur, machina su-
perimpositum est.
1 49. The Mycenssan treasury, the best-preserved specimen
of this so wide-spread and often employed species of building,
is constructed of horizontal courses of stone which gradually
approach and unite in a closing-stone (a^/iow'a rou ¦ravrog), and
2 is provided with a pyramidal door skilfully roofed over. It
was probably, like many similar buildings, lined with bronze
plates, [the holes for] the nails of which are still visible [in
horizontal rows] ; but on the facade it was decorated in the
richest manner with half-columns and tablets of red, green,
and white marble, which were wrought in quite a peculiar
style, and ornamented with spirals and zig-zags.
1. The door 18 feet high, 11 feet broad below, the lintel one stone, 27
feet long, 16 broad (22 and 20 according to HaUer in Pouqueville). On
the wedges between the single stones of a course, Cockerell in Leake,
Morea ii. p. 373. Donaldson, pi. 2.
2. On the fragments of the lining, two plates of which are in the
Brit. Mus. Wiener Jahrb. xxxvi. p. 186. Donaldson, pi. 4, 5. [These
fragments, found in the neighbourhood (the precise spot unknown), are
by others supposed to have been fixed on the walls of the gateway. W.
Mure, Tour in Greece, ii, 167. Stackelberg La Grfece places them in the
portal. Three fragments of these ornaments also at Munich in the United
Collections.] 50. The Greeks of the mythic ages no doubt also employ
ed the same powerful style at an early period in their tem
ples (1), tombs (2), outlets of lakes and canals (3), and even
harbours (4).
1. Paus. and others relate many legends regarding the Delphian
temple ; the brazen one was probably the same with the oMs (§. 48,

DORIC ARCHITECTURE. 25
2.) [The small temple on the summit of Ocha above Carystos §. 53. R. 2.
belongs to this class.]
2. The tombs of the heroic period had mostly the form of conical
hillocks (tumuli, xoA^i/a/). Phrygian sepulchres (Athen. xii. p. 626),
graves of Amazons (Plut. Theseus, 26). Ancient barrows, Stieglitz,
Beitr. s. 17. [Lelegia, barrows as well as hiU-forts of the Leleges in
Caria and around Miletus, in Strabo.] Greece is still full of such bar
rows. To the tombs probably belong also [pyramids §. 48. R. 3, and] the
labyrinths at Nauplia (§. 46. R. 2), at Cnossus (a i77r«x«io» a^TjSSsj ac
cording to Btym. M.), in Lemnos (with 150 columns; extant reliquiai,
Plin.), as chambers in rooks for the dead was an ancient custom of that
people. Quarries gave occasion for them. Aaiii^iuSioi is genuine Greek,
and is connected with Xai/gas. Dsedalus, as architect in Crete and among
the Hesperians (§. 166).
3. The subterranean outlets of the Copaic lake (Katabothra), the
gulfs (^sjsSg*) of Stymphalus and Pheneus, where there was also a canal
of Hercules, seem at least to have been completed by the hand of man.
[Comp. §. 168. R. 3.]
4. The ^fToV x;,"^!/ of Cyzicus, a work of the giants (Bncheirogastores),
or the Pelasgians. Schol. Apoll. i, 987.

51. The Doric temple -architecture, on the other hand,
was in its origin clearly connected with the immigration of
the Dorians. In it the efforts of the earlier times, which
aimed more at splendour and richness, returned to simpli
city ; and art thereby acquired fixed fundamental forms which
were invaluable for its further development.
Dorus himself was said to have built the Herseum at Argos. Vitruv.
iv, 1.
52. In this style of architecture everything was suitable 1
to its object, everything in harmony, and for that very reason
noble and grand ; only stone-building borrowed many forms 2
from the earlier wooden structures, which were long main
tained especially in the entablature. For instance, the tri- 3
glyphs (as beam-ends) and metopes (as vacant spaces be
tween) which form the frieze, are to be explained from car
pentry, to which also must be referred the drops under the
triglyphs and the mutules (rafter-ends). The great thickness i
of the columns, and their great diminution as well as their
closeness, have solidity and firmness for their aim. But the
weight which rests upon these supports is also in due propor
tion to their strength, for the entablature in the older temples
was of considerable height and weight (fths of the height of
the columns). The ample projection of the capital and the 5
great prominence of the corona which clearly expresses the
destination of the roof — to extend widely its protection —
manifest a striving after a decided character of forms; archi-

26 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I.
tecture did not yet seek to soften abrupt transitions by inter
mediate mouldings. The proportions are simple, and the
uniformity of the dimensions which is often observed in indi
vidual portions satisfies the eye; but, on the whole, the great
horizontal main lines of the architrave and cornice predomi
nate over the vertical lines of the columns and triglyphs,
which are still more brought out by the fluting. The impos
ing simplicity of the leading forms is agreeably interrupted
by a few small ornamental members (grooves, annulets, drops,
nail-heads, according to moden architects). Every where_ the
forms are geometrical, for the most part produced by straight
lines; vegetable ornaments, however, were added in colours
which earlier antiquity preferred of a lively and glaring char
acter. 2. Wooden temple of Poseidon Hippius at Mantinea, Paus. viii, 10, 2.
Metaponti templum Jimonis vitigineis coluninis stetit, Pliu. xiv. 2. Uivofixov
yjuu, Paus. V, 20, 3. Oaken column in the Herseum, v, 16. — The simplest
temples (ayix-ol) of the primitive ages indeed were merely hoUow trees in
which images were placed, as at Dodona {nxiev S'la 'n-vByJi/i (pnyov, Hesiod
Schol. Sophocl. Trach. 1169. Fragm. 64. Gottling.), at Ephesus {unou ¦a-^ift,-
i/a hi 'Trrihins Dionys. Per. 829. comp. Callim. Hymn to Art. 237), and
Artemis Cedreatis in Arcadia (Paus. viii, 13). Artemis on the tree (Ga
ry atis) a relief, Annali d. Li. tv. c, 1. The column is developed from
the trunk of the tree. The four-cornered stone is far less advantageous
therefor ; only unbroken circles give complete strength. Klenze Apho-
rist. Bemerkungen s. 57 fi". is opposed to the derivation of the Doric
temple architecture from wooden buildings. But the cornice and the
mutules point thereto. The principle therefore is established.
3. Burip. Iphig. Taur. 113 {i'ha r^iy'hvipan o-a-oi xiuoii) presupposes beam-
ends with spaces between. In like manner, Orest. 1366, ¦s-scp^uy* — xsS^ia-
TJt ivoLmahuv viri^ Ti^if^ua- Aa^inxg re riiiy'Kv'povg. Wooden triglyphs are
also to be assumed, Bacch. 1216.
3—7. Comp. §. 275—277, 282, 288. The proportion 1 : 1 can be
pointed out in the placing of the columns and in the parts of the enta
blature. 8. Hittorff de I'Architeoture polychrome chez les Anciens. Ann. d. Inst.
ii. p. 263. Comp. §. 80. 274. On the painting of temples, reference should
be made to the investigations of the Duke of Luynes in his work on Meta-
pontum, P. 1833 fo. (Annali V. p. 292) after painted teracotta fragments,
and to the statements of Semper which embrace all antiquity. Vorlaiifige
Bemerkungen iiber bemalte Arehitektur and Plastik bei den Alten. 1834
(comp. Gott. G. A. S. 1389). Kugler ueber die Polychromie der Gr.
Archit. und Sculptur und ihre Grenzen B. 1835 (agreeing mostly with
Gott. Anz.) : — H. Hermann Bern, ueber die Antiken Decorationsmale-
reien an den Temp, zu Athen in Allegem. Bauzeitung, Wien 1836. N.
11. Some ornaments partly painted, drawn at Athens 1835, Ibid. 1837
N. 16. Bl. cxviii. Blue triglyphs well preserved, found on the acropolis
(triglyphs on the propylasa and in .lEgina also blue) and other coloured
architectural members, Kunstbl. 1836. N. 16. Painted terracottas, eave-

DORIC ARCHITECTURE. 27
tiles, cymas, and portions of cornices. Ibid. N. 24. by Ross. The same
on Lithochromie, Kunstbl. 1837. N. 15. comp. Stackelberg, Tf. 5. 6.
[Also inscription Steles, at least all those that were crowned with an
aetom'a, Ross Hall, A. L. Z. 1834. Intell. s. 322.] Klenze Aphor. Bem. auf
einer Reise in Griechenland s. 548 ff', [Against exaggeration Ulriok
quotes many passages from the ancients, Reisen in Griechenland, S. 72 ff'.]
53. The foundation for a richer development of the Doric I
architecture was laid at Corinth, a city which flourished at
an early period by means of its commerce by sea and land.
Here originated the decoration of the tympanum with reliefs
in clay (for which groups of statues were afterwards substi
tuted) as well as of the eave-tiles with sculptured ornaments,
and later also the ornamental form of the cassoons {'f>ar\iu/j,aTa,
lacunaria). Byzes of Naxos invented the art of cutting mar- 2
ble tiles about the 50th Olympiad.
1. Pindar, 01. 13, 21, together with Bookh's Expl. p. 213, in regard
to the eagle in the dirafix (comp. the coin of Perge, Mionnet, Desor. iii.
p. 463). Welcker Rhein. Mus. II. s. 482. against the eagle. According
to Pliny, xxxv, 12, 43, Dibutades was the plastes qui primus personas te-
gidarum extremis imbricibus imposidt, comp. Hirt's Gesoh. der Baukunst,
i. §. 227. — On the lacunaria, §. 283. In reference to these the Spartan
asks the Corinthian, Do the trees with you grow four-cornered 1 Plut.
Lye. 13.
2. On Byzes, Paus. v, 10. Regarding the skilful junction of the
tiles, comp. Liv. xlii, 3.
Among the important monuments of the Doric order at this time were
the Herseum of Olympia (Hirt i. s. 228), said to have been built eight
years before Oxylus (Paus. v, 16. comp. Photius lex. p. 194), and the He
rseum of Samos, which formed an epoch, founded by Rhoecus and Theo
dorus about the 40th Olympiad. Vitruv, vii. Prsef. comp. §. 80. Rem. 1, 3.
Ruins. The small temple on Mount Ocha built of large blocks, with
pyramidal door, without pillars, Hawkins in Walpole's Travels. [M. d.
I. iii, 37. Annali xiv. p. 5. Bull. 1842. p. 169. Rhein. Mus. ii. s. 481. •
An hypsethron, an opening in the roof which was of large stone-flags
pushed over one another from all sides. Dodwell discovered more than
one hieron in Cyclopean structures in Italy, especially at Cigliano, 50 feet
long, of well cut irregular polygons, at MarceUina, at Golle Malatiscolo,
Universel P. 1829. N. 170. Others later in the country of the iEquicoli,
Bull. 1831. p. 45 sqq.] The Ruins of the temple (of Pallas Chalinitis?)
at Corinth, the monolith pillars of limestone, Ii moduli high. Le Roy
Mon. de la Grfece, P. i. p. 42. pi. 25. Stuart, Antiq. of Athens vol. iii. ch.
6. pi. 2. comp. Leake's Morea, T. iii. p. 245—268. Descr. de Moree, iii.
pi, 77. 78. £A portion of the temples at Selinus appears to belong to this
period. Thiersch. Epochen, S. 422 f.]— The small Doric temple of Neme
sis at Rhamnus is here referred to, particularly on account of the walls
of polygonal blocks. Uned. Antiq. of Attica, ch. 7.
54. Beside this Doric style of architecture the Ionic took 1

28 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. I.
its place, not gradually and by intermediate stages of transi
tion, but all at once as an essentially different order. The
columns had here from the first much more slender and less
tapering shafts which were raised upon bases. The orna
mented form of the capitals with their projecting portions
(the volutes) cannot be deduced from the necessary and use
ful. The entablature retained only the general divisions of
the Doric, and relinquished the closer relations to wooden
building; it is, in conformity with the more slender and
widely placed supports, much lighter and presents less simple
masses than the Doric. Everywhere prevail more rounded and
as it were elastic forms (as in the bases and cushions), and
more gentle transitions (as between frieze and cornice) where
by the order receives a sprightlier grace without losing what
is characteristic in the forms. The ornaments of individual
members have been mostly discovered at Persepolis, (§. 244,
6,) [282. R. 5] and were perhaps widely diffused in Asia at an
early period.
2. The columns in the temple of Ephesus were eight diameters high,
Vitruv. iv, 1. 2—4, see §. 276—277.
3. The Ionic capital is an ornamented Doric, on the echinus of which
a heading is placed composed of volutes, canal and cushions, which in a
similar way is to be found on the upper border of altars, cippi, and mo
numents, and may have perhaps derived its origin from the suspending
of rams' horns. Comp. Hesych. s. v. k^io; — iA.i^a; n roi Ko^iu^iov xlouos
(probably the volutes on it). As the ram was a customary off'ering to the
dead, this agrees with the derivation of the Ionic order from grave-pil
lars, in Stackelberg Apollot. s. 40 ff. R. Rochette, M. I. i. p. 141, 304,
carried much too far by Carelli, Diss. eseg. int. all'origine ed al sistema
della sacra Archit. presso i Greci. N. 1831. Volute capitals, am^oxiqix-Kau,
Marm. Oxon. ii, 48, 19. Perhaps, therefore, in spiris columnarum
in Pliny is to be referred to the volutes. Example of an Ionic column
as a grave-pillar on Attic base, M. Pourtalfes pi. 26. Volute altars for in
stance, Stackelberg Graber Tf. 18. The Old Ionic base akin to the Pe
lasgian and Persian. Kugler s. 26. [E. Guhl Versuch ueber das lonische
Kapital, Berl. 1846, from Crelles Journal fiir die Baukunst.]
55. The beginnings of this architecture are probably to
be ascribed to very early times, as they are even to be
found, out of Ionia, in the treasury of the Sicyonian tyrant
Myron at Olympia, which was built soon after the 33d Olym
piad; and at the commencement of the following period it at
once unfolded itself in full splendour in the temple of Arte
mis at Ephesus.
In this thesaurus there were two thalami, the one of Doric and the
other of Ionic architecture, and at least lined with brass, Paus. vi, 19, 1.
The dome-shaped Skias of Theodorus the Samian at Sparta also de
serves notice here, as one of the more remarkable buildings of the time
Paus. iii, 12, 8. Btym. M. s. v. ^xixg. '

TECTONICS. 29

3. TECTONICS.

56. Even the period described by Homer attached great I
weight to the rich and elegant workmanship of articles of fur
niture and vessels, &:c. such as chairs, bedsteads, coffers, gob
lets, cauldrons, and warlike weapons. With regard to wooden 2
utensils these were hewn out of the rough block with an axe
{riKrahiiv, mXir.i7v), then carefully wrought with finer instru
ments (j££/v), and afterwards ornaments of gold, silver, ivory or
amber were inlaid in bored and depressed portions {hmZv Ixi-
(pavri Kal dj/igijj, baibaXKuv). [bimvv is to turn, the fixing on of
turned pieces gives the variegated effect]
2. See the description of Odysseus' bed, Od. xxiii, 196 (Comp. II. iii,
391), of the chair which the Tix.rav Icmalius made for Penelope, Od. xix,
56, also the xfi>^k xxX'^, S«/S«7i£n in the tent of Achilles, II. xvi, 221, and
that which Arete gave to Odysseus, Od. viii, 424. TixTxluBi:, also of
ships, regarding the workmanship of which, comp. Od. v, 244; the Trojan
T£XTO> ' A^fcoulirig is distinguished in this art (II. v, 60). AiyoHv signifies
to work into a round shape, like -ro^noSu, comp. Schneider in the Lex. s. v.
roqtva. Instruments mentioned in Homer : -KiT^ixvs, ox.i'jrx^mi/, x^iun, riprox,
r^i'TTxaau (with frame, Od. ix, 383. Eurip. Cycl. 460), arx^^n.—lYovy was
used on keys, reins, scabbards, (xoXeoV jsottj/o-tou i-kicpxime, Od. viii, 404.
comp. T^iaroi) i-Kiipxurog, Od. xviii, 195 ; xix, 664.) and amber on walls and
furniture (Bernstein, Buttmann in the Schr. der Berl. Acad. 1818-19.
Hist. 01. s. 38). [Mythologus Bd. ii. s. 337. Comp. Phoenician art, §. 239.]
5 7. This inlaid work in wood also continued to be a favourite I
art in post-Homeric ages, and, instead of mere ornaments, com
positions with numerous figures were sculptured on wooden
utensils. In this manner was the ark (Xa^i/af, ¦/.v^ix-ri) 2
adorned which the Cypselidae as tyrants of wealthy Corinth
sent as an offering to Olympia.
2. Dio Chrysost. xi. p. 325. Reisk. ii; xino; sa^xx-iis iinu in ' O'kufi'urix,
ill T^ o-Trttr^oiofi^ rov viu r^g "Hg«f ii'TTofAvrift^x rvig xfi'Trxyvjg ixetyyjg, in rri
lux/i/jj Ki^crru rfi di/xTi^iiayi vto Kv^iTO^m. It stood in the Herseum at
Olympia, was made of cedar-wood, of considerable size, probably ellipti
cal, as Pausanias says nothing of diff'erent sides, and T^xqvx^ applied to
Deucalion's and other ships entitles us to suppose such a form. The
figures were partly wrought out of the wood, partly inlaid with gold and
ivory, in five stripes one above another (pjji^a/), the first, third and fifth
of which Pausanias describes as he went round, from right to left, and
the second and fourth from left to right. They contain scenes from the
heroic mythi, partly referring to the ancestors of Cypselus who came
from Thessaly, comp. §. 65, 3. Pausanias, who believes the fables told
regarding this chest, imagines it to have been made about the lOth
Olympiad, and supposes Eumelus to have been the author of the inscrip
tions; but Hercules had here his ordinary accoutrements (Paus. v, 17.
ex.) which he did not receive till after the 30th Olympiad, §. 77, 1. On
the inscriptions, Volkel Archseol. Nachlass. i. s. 158. — Heyne ueber den

30 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I.
Kasten des Kypselos; eine Vorlesung 1770. Descrizione della Cassa di
Cipselo da Seb. Ciampi. Pisa 1814. Quatremfere-de-Quincy, Jup. Olymp.
p. 124. Welcker's Zeitsclirift fiir Gesch. und Ausleg. der Kunst. Th. i.
s. 270 ff. Siebelis, Amalthea ii. s. 257. Thiersch Epochen, s. 169. (1829.)
[0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 3. H. Brunn in the Rhein. Mus. v. s. 321. 355 ff.]
I 58. With regard to articles of metal, such as Hephaestus,
the patron of all smiths {x"-X-A.iK), manufactured in highest
perfection. Homer celebrates cauldrons, goblets, tripods, cups,
coats of mail, and shields, as partly of native and partly of
2 foreign workmanship. Besides these there are mentioned a
great number of metallic and other shining articles which it
was the custom to dispose in such a way as to produce a
striking effect.
1. Tripods of Hephsestus, II. xviii, 374, and elsewhere. Nestor's cup
with two bottoms and four handles {oiixra), on which golden doves were
fashioned, Asclepiades •yn^l Nsffrog/Sof, Amalthea iii. s. 25. The Cyprian
coat of mail (on which were xvxusoi i^axoursg I'^taffiu iotxorsg), the shield with
a Gorgoneion, and the rest of Agamemnon's armour, II. xi, 17 sqq.
Shield of .^neas, II. xx, 270. An Egyptian spinning basket, Od. iv, 126.
Sidonian craters, II. xxiii, 743. Od. iv, 616. [Comp. §. 240, 4.] Laerces,
a x'^Xxsug and x^vaoxoog, gilds the horns of the buUs, Od, iii, 425.
2, Metals. Brass, also iron ( ihxhi AxxrvXoi ev^au iv oi^tltim i/xTrxig
loeurx trliio^ou, ig ttvq r ^ueyxxu xxi x^iTT^iTrig 'i^yov ihn^xv, Phoronis), gold,
sUvsr, xxaairtqog (probably tin, Latin& plumbum album, Beckmann, Gesch.
der Erfindungen iv. p. 327 sqq.) lead, x-iiaj/oj (a metallic stuff of dark blue
colour), rirxuog (gypsum) on the shield of Hercules in Hesiod. Comp.
MiUin, Mineralogie Hom6rique, (2 6d. 1816.) p. 65 seq. Kopke, Krieg-
swesen der Griechen im Heroischen Zeitalter, p. 39. On the instruments
oixf^cov (dxf/,69sir(iu), pxtarv}^, a(pv^x, Trvf^xy^x, the (pvffxi (dxpo(pvtitoif\ x^^^ot,
Millin p. 85. Clarac Mus^e de Sculpt, i. p. 6 seq.
I 59. On one of these works of art, the Hephsestian shield
of Achilles, Homer even describes large compositions of nu
merous figures ; but the very extent and copiousness of such re
presentations, and the little regard that is therein had to what
is really susceptible of representation, preclude the idea that
he describes human works of similar compass, although indeed
it must also be admitted that the working of figures of small
2 size on metal plates was a thing not unheard of. Here the
mode of proceeding could have been no other than this ; the
metal, after being softened and hammered into plates, was
wrought with sharp instruments, and then fastened to the
ground with nails, studs, or the like.
1. Restorations of the shield of Achilles were attempted some time
ago by Boivin and Caylus, and more recently by QuatremSre-de-Quincy,
Jupiter Olymp. p. 64, M6m. de I'lnstitut Royal, t. iv. p. 102. [Recueil de
Dissert. 1817.] and Plaxman for a new silver-work. Comp. Welcker
Zeitschr. i. p. 663. ad Philostr. p. 631. [Nauwerk, der Schild des Ach. in

WORKS IN METAL. 31
neun Darstell. Berlin 1840. Programme on the same by D. Lucas, Em
merich 1842, Marx at Coesfeld 1843, Clemens at Bonn 1844. Comp. H.
Brunn in the Rhein. Mus. v. S. 340. On the Hesiodio shield K. Lehrs in
Jahns Jahrb. 1840. S. 269 ff.]
2. On the smelting of metal, II. xviii, 468. Hes. Theog. 862 ; comp.
Schneider s. v. xo«>«- But works of cast-metal are later as well as the
art of soldering. All earlier works were beaten with the hammer
(crcpv^ri'f^xrx), and the joinings effected by mechanical means, im/^oi (II.
xviii, 379), ^tkk (H. xi, 634), tts^ovxi, xin^«, (Paus. x, 16, 1), ^schylus'
Seven 625 sqq. iv x^'^xYikxrt^ axxn — 1(piyy uj^oairov 'Tr^og^Ef.iyixxvsvfAevyiv
y6fi(pois — \xfix^ov h-x^ovtrrov ^ifixg. The fastening of metal ornaments
on a ground (for example, even the studding of sceptres with golden
nails) is the ifi-!ea.i(r7ixi\ Tix,vn. See Lobeok on Soph. Ajax, v. 846, p. 367.
Athenseus xii. p. 543 sq. axi'Truvt x^^^°^^ ihtxxg i^A'^sirxifffciva.
60. Working in vessels was brought to much perfection
after the Homeric times by means of two great inventions ;
first that of casting in moulds, which is ascribed to a Samian
master Rhoecus, son of Phileas, and his son Theodorus, [not
traceable among the Phoenicians, §. 240, 3,] and was no
doubt of great advantage to them in the making of craters
and other vessels, in which those artists were distinguished.
The history of the ancient Samian School of Artists is very difficult
even after Thiersch, Epochen p. 181 (who distinguishes two Theodorus
and two Telecles), Hirt, Amalth. i. p. 266 (who rejects both distinctions),
Meyer Kunstgesch. Anm. p. 26, Sillig in Cat. Art. s. w. Rh(£cus, Telecles,
Theodorus, Panofka, Sam. p, 51, with the last of whom what follows
most nearly agrees. On this point these testimonies are in accordance
with each other, viz. Herod, i, 61. iii, 41, 60. Diodor. i. 98. Vitruv.
Prsef. vii. Plin. vii, 67. xxxiv, 8, 19, 22. xxxv, 12, 43. xxxvi, 13, 19, 3.
Paus. iii. 12, 8. viii, 14, 5. x, 38, 3. Amyntas in Athen. xii, 514 F.
Diogen. L. ii, 8, 19 ; only that the history of the Bphesian temple §. 80,
Rem. 1. will not allow us, with some in Pliny, to place Rhoecus and Theo
dorus long before the 30th Olympiad. The following is the greatest
possible extension of the genealogy :
Olymp. 35. Rhoecus, son of Phileas, the first architect of the enormous
Herseum (Samos therefore was already very rich and powerful ; it got its
first triremes in the 18th Olympiad ; its power seems to have increased
particularly about the 30th Olympiad), employed on the Lemnian la
byrinth. Invented metal-casting. I  .
01. 45. Theodorus employed on Tbiecles worked m
the Herseum, as well as on conjunction with
the labyrinth. Builder of his brother.
the Skias, laid the founda
tions of the Artemisium at
Ephesus. Was the reputed
inventor of the norma, li-
beUa, tornus, clavis. Casts
statues from iron.

32 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. I.
01. 55. Theodorus, no longer architect,
merely a worker in metals, made for
Croesus (between 66th and 58th 01.)
a large silver crater, enchased the
ring of Polycrates, and made a golden
ring which was to be seen in the
palace of the Persian kings.
Probably to the works of this school belonged even the brazen caul
dron which the Samians on their return from Tartessus dedicated in the
Herseum about the 37th 01. with the heads of griffins in alto-relievo on
the rim, and three kneeling figures seven cubits high as feet. Herod.
iv, 162.
61. Secondly. By means of the art of soldering {-KoXXrien,
ferruminatio), i. e. a chemical junction of metals, in which
Glaucus of Chios, a contemporary of Halyattes (40, 4 — 55,
1.) and probably a scholar of the Samian brass-caster, acquired
fame, and in like manner proved his skill by ingeniously
wrought vessels — especially the stand of a crater at Delphi.
Of Chios according to Herod. Paus. ifcc, of Samos according to Steph.
Byz. s. V. Aiiia.'hn. See Sillig s. v. Olaucus, with the scholia to Plato,
Phsed. p. 108, 1 8. Bekk. and Heindprf p, 225. The xiTChwg aHii^ov is
mentioned in particular as his exclusive invention ; that it is soldering
there can be no doubt from the very clear description of the v^wox^irt-n^^tovy
Paus. X, 16, 1. But Glaucus was likewise admired for the art of harden
ing and softening iron (ff/Sijgoi/ nro/aaaig xxi fixhx^ig). Plut. de def. or. 47.
comp. Ramshorn de Statuar. in Grsecia Multitud. p. 19 sqq. On the art
of soldering, Fea on Winckelm. v. 429 Dresden. ' 'R'wirnxrog xjarsj^ C. I. i.
p. 236. 62. A third handicraft which, on account of the plainness
of the vessels which, taken by itself, it produces, has been less
noticed than it deserved to be, from its connexion with the
plastic art, — is that of pottery, xi^a/j^svriK'^. It flourished as
an important trade especially at Corinth, .Sigina, Samos, and
Athens, where the potters from an early period formed a con
siderable portion of the population.
Homer describes (II. xviii, 600,) the potter's wheel, the pretty poem
Kx//,ivog i) Ke^xfilg, the furnace which Athena protects and many hostile
demons threaten. Tqoxog of Talus. The handicraft was early exercised
at Corinth (Hyperbius, Dibutades, v. Bockh ad Pind. 01. xiii, 27) ; in
jEgina (^ginet. p. 79, also Pollux vii, 197. Hesych. and Phot. s. v.'Hxa
mr^xix) ; in Samos (Samia terra, vasa, Panofka Sam. p. 16) ; at Athens
(Cerameicus, a quarter of the city and suburb) ; Athena, Hephsestus and
Prometheus, the patrons of the handicraft. Coraebus was said to have
erected the first workshops, and Hyperbius and Buryalus (Agrolas in
Paus.), according to Pliny, the first brick- walls ; the earth of Colias was
an excellent material ; oil-jars were prizes at the PanatheuEea, hence the
amphora on coins ; the .potters' market held especially at the festival of
the wine-filling, iv ro~ig Xomi. According to Scylax p. 54, Huds. the

POTTERY. 33
Phoenicians shipped Attic earthenware as far as Kerne. Comp. Valcke-
naer ad Herod, v. 88, and Wien. Jahrb. xxxviii. p. 272).
63. As the potters in these officince sought to refine their 1
materials, which nature presented to them of excellent quality,
and to give them additional beauty by mixing them, especially
with ruddle ; so also do we find elegant forms in the oldest 2
vases of Greek manufacture, and the skill of the plastes, in
the primitive sense of the word, is displayed in the ears,
handles, and other parts added at will.
On the fine clay mixed with sand which is found in Greece, Due de
Luynes De la Poterie Antique. Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 138. Dibutadis in-
ventum est, rubricam addere, aut ex rubrica cretam fingere, [Cod. Bam
berg and Isidor. xx, 4, 3, ex rubra creta], Plin. The earth of Colias
made an excellent mixture with ^iT^rog, Suidas s. v. Kay^ixiog xe^x/xijec.

4. FORMATIVE ART.

64. The Homeric poems and the mythic accounts which '
have come to us in other ways agree in this, that no statues
were known to early Greece except images of the Gods.* And '¦
although sculptures adorning vessels and architectural monu
ments soon made their appearance, a round figure standing by
itself, and which was not a religious idol, seems to have re
mained for a long time unknown in Greece.
1. The golden handmaids of Hephsestus, the golden torch-bearers, and
gold and silver dogs which Hephsestus gave to Alcinous to guard his
house, can hardly refer to anything real. [A golden dog in the temenos
of Zeus in Crete, Anton. Lib. 36, an imitation of the actual watching of
temple gates, for example on Mount Bryx, on the Capitol ; the golden
lychnuchi are an imitation of the real, Odyss. vii, 91, the simplest in
vention for candelabra, which is repeated in angels for torch-bearers, by
a contemporary of Lor. Ghiberti (Boisseree Gesch. des Doms zu Coin S.
13) and as is said by Mich. Angelo, a very beautiful work in a church at
Florence. The candelabrum of very antique style from Vulci, Cab.
Pourtalfes pi. 40. p. 112. is after the same idea.] The passage in the Iliad
xviii 590, is with several ancient interpreters to be understood thus :
that Hephsestus formed on the -shield a dancing place, an orchestra,
similar to that which Daedalus constructed at Cnossus for Ariadne (who
according to the Cretan custom danced with youths). This is the funda
mental signification of xo?^i> comp. II. iii, 394. Od. viii, 260, together
with Bust. ; if we adhere to it all difficulties are removed. The later
Cretans indeed understood the passage otherwise, Paus. ix, 40 ; also the
younger Philostr. 10. [The antique pedestal of Clitias at Florence (Bul
lett. 1845. No. 7.) presents the choir of Dsedalus in 7 pairs, certainly
according to the meaning of the poet. See Rhein. Mus. ii. S. 484.]
2. The Cyclopean lions on the gate of Mycense (comp. the legend of
the walls of Sardis, Herod, i, 84), are a very remarkable work of architec-
C

34 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I.
tonic sculpture, of green marble, Dodwell ii. p. 239. in a rude indeed, but
simple and natural style. Paus. ii, 16, 4. W. Gell Argol. pi. 8—10. D.
A. K. pi. 1, 1. Specimens ii, 3. Descr. de la Moree ii, 60. The Egyptian,
Klenze Aphorist. Bem. S. 536 similar. Rather pointing to Persia, Phoe
nicia and Lydia. [The green marble is only assumed for the sake of the
Egyptian hypothesis, very boldly, for the stone is the same as what was
quarried quite in the neighbourhood, only it was carefully selected. See
also besides Gottling on the gate of Mycense in the Rhein. Mus. i. S. 161.
W. Mure, Tour in Greece, ii. p. 167 sqq. Annali d. I. archeol. xvii. p.
168. Sufficiently remarkable also is the figure at Sipylos, three leagues
from Magnesia, which is hewn out of the rock in alto relievo on a depressed
ground, and which was recognised as Niobe by Ohishull and given as such
by Steuart. PI. i. (§. 241*. R. 3). MacFarlane also, Constantinople in 1828,
L. 1829. gave a drawing on shadow p. 159, but imagined it to be Cybele, which
is a mistake, see BuU. 1843, p. 66. Pausanias visited this Niobe i, 21, 5,
and mentions viii, 2, 3. the fable of its weeping in summer, which is even
referred to in the Iliad. There is a large cleft in the rocky precipice
which is nearly perpendicular, and water issuing from it trickles down
upon the figure. It is in a sitting posture, with the hands placed over
one another, and the head a little inclined to one side, both suitable to
the expression of grief. Mr. Steuart expressly confirms what Pausanias
alludes to, viz, that when you go up quite near, you can perceive no
trace of the chisel, whereas you can from below, as Mr. MacFarlane states,
distinctly see the statue, which is three times the natural size, from a
considerable distance, although it is about 200 feet from the ground.] The
taste for animal figures and monsters in decoration, manifested itsehf very
early in works of art of the most different kinds. Comp. §. 75, 2 ; 434, 1.
65. Leaving out of consideration the external circum
stances, dependent on defective technical knowledge, which
opposed great obstacles to the development of sculpture, it
was the entire character of their fancy, in so far as it occu
pied itself with the life of gods and heroes, which at that
period impeded its cultivation among the Greeks. The fancy
of the Greeks, such as it presents itself in epic poetry, was
still so much busied in depicting the wonderful and gigantic,
the conceptions of the gods had yet attained so little sen
sible distinctness, that poetry must have been much better
adapted to the representation of them than sculpture. In the
plastic art of this period grotesque representations of forms
of terror (such as the Gorgoneion) occupied a considerable
rank; by these was art, still in a state of rudeness, first en
abled to excite interest.
2. The plastic talent which creates material forms cannot certainly
fail to be recognised even as early as Homer : but it was only by means
of epic poetry that it was gradually developed.— The forms of the gods are
gigantic ; their appearances not unfrequently spectral ; the shapes in
which they present themselves cannot in many cases be conceived in a
definite manner. The epithets are for the most part less plastic than
significant.- In the m?o(po7rig 'E^ivig, in the Harpies floating along in the

EARLIEST IDOLS. 35
wind, we must not call up to our imaginations the later forms of art.
The deeds likewise of the heroes are often unplastic, above all, those of
Achilles. Homer has no touches borrowed from works of art, like later
poets. Herein probably lies the cause of the remarkable phenomenon that
the sculptures adorning the shield of Achilles and elsewhere in Homer
never contain mythic subjects, but such as are taken from civil and
rural Ufe (a circumstance overlooked by those who explained the two
cities to be Eleusis and Athens), excepting perhaps the two figures of
Ares and Athena, altogether of gold, and towering over the people (for
Eris and Kudoimos metamorphosed themselves into human shapes).
The shield of Hercules, although in part more rudely conceived and more
fantastically decorated, yet in many points comes much nearer to actual
works of art, especially to the ancient vase paintings, as well as the
coff'er of Cypselus, as in the dragon-form in the middle, Ker, the battle
with the Centaurs, Perseus and the Gorgons, the boars and Hons. The
further development of what is said respecting the shield of Hercules,
I have given in Zimmermann's Zeitschr. f, Alterthumswiss. 1834. N.
110 ff". Comp. §. 345-**. R. 6.
3. The Gorgon mask already floated before Homer and Hesiod from
sculpture, such as the Cyclopean Gorgoneion at Argos (Paus. ii, 20, 6) to
which many representations on ancient coins, vases and reliefs may come
pretty near. See Levezow Ueber die Entwickelung des Gorgonen-Ideal.
B. 1833. S. 25 f. §. 397, 5, contested by Due de Luynes, Ann. d. Inst.
vi. p. 311. Similar in kind was the terrific form of the dragon {i^xxovrog
<pij/3i)f) on the shield of Hercules (Hesiod 144), and the lion-headed Pho-
bos of Agamemnon's shield on the coffer of Cypselus (Paus. v, 19, 1.
comp. II. xi, 37), on which generally a crude symboHsm prevailed, as in
the lameness of Death and Sleep, the terrific Ker (Paus. v, 19, 1, comp.
with Shield 156, 248), and the strange figure of Artemis, §. 363. Eave
tiles adorned with Gorgon masks at Selinus and other places. According
to PUn. xxxiv, 12, 43, Dibutades was the plastes qui primus personas
tegularum extremis imbricibus imposuit, comp. Hirt's Gesch. der Bau
kunst i. S. 227. L. Ross in the Kunstbl. 1836. No. 67.
66. Now, with regard to the image of a deity, it did not
by any means from the beginning claim to be a resemblance
(ilxaiv) of the god, but was only a symbolical sign (§. 32) of his
presence, for which the piety of old times required so much
the less external manifestation, the more it was inwardly filled
with belief in that presence ; hence nothing is more common
than to find Kude stones, stone pillars, wooden stakes and the
like set up as religious idols. All these things were converted :
into objects of adoration, less from the form than from the
consecration {'iS^veig). If the sign was executed in a more i
costly and ornamental style in honour of the deity, it was
called an ayaXfia, as were also cauldrons, tripods, and other
ornaments of temples.
1. 'AjyoJ x/Sof especially in the case of great deities of nature, the

36

HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I.

Eros of Thespire, and the Charites at Orchomenus. Paus. ix, 27, 1. 35,
1. comp. vii, 22, 3.
"E^/xxix, heaps of stones, by which, at the same time, the roads were
cleaned ; here the simple piety of primitive times attained two objects at
once. Bust, on the Od. xvi, 471. Suidas "E^^xiov. B. Otto De Diis Via-
libus, c. 7. p. 112 sq. Stones sprinkled with oil at the trivice, Theophrast.
Char. 16, comp. Casaub. The Zeus xx'Ti-Trarag in Laconia, Paus. iii, 22.
Jupiter lapis as a Roman god of adjuration.
The THIRTY PILLARS at PharsB as statues of so many gods, Paus. vii,
22, 3. More on such stone pillars in Zoega, De Obeliscis, p. 225 sqq.
In the temple of the Charites at Cyzicus there was a triangular piUar
which Athena herself had presented as the first work of art, Jacobs,
Anthol. Pal. 1. p. 297. n. 342. Bockh, Expl. Pind. p. 172.
Apollo Agyieus xiav xavouim among the Dorians at Delphi and Athens,
Dorians i. p. 321. Oxford. It appears on coins of Ambracia, and Apol-
lonia and Oricus in lUyria. Millingen, Ancient Coins 1831. pi. 3, 19. 20.
D. A. K. 1, 2. ' Ayvieiig according to many belonging to Dionysus. Har-
pocr. V. dyuixg. Artemis Patroa, Paus. ii, 9, 6.
The stele on the tomb, a ^larog Trir^og, was an xyxKf^ ' A'lia, Pind. N.
X, 67. The Tropseon was a fi^irxg A/o? r^o'jraiov, Eurip. Welcker SyUoge
Bpigr. p. 3.
Lances as ancient statues of gods (Cseneus Parthenopseus in .(Eschylus)
Justin, xliii, 3. Agamemnon's Skeptron or Bogu worshipped at Chasronea,
Paus. ix, 40, 6. In the same way the trident represents Poseidon (Bot
tiger Amalth. ii. S. 310), the xvi^vxiiov Hermes ; such dyxT^fixrx we must
fancy the xoivo/iufitx in iEschylus' ' Ixet. 219.
Hera at Argos a xiav (Phoronis in Clem. Strom, i. p. 418), and at
Samos a irxvlg (CaUimachus in Euseb. Prsep. Bv. iii, 8), in like, manner
Athena at Lindos a Xehv I'Sof, that is, an unwrought smooth beam. Ac
cording to TertuUian, Apol. 16. Pallas Attica and Ceres Raria a rudis
palus. Dionysus {¦Trs^ixioviog) at Thebes a column overgrown with ivy,
Clem. Strom, i. p. 348. Sylb. Hermes-Phallus at Cyllene, Paus. vi, 26, 3.
Comp. Artemidorus i. 46. Reiff p. 257. The Dioscuri at Sparta two up
right beams with two pieces of wood across (ioxxvx), Plut. De Prat. Am.
1. p. 36. The Icarian Artemis a lignum indolatum, Arnob. Adv. Gentes
vi. 11. &c. Comp. below: The Phoenicians §. 240.
2. On the ii^via^ai (erecting, entwining with wool, and anointing,
together with an oblation or sacrifice) Vandale De oraculis, p. 624. Comp.
§. 68, 1. 83, 2. 422, 6.
3. On dya^fix Ruhnken ad Timseum, 2. (Koch Obs. p. 1), Siebelis
Paus. 1. p. xii. Barker's Stephan. s. v.
67. In order to place the sign in a closer relation to the
deity, single, especially significant, portions were added to
it — heads of characteristic form, arms holding attributes,
and phalli in the case of the generative gods. In this way.
originated the herma which long remained the principal
work of sculpture in stone.
The making of herma piUars (nr^xyuvog i^yxaix) had perhaps, like the
worship of Hermes, its home in Arcadia, Paus. viii, 31, 4. 39, 4. 48. 4.

CARVED IMAGES. ,37
(veqiaera; yag S^ ri r$ irxilf^"-'''' '^o^V (pxivovrxi fioi ;^;«/ji(i/ oi ' AfxoiSef) ; but
was cultivated at an early period by the kindred Athenians (Thuc. vi, 27),
from whence Pausan. (i, 24. iv, 33), derives the four-cornered hermse.
' ii^fioy'hvcpiix at Athens the quarter of the workers in stone {xi^o^ooi, Lu-
cian's Dream 7). The head wedge-bearded (ircpnvoTrayav, Artemid. ii, 37) ;
instead of arms {dxuhoi, trunci), at the most, projections for suspending
garlands (D. A. K. 1, 3) ; the phallus must not be wanting (which the
' K^/xoxo-rrlixi ¦TTi^iixo-^xv, comp. especially Aristoph. Lysist. 1093 ; Plutarch
An Seni 28); a mantle often thrown round (Paus. viii, 39, 4. Diog.
Laert. v, 82). They stood on the streets at cross-ways, hence with several
heads (for example the three-headed Hermes of Procleides at Anoyle,
caDed by Aristophanes r^tcpxhrtg, Philochorus p. 45, Siebelis ; the four-
headed one of Telesarchides in the Cerameicus, Bust, ad II. xxiv, 333.
Hesych. s. v. ' E^.a^j), also as a finger-post with the numbers of the stadia
(with the C. I. n. 12. comp. Anthol. Pal. ii. p. 702. Planud. ii, 264).
Comp. Sluiter Lect. Andocid. c. 2. p. 32 sq. Gurlitt Archseol. Schriften,
S.193. 214. below §. 379, 2.
A similar manner of representing Dionysus was early introduced, as in
the Lesbian Aiov. tpxTCkitv of olive-wood (Paus. x, 19. Euseb. Prsep. Bv.
V, 36. Lobeck Agl. p. 1086). Dionysian hermse §. 383, 3. D. A. K. 1, 5.
In this manner was also formed the brazen column of the Amyclasan
Apollo with hebneted head and weapons in its hands. We have still to
mention the Jl^xi,iVixxi Ssai as head images (Gerhard's BUdw. Prodromus
S. 64. 107. [Dionysus as a mask head §. 346*, 3. 383, 3. and in like man
ner other Bacchian dsemons, Zoega Bass. 16.]
68. On the other hand the carvers in wood ventured at an I
early period to make entire images (|oava), particularly of those
deities whose attributes required a complete figure for a basis,
such as Pallas. Images of this kind were even in later times
regarded as the most sacred; numberless wonderful legends
explained often merely their form, for instance the brandished
lance, the kneeling posture, the half-closed eyes. Their ap- 2
pearance was frequently odd and ludicrous, particularly from
being overloaded with attributes. In the simplest style the 3
feet were not separate, and the eyes were denoted by a streak ;
there was afterwards given them a striding attitude with eyes
slightly opened. The hands, when they carried nothing, lay
close to the body._
1. Soxvov SiebeUs, Paus. i. p. xlii. "'S.tog, a temple image, a /SjU|M£i/oi/
(in the stricter sense a sitting one. 0. 1, i. p. 248. 905). Welcker SyUoge,
p. 3. TO rng ' A9«»«s Boj Isocr. de antid. 2. 'HoogoBiv Ruhnken ad Tim. p.
93. (Koch Obs. p. 16).
The Trojan paUadium, a iimersg according to ApoUod. iii, 12, 3, (comp.
Diod. Fragm. n. 14. p. 640. Wess.) brandished a lance in the right hand,
and held in the left a distaff and spindle. However, the term was in
other cases only applied to PaUas armed with the ^gis and raising her
shield and spear, such as she always appears at the theft by Diomed, the
outrage on Cassandra and elsewhere (§. 415. D. A. K. 1, 6-7). Particu
larly antique on the vase in R.-Rochette M. I. pi. 60. Comp. MiUingen
Anc. Un. Mon. Ser. ii. p. 13. At Athens too the image of Athena PoUas

38 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. L
on the acropoUs was not caUed the palladium, but that in the southern
part of the city which was reputed to have come from Troy. See .^s-
chylus' Bumenides with illustrative essays by the author of this Manual,
p. 72. BngUsh Trans. Sitting images of Athena were distinguished from
it ; there was also in Troy one of this sort according to lUad vi, 92.
Comp. Strab. xiii. p. 601. Bust, on the II. ibid.
2. Comp. the legends of the ludicrous figure of the DeUan Leto (Athen.
xiv, 614), and the image of Hera ridiculed by the Proetides (AcusUaus in
Apollod. ii, 2, 2), probably that cut out of wild pear-tree by Peirasus
(Thiersch. Epochen s. 20). On Dsedalus' images Paus. ii, 4: droiran^x
f^iv r^v o-ipiv, STTV^ggTrg/ Bs Ojtiiyf ri xxi 'ie^sov rovroig.
3. 2x£7v» trvfi/iifiyixorx, avftTTolx of the ancient statues Apollod. ibid.
iEginet. p. 110 ; hence the 8(«/3e/3nx(JT« of Dsedalus appeared to be aUve.
Gedike on Plato's Menon, p. 72. Buttmann. — Xsi^ig vx^xnrxfiivxi. Diod.
i, 98. xx^iifiivxi XXI rxig TXiv^xig xixo'hnfiivxi iv, 76. — The o'lM^ar*
fiil^vxirx, which Dsedalus opened (Diod. iv, 76. Suidas s. v. AxiixXov
TToiiiiixrx. Schol. ad Plat. p. 367 Bekk.) are often explained by crimes
which the deity did not wish to behold, as the Pallas at Siris, Lycophr.
988. Strab. vi. p. 264. Comp. Plut. CamiU. 6.
69. But in these idols the principal thing was, that they
gave opportunity for manifold services and attentions of a
human description. These wooden figures were washed, po
lished, painted, clothed, and had their hair dressed ; they were
decorated with crowns and diadems, necklaces and ear-pen
dants : they had their wardrobe and toilette, and in their whole
character had decidedly more resemblance to puppets (mane-
quins) than to works of cultivated plastic art.
The custom of decking out the gods in this way came from Babylon
to Italy. The Capitolian deities had a regular corps of servants for
the purpose (Augustin De 0. D. vi, 10). The colours of the wooden
images were glaring, often significant. Kugler Polychrom. Sculpt. S. 51.
Klenze Aphorist. Bemerk. s. 235, painted terracottas of Baron Haller, S.
257. Plut. Qu. Rom. 98. to fuTiirivov, ^ rd ¦y^xT^xid ruv dyxT^fcxrav
ix^a^ou. Dionysus as weU as his Bacchantes^ Hermes and Pan were
painted red (Paus. ii, 2, 5. vii, 26, 4. viii, 39, 4. Voss on Virgil ii. p.
514), and Athena Sciras white (AB. 'Sxi^dg -Kevxti x?'^'^'^', Schol. Arist.
Wasps 961). At Rome Jupiter was given by the censors miniandus.
The countenances often gUt, as the Amyclsean ApoUo was with Croesus'
gold. Comp. Paus. iii, 10, 10, with SiebeUs' remarks.
On the draped temple images, Quatremfere-de-Quincy, Jup. 01. p. 8 sq.
PaUas had the peplos at Troy, Athens, and Tegea (according to coins),
Hera at EUs, Asclepius and Hygieia at Titane. Paus. ii, 11, 6. Record
regarding the wardrobe of Artemis Brauronia at Athens (01. 107, 4—
109, 1. (C. I. n. 155. x""""- xfio^yivov .3-£gi ru ehi — ifidriov ¦hivxov ¦wx^st-
Xovqyig, rovro ro U^ivov 'iiog xfiTrixerxi — dfiTrixovov, APTEMIA02 lEPON
iTriyiy^xTrrxi, m^l ru ihu r^ »?x«'V and SO forth. Even in the later
period of the emperors purple mantles were hung around statues,
Vopisc. Probus 10. Saturninus 9. Libanius i. p. 324. R. Plynteria at
Athens was the festival of the washing of Athena's drapery, the 25th of

CARVED IMAGES. 39
Thargelion (n^x^it^ylixi). KaUynteria. the festival of the cleansing
of the statue, on the 19th (comp. Bekker's Anecd. i. p. 270, where
KaT^Xwrti^ix is to be inserted). On these occasions were employed the
y^ovrqiisg and •jr'kvvrQilsg (comp. Alberti ad Hesych. ii. p. 498), and the
xxravi-Trrng, Btym. M. Aovr^d of Pallas at Argos only with oil without
anointing and the mirror (CalUm. Hymnus 13 sqq. with Spanheim, and
du Theil Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxix. p. 327). The 'H^saihg were the
MuTqo((ioQoi of Hera at Argos (Btym. M., Heysch.), her draping festival
was oaUed 'EvIv/hxtix (Plut. De Mus. 9), the drapery -irxrog, Hesych.
The Samian Hera is an example of a completely draped statue, repre
sented as the bride of Zeus nubentis habitu (Varro in Lactantius Inst, i,
17), wraa under the hands, on coins (D. A. K. 2, 8), and in a terracotta
in the possession of a private gentleman at Cambridge. Probably the
work of SmiUs §. 70.
Other reUgious statues (D. A. K. 10 — 14) : Hera as goddess of marriage
on the frieze of PhigaUa, the goddess Chryse of Lemnos in MiUingen
Peint. de Div. CoU. 60. 51, Artemis Lusia ibid. pi. 52, Artemis Alpheioa
Maisonneuve Introduction h, I'Stude des Vases pi. 30. comp. §. 414, 3,
the Lydo-Grecian Artemis images of Ephesus (on the kind of wood
Vitruv. ii, 9. PUn. xvi, 79), Magnesia and other cities, with the rods
under th§ hands (Holstenius Epist. de Pulcris s. Verubus Dianse Ephesiae).
Comp. §. 365,2. A stone copy of the Xoanon of Nemesis found at Rhamnus,
in the British Museum (xv, 307. 1821). Uned. Antiq. of Att. ch. 7. pi. 2.
70. The carvers in wood exercised their art, as most others 1
were carried on in early antiquity, in families and races,
after the manner of their fathers, and in a plain and unpre
tending spirit : hence very few names of individuals come into
view. The name of Dsedalus denotes the activity of the Attic 2
and Cretan, and Smilis that of the .ffiginetan artists. The 3
name of the Telchines is still more mythical and obscure. 4
2. AaiixKog (§. 50. 64. 68), the mythic ancestor of the race of Dseda-
Udse (comp. the Hephcestiad^) at Athens, to which Socrates also be-
belonged, Son of Mnrtcjv, EiwaXoc^of, Uxy^xfixav. At the same the father
of Cretan art. On his wooden images, especially Paus. ix, 40, 2 ; Schol.
Eurip. Hec. 838 (821) there were several in Crete (Kq/itixx ^6avx, Paus.
i, 18, 6). Reputed works of Dsedalus in Libya (Scylax, p. 53 Huds.).
His inventions, according to tradition, were chiefly instruments for
working in wood (comp. §. 56, 2) : Serra, ascia, perpendiculum, terebra,
ichthyocoUa, as weU as mains antennaeque in navibus, Plin. vii, 57.
D^DALiD^ : (besides Talus and Perdix) Bndceos of Athens, maker of a
sitting image in wood, of Athena at Erythrse, of another consecrated by
CaUias at Athens, of an ivory one at Tegea, probably only about the 56th
Olympiad. Comp. Welcker Kunstblatt 1830. St. 49. Inscription with
"Evioiog imiwsv found at Athens, BuUett. 1836. p. 212. [R. Rochette
Supplement au Catal. des Artistes, p. 203.] Lbarohus of Rhegium
(therefore after 01. 14), whose brazen Zeus at Sparta was of hammered
pieces rivetted together, Paus. iii, 17. Dipoenus and ScyUis §. 82.
3. IfiTKig (from !rf4('x«) appears to have wrought under Procles (140
years after the Trojan war) in Samos, about 01. 40 in Lemnos at the

40 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. I.
Labyrinth with Rhoecus and Theodorus. Images of Hera especially. _
.aiginet. p. 97.
4. The TiT-xivsg (Muloiber) also appear to have been an ancient guild
of smiths and image-makers at Sicyon, Crete and Rhodes, from whom
the weapons and images of the gods are derived (Zeus, Hera, ApoUo
Telchinus at Rhodes). Pindar aUudes to the Dredalian life of their
statues and the evil fame of their sorceries, 01. vii, 50. Comp. Bockh
and Dissen. Welcker Prometh. s. 182. Hoeok Creta i. s. 345. Lobeck
Aglaoph. p. 1181. AU these guilds and races figure not unfrequently in
fable as malicious enchanters.
Some carved images were also attributed to Epeius of Panopeus (a
Minyan city) the master who made the lov^eiog 'iirirog. — The Samian bro
thers Telecles and Theodorus executed a carved statue of Apollo Pythseus
at Samos of two pieces of wood, as was pretended, apart from each other,
whence it was inferred that they wrought by a fixed .Egyptian canon.
Diodor. i, 98.
I 71. In the last century of this period metal statues of the
gods made their appearance,- — probably not without impulse
from Asia Minor, — such as the Zeus of the Dtedalid Learchus
(§. 70. rem. 2), some few works of the Samian school, but
2 especially the colossal Zeus of beaten gold which was conse
crated at Olympia (about 01. 38) by Cypselus or Periander,
and for which the wealthy inhabitants of Corinth were obliged
to sacrifice a considerable portion of their property, [if this is
not an invented tradition].
1. There lay a virgin of brass on the tomb of a Phrygian king. Bpigr.
Homer. 3. Comp. §. 240. — Of the Samian school Pausanias could only
discover in brass a statue of Night at Ephesus by Rhoecus, a very rude
work, X, 38, 3.
2. The Cypselid work is called xo'Kotaog, eifiiyiSlvig dvl^ixg, «y«X^«, Zsi/g,
X^vmvg, <s<pv^iihxrog, oT^oaCfiv^og (not plated). The foUowing are particu
larly instructive passages : Strab. viii. p. 353, 378, the authors in Photius
and Suidas, s. v. Kv-^s'Aiiuv, the Schol. Plat. Phasdr. p. 20, 1. Bekk. Comp.
Schneider Bpim. ad Xen. Anab. p. 473.
I 72. Images of the gods were also produced in the work
shops of the potters, although less for the service of the tem
ples than for domestic worship and sepulture. Many such,
manufactured by Attic workers in clay (¦TrriXo-rXd'^oi), of great
simplicity and rudeness, are still found in the tombs at
2 Athens. Figures and reliefs of earth were also made at an
early period as ornaments for houses and public porticoes,
especially at Corinth and in the Attic Cerameicus. [Stamped
silver money was introduced by Pheido §. 98.]
1. niiy^ivoi Sisol, particularly Hephsestus, Schol. Arist. Birds 436, Juven.
X, 132. Attic SigiUaria, Walpole's Memoirs, p. 324. pi, 2. [D. A. K. 1
Tf. 2. n. 15.] Zeus and Hera of Samos, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 1. Comp.

BEGINNINGS OP PAINTING. 41
Hirt Q«sch. der. Bild. Kunst bei den Alten, S. 92. Four painted clay
figures of Gaea Olympia in a sarcophagus at Athens. Staokelb. Graber
Taf. 8. Similar ones, Kuntsbl. 1836, No. 24. Gerhard Ant. Bildw.
95 — 99. [The shapeless clay figures from Athens and Samos with which
may be compared rude little figures of marble from Pares, los, Naxos and
Thera, may have come down from the Carians and other anti-HeUenic in
habitants, and partly, judging from their resemblance to the Sardic idols,
such as those in Walpole, from the Phoenicians, to whom also point the
animal figures of the finer ttI^oi in the tombs of Thera, Melos, &c. Comp.
L. Ross on Anaphe in the Schr. der Bair. Akad. Philos. Kl. ii, 2. §. 408.]
2. Tradition of the first clay relief (ruTi-og) by Dibutades, Plin. xxxv,
43. Protypa, [prostypa] ectypa bas- and haut-reliefs. Chalcosthenes
made unburnt statuary (cruda opera, PUn. 45) in the Cerameicus of
Athens ; and Pausanias saw there on the roof of the king's hall dyxKuxrx
o'xT^f y'4j. i, 3, 1. comp. 2, 4.

5. BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING.
73. Painting was still later than sculpture in becoming I
an independent art in Greece, partly because the Grecian
worship stood in little need of it. Although Homer several 2
times mentions garments inwoven with figures, he does not 3
however speak of any kind of paintings but " the red-cheeked
ships " and an ivory horse-ornament, which is painted purple
by a Mseonian or Carian damsel. For a long time all painting 4
consisted in colouring statues and reliefs of wood and clay.
1. In opposition to Ansaldus, De Sacro ap. Bthnicos Pictar. Tabular.
Cultu. Ven. 1753, see Bottiger Archseol. der Mahlerei, S. 119. Bmpedo-
cles of Aphrodite, p. 309, r'hv o'iy ei/aeliieco-iv dyxTi/^xaiv i'Aaaxovrig, y^XT^roig
T£ ^aoiiTi. Comp, Bockh C, I. ii. p. 663. — VLivxxig were hung on statues
of the gods as votive tablets, Miohjl. ' Ixtr. 466, in like manner on sacred
trees, Ovid Met. viu, 744. Comp. Tischbein's Vaseng. i, 42. MiUin Mon.
In6d. i, 29. [on wells M. d. I. iv, tv. 18.] Painters of these Trivxxia.
Isocr. de antid. 2.
2. The diplax of Helen with the combats of the Trojans and Achae-
ans around it, II. iii, 126. The Chlsena of Odysseus with a dog and a
roe (these, however, are rather to be conceived as ornaments of the
¦Ti-i^ov/i), Od. xix, 225.
3. The /pxxx^x of Agesilaus painted at Ephesus, Xen. Hell, iii, 4, 17.
iv, 1, 39. correspond to the 'ittti-ov ¦pi-xq'/jiov described in the lUad iv, 141.
Ephesus was always half Lydian. Aristoph. Clouds 600.
74. The first advances in painting are ascribed by the
Greek artistic traditions to the Corinthians and Sicyonians ;
and they even mention by name, without much credibility
however, the individual inventors of outline drawing and
monochrome painting.

42 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. L
PUn. xxxv, 5. 11. 34. Linearis pictura by Cleanthes of Corinth.
[Eucheir, Bockh Metrol. S. 208,] Spargere lineas intus, Ardices of Co
rinth, Telephanes of Sicyon. Monochrome paintings by Cleophantus of
Corinth, Hygiemon, Deinias, Charmadas, Bumarus of Athens, qui primus
in pictura marem feminamque discrevit [figuras omnes imitari ausus] (by
brighter colouring),
Bularchus' (t 01, 16, 1) Magnetum excidium (vii, 39), Magnetum
proelium (xxxv, 34), for which Candaules paid its weight in gold, must
be rejected as a misconception of PUny (Candaules for instance father of
Xanthus), the more so as the destruction of Magnesia by the Trerians,
mentioned by ArchUochus (the only one known), did not take place tiU
the time of Ardys, after the 26th Olympiad. Comp. Heyne, Artium tem
pera, Opusc, Acad. V. p. 349. Antiq. Aufs. i. s. 114. [Welcker Kl. Schr.
i. S. 439.]
For the History of Painting, Caylus, Memoires de I'Ac, des Inscr, T,
xix, p. 260. Hirt, Sur la peinture des Anciens, M6m. v. Memoires de
BerUn 1803. p. 149. Levesque, Sur les ProgrSs successifs de la peinture
chez les Grecs. M6m. de I'lnst. Nat. Litterat. T. i. p. 374. J, J. Grund
Mahlerei der Griechen i. s. 72 ff. 234 ff". Bottiger Ideen zur Archaol.
der Mahlerei i. Dresden 1811, Meyer's Kunstgeschichte, S, 37,
I 75. At Corinth, also, the city of potters (§. 62), paint
ing was early united with the fabrication of vases, so that
the connexion of Corinth with Tarquinii which already
existed, according to the story of Demaratus, in the 30th
Olympiad, might have likewise been the means of conveying
2 to Etruria the antique style of vase-painting. The manufac
ture of vases was from an early period divided into two main
branches: the light yellow vases without gloss, of broader
and more depressed forms, with red, brown, and violet figures,
which for the most part represent animal shapes of an ara
besque character; and the dark yellow vases, which were
better varnished and of a more tasteful form, with black
figures chiefly of a mythological nature; both were fabricated
3 in Greece as well as Italy. The oldest of these painted vases
furnish, by the rudeness and clumsiness of their figures, the
most distinct idea of the stages through which the art of de
sign must have passed before it could arrive at aa established
and regular national style.
1. The most ancient colour, according to PUny, xxxv, 6. testa, trita.
According to PUny, Cleophantus or Eucheir and Eugrammus (potters
and pottery-painters) accompanied Demaratus. Kunstbl. 1835. St. 88.
F. Osann Revision der Ansichten iiber Ursprung u. Herkunft der gemal-
ten Gr. Vasen. Giessen, 1847, from the Memoirs of the Ges. f. Wissensch.
u. K. there. Tombs of Phaneromeni near Corinth, antique vases, black
figures on red ground; Hercules' battle with the centaurs, Dejanira.
2. To the first sort, which are also improperly caUed Egyptian vases
belongs the vase found at Corinth (Dodwell Class. Tour ii p 197 Mai'
sonneuve Introd. pi. 56. D. A. K. 3, 18), which from the written char-

CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD. 43
aoters (C. I. n. 7) may be assigned to about the 50th Olympiad ; besides
monstrous animal figures there is painted here a boar chased by heroes.
Comp. §. 321.
3. A few examples of the black figures in a disproportioned style :
the warrior going to battle, MUUngen CoUeot. de CoghiU, pi. 36 ; Dio
nysus with two Satyrs, and ApoUo with two Horse, pi. 37 (D. A. K. 3,
16. 17) ; Dionysus, Hermes and the Horse sitting on chairs, pi, 38,
75.* Particular attention is due, at the same time, to the
exaggerated character in forms and gestures exhibited in sub
jects derived from the Dionysian cycle, and which take up a
large portion of ancient vase-painting. From the peculiar
feelings which were connected with this worship emanated,
in the formative as well as the musical arts, grand and ele
vated productions on the one hand, and works of a grotesque
and caricature-like character on the other. The latter sort
naturally found acceptance first in the infancy of art ; how
ever, they probably contributed not a little to a frfeer and
bolder movement in art.

SECOND PERIOD.
FROM THE 50th TO THE 80th OLYMPIAD (580—460 TEAKS
BEFORE CHRIST).

1. THE CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD IN GENERAL.
76. About the 50th Olympiad several external circum- 1
stances arose which were advantageous to art : closer inter
course with the rulers and people of Asia and Egypt ; greater 2
commercial wealth [§. 98] ; the endeavours of the tyrants to 3
occupy the attention, the hands and the wealth of their sub
jects by means of splendid works.
1. Croesus, 01. 65, 1. — 58, 3, his consecrated gifts at Delphi. Greeks
served with Nebuchadnezzar the Chaldean, 01. 44. Psammetichus king
by the assistance of the lonians and Carians, 27, 2. Amasis the Phil-
heUene, 52, 3. — 63, 3. Naucratis, HeUenion.
2. Flourishing trade of Corinth, ^gina, Samos, Miletus, Phocsea.
Gold, which was scarce in Greece, now became gradually more plentiful.
Athenjeus vi. p. 231 sqq. Bockh, Pub. Boon, of Athens i. p. 6 sqq. Lewis.
3. CypseUdse, 01. 30, 3. — 49, 3. Theagenes of Megara about the 40th

44 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. H.
01. Polycrates 53, 3, tiU about 64, 1. "Eey« UoT^vx^xrsix Arist, Pol, v,
9, 4. Pisistratus 55, 1.— 63, 2 ; his sons tiU 67, 3.
77. Deeper causes lay in the progressive development of
Grecian life itself Epic poetry, which put the field of my
thology into a state of cultivation for the plastic art, had well
nigh exhausted its subject about the 50th Olympiad. C)ut
of it grew up lyric and dramatic poetry side by side with
sculpture. Gymnastics and orchestics, arts which were exer
cised with the greatest zeal, but which the Homeric age knew
not yet in that state of improvement to which they were car
ried by the Doric race, had reached their zenith nearly about
the fiftieth Olympiad ; they left behind, on the one hand, a
lively enthusiasm for the beautiful and significant in the hu
man form, and, on the other, awakened the desire to perpetu
ate by statues the remembrance especially of the strength
and valour of victorious combatants.
1. The Hesiodic bards come down to about the 40th 01. Pisander,
01. 33 — 40, made Hercules with the lion's hide and club, as the plastic
art afterwards represented him. Dor. i. p. 461. The epic materials were
already transformed into lyric by Stesichorus (60).
2. HeUenic nudity began at Olympia on the race-course (in the
wrestling games later) with Orsippus the Megarian, 01. 16. C. I. i. p. 553 ;
but it emanated especiaUy from Crete and Sparta. ' Ayaveg anipxvlrxi (in
Homer there are merely ;(;5>i^«t(t«() [this word generally misunderstood]
at Olympia since the 7th 01, Gymnastics fiourished in an especial man
ner at Sparta (chiefly 20 — 50), in iBgina (45 — 80), with great splendour
at Crotona (60 — 75).
In the time of Thaletas, Sacadas, <fec. (01. 40 — 50), the gymnopsedic,
hyporchematic, and other kinds of orchestics were already cultivated in
a highly artistic manner ; the oldest tragedians from the time of Thes-
pis (01. 61) were especially masters of the dance. The works of the an
cient artists, according to Athen. xiv. p. 629 b. contained much that
was borrowed from the ancient art of dancing.
78. By the forming of athletes art was now first directed
to a more accurate study of nature, of which it, however, also
very soon took advantage in the representations of gods and
heroes. In the temples of the gods, highly animated forms
now took, as consecrated gifts, the place of the cauldrons,
tripods, &c., which had formerly constituted the principal
ofierings. However, the imitation of natural forms bore, as
it does in every art which begins with industry and love, a
severe character, and the connexion with the wooden images
of the earlier period hindered in many points the striving
after nature and truth.
1. On the study of nature as basis of the development of genuine
art, Schorn, Studien der Griech. Kiinstler, p. 174, who here draws cor
rectly the boundary between art and handicraft.

TEMPLES. 45
2. The Delphian temple was formerly, according to Theopompus,
Athen. vi. p. 231, only adorned with brazen offerings, not statues, but
cauldrons and tripods of brass.
79. Nevertheless this was the period in which art, — if we
look more to the internal sway of the spirit of art than to the
individual products which come forward into view, — appeared
most powerful and performed greatest achievements. The
distinct portrayal of ideal characters, that leading feature of
Greek art above every other, we are chiefly indebted for to
this period, and this was attained by it with so much the
greater certainty, as it was still far from having acquired the
expression of transient emotions (comp. §. 27). The gods and
heroes now became just as definite plastic forms as they had
formerly been poetic personages, and the next period, even
when it transformed in accordance with the demands of its
spirit, could yet everywhere employ already developed forms
as the groundwork.

2. ARCHITECTONICS.

80. By the most extraordinary exertions of the Greek
states temple-architecture during this period produced build
ings which have never been surpassed, and carried to great
perfection both styles, the Doric and the Ionic, conformably
to their peculiar destination, imparting to the former a more
majestic dignity, and to the latter a more shining elegance.
The temples were enlarged in the only way in which it was
possible, by placing columns in the interior, wherewith was
mostly connected the interruption of the roof by a wide open
ing (hypsethron), I. THE MOST CELEBRATED BUILDINGS OF THE TIME (kOT EXTANT).
1. The temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Croesus (Herod, i, 92) and
other kings and cities of Asia Minor contributed (Plin. xvi, 79. xxxvi,
21. Liv. i, 45. Dionys. iv, 26). Theodorus the son of Rhoecus (01. 46)
fiUed the marshy foundation with coals, and Cnossus erected the partly
monolith Ionic columns which were 60 feet high (in the time of Croesus,
Herod, ibid.) ; his son Metagenes, by means of sand-bags, placed on them
the architraves, which were 30 feet long and upwards (Plin, Vitruv,).
Another architect enlarged it, according to Strabo, xiv, 640 ; it was first
completed by Demetrius and Pseonius of Ephesus (about 90 — 100 01.).
Octastyle, dipteral, diastyle, hypsethral, 425 x 220 feet on ten steps.
Of white marble, the quarries of which, only 8 m. p. distant, were dis
covered by Pixodarus. Herostratus destroyed, Deinocrates renewed
this wonder of the world. Epigrams, coins, in Menetreius, Symbol. Di
anse Ephesise statua. R. 1688. Forster Memoires de Cassel, p. 187.
Hirt, Tempel der Diana von Ephesus. Berl. 1809. Gesch. der Baukunst

46 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II.
i. 232. Deviations by the Editors of Stuart's Antiquities of Athens, V.
i. p. 332 of the German translation.
2. Temple of Cybele at Sardis, a work of the Lydian dynasty, de
stroyed by the lonians 01. 69, 3, then renewed. Some remnants in the
Ionic style. Octastyle, dipteral. Size 261 X 144 f. CockereU in Leake,
Asia Minor, p, 344. A. v, Prokesch, Erinnerungen aus .Slgypten und
Kleinasien iii, 143, [Didymseon at Miletus, destroyed 01, 71, §. 109, 15,]
3. Herseon in Samos, of which there are stiU some reUcs in the Ionic
style, 346 X 189 £ (Bedford in Leake, Asia Minor, p, 348, Ionian Antiq,
T. i, ch. 5). It must have come in the room of the elder Doric (§. 63),
probably at the time of Polycrates. It was the largest temple that He
rodotus knew of, inasmuch as the Artemisium had not yet probably at
tained the size for which it was afterwards famous. Herod, ii, 148. iii, 60.
4. Temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens, built by Antistates, OaUses-
chrus, Antimachides, and Porinus, under Pisistratus and his sons, but
not completed, — a colossal fabric in the Doric style. According to the
ruins of the later altered building the size was 372 x 167 f. (Stuart), or
354 X 171 (Leake). ' OT^v^'ttiov vi/^trsXig f>t.iv, xxrx'TT'h.Yj^iv "S £;^oy rviv rijg
olxohof^ixg i/'TToy^xip^v, yevo/xivov ^ xv /SiT^ritrrov ei'-Tfe^ frvvirihia^Yi. Dicsearch.
p. 8. Huds. Comp. the HaU. Bncycl. Athens, p. 233. Hirt, Gesch. i. 226.
— The Pythion of the Pisistratidse. Perhaps also the elder Parthenon.
5. Temple of Delphi after the conflagration 01. 58, 1, built by Spin-
tharus the Corinthian. (The Amphiotyons gave the building out on
contract ; the Delphians contributed a fourth and collected everywhere
for it ; the AIcmaBonidse undertook it for 300 talents, but carried it on
in a much more splendid style, Herod, ii, 180. v, 62, <fec. ; it was not,
however, completed tiU after the 75th 01. .ffischin. against Ctes. §. 116,
Bekk.). Of poros stone, the pronaos of Parian marble. A pronaos, naos
with the hypsethron (Justin, xxiv, 8. Burip. Ion 1668 aUude to this)
and adyton. A ixxrifi'iriiog vxog according to Philostr. ApoUon. Tyan. vi,
11. Fragments of old Doric columns (6 feet thick) at Castri, DodweU i.
p, 174, GeU, Itin, in Greece, p. 189.
6. The brazen house of PaUas in the PoUs at Sparta, built about the
60th 01., adorned inside with brazen reUefs, Paus, iii, 17. x, 5. [The
temple at Assos §, 255, R, 2.]
II, BUILDINGS EXTANT.
1 — 4. P.a3STUM (Poseidonia), the Troezeno-Sybaritic colony. The
Urge temple (Poseidon's) peripteral, pyonostyle, hypsethral, with a niche
for the image, 195 X 79 BngUsh feet in size, the Doric columns 8 mo-
duU, in the serene severity and simpUcity of the ancient Doric style.
The small and much later temple (that of Demeter, the statue stood in
an inner thalamus) peript. hexast. 107 X 47 f. The Uttle temple Mauch
Supplem. zu Normand Taf. 1. The columns are not more slender, but
sweU out very much, have a contracted neck, and bases in the antecella ;
here also there are even engaged columns. There is a half-metope placed
at the corner of the entablature. A Stoa, whose circuit of columns has 9
at the ends, and 18 on the sides. In the interior a row of columns runs

TEMPLES. 47
through lengthwise. The frieze not divided by triglyphs ; 177 X 75 f.
The material of these buildings is a soUd tuff simUar to travertin, and of
a white yellowish colour. The workmanship is extremely careful, — [The
Ruins of Psestum by Th, Major, L, 1768 f m, revised by Baumgartner,
Wiirzb. 1781 fol.] PaoU, Rovine di Pesto 1784. Delagardette, Les Ruines
de Psestum. P. an 2. [Paris 1840 fol. maj .] Wilkin's Magna Grsecia, ch. 6
(not altogether to be depended on). Winckelmann's Werke i. s. 288 Stieg-
Utz, Archaol. der Baukunst, Th. ii. Abschn. 1. Hirt Gesch. i, 236 [Merc.
Ferrara Descr. di un viaggio a Pesto, in NapoU 1827. 4to with 5 plates.]
A newly discovered temple (near the amphitheatre) presents strange capi
tals, — from the later period of the decUne, — on which had rested an early
Doric entablature with statuary in the metopes. Moniteur, 1830, 7th
JuiUet. Preuss. Staatsz. 1830, 13th and 17th Jul. BuUet. d. Inst. 1830,
p. 136, 226. ¦ Mon. d. Inst. T. ii. tav. 20. figured capitals. Hittorff Joum.
des Sav. 1835. p. 303. cf. p. 309. Hoskiug, Archseol. Brit, xxiii. p. 85.
Mauch, Supplement zu Normand, 1831. Tf. 15.
Metapontum. The temple of which 15 columns stiU stand, a hexast.
peript., is according to the proportions of the columns (10 mod.) con
siderably later than the great temple of Psestum. Another Ues en
tirely in ruins, in which have been found interesting fragments of the
sima, and roof-ornaments of painted terracotta. Metaponte, par le Due
de Luynes et F. J. Debacq. P. 1833.
5 — 10. [B. OUvieri Vedute d. avanzi del Mon. Ant. deUe due SicUie.
R. 1794 f.]. The elder SicUian temples cannot be determined with cer
tainty, as the heavier proportions were very long preserved here. Pro
bably to them belong :
Syracuse (OL 5, 3), Temple of Athena in Ortygia (D'OrvUle, Sicula,
p. 195), the columns not yet 9 mod. (6J f. diam. ; 28| height), peript.
hexast. Bases in the pronaos. WUkins, ch. 2. Perhaps of the time of
Hiero. [CavaUari in Serradifalco Antich. di Sicilia iv. tv. 9. p. 120.]
AcRAGAs (43, 4), flourishing especially under Theron. Great temples
then buUt, with Carthaginian prisoners (Diod. xi, 26). Many ruins of
temples ; the two most perfect are caUed quite arbitrarily (D'Orville, p.
95 sq.) the Temple of Concord (128 X 60 f.) and the temple of Juno
(124 X 54 f.) ; the former in particular has been weU preserved as a
Christian church. The columns 9 to 10 mod. The material is a brown
ish-yellow limestone with petrified sheUs. Houel, Voyage Pittor. T. iv.
pi. 218, 221. Pancrazi, Antichitk SicUiane, T. ii. p. 86. Wilkins, ch. 3.
Fr. Gartner's Ansichten der am moisten erhaltenen Monumente SiciUens,
Tf. 1 sqq. Baltaro Restauration du temple de la Concorde & Girgenti
BuUett. 1837. p, 49.
Selinus (38, 1), The more ancient temples are the three on the acro
polis ; the one on the north 171 X 73 t, the middle one 197 X 72, and
that towards the south 116 X 51 (according to Hittorff), AU three hex
ast. peript,, but especiaUy the one in the middle, probably the oldest,
very peculiar, with narrow ceUa, broad peristyle, double prostyle, pronaos
enclosed with waUs, and opisthodomos. The columns 9 mod,, in the third
9^ ; tapering most in the first (about ife- mod,). See Houel i, p, 24. pi. 16
sqq. De St. Non Voy. Pitt, iv. p. 184. D'OrviUe, p. 60 sqq. Hittorff and
Zanth, Architecture Antique de la Sicile, pi. 10 — 29. comp. Reinganum,

48

HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II.

Selinus, p. 78. Gottling in the Hermes xxxiii. p. 236. Hittorff main
tains the Ionic capital with Doric entablature on the [supposed] Empe-
docleum. Joum, des Sav. 1836. p. 298. Instances of this combination
p. 302. (Theron's monument, Cyrene, Jerusalem, Petra.)
11. .aiGiNA. Temple of HeUenic Zeus (comp. Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 342)
or [rather] of Minerva (Stackelberg, Apollo's temple at Basste, App. 3.
Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 319), probably built after the victory ever the Persians,
01. 75 [?], hence it is very Uke the temple of Theseus (01. 78). Peript.
hexast. hyp. The columns lOJ mod. 94 x 45 f. Of yeUowish sandstone,
roof and cornice of marble. The ceUa was painted red, the tympanum sky-
blue, yeUow and green foUage on the architrave, triglyphs blue, Ukewise
the regula with the drops, the tsenia above them red ; the marble tiles
with a fiower. Ionian Antiq. ii. ch. 6 sq. Wagner, JEginet. Bildw, p. 217,
CockereU in the Journ, of Science and the Arts, V. vi. n. 12. L. 1819.
Descr. de Mor6e iii. pi. 63. ' I6v. ' Av^a'Koy. part i. agt. Zeus Panhellenios
Kunstbl. 1836. St, 41 is wanting. Klenze Aphor. Bemerk. s. 169, Taf. i. 1.
81. At the same time were executed, especially by the
tyrants, buildings worthy of admiration, aqueducts, canals,
fountains, and other such works for the benefit of the public.
For the exhibition of games, however, they were still con
tented with simple and artless structures, and nowhere is there
anything yet said of splendid theatres, hippodromes, and stadia.
1. The Enneakrunos (Callirrhoe) of the Pisistratidse. The fountains
of Theagenes. The aqueduct in Samos, carried seven stadia through
the mountain by Bupolinus the Megarian, and the mole of the harbour,
probably Egya Tlo'hiix^a.riix. Cloacse (pvovoixoi) of Acragas, <bxixxtg; a
large basin for bathing {xoKvixliiiS^x). Diodor. xi, 26. in 01. 75, 1. (Such
Kolymbethrse were even said to have been built by Dsedalus in SicUy, for
instance in the Megarian territory, in the same way that the construc
tion of a natural vapour bath was also ascribed to him. Diodor. iv. 78.)

3. THE PLASTIC ART.
A. ITS EXTENDED CULTIVATION.
82. The formative art advanced with extraordinary en
ergy after the 50th Olympiad in the most diflerent districts
of Greece, and instead of the uniform plodding of families,
gifted individuals, impelled by their talent for art, came for
ward in greater numbers. Sculpture in marble received its
first perfection from Dipoenus and ScyUis of Crete; there
were scholars of these masters at Sparta and other places.
Casting in brass was employed by numerous masters in sta
tues of athletes, heroes and gods, especially in .iEgina, an island
which stood in close connection with Samos, and at Argos.
In like manner there existed at Sicyon a distinguished school
of artists which was connected with the Argive school. About

SCHOOLS OF ART. 4!)
the end of the period the plastic art also rose at Athens to a
more flourishing condition.
[In Chios sculpture goes back to the beginning of the Olympiads in the
family of Bupalus.] Artists of this period whose names are known : —
The DsedaUda) Dipcenus and Scyllis (marmore sculpendo primi omnium
inclaruerunt) 01. 50 according to Pliny. They also worked in wood and
ivory at different places in Greece (Sicyon, Argos, Cleonae, Ambracia ?).
[Their Artemis, Hercules, and Athene appear to have been removed to
Asia by Cyrus when he made war on Croesus, in Armenia according to
Moses of Chorene, as is detaUed by the author Ztschr. f. d. A. W. 1835. no.
110. Did Croesus, then, first obtain them from the Sicyonians'!] Tec-
tseus and AngeUon, their scholars about 01. 55. Paus. ii, 32. Dpry-
cleidas, Dontas (or Medon), Theocles of Lacedsemon, carvers in wood
and toreutse, scholars of Dipoenus and ScyUis about 55. Paus. v, 17. vi,
19. Endoeus (§. 70, Rem. 2) about 65. PeriUus or PerUaus, brass-caster
(the buU of Phalaris) 55. Bupalus and Athenis, enemies of Hipponax
(01. 60), sculptors of a race of artists in Chios, sons of Anthermus
(Archennus), the son of Micciados, the son of Malas (about 40) according
to PUny. Welcker, Hipponax, p. 9. [Thiersch Epochen, s. 192. Bion of
Clazomenae or Chios, dyxT^/.t-xrowoiog in Hipponax according to Diogenes
iv, 58, changed by SiUig into Hippocrates.] Gallon of J3gina, a pupil
of Tectseus and AngeUon, brass-caster (.SIginetica aeris temperatura,
PUn.) about 01. 60 — 65, although some brought the tripods made by him
and Gitiadas into connexion with the Messenian war (Paus. iii, 18, 5. iv,
14, 2). Gitiadas of LAOEDiSMON, very probably his contemporary
(Welcker, Hyperb. Roemische Studien, p, 262, opposed to this), a
worker in brass (at the same time a Doric poet), Syadras and Chartas
of Lacedsemon, brass-casters 01, 60 (Sparta sends to Croesus, 01, 68, a
large cauldron with figures, t^iihia, on the rim, Herod, i, 70), Dameas of
Crotona, brass-caster, 66, Eucheirus of Corinth, a scholar of Syadras
and Chartas, brass-caster, 66. Canaohus of Sicyon, carver in wood,
brass-c«tter, and toreutes, 01. 67 — 73 (Schorn, Studien, p. 199, Kunstblatt
1821, no. 16. Thiersch, Epochen, p. 142, comp. below, §. 86), Aristocles
his brother, brass-caster (Sicyon diu fuit ofl&cinarum omnium metaUorum
patria, PUn,), Aristocles of Oydonia before 01. 71 (Paus. v. 25, 6).
EuteUdas and Chrysothemis of Argos {rix"'"''' i'liorsg ix Tr^ori^av), brass-
casters, 70. Antenor, Euphranor's son (C. I. ii, 340) of Athens, brass-
caster, 70. ArcesUaus, son of Aristodicus, about 70. Stomius, brass-
caster, 72. Damophilus and Gorgasus, workers in clay and painters in
Italy, 72. Synnoon of .^gina, scholar of Aristocles of Sicyon, brass-
caster, 72. Clearchus of Rhegium, brass-caster, 72, Glaucias of .Jlgina,
brass-caster, 73 — 75, Ascarus of Thebes, brass-caster, before 75 according
to the opinion of Pausanias. Agbladas op Akgos, brass-caster, 01. 68 —
81 (the author's Commentatt. de Phidia i, §. 6—8, Welcker in the
Kunstblatt 1827, No. 81), formed three muses jointly with Canachus and
Aristocles (Anthol. Pal. ii. p. 692. Planud. n. 220). Anaxagoras of
.aigina, brass-caster, 75. DiyUus, Amyclseus, Chionis, Corinthians, brass-
casters not long before 76. Aristomedon of Argos, brass-caster about the
same time. Aristomedes and Socrates of Thebes, workers in marble, 75,
Mensechmus and Soidas of Naupactus, toreutse, about 75, Critias op
Athens (vmimng, probably xhnf^ovx<'s in Lemnos), brass-caster, 75—83,
D

50

HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II.

Hegias (Hegesias) of Athens, brass-caster at the same time. Glaucus
of Argos, brass-caster, 77. Dionysius of Argos, brass-caster, 77, Simon
of .^gina, brass-caster, 77, PtoUchus of iEgina, son and scholar of
Synnoon, brass-caster, 78. Onatas of Mam a, brass -caster, 78—83,
also painter, Rathgeber on Onatas, in Ersch and Gruber's Bncycl. correct
on the whole, the Hercules of Onatas on coins not worthy of credit.
Calynthus of JSgina, brass-caster, 80. CaUiteles of ,^gina, scholar of
Onatas, brass-caster, 83, For the history of the artists I refer generally
to Franc, Junius' earUer and J, SiUig's far more perfect Catalogus artifi-
cum. Dresden 1827, to which Welcker (Kunstblatt 1827. p. 321, 333 sq.
1828, p. 36), J. M. Schulz (Jahns Jahrb. 1829. iii. 1), Osann (Kunstbl.
1830. p. 330. 1832. p. 293), and R. Rochette (Lettre k M. Schorn. p, 1832),
[enlarged as Supplement au Catal. des Artistes, 1846. Count Clarac
Catal. des arts de I'antiq. 1844. Emeric David Essai sur le classement
chronol. des sculpteurs Grecs les plus c616bres, p. 1807. 8. According to
the views of Giraud the sculptor as Count Clarac proves; H. Brunn arti-
fioum liberse Grecise tempora. Bonnae 1843.] have made many addi
tions. Where any deviation from these authorities seemed necessary,
the grounds may be partly gathered from the general context, and partly
from what foUows.

B. RELIGIOUS STATUES {dyxT^fixrx).
I 83, As it was not the religious statues from which a freer
cultivation of art emanated, so also in this period and later
they were very often withdrawn from this cultivation by the
2 piety with which the ancient form was maintained. In colo
nies the form of the images in the metropolis was faithfully
3 reproduced; and where a new image was needed, they not
unfrequently made an exact imitation of the old one.
2. Such statues were called d(pil^v/.ixra (Wesseling ad Diodor. xv, 49),
and they greatly abounded especiaUy in the case of Artemis Bphesia
(Dionys, ii, 22. comp. viii, 56), In Massalia (01, 45 or 60) and its colo
nies, the established form of the ancient carved image was preserved,
Strab. iv. p. 179. The d^il^iaeig of the temples, as in the story of He-
lice, Olymp, 101, 4, in Diodor. ibid. Strab. viii. p. 385, include the imita
tion of the reUgious statue.
3. Onatas, foUowing the tradition, imitated in brass the ancient
carved statue of Demeter Melsena of Phigalia which was burnt, with
horse's head from which dragons and other animals sprung forth, dolphin
and dove in the hand, Paus. viii, 42. comp. the story of the Leucippid
priestess at Sparta, Paus. iii, 16.
I 84 Even in regard to the material, the artists only de
parted by degrees from the wood formerly in use. On the
clothed or even gilded bodies of wood were placed heads, arms
2 and feet of stone {dx^oXi^oi); ivory also was joined to the wood,
3 or it was entirely overlaid with gold.
1. [ApoUo of Canaohus at Thebes, of cedar, an athlete of fig-tree, §.

RELIGIOUS STATUES. 51
87, 1, the Sosianic ApoUo of cedar, PUn. xiii, 11, Hecate of Myron at
.ffigina, the first victors at Olympia 01. 69. 61. Paus. vi, 18, 5.]
' Axjo'/zSo/ Paus. ii, 4, 1. vi, 25, 4. vii, 21, 4. 23, 5. viii, 25, 4. 31, 1, 3. ix,
4, 1. The statue of ApoUo at PhigaUa is an instance, Stackelberg, Apol-
lotempel, p. 98.
2. The Dioscuri with wives, chUdren and horses at Argos, by Dipoenus
and ScyUis, of ebony ; in the horses some portions ivory, Paus. ii, 22, 6.
3. X^vaituv ^oxvav rv'TToi Eurip. Troad. 1081.
85. From these were developed those images of the gods, I
very prevalent at this period, in which a kernel of wood was
overlaid with ivory and gold. This species of work, which 2
had been earlier employed on vessels in the same way (§. 56),
is reckoned as a branch of toreutics, by which is meant sculp- 3
ture in metals (the art of the ciseleur) and also this combina
tion of metal with other materials. Brass-casting, however, 4
was now also more frequently applied to the representation of
the deities in their temples.
1. There were x^v(!s><.s<pxvTtvx dyxK^xrx of this description by Dory-
cleides, Theocles, Medon (in the Herseum at Olympia), by Canachus
(Aphrodite at Sicyon), Mensechmus and Soidas.
2. Probably the throne of the Amyclsean ApoUo was also a work of
the toreutic art. It was built by Bathycles the Magnesian, perhaps in
the time of Croesus, when the Spartans seem to have first turned their
attention to costly dvx^-iifixrx, comp. §. 69. 82. Reliefs in 32 panels
adorned the throne, at the feet were supporting statues, two Charites,
two Horse, Echidna and Typhceus, Tritons. Paus. iii, 18, 19. Heyne An
tiquar. Aufs. St. 1. S. 1. Quatr.-de-Quincy Jup. 01. p. 196, where however
there is given an incorrect notion of xxMl^xi and si^vxa^ixi, Welcker
Zeitschrift I, ii. s. 280 ff".
3. On the toreutic art, Heyne Antiquar. Aufs. St. 2. S. 127. Schneider
Lex. s. V. ro^sieiv. Quatr.-de-Quincy, ibid. S. 76 ff". [When we confound
the toreutic art, as it is rightly explained §. 173. 311, and which works
with more or less deUcacy and minuteness on the surface, with the build
ing up of colossi and thrones, we do so in consequence of a deduction of
Quatremfere de Quincy, which although it scarcely yields in inaccuracy
to his Attic demos, has nevertheless found acceptation to a surpris
ing degree. Thus here also and §. 120, 2. 312. R. 1. (fee. Among artists
therefore the designation of toreutes hovers between caslator or enchaser
and artist in gold and ivory, master of colossi, as for example in the lists
§. 112. 124. 196. We do not wish to unite under the same name, statues
in marble and brass (sculptura and statuaria) or both of them and the
glyptic art (in precious stones) or anaglypha and cameos, and why then
should we confound the toreutic art and working in gold and ivory in
contradiction to the universal practice of the ancients ?]
4. Brazen reUgious images — ^for example the Apollo PhUesius of Can
achus in the Didymseon, the Demeter of Onatas mentioned §. 83, 3. <fec.
86. The representation of the gods themselves during this 1

52 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per, II,
period emanated entirely from a pious disposition penetrated
with fear and veneration for the godhead. The deities were
represented majestically enthroned (lu^pvoi), or in a tranquil
and fixed posture ; in none of them was corporeal beauty ren ¦
dered conspicuous; the limbs displayed great strength, and
the features exhibited a stifl" inflexible earnestness. On the
outstretched hand of colossal statues were very often placed
smaller flgures of subordinate deities which indicated their
character, or sacred animals.
2. 3. Comp. below the dilTerent deities in the second main division.
The chief examples are the Delian Apollo of Tectceus and Angelion, with
the Charites on his hand (Plut. de mus. 14. Paus. ix, 35, 1), recognised
in the gem G. M, 33, 474 ; and also on the coins of Athens, Combe N.
M. Br. 7, 9. PeUerin, Med. des Peuples, pi. 23, 19. M. Hunter. 11, 14.
[Sestini Descr. d'alc. med. Gr. del Prin. di Danimarca Fir. 1821 tav. 2. no.
6.] Comp. the Author's Dorians i. p. 372., below §. 359, 4. [The Hera of
Pythodorus with the Sirens, the Zeus of Phidias with the Mke in his
hand.] Then the Apollo Philesius, placed as a temple-image in the Didy
mseon (thus is it to be seen on the coins), executed by Canachus after the
plundering and burning by Hiero, 01. 71, 1 (which the brazen colossus
would certainly not have survived), and before 75, 2 (when Xerxes car
ried it off) — in a stiff posture, very muscular and thickset, holding a
young stag in his right hand extended, and a bow in his left which is
more depressed (from the stag on his hand must be distinguished the
automatically-wrought cervus, better corbvs, in PUn. xxxiv, 19, 14). [The
cervus of aU the manuscripts is defended by Soldan Zeitschr. f. A. W.
1841. S. 579 — 83. (who groundlessly calls in question the younger Cana
chus) and by Jan. Jen. L. Z. 1838, Febr. S, 264 f. This statue, different
from that of the inscriptions, with which latter that of this Canachus at
Thebes exactly corresponded according to Paus, ix, 10, 2, agreed in the po
sition of the doe before the god, with that at Delphi in Paus. x, 13, 3. and
on an engraved stone in the D. A. K. tf. 15. No. 61. and thus at the same
time the form of the automaton and the motive for introducing it, which
may have taken place afterwards, become clear.] The features harsh and
archaistic (§. 94), the hair parted on the crown with smaU curls of wire
over the forehead. To be gathered from the Milesian coins (Seleucus
Nicator gave back the statue), the bronze in the British Museum, Speci
mens of Antient Sculpture, pi. 12, the head, ibid. Spec. pi. 5. and many
marble statues (Bonus Bventus). Volkel in Welcker's Zeitschr. i. 1. p.
162. Schorn's Kunstblatt 1821. N. 16. D. A. K. 4,-19—23. [Comp, the
Statue of the Mus, Chiaramonti in Gerhard, Ant, Bildw, i, 11. Eckhel
D, N, ii. p. 531.]

u. STATUES OF HONOUR {xvi^iavng).
87. The statues of athletes, by which art was directed to
life, began with the 58th 01. according to the accounts extant,
but became immediately very numerous and occupied the
principal artists. Although in general they were by no means

STATUES OF HONOUR, 53
regular portrait statues, they were however designed to keep
in memory the bodily energy and skill of the athletes ; they ;
often bore reference also by posture and action to the peculiar
art of the combatant. In these anathemes the horse accom
panied the human figure.
1. Paus. vi, 18, 5 mentions as the first athletes consecrated at Olympia :
Praxidamas of .^gina, 01. 68 (of cypress wood), Rhexibius of Opus, 01.
61 (of fig-tree). EuteUdas' statue therefore (Paus. vi, 16, 4) was cer
tainly later than the 58th 01. However, the stiff antique statue of Arra-
chion of Phigalia, who was crowned at Olympia when dead, was older
(01. 53). The statue of the great Milo which was executed by Dameas
for Olympia about the 65th 01. was stUl very antique, with close feet
and very stiffly formed hand, (PhUostr. ApoU. Tyan. iv, 28), from whose
attitiide the story in Paus. vi, 14, 2 at the end, seems to have arisen.
2. Olympiae omnium qui vicissent statuas dicari mos erat. Eorum
vero qui ter ibi superavissent, ex membris ipsarum similitudine expressa,
quas iconicas vocant, Plin. xxxiv, 9.
3. Glaucus the Carystian, distinguished for his dexterity in the
manoeuvres of boxing, was represented preluding {axixfAxxav) by Glau
cias of .^gina, Paus. vi, 10, 1. Diagoras and his family raised the
right hand in prayer, and held the left ready for boxing and the pancra-
tion. Schol. Pind, 0, 7, in, and comp, Nepos Chabrias 1 (setting aside
the anachronism. Xenoph, Memor, iii, 10, "Ot; ^sj, i(pi\, a 'Khtkav,
xKhoiovg (cf. Symp. 2, 17) itotfig S^o^efj t£ xxi nirxXxiarxg xxi irvxrxg xxi
irxyx^xrixarxgf 6^&i n xxi otox.
88. Excepting these victors in sacred games, statues of
individuals were still very rare during this period ; their con
secration always presupposes entirely particular occasions ; the
y^oiXxovv rivd errjiai was at first an almost iigonxri Ti/M^.
This holds true of the statues of the Argives Cleobis and Biton at
Delphi, Herod, i, 31, about the 50th 01. ; [of the BathyUus of Polycrates
consecrated in Samos, §. 96. Nol 1-7, if the words qua nihil videor effectius
cognovisse, did not raise a suspicion that a false inscription was given to
a charming and spirited brazen statue in the Herseon, executed in later
times] ; of the patriots Harmodius and Aristogeiton of Athens (the for
mer were made by Antenor, 67, 4, the latter by Critics, 01. 75, 4. Bockh,
C. I. ii. p. 320. 340, Stackelberg Graber, Vign, S, 33. Welcker Rhein.
Mus. iv. s. 472. M. Hunter, tab. 9. n. 4 [R. Rochette sur le torse du Belve
dere, p. 29. Suppl. au Catal. des Artistes, p. 204.] ; of the Phocian gene
rals in the dreadful war against the ThessaUans, works of Aristomedon,
about 01. 74. Paus. x, 1, 4 ; also of the si'SaTia of the princes of Sparta
who feU in battle, Herod, vi, 58. The statue of Hipponax (§. 82) was
anything but an honorary statue, comp. §. 420, 1. Kohler iiber die
Ehre der Bildsaulen, Schriften der Miinchner Akademie Bd. vi. s. 67.
Hirt, Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1814—15. Hist. CI. s. 6. Bockh, C. I. i. p.
18 sq, 872 sq. (on the Siga'an Inscription).

54 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II.
D. MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES AS CONSECRATED GIFTS {xva.dilft.arra').
89. Figures or even whole groups, mostly of brass, from the
mythi of gods and heroes, were now much more frequent con
secrated gifts. As a reminiscence of the sort of offerings which
were general in former times (§. 78) statues were occasionally
placed under tripods which served as a frame and roof to
them. In these dedicatory gifts mythology was employed en
tirely in the same way as in lyric poetry and by .Slschylus in
the drama— in order to lend a higher significance to the pre
sent. 2. Tripods at Amyclse by CaUon and Gitiadas with goddesses under
them, Paus. ui, 18. Comp. Amalthea iii. p. 30 sq. Even the consecrated
gifts for the Persian war, and the victories of the SicUian tyrants over
Carthage were in great part tripods. Ibid, p, 27,
3. The Phocians consecrated the theft of the tripod by Hercules for
the victory over the ThessaUans at Parnassus : Leto, Artemis, ApoUo on
the one side, Hercules, Athena opposite. Here the idea was to represent
the Phocians as defenders of the Delphic tripod ; the ThessaUan princes
were HeracUdse, their war cry Athena Itonia. The masters were Chionis,
DiyUus, and Amyclseus, Herod, viii, 27, Paus, x, 13, 4. comp. x, 1, 4,
A victory of Tarentum over the Peucetii was celebrated in a group by
Onatas, wherein were Taras and Phalanthus, Paus, x, 13, 5.

E. SCULPTURES ON TEMPLES.

1 90. In a similar way were mythological groups chosen as
ornaments for temples, — it having become usual to place stone
sculptures in the metopes, on the frieze, the pediments and
acroteria, — for here also everything bore reference to the
deity, the consecrators, and the circumstances of the consecra-
2 tion. Two works of architectonic sculpture mark pretty well
the boundaries of this period, — the reliefs in the metopes at
3 Selinus, and the pediment statues of JEgina. Of these the
latter are also especially calculated to throw light on that art
in regard to the choice and treatment of the mythological
subject. 2. The metope tablets of calcareous tufa (4 f. 9^ 1. X 3 f. 6^ 1.) which
were discovered in 1823 on the acropoUs of Selinus n^ar the middle tem
ple by W. Harris and Sam. AngeU, and put together by them, and which
are preserved at Palermo, are adorned with reliefs which were painted,
and show that the art was stUl in its infancy (perhaps about the 50th
01.) [or 6—10 01. earlier], a. Hercules naked (the Hon hide perhaps of
gUded bronze) carrying the Cercopes. b. Perseus with the hat {xwH) of
Hermes (comp. the coins of Mnos, Mionnet, Descr. pi. 49, 3) and the
talaria, Athenk in the peplos. Medusa with Pegasus. The reUef with the
quadriga from the same place is considerably later as weU as the metope-
reUefs of the middle temple in the lower town, although these, which

SCULPTURES ON TEMPLES. 55
represent a goddess stabbing a hero or giant, and the torso of a dying
warrior, especiaUy the latter, are executed in a hard antique style which
perhaps belongs to the end of this period, Comp. §. 119. Both temples
had metopes only on the east front.
P. Pisani, Memorie suUe opere di scultura in SeUnunte scoperte.
Palermo 1823. B. Klenze in the Kunstblatt 1824, No. 8, comp, Nos, 28,
39, 69, 78. 1825, No, 45, 1826, No, 98. Bottiger's Amalthea iii, p. 307
sqq. Sculptured Metopes discovered among the ruins of Selinus — descr.
by S. AngeU and Th. Evans 1826. fo. Hittorff, Archit. Ant. de la Sicile pi.
24, 25, 49. (Fr. Inghirami) Osservazioni SuUe Antich. di SeUnunte illustr.
del. S. P. Pisani 1825. Monum. Btruschi Ser, vi, t. v, 5. Thiersch, Epo
chen p. 404 sqq. pi. 1. (with drawings by Klenze). R. Rochette, Journ. des
Sav. 1829. p. 387. Br6ndsted, Voy. en Grfece ii. p. 149. D, A. K, pi. 4, 24.
5, 25—27.
As to the Metopes on the temple at Psestum (see §. 80. ii, 4), which
are related in style to the jEginetan sculptures, there is but little
(Phrixus on the ram) that can be recognised; those at Assos (§. 255, 2)
are not yet sufficiently known.
3. The .^ginetan sculptures, discovered by various Germans, Danes
and EngUshmen (Brondsted,' Koes, CockereU, Poster, von Haller, Linkh,
von Stackelberg), have been restored by Thorwaldsen and brought to
Munich (Glyptothek n. 55 — 78). They formed two corresponding groups
in the tympana of the temple of Minerva (§. 80) of which that to the
west is most complete, but the eastern figures are larger and better exe
cuted. Athena leads the combats of the jEacidse or jEginetan heroes
against Troy, in the west the combat around the body of Patroclus (ac
cording to others that of AchiUes, see Welcker, Rhein. M. iii, 1. p. 50), in
the east around Oicles who was slain by the Trojans as the companion
in arms of Hercules against Laomedon. Comp, Gott, G. A. 1832, p.
1139. In the east Hercules stands in the same relation to Telamon the
.^acid — as the archer to the heavy-armed soldier (comp. Pind, I. v, 27,
also Eurip. Here. Fur. 158), — that Teucrus does to Ajax in the west ;
the costume and form of Hercules correspond to those on the Thasian
coins. As the jEacidse here beat the barbarians of Asia, and rescue
their countrymen from great perU, so, more recently they aided in battle
at Salamis, according to belief (Herod, viu, 64, A,), and their descendants,
the jS/ginetans contributed their assistance in the salvation of Hellas.
The Persian archer-costume of Paris, the leathern coat, the curved
cap, (fee, point especially to these parallels [?], (Herod, i, 71, v, 49. vii,
61). Vase in antique style, manner, and arming of heroes, among
whom there is one very Uke Paris, PourtalSs pi. 8, also in Stackelberg's
Graber Tf. 10. These groups, therefore, certainly belong to 01, 75 sqq, [?].
There was gilded bronze added to the marble (many holes enable us to
guess where the armour was placed) ; the hair also was partly of wire.
Traces of colour on weapons, clothes, the eye-baUs and the lips, not on
the flesh. The disposition of the groups is simple and regular [architec-
tonico-symmetrical] ; as to the style of the workmanship §. 92. On the
acroteria stood female figures in antique drapery and attitude (Moirse,
Nikse, Keres?).
Wagner's Bericht iiber die ^gin. Bildw. mit Kunstgeschichtl. Anin.

56 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II.
von ScheUing 1817. Hirt in Wolf's Analekten H. iii. p. 167 (where most
has been done towards explanation and determination of time). [Comp.
Getting. Anz. 1818. St. 115 ff.] CockereU §. 80. Rem. ii, c. Leake, Morea
ii. p. 467. Thiersch, Amalthea i. s. 137 ff. Gothe's Kunst u. Alterthum
iii, s. 116 ff. D. A. K. Tf. 6—8, B. Edw. Lyon, OutUnes of the Mgma.
marbles. Liverpool, 1829.
[90*. A place beside the statues of JEgina may worthily
be given to the reliefs of the earlier large monument of Xan
thus in Lycia, which could not have been erected after the
capture of the city by Harpagus, 01. 58, 3, nearly the time
when the former were probably produced. For when that
event took place, all the Xanthians, not excepting even the
absent heads of families, perished (Herod, i, 176) ; and, after
wards, when Lycia became a tributary province, and, although
it was intrusted with the government of its cities, which pro
bably formed a confederation even at that time, there was
however a Persian agent in the capital, Xanthus, it is very
unlikely that so important a monument should have been
raised to one of the subjugated. Besides, notwithstanding all
the difference of the figures, the antique severity of the style,
subdued by a pervading grace, the admirable simplicity and
truth and the already acquired certainty and delicacy of execu
tion, give considerable probability to the supposition that the
Lydian work was produced nearly at the same time with the
other at Mgina,; but whether it was by a native school or
under the influence of the workshop of Chios, which was
much famed at the time, or of the scholars of Dipcenus and
Scyllis, is a point which will never be made out. Art at this
stage, as we learn from the later Italian, can at the most
different points having but slight connection with one an
other, develope from within outwards the wonderful agree
ment which we observe between these Lydo-Grecian works
and the Grecian monuments otherwise known to us. How far
inferior to this monument are the frieze-pieces from Assos.
We are indebted to Sir Charles Fellows for the surprising extension
of the history of art by means of Lydian antiquity. For the monu
ments collected by him in that country, where he made this discovery
in his first journey in 1838, a large separate building has been erected
at the British Museum, to which he presented them. The Xanthian
marbles, their acquisition, (fee. L. 1843. See engraving of the reliefs in
PeUows' Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, L. 1839. p.
231, and a better one in his Account of Discoveries in Lycia, L. 1841. p.
170, repeated in Gerhard's Archseologische Zeitung 1843. Tf 4. S. 49,
still more improved and corrected. M. d. I. iv. tv. 3. with which we
should take in connexion the extremely profound description and ex
planation of B. Braun, Ann. xvi. p. 133. Bull. 1845. p. 14., and in the N.
Rhein. Mus. 1844. S. 481 — 490. comp, Gerhard Archaol. Zeit. 1845. S. 69.
This monument, like four others, mostly found in Xanthus itself, is a

SCULPTURES ON TEMPLES. 57
quadrangular tower of limestone in a single piece on a base, so that the
frieze was above 20 feet from the ground ; over the frieze was a large
sima with abacus upon it. The figures are nearly as on the frieze of the
Parthenon, 3 feet 6 in. high, and divided into three white marble tablets
on each side ; the east and west sides 8 feet 4 in., the two others not
quite so long. M. d. I. iv. tv. 2. On the western, being the principal
side, the frieze is perforated by a smaU doorway, above which is a cow
suokUng, as there is a Uon over a similar one (Fellows' Asia M. p. 226) ;
this door leads into a chamber seven and a half feet high, and is very incon
venient to enter, and may have been rather destined for pushing in cin
erary urns or for making libation. This arrangement is similar to that
on the tomb of Cyrus, §. 245, R, 2, The art, on the other hand, not only
seems to be pure Greek on the whole, but the resemblance is still more
surprising in particular figures, for instance the enthroned goddesses to the
Leucothea Albani, of which, therefore, a cast has been taken and placed
beside the sepulchral chamber, and in drapery generaUy the female
figures resemble the goddess ascending the chariot, and the man in arm
our the Aristion on the stele at Athens (§. 96. No. 19). We are therefore
the more struck with what is strange and peculiar in the religious
ceremonies represented, the gods and their attributes. The compositions
on the four sides have evidently a unity of connexion and a close rela
tion to one another. On the side with the entrance we may with great
probabUity recognise Demeter and Cora, the former with a patera, the
younger figure with pomegranate and blossoms, together with the three
Horse or Charites, those in the centre with pomegranate and blossoms,
the one behind with an egg ; and as on the three other sides the centre
is occupied by three gods enthroned, with sceptres in wide-sleeved gar
ments and mantles, two bearded, the third beardless without being
younger, the idea of the three Zeus is naturaUy suggested (only that in
that case, Poseidon is not to be forced out of this relation into particu
lar connexion with Demeter as Phytalmios). However, this supposition
is not supported by an animal resembling a bear more than any other, a
Triton as an ornament under the arm of the throne, a pomegranate blossom
in the hand of the second and pomegranates in both hands of the third.
To these three gods a family seems to be dedicating offerings, — the man
in armour his helmet, the woman a dove, a child a cock and a pome
granate. This child is on the other broader side which lies opposite to
that with the door and the two goddesses, and which has two subordinate
standing figures at the one end and one at the other, corresponding to the
Horse opposite ; whereas the ends of the two narrower sides are occupied
with four very beautiful Harpies carrying off" maidens. However appropri
ate and inteUigible this secondary subject may be, to which the figures in
the principal representation were at first playfuUy referred in a variety
of ways, it is nevertheless difficult to give a definite and particular ex
planation of the latter from the artistically available details of native
Greek mythology and symbolism, which are for the most part scanty in
themselves or in their bearings, ambiguous as to time and place, and
totally destitute of connexion. With regard to coloured ornaments,
besides the blue of the ground, we perceive traces in the red peak of the
helmet, and that the fillets of the pUnths and on the thrones, which are in
lower relief, had been painted.

58 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, II.
There are in London specimens of far earlier art and in coarser stone
from Xanthus, a stele with two Uons upon it, several animals from a waU
built at the time of the Romans, partly engraved, Lycia, p, 174, Of great
antiquity also are pieces of a frieze similar to that of Assos, a bear, a
stag, a lion tearing a stag, a satyr running with a branch of a tree ; a
narrower frieze with fighting cocks and other birds, four winged sphinxes
from a tomb, and a couchant sphinx of perfect workmanship in the severe
style, (fee. The lion and buU are prevailing subjects in Lycian sculpture
(Lycia, p, 173), and Uons are said to inhabit stiU the Lycian mountains
(p, 182). All the monuments in the new Lycian Museum are from Xan
thus ; Sir Charles Fellows has only brought with him drawings and a few
casts from other cities, Tlos, Telmessus, Pinara, Myra, Kadyanda,]

F, STYLE OF THE FORMATIVE ART.

91. Although when we take into account the widely dif
fused cu tivation of art, the difference in character of the
Doric and Ionic races, and the want of a central point, it is
not to be expected that art in a time of such intense striving
should everywhere have advanced in the same way ; we can
still observe, however, certain general changes which neces-
_^ sarily arose in the progressive development of Hellenic art.
They consist chiefly in this, that the forms passed over from
their original poverty and rudeness in characterizing into an
exuberance of expression, directed on the one hand to the
exhibition of strength, energy and activity, and on the other
to the display of elegance which at this period had to supply
the want of grace. The sculptures to which this tendency
gave rise are said to be executed in " the old Greek style," in
stead of which they were formerly always miscalled Etruscan.
3. After Winckelmann Lanzi perceived stiU more clearly the true
relation of these styles.— L. Lanzi, Notizie deUa Scultura degU antichi e
del vari suoi stUi (Sec. ed. 1824. German by Lange, L. 1816), c. 2 deUo
stilo Etrusco. [Zoega Bassir. ii. p. 57 ; de Obel. p. 222, who first ap-
pUed to them the term of hieratic]
1 92. The forms of the body in these sculptures are exces
sively muscular, the joints and sinews extremely prominent,
- whereby all the contours are rendered hard and sharp. This
hardness was manifested in a high degree by Gallon, less al
ready by Canachus, but too much sharpness in the delinea-
tion of the muscles was even still objected to the style of the
•> Attic masters about the 75th Olympiad. However, this very
severity of design led to that fidelity to nature which is in
most particulars so much admired in the .ffigina marbles.
4 With this force of design are usually combined short and com
pact proportions, although an excessive lengthening of the
figures is not unseldom to be found, more however in paint-
5 ings than sculptures. The gestures have often something

e

STYLE OF THE FORMATIVE ART. 50
violent (a tendency which was very much favoured by the fre
quent representation of mythological battle scenes), but even
where there is great animation there is still a certain stiff
ness, something abrupt and angular.
2. Duriora et Tuscanicis proxima CaUon atque Hegesias, Quintil.
Inst, xii, 10. Canachi rigidiora quam ut imitentur veritatem, Cic. Brut.
18, 70. Oix rd T^f ¦jra.T^xiag i^yxsixg iari ' "Hymiov xxi rav xft(pl K^nixv
rou N>]o'/6JT>j!', xTia^iyftivx (adstricta) xxi vsv^uiri xxi trxXvj^d xxi dx^ifiag
d'jrarirxfiivx ralg y^xfiftalg. Lucian Prsec. Rhet. 9. Demetr. De Elocut.
§. 14, says that the earlier rhetorical style was unperiodic, but Tri^is^ea-
fiivog, Uke the ancient dyxT^fixrx, whose rixvn was avaroT^ri xxi inxviryig.
3. With such a truth to nature as excites our wonder, there are
united in the .^gina marbles many singularities, such as the prominence
given to the cartilage of the breast, the peculiar intersection of the mus-
culus rectus, and the peaked form of the knee which is also much bent.
Wagner (§. 90.) p. 96. The Hermes xyo^xlog erected about the 64th Olym
piad seems to have possessed equal merit as regards fideUty to nature,
and was even in the time of Lucian (Zeus Tragod. 33) a study for brass-
casters. Wiener Jahrb. xxxviii. p. 282.
4. Short proportions, especiaUy in the SeUnuntine metopes (the draw
ing of which is also determined by the endeavour to exhibit every part
of the body in the gteatest possible breadth). In the jEgina marbles
the heads, especiaUy in the lower parts, are large, the breast long and
broad, the waist short in proportion, and the thighs short compared with
the legs. Other examples of short proportions §. 96. No. 4, 5, 6, 10, 12,
16, 19. Comp. §. 99. No. 1, 2, 3, 6. Examples of slender 'Jiroportions
§. 96. No. 20, 21, 23. Comp. §. 99. No. 4, 5, also 9, 10.
93. But that antique love of elegance is shown in the 1
neatly and regularly folded drapery (comp. §. 69) ; the curi
ously braided or wire-like curling and symmetrically ar- 2
ranged hair ; then in the peculiar mode of holding the finger, 3
which always recurs in the grasping of sceptres, staffs and the
like, and also, with female figures, in tucking up the garments ; •
in the buoyant method of walking on the fore part of the 4
foot, and numerous other particularities. Of a kindred nature 3
is the demand for parallelism and symmetry in the grouping
of a number of figures.
1. See §. 96. No. 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 16, 17. Besides the stiff'ened and flat
tened temple-drapery the taste of the age for elegant and many-folded
garments must be taken into account. It prevailed chiefly in Ionia, and
went out at Athens with the time of Pericles. Tirriyo(p6^oi, d^xxiu
axrif^xrt -hxix-w^oi. The author's Minervse PoUadis sedis, p, 41 ,
2. So in the .ffigina marbles (even in the pubes), comp. §. 96. No. 1, 7,
12, 14, 16. 17. This also was derived from the custom of higher and
more poUshed Ufe at that time, and which was especiaUy observed and
maintained at festivals. Asius ap. Athen. xii, 525 F. B«S/^£(» 'Hg«ioi/
ifiTri'jrXiyf/.ivov. ' A^nvx vx^x'TTi^'hiyfiivy). Pollux li, 35.

60 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. II.
3. See No. 14, 15, 16, 17, 21. They worshipped primore digito in
erectum polUcem residente, Appul. Met. iv. p. 90, Bip. Offering-boxes,
incense, <fec. were presented with three fingers. Aristoph. Vesp. 95.
Porphyr. de abstin. ii, 15, Ovid, P. ii, 673, Lactant, Inst, v, 19.
94. There prevail in old Greek art certain fundamental
forms in the shape of the head which had their origin partly
in the ancient imperfection of art, partly in a degraded con
ception of the national features, and which, by frequent appli
cation in famous schools of art, almost attained a typical con
sideration, and hence were even adhered to when art had
already made great advancement in the drawing of the rest
of the body. To these belong on the whole a retreating fore
head, peaked nose, the mouth drawn in with the corners
turned up, flat elongated eyes, prominent angular chin, lank
cheeks, and high ears.
1, Vultum ab antique rigore variare, was Polygnotus' merit in paint
ing. Plin. xxxv, 35,
2, Comp, the Apollo of Canachus §. 86 with the statues of .^gina,
and §. 96. No. 5, 12, 13, 14, 16, together with the coins §. 98.
95. The peculiarity of the ^ginetan style, judging from
the allusions in ancient authors and the character of the
works preserved (§. 90, 3, and 96. No. 3), seems to have con
sisted partly in a rigid adherence to the antique, partly in a
very accurate and studious imitation of nature, and therefore
(conformably with the character of the Doric race), in a very
conscientious, but certainly not a free manner of exercising
art. TjoVof rrig i^yxtjixg 6 Aiyivxiog, 'w'Kxnr ix% ii Alyivxix, and the Uke. Paus.
i, 42. ii, 30, vii, 5, viu, 53. x, 36, 3. who accurately distinguishes therefrom
ruv ' Arrixav rd d^%xiLrxrx, as well as the Aiyvirrix, vii, 6. Hesych.
Aiyivrrrixx 'i^yx rovg avfifit^yixnag (comp. §. 68, Rem. 3) dviqixvrxg.

G. REMAINS OF THE PLASTIC ART (d. A. K. PL. 9 — 14.)
96. It is difiicult to point out accurately the remains of
the old Greek style, for this reason that, keeping altogether
out of view its long continuance in Etruria, even in Greece
consecrated gifts for temples were at all times intentionally
executed in a stiff and over-ornate style. This is called the
hieratic or archaistic style. No wooden statues of this period
have been preserved, and as to sculptures in metal, besides
the analogous works in Etruria, nothing has come down to us
but one very stiff antique figure in bronze.
No. 1. This figure served as the foot of a vessel. Inscription (C. I. n.
6) : TlnT^vxQxng xve9isxi. [It is very bold to understand here the famous
Samian.] In Paciaudi, Mon. Pelop. ii. p, 51. CoUectio Antiq. Mus. Nan.

REMAINS OF THE PLASTIC ART. 61
n. 29, 276. Its genuineness is doubted by Count Clarac, Melanges d' An
tiq. p. 24. Panofka Cab. PourtalSs pi. 13. p. 42. The exceUent bronze
figure of which an account is given §. 422. R. 7. must also be mentioned
here as a chef d'oeuvre of an early Peloponnesian school of art.
2. The Lampadephorus a master- work of early Peloponnesian schools,
§. 422. R. 7.
3. Early Greek bronze in Tubingen about 6 in. high, see Griineisen
in the Kunstbl. 1835. No. 6 sqq. also publ. separately 8vo. The style
.(Eginetan, the features however more natural, the figure also more slen
der. The i^iKxsix of Amphiaraus 1 Pandarus according to Thiersch, but
evidently a charioteer, urging and at the same time restraining,
4. Bronze Minerva from Besangon, hieratic, the head fine, pieces de
rapport of silver.
5, Centaurs in bronze §, 389, R, 2.
There was an ancient species of working in the same ma
terial — engraved designs — of which very antique specimens,
and an excellent monument from the .^Iginetic school, have
been preserved.
6. Graffito in bronze, a stag torn in pieces by two lions, in a very old
style. To be regarded as an example of many similar works in elder
Greece, Gerhard, Ant, Bildwerke Cent. I, Tf 80, 1.
7. Very thin bronze plate with embossed figures, very antique, the
eyes of Uttle balls, five men, four women ; I explain them to be Argo
nauts and Lemnian women. Cab, Pourtal^s, vignette,
8. A Bronze Discus from .SIgina with two figures referable to the
Pentathlon, a leaper with leaping-weights and a javeUn-thrower (with
the dyxvKirzov dxovriov), very natural and careful in design. E, Wolf,
Ann. d. Inst, iv, p. 75. tv. B.
The stone statues of the old style which are best known, be
sides those which have been already mentioned §. 86, 90, might
be classified according to their style, somewhat in this way.
9. ApoUo, a colossus, first executed. Ross in the Kunstbl. 1836, No. 12,
simUar smaller statue at Thera, Ross Kunstbl. 1836, No 18. [His Inselreise
i. s. 34. 81,] small curls of stone, tresses on the shoulders, breast full and
broad, athletic, striding somewhat with the left leg, as in the colossus of
Naxos, and the fragments of the DeUan [are these latter sufficient to deter
mine this 1 The Therseic ApoUo, one of the most remarkable monuments
of early antiquity, now in the Theseion at Athens, engraved in A. SchoU's
MittheUungen Tf. iv, 8, cf. Schneidewin's PhUologus i. s. 344. Not less
important the statue of the sedent Athena on the acropolis, A. SchoU
Tf. i. with which a smaUer supplementing one also on the acropoUs cor
responds. Cf, BuU, 1842. p. 186,]
10. Statues in the sacred way of the Branchidse. Notwithstanding
their extreme simplicity and rudeness they come down, according to the
inscriptions, as far as the 80th Olympiad. Ionian Antiq. T. 1. new ed.
Amalthea iii, 40. C. I. n. 39, and p. xxvi.

62 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. ll.
11. PaUas of the VUla Albani. Winckelm. Mon. Ined. P. I. p. 18, n.
17. Werke vii. Tf. 4.
12. Penelope in the Pio-Clementino Museum and Chiaramonti pub-
Ushed by Thiersch, Kunstblatt 1824. p. 68 sqq. Epochen p. 426, and R.
Rochette, Mon. Ined. pi. 32, 1. 33, 3. comp. p. 102, 420, The beautiful
terracotta with four figures Canina Tusculo tv. 3.
13. The Dresden PaUas (no. 150), 'Ek orjo/SoXJi. Imitation of a draped
wooden statue with reference to the Panathenaic peplos (on which
Bockh Tragic, Princ, p, 192, the author's Minervse PoUadis sedis, p. 26),
The reUef, which represents the battle of the giants wrought in embroi
dery, is with good reason considered to be in the improved style. Au
gusteum 9, 10, Bottiger's Andeutungen, p, 57, Schorn, Amalthea ii.
s, 207. Meyer's Gesch. Tf. 5. A.
14. Herculanean PaUas in the hieratic style, gUt and painted. MU-
Ungen, Un. Mon. Ser. i. pi. 7. p. 13. comp. §. 368, 6.
15. Artemis from Pompeii in a similar style, tending to the Etruscan
taste, of Luna marble and painted 4 palmi high. Winckelm. W. v. s. 20,
44, 200. M, Borbon, ii. tv. 8. comp. §. 363.
16. Among the archaistic statues of Apollo there is one particularly
worthy of notice in the Chiaramonti Museum (^A^vuog of Argos?).
Gerhard, Ant. BUdwerke i. Tf. 11.
17. Giustiniani Vesta, remarkable for its columnar figure, and flute-
Uke folds, probably conditioned by architectonic purposes. It is doubt
ful if it came from Athens. Raccolta 87. Winckelm. W. vii, Tf 4.
Hirt, Gesch, der Bild. Kunst, s. 125, Thiersch, Epochen, s. 134. There
are different figures allied to the Giustiniani Vesta by short proportions,
large heads, rectilinear folds of the double chiton, and a pecuUar inter
mediate stage between antique austerity and naive grace ; they aU seem
to represent Attic maidens in procession, or costuming themselves there
for, especiaUy in the Herculanean bronze figures, M. Borb. ii, 4 — 7, and
the others put in juxtaposition with these, §. 422, R. 7.
The reliefs in stone may be arranged somewhat as follows
(it must, however, be remarked that only a few can with cer
tainty be assigned to the period whose style they nearly
represent). 18. Samothracian relief with Agamemnon, Talthybius and Epeius.
From a judgment-seat, according to Stackelberg, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 220.
After the 70th 01. (on account of the fl, C. I. n. 40. Clarac, Melanges, p.
19), but executed in a very ancient manner. Tischbein u. Schorn's Ho
mer nach Antiken, H. ix. Tf. 1. MiUingen, Un. Mon. Ser. ii. pi. 1, Am
althea ui. s. 35. Clarac, M, de Sculpt, pi. 116. Comp. Volkel's Nach
lass, s. 171.
19. The so-called relief of Leucothea ; a mother presenting her child
to a chUd-fostering deity {xov^or^i(pog Sek). Winck. Mon. In. I. i. p.
67. n. 66. Zoega Bassir. 1. tv. 41. Winckelm. W. ui. Tf. 3. Comp.
Panofka, Ann. d. Inst, iv, p, 217 (Birth of Hera), [The stele of Aristion
£gyo» ' A^iaroxhiovg, exceUent figure of a Marathonomachos with traces
of colours in the Theseion 'E<p£^ejif «j;^«(o>ioy, Tv. 75. i. p. 127 sq. N.

REMAINS OP THE PLASTIC ART. 63
Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 4. Tf. 1, Sch6U MittheU. Tf. 1, In SchoU. Tf. 2, 4.
there is also the large reUef on the acropoUs of a female figure ascending
a chariot, in which grace is remarkably combined with antiqueness.
The bas-reUef Despuiges §. 364. R. 8 is far more antique.
20. Theft of the Tripod— a subject early cultivated (§. 89. Rem. 3),
probably much employed at the consecration of tripods, which very often
occurred at Delphi, Thebes and Athens. The base at Dresden, n. 99
(August. 6 — 7), can be best explained as the stand of a tripod which was
won as a prize in an dyav Xxf/.Ttxiovx"?- The reUefs in Paciaudi, Mon.
Pelop. i. p. 114 (from Laconia), carry us back to the same original.
Mon. du. M. Napol. ii. pi. 35 (in the Louvre, n. 168. Clarac, pi. 119), Zo
ega ii. tv. 66 (ViUa Albani). The subject was already treated in ancient
vase-pictures in a more free and lively manner. Comp. especiaUy Fr.
Passow in Bottiger's Archaol. und Kunst, i, s, 126, [In one only ; only
in one reUef also on a sarcophagus at Cologne, Verein der Alterthums-
freunde. Bonn 1846. vii. s, 94, where 46 monuments are coUected, to
which others also wiU be added.]
21. ReconcUiation of Hercules, before whom advances Athena, and
whom Alcmena (!) foUows, with the deities of Delphi, who are followed by
Hermes and the Charites as the deities of peace and friendship, from
the weU of a Corinthian temple {vi^iarofnov, puteal sigillatum) in the
possession of Lord Guilford. DodweU, Alcuni Bassir. 2 — 4. Tour ii. p.
201. comp. Leake, Morea ui. p. 246. Gerhard, Ant. BUdwerke i. Tf 14
— 16 (Procession of the new-born Aphrodite to Olympus, also Welcker,
Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 328). Panofka, Ann. ii. tv. F. p. 146 (Marriage of
Hercules and Hebe). — This Corinthian reUef treated in greatest detail
by K. W. Bouterweck in Schorn's Kunstblatt, 1833, Nos. 96—99, who
also endeavours to prove that it represents the introduction of Hercules
to Olympus and his marriage with Hebe, [The author repeats the above
explanation in the Dorians i. 431 and D, A. K, xi, 42, Gerhard his in the
text to the Ant. BUdw, 2 Lief. 1844, s, 194—207, B, Braun also takes
the representation to be a marriage scene, but as Her, and Hebe, in his
Tages s, 10, and 0. Jahn agrees with him. Archaol. Aufs. s. 108. 110 — 113.]
22. Altar of the Twelve Gods from the Villa Borghese in the Louvre,
No. 378, an exceUent work nobly conceived, and executed with extreme
care and industry. Beneath the twelve deities are the Charites, Horse,
and Moerse. Perhaps an imitation of the ^ufi,6g iulixx ^iZv of the Pisis
tratidse about the 64th Olympiad. Visconti, Mon. Gabini, tv. agg. a. b.
0. Winckelm. W. iii. Tf. 7, 8, M. BouiU. ui, 66. Clarac, pi. 173, 174.
SimUar groupings: the CapitoUan puteal with twelve deities, Winck
elm. Mon. In. no. 5. M. Cap. iv. tb. 22. Winckel. W. iu. Tf. 4 ; the ara
tonda of the Capitol with ApoUo, Artemis, Hermes, M. Cap, iv. tb, 66,
Winckelm, W. iii, Tf 5 ; another from the Mus, of Cavaceppi with Zeus,
Athena, Hera, Welcker's Zeitschrift i, ii, Tf. 3, n. 11. Comp. Zoega,
Bassir. ii. tv. 100, 101.
23. Anathemata for victories in musical games in the most ornate
hieratic style, Apollo, frequently accompanied by Leto and Artemis, as
Pythian singers to the cithern, making libation after the victory ; a god
dess of victory pouring out. Zoega, Bassir. ii. tv. 99 ; Mon. du M. Na
pol. iv. pi. 7, 9, 10 (Clarac, pi. 120, 122) ; Marbles of the Brit. Mus. ii.

64 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. II,
pi, 13. Fragment from the Elgin CoUection in the Brit, M. R. xv. 103 ;
from Capri in Hadrava, tv. 4. As a frieze ornament in terracotta, Brit.
M. no. 18. — ApoUo in the same costume singing a psean to the cithern,
whose cords he grasps with the left {-^xKhii), and strikes at the same
time with the plectron in the right {x^ixu) Mon. du M. Napol. iv. pi. 8 ;
quite Uke the Samian bronze statue of BathyUus in the costume of ApoUo.
Appul. Florid, p. 128. Bip. Anacreont. 29, 43. — Comp. Welcker, Ann. d.
Inst. V, p, 147. [§. 361, 4.]
24. Sacrifice for a victory to Athena-Polias, who is clearly recognised
by the guardian-serpent, oixov^og o(pis, in several reUefs, which — with a
not unfrequent extension of the original signification — were placed on
the cippi of warriors. Mon. du M, Napol, iv. pi. 11. Amalthea ui. s. 48.
Comp. R. Rochette, Mon. In. i. p. 288, 426. Welcker, Ann. d. Inst. v. p.
162. This representation also on a marble discus M. Borbon. x. 11.
The stele has the aphlaston. [AveUino Casa di Pompeji 1840. tav. 4. p.
57 — 80 whore the Salaminian victory of Ajax is indicated. Comp. Annali
d. Inst. V. p. 162. R. Rochette Mon. Ined. p. 228. 426.]
The following reliefs in particular may serve to present
more clearly to view the transition from the old-Greek style
to the improved style of the following period.
25. Hercules kneeling on the hind (Trxvrx viu^ahn). Combe, Marbles
of the Brit. M. U. pi. 7. Specimens, pi. 11. The posture also remained
nearly the same in later art. See Anthol, Pal, ii. p. 663, Plan, 96. [The
fine group found in Pomp. pubUshed by Gaet. d'Ancora, N. 1805, 4to,
and in the M, d. I, iv, 6, with a simUar one in marble, AnnaU xvi, p. 176
by H. KeU,]
26, Castor as horse-tamer with the Castorian dog from the Tibur-
tine ViUa of Hadrian. Combe ii, pi. 6. Specimens, pi. 14.
27. Festal procession of a Satyr and three Maenads, in the ancient
solemnity of style. Inscription : KxXkifixxog ii^oiti. M. Cap. iv. tb. 43.
28. Cippus with the figure of the deceased (as a ^511?) leaning upon a
staff, giving a grasshopper to a dog, near Orchomenos. Clarke, Travels
iu. p. 148. Dodwell, Tour i. p. 243. The figure in a relief at Naples from
the grave of a Campanian named Meddix (according to the inscription)
[The inscription does not belong to the stele, and is now even separated
from it] is very similar, only it is clad in a shorter dress, and has an oil-
vessel (xsjxu&of) suspended from the wrist as a symbol of gymnastics. R.
Rochette, Mon. Ined. i. pi, 63. p. 261. Odysseus with the dog Argos ac
cording to Welcker (as weU as R. Rochette and the Catal. del Mus. Bor
bon.) Rhein. Mus. ui, 4. s. 611 [which is however an error. Mus, Borbon.
xiv, 10].
Works of the hieratic style 'also in terracotta are much
more common, and are undoubtedly genuine works of this
period. 29. Those relief-figures are genuine antiques which were found at
Melos, without a ground, probably from a votive shield, representing
Perseus as slayer of the Gorgon, and BeUerophon as vanquisher of the

ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES. 66
Chimsera. MilUngen, Un. Mon. Ser. ii. pi. 2, 3. [Also Alcseus and Sap
pho in the Brit. Mus. stiU unpublished.]
30. Terracotta relief from Jigina, the Hyperborean Artemis riding
with Eros in a chariot drawn by griffins. Welcker, Mon. In. d. Inst. tv.
18 b. Ann. ii. p. 66.

THE ART OF ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES.
97. The arts of engraving precious stones and coin-stamps l
gradually arose, as smaller and less regarded ramifications of
the plastic art, into which life did not until late extend from the
main branches. Both served as their first object the purposes
of economy and traffic. The art of stone-engraving was occu- 2
pied with signet-rings, sipeayTbig, the demand for which was
increased by the ancient practice of sealing up stores and trea
sures, but was also partly satisfied by metal or even wooden 3
seals with devices of no significance. However, the art of
working in hard and precious stones at a very early period
advanced, after the example of the Phcenicio- Babylonian
stone-cutters (§. 238, 240), from a rude cutting out of round
holes to the careful engraving of entire figures in antique se
vere style.
2. Regarding the sealing of rxfiiiix, Bottiger, Kunstmythol. S. 272.
and elsewhere. On the old metal signet-rings, Atejus Capito ap. Macrob.
Sat. vu, 13. Plin. xxxui, 4. On the ^^iirofi^oiroi, ^^mnlinroi (in part ac-
tuaUy made from worm-eaten wood, and partly seals in imitation of it),
see Sahnas. Exc. PUn, p, 653, b. It is doubtful whether the ring of Po
lycrates was engraved. Strab. xiv. p. 638; Paus, viii, 14, 6, Clemens
Protr. ui. p, 247. Sylb, for the affirmative. Plin, xxxvii, 4 distinctly op
posed to that opinion: comp, Herod, iii, 41, acp^nylg x?"<'^^^'^os cfix^xyiou
X('3oy ; Theodorus certainly did nothing more than erwhase it [si fabula
vera]. According to Diog, Laert, i, 2, §, 57, it was a law of Solon : Ixx-
rv7iioy'Aii(pm fj.'fi iifivxi a^^xyiix cpvT^xmiv roi T^x^ivrog ixxrvTiiov. The
same writer, according to Hermippus, caUed the father of Pythagoras a
S«xTi/X(oyAi/(pof (viii, 1),
3. On Scarabsei (§. 175. 230, 2) with figures, which almost entirely
consist of round rudely formed holes placed close to one another, Meyer,
Kunstgesch. i, s, 10. Tf 1. An excellent coUection, partly of this sort
and partly of ancient and careful workmanship, but chiefly Etruscan, is
furnished in the Impronti Gemmarii d. Inst. Cent. i. 1 — 50. iu, 1 — 55.
See besides, Lippert, Dactyl. Ser. i. P. ii. n. 79, 496. ii, 1, 431. ii, 103.
MiUin, Pierres Gravees In6d. 6, 7, 13, 26, 26, 60, 61. Specimens, p. Ixxxi.
Comp. Lessing, Antiq. Briefe Th. i. s. 165, Facius, Misoellaneen zur
Gesch. der Kunst, im Alterthum, iv, 2, s, 62 (where also are noticed the
pretended (7(p^xy7ieg of mythology). Gurlitt, iiber die Gemmenkunde,
Archseol. Schriften, s. 97 ff. Hirt, Amalthea ii. s, 12. D. A, K, Tf 16.
98. Coined silver money had even about the 8th Olym
piad taken the place of the bar-money formerly used. It was

66 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IL
introduced by the Argive king Pheido, and ^gina became
the first officina of coining. But for a long time they were
satisfied with the simplest devices on the convex obverse of
the coins, with rudely indicated tortoises (in .Slgina), shields
(in Bceotia), bees (at Ephesus), and the like. On the flat re
verse remained the impression of a projection {quadratum in-
cusum) by which the coin was held fast while receiving the
stamp. The heads of gods and complete figures first made
their appearance at this period; and the depressed fields of
the reverse became gradually filled with representations more
and more ingenious; different schools of coining were devel
oped, as in the characteristically but not elegantly designed
numi incusi (with raised and at the same time depressed
figures) of Lower Italy, and the coins of Macedonia and Chal-
cidice which were executed in a very sharp style and with
much delicacy of detail.
1. On Pheido and the ancient iEgina standard of money, the author's
^ginet. p. 51, 88. [Bockh's Metrologie s. 76.]
2. The most unshapely x^^'"'"^ of Mgrna. (in Mionnet's Empreintes,
n. 616 sqq.) certainly reach very far back. Many of the Corinthian coins
with the Pegasus and Koppa, and the Boeotian with the shield approach
the same epoch. Levezow iiber mehrere im Grossherz, Posen gef uralte
Griech, Munzen, B, 1834,
3, On the Attic coins in place of the rude Gorgoneion (comp, Cou-
sinery, Voy, de la Maced, u. p. 119. pi. 4) came the head of Minerva with
the antique and bizarre profile (Mionnet, Descr. pi. 41, 50, 54. Empr.
603, 4, 5), and the owl on the reverse, a type which continued for a long
time. Coins of Athens in the imperial cabinet of coins, Weiner Jahrb.
1838. Ixxxii. s. 28. — The numi incusi (comp. StiegUtz, Archseol. Unter-
haltungen ii. s, 64) of Sybaris, Siris, Poseidonia, Pandosia, Taras, Caulonia,
Crotona, Metapontum, Pyxoeis, extend from about the 60th to the 80th
01, (Sybaris destroyed, 67, 3, Pyxoeis founded 77, 2, Siris conquered
about 50, but Sirites continued to exist), Mionnet, Descr, pi. 58 — 60,
Micali, ItaUa tv. 58, 60, MUlin, Mag, Bncycl, 1814, T, ii. p, 327,— Coins
of Rhegium and Messana with the hare, and mules in harness (Mionnet,
pi, 61, 5, Combe, M. Brit, tb, 3, 27), are of the time of AnaxUas (70—
76), Aristot, in PoUux v, 12, 75; others of Messana have the types of
the Samians who had settled there (70, 4), Gott. G, A, 1830. s. 380.
Elegantly executed old coins of Syracuse and Gela. [Coins with the head
of Theron, probably after 01. 77 ; Visconti Iconogr, Gr. A. ii. p, 6 sq.]— The
coins of Alexander I. (01. 70 to 79) which were imitated by the Bisaltse,
are in a severe but very excellent style of art ; the old style appears very
elegant on the coins of Acanthus, also of Monde. Lion and bull on coins
of Acanthos explained from Herod, vii, 126. by Pinder, p. 20. But the
Uon there only attacks camels. The Thasian coins (0A) with the satyr
embracing the nymph (on others probably also from thence the satyr
pursues the nymph) exhibit the art advancing from coarse caricature
(comp. §. 75*) to the cultivation of elegant forms. At Lete in Mygdonia
and Orrhescos in the same country these and other antique coins were

PAINTING. 67
imitated in barbarian workmanship (with a centaur instead of the satyr).
Mionnet, Descr. pi. 40, 44, 60. Suppl. u. p. 545. iii. pi. 6, 8. Cadalvfene
Recueil de M6d. p. 76. Cousinery, Voy. dans la Mac6d. T. i. pi. 6, 7.
Comp. Gott. 6. A. 1833. s. 1270. — The figures of animals and monstra
especiaUy are also often very antique on the old gold staters of Asia Minor,
of Phocsea, Clazomense, Samos, Lampsacus, Cyzicus. (The combination
of Uon and buU on the Samian staters reminds one of oriental conjunc
tions.) See Sestini, Descr. degU Stateri antichi. Firenze 1817, and in
particular Mionnet, Suppl, v, pi. 2, 3. Comp, besides StiegUtz, Versuch
einer Binrichtung antiker Miinzsammlungen zur Brlauterung der Ge
schichte der Kunst. Leipz. 1809. D. A. K. Tf. 16, 17.

4. PAINTING.

99. At this period the art of painting, by means of Cimon 1
of Cleonse and others, made such progress, especially in the
perspective treatment of subjects, as enabled it to appear in
great perfection at the very beginning of the next period.
Vase-painting, which had been introduced into Italy and 2
Sicily from its two metropolises Corinth and Athens, remained
more restricted in its resources, so that the works especially
of the Chalcidian Greeks in Lower Italy took Attic models as
their ground-work both in subjects and forms. In the now 3
prevailing species with black figures on reddish-yellow clay
were exhibited all the peculiarities of the old style : excessive
prominence of the chief muscles and joints, stifily adhering
or regularly folded drapery, constrained postures or abrupt
movements of the body ; — but at the same time, owing to the
facility of exercising this art, there were a great variety of
manners belonging to particular places of manufacture, often
with an intentional striving at the bizarre.
1. Cimon of Cleonse, PUn. xxxv, 34. M\. V. H. viii, 8 (on the con
trary we must read Mixuv, [who improved on the invention of Bumarus
§. 74] in Simonides, Anthol. Pal. ix. 758, also perhaps App. T. ii. p. 648),
invented catagrapha, obliqum imagines, i. e, obUque views of figures, from
the side, from above, from below ; and stimulated to more exact details
in the body and drapery. That was a great picture which was dedicated
by the architect Mandrocles in the Herseum — ^the bridge over the Bos
porus and the passage of Darius (Herod, iv, 88). Pictures in Phocsea
about the 60th 01, Herod, i. 164. Mimnes mentioned by Hipponax 01,
60, painted triremes [Aglaophon in Thasos, father and master of Polyg
notus and Aristophon.]
2. It is proper to refer here to the question as to whether the great
mass of the vases of Volci (respecting their discovery §, 267), which
probably belong to the time between the 65th and 95th 01,, and by their
subjects and inscriptions decidedly refer to Athens, were manufactured
at Volci by Attic colonists or metoeci, or whether they came by means of
commerce from Athens or a Chalcidian colony of Athens. Comp, MilUn-

68 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. H.
gen. Trans, of the Roy. Soc, of Lit. u. 1. p, 76, Gerhard, Rapporto int,
i Vasi Volcenti, Ann. d. Inst. ui. p. 1 (Mon. tv. 26, 27). Welcker, Rhem.
Mus fiir Philol. I, ii. s. 301 (for the first view, which Gerhard supports,
BuU 1834. p. 76).— R. Rochette, Journ. des Sav. 1831. P6vr. Mars. The
author in Comment, Soc, Getting, vii, p, 77 (for the second as weU as Bun-
sen AnnaU vi, p, 40, R, Rochette ibid, p, 285, Journ, des Sav. 1837, p. 486
for importation. Gerhard gives up the Tyrrhenian species as such, Ann.
ix. p. 136, but supports their ItaUan origin, p. 140). Comp._ below No.
13. As to the imitation of Athenian vase-paintings in Chalcidian Nola,
Bockh has brought to Ught a remarkable instance, Procem. Lect. Hiem.
1831. 3. Among the great host of antique vase-pictures we here select some
of particular interest which belong to the different manners which were
developed in Greece itself There is an entire series of these with figures
in shadow. Stackelb, Tf 10—15. [The greatest and most remark
able of aU vases of the earlier times is that discovered by Alessandro
Francois in 1845 in the district of Chiusi, painted by Clitias, made by the
potter Ergotimus, with a cyclus of important compositions probably
grouped under a particular point of view, with 115 names of persons re
presented. An introductory account given by B. Braun Allegem. Zeit.
1845. s. 1379. BuU. 1845. p. 113, and Gerhard ibid. p. 210, and Archaol.
Zeit. 1846. s. 319.]
No. 1. The Attic prize-vase, TON AeENE0[E]N AOAON EMI, in
the possession of Mr. Burgon (MiUingen, Un. Mon. S. i. pi. 1—3. comp.
C. I. n. 33, and p. 450), representing Athena as promachos, and a con
queror in a chariot race with xivr^ov and /xxirri^. A Panathenaic vase
from .a)gina, BuU, 1830, p, 193, 1831, p. 95, one from Cyrene AnnaU vi,
p. 2873, [A host of such vases M, d, I, i. tv, 22, Gerhard Etr. u. Cam-
panisohe Vasen Tf A. B,] The numerous amphorse with different gym
nic and equestrian contests, also a cithern-singer from Volci, are in a more
elegant style and evidently merely vases for show, (Gerhard, Ann, d. Inst.
ii, p. 209, Ambrosch, ibid, v, p. 64. Mon. 21, 22), as weU as some found
in Magna Grecia (the KoUer vase at Berlin, in Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. i. Tf.
5 — 7 ; iyixg iy^a\j/i vixs b. Stackelb. Tf 26, the only example from Athens;
a peculiar style of painting, with short stiff figures, from a smaU Athen
ian tripod ; tKe Lamberg vase at Vienna, the least antique, in Laborde i.
73, 74 ; comp. Panofka, M. Bartoldiano, p. 65 sqq.). On the destination
of these vases, Brondsted, Trans, of the Roy. Soc. II. i. p. 102.
2. Vase with the slaying of the Minotaur, in a stiff antique style ;
the female figures with drapery checked in different colours and without
folds. Work of the potter Taleidas ; found in Sicily, but probably of the
Attic school, as the subject is presented exactly in the same way on an
Attic vase in the possession of Mr. Burgon. Most accurately given in
Maisonneuve, Introd. pi. 38. [Gerhard Auserl. Vasen i. Tf 1 — 4.]
3. Birth of Pallas in a style very similar to that of the preceding
vase. From Volci, where there were a great number of the kind. MicaU,
Ant. popoli Italian!, Monum. tv. 80, 2. [Gerhard Auserl. Vasen. i. Tf. 1 — 4.]
4. Vase with boar-hunt by a hero Antiphatas, a prize for a victory
in the horse-race, from a tomb near Capua with Dorian inscriptions.
Very symmetrical arrangement of the figures, Hancarville, Antiq. Etr.
Grec. et Rom. i. pi. 1 — 4. Maisonneuve, Introduction, pi. 27.

PAINTING. 69
5. Hermes with the three goddesses hastening to Paris, as on the
coffer of Cypselus, Paus. v, 19, 1. Similar to the preceding vase: paral
lel direction of the limbs ; regularly folded drapery, slender proportions.
MilUngen, Coll. de CoghiU, pi. 34.
6. Hercules with the lion's hide, but at the same time a Boeotian
shield, violently springing upon Cycnus (comp. the statue on the Amy
clsean throne, Paus. iii, 18), in i\Iillingen, Un. Mon. S. i. pi. 38.
7. AchiUes dragging the body of Hector (in gigantic form) behind
his chariot, often on SiciUan vases, in R. Rochette, Mon. In. i. pi. 17, 18.
On a simUar one at Canino the small winged figure of a hero represents
the eidolon of Patroclus, R. Rochette, p. 220.
8. Departure of Eriphyle from Amphiaraus and Adrastus, two groups
on a Magna Grecian vase. Sootti, lUustrazioni di un vaso Italo Greco.
N. 1811. 4to. [MiUingen Peint. de Vases, pi. 20, 21. The author's D.
A. K. Denkm. i. Tf. 19, 98. Minervini in the BuUett. Nap. ii. p. 122.
iii. p. 48, 52. 0. Jahn Archteol. Aufs. S. 139 f]
9. Memnon overcome by Achilles and carried away by Eos, two
groups on an Agrigentine vase (but with Attic inscription) of powerful
and finished design, MilUngen, Un. Mon, i, pi, 4, 5,
10. Pyrrhus slaying young Astyanax before the waUs of Troy, at the
altar of the Thymbrsean Apollo, on a Volcian vase, Mon, d, Inst. 34.
Comp. Ambrosch, Ann. iii. p. 361. [young TroUus, Ann. v. p. 251 — 54. 0.
Jahn Telephos and Troilos, S. 70.]
11. Athena, recognisable by her helmet and lance, sitting at the right
hand of Zeus, with the thunderbolt ; before them two Horse, behind the
throne Hermes and Dionysus, in a finished antique style such as prevails
at Volci. Copied in colours (red and white) in MicaU tv. 81.
12. Dionysus in the ship of the Tyrrhene pirates (an ingenious and
grandiose composition) on a cup from Volci, in the inside. On the out
side of the rim combats around two fallen heroes. Inghirami, G. Omerica
tv, 259, 260. [Gerhard Auserl. Vasen i. Tf. 49.]
13. Athenian virgins drawing water for the bridal bath from the
fountain CaUirrhoe (KAAIPE KPENE, read KxXAipp^ K^iivn), from Volci.
Brondsted, A brief descr. of thirty-two anc. Greek vases, n. 27. Comp. the
marriage-vases for Lysippides and Rhodon in Pr. Lucian, Musee Btrusque
n. 1547, 1548.
14. A traffic-scene, — sale of wool [Silphion] under the superintendence
of a magistrate, with Doric inscriptions ( A^xeaiT^xg), on a vase from
Etruria, in a bizarre style, not Attic. Mon. d. Inst. 47. Ann. v. p. 56.
MicaU tv. 97. [Cab. Durand, no. 422. Panofka Bilder antiken Lebens
Taf. xvi, 3. Inghirami Vasi fitt. tav. 260.]

70 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. III.

THIRD PERIOD. 3
FROM THE 80th TO THE 111th OLYMPIAD (460—3/6 B. C),
FROM PERICLES DOWN TO ALEXANDER.

1. THE EVENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE AGE IN RELATION TO ART.
1 100. The Persian wars awakened in Greece the slumber-
2 ing consciousness of national power. Athens was entirely
fitted, by the character of the race to which its inhabitants
belonged, to become the central point of Grecian civilization,
and availed itself, with great skill, of the means which the
3 circumstances supplied; whereby it quickly arrived at such
a degree of power as no other city ever possessed.
2. The Athenians were, in common with their kindred race, the lon
ians of Asia, susceptible, Uvely, and fond of innovation, but combined
with these qualities an energy which had there soon disappeared. To
i^xffr^^iov, ro isivov.
3. The beginning of the palmier state of Athens is fixed by Herod,
V, 78 as early as 01, 67, 4. Themistocles' popular decree for the expen
diture of the silver of Laurion on the fleet, about 73, Battle of Salamis,
75, 1. The hegemonia of the Greeks who had been under the king fell to
Athens for the Persian war, probably 77, 1, Aristides' reasonable taxa
tion ; the treasury at Delos ; the sum of the yearly tributes, (po'go;, 460
talents (afterwards 600 and 1200), Pericles removed the treasure to
Athens about 79, 3. From that time the aUies mostly became subjects,
the aUiance-treasure a state-treasure. The highest amount of treasure
before the Peloponnesian war was 9,700 talents, the yearly revenue
at that time about 1,000. Bockh, Pub. Boon. p. 396 sqq. 433. Lewis.
1 101. The great riches which at this period flowed to
Athens, whereof only a small portion was expended on the
Persian war which was indolently carried on, were at first
laid out principally in the fortification of the city, but after-
2 wards in adorning it in the most magnificent style with tem
ples, and edifices for games.
1. The building of the waUs of the Peirseus was begun by Themisto
cles in the time of the Archon Cebris before 01. 75 (according to Bockh
De archont. pseudepon. 01. 72, 1), continued 75, 3. The rebuUding of
Athens and the renovation of the walls 75, 2. About 01. 78, 4, Cimon
caused the south side of the acropolis to be strengthened (Plut. Cim. 13.
Nepos, Cim. 3), and the foundation of the long waUs to be laid, which
Pericles completed 01. 80, 3, 4, but afterwards added another wall to
them. On the three long walls, Leake's Topography by Rienseoker,
Nachtr. s. 467.

EVENTS AND SPIRIT OF THE AGE. 71
2. The Theseion was begun under Cimon, 01. 77, 4. About 01. 80, 3.
the Athenians made a proposal for a renovation at the common expense of
the temples destroyed by the Persians ; and about this time many temples
were bmlt in Attica. The Parthenon completed 01. 85, 3. The Pro-
pylsea built 86, 4 to 87, 1. The stone theatre was begun {fisrd to inativ
rd ix^tx) 70, 1, but the upper portions were not completed until the
financial administration of Lycurgus (109 — 112). The Peisianactic HaU
was formed into a picture gaUery, XloixiT^n, about 79, 3. The Odeion was
buUt by Pericles for the Panathensea before 84, 1. See the author's
Commentatt. de Phidia i. §, 5. The cost of these buildings was consi
derable ; the Propylfea cost (together with aU their appurtenances) 2012
talents (Harpocration) ; Thucydides ii, 13, says nothing in contradiction
to this. 102, While in these works of architecture a spirit of art 1
was unfolded which combined grace with majesty in the hap
piest manner, the plastic art, emancipated by means of the free
and lively spirit of democratic Athens from all the fetters of
antique stiffness, and penetrated by the powerful and magnifi
cent genius of the age of Pericles, attained through Phidias
the same culminating point. However, in conformity with 2
the character of the elder Hellenians, the admired master
pieces of that time still bore the impress of calm dignity and
unimpassioned tranquillity of soul. The spirit of Athenian 3
art soon acquired the sway throughout Greece, although art
was also cultivated in the Peloponnesus in great perfection,
especially among the democratic and industrious Argives.
3. Athenian artists about 01. 83, (De Phidia i. 14) worked for the
Delphian temple [N. Rhein. Mus. i, s, 18.] and the Phidian school about
the 86th 01. adorned Olympia and EUs with sculptures. On the state of
Argos, see the author's Dorians ii. p. 147. Lewis and TufneU.
103. The Peloponnesian war, from 01. 87, 1 ex. to 93, 4, I
destroyed in the first place the wealth of Athens, the ex
penses of the war having exceeded the amount of revenue,
and at the same time tore asunder the bond which united
the Athenian school with the Peloponnesian and other artists.
Of deeper influence was the internal change which occurred 2
during the Peloponnesian war, not without considerable co
operation from the great pestilence (01, 87, 3) which swept
away the manly race of old Athenians and left a worse
behind. Sensuality and passion on the one hand, and 3
a sophistical cultivation of the understanding and lan
guage on the other, took the place of the solid manner
of thinking, guided by sure feelings, which was a character
istic of earlier times. The Grecian people broke down the
bulwarks of ancient national principles, and, as in public life,
so also in all the arts, the pursuit of enjoyment and the desire
for more violent mental excitement, pressed more prominently
into view.

72 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Pee. IIL
1. On the expenses of the war see Bockh's Pub. Boon. i. p. 289. On
the separation of the schools of art during the war, De Phidia i. 19.
2. Tl^Hrov T£ '^5|£ xxi ig rxh'Kx rn %aKii iirl Tr'hiov dvoj^ixg ri voayifix — ori
Se ^'Sh t£ i3u xxi ¦TTXvrxxo^sv to ig xiiro xi^ix'hiov, touts xxi xxXov xxi
X^'hai^ov xxriarvj. Thucyd. ii. 63.
3. In pubUc Ufe the tribe of flatterers of the demos, Cleon, <&c. came
in the room of Olympius Pericles, who governed by the penetrating force
of his genius ; the hetserae exercised more and more influence on domestic
life; in tragedy the Tirxiinrixiirxrog and invorxrog of Euripides suited
the taste of the great public ; lyric poetry passed over into the new un
bridled and ostentatious dithyrambus, the masters of which (Melanippi-
des, Cinesias, PhUoxenus, Telestes, Phrynis, and Timotheus of MUetus)
were regarded by the more rigid as the corrupters of music, particularly
of its ethic character; whereby at the same time the art of rhythm
about the 90th 01. became more lax and irregular. The ancient orato
rical art was founded on a symmetrical construction of sentences, and
demanded the most tranquil declamation ; along with it an impassioned
and pathetic style of speaking graduaUy obtained a footing.
Particular regard must here be had to the always increasing freedom
and violence in the corporeal expression of mental emotions. According
to Xenophon the Spartan youth did not move his eyes any more than a
brazen statue (Dorians ii. p. 279. 2 Ed.). At Athens Pericles stiU preserved
" the fixed posture of countenance, the quiet' manner of walking, such an
adjustment of his dress that it did not get into disorder from any orato
rical gesture, the uniform tone of voice." Plut. Pericl. 6. Comp. SiebeUs
in Winckelm. W. viii. s. 94. Through Cleon free and violent gestures
(to r'/iv X-'?* '^i" '^X^'") invaded the oratorical platform, and the ancient
iuxoafiix of the orators disappeared. Plut. Nicias 8. Tib, Gracchus 2.
j^ischines against Timarchus, §, 25 sqq, Bekk, Demosth, t. 7rag«5rg. p,
420 R. We must imagine Demosthenes to have been highly impassioned
in gesticulation, and .ffischines to have been somewhat stiff and affected.
Lively and pathetic gesticulation on the stage began with Melanippides,
a contemporary of Alcibiades, and whom Myniscus, iEschylus' actor, on
that account called Tri^nxog. Aristot. Poet. 26, cum Intpp. Xenoph.
Sympos. 3, 11.
104. With this spirit of the times was closely connected
the tendency of those artists through whom the plastic art
after the 100th 01. attained another stage; inasmuch as
in their creations, compared with the works of the pre
vious generation, there is manifested much more sensuality
and pathos, a more disturbed equilibrium, and a more rest- .
less longing of the soul, whereby indeed art again acquired a
new world of ideas. But at the same time the propensity to
momentary enjoyments, which was a striking feature in the
Athenian people, operated as a hindrance to important pub
lic undertakings, and art was thus deprived (if we do not
take into account what was done by Conon and Lycurgus) of
the great public encouragement which was given in the time
of Pericles, until it won the favour of the Macedonian kings.

ARCHITECTONICS. 73
This relation brought about changes in the spirit of art which 3
will be seen at the close of this division, and more clearly in
the following.
2. Demosthenes complains bitterly of the poverty of pubUc and the
magnificence of private buildings in his time. Comp. Bockh, Public Econ.
i, 205 sq. Lewis. As to the works promoted by Conon, Paus. i, 1, 3. i, 2,
2. Comp. De Phidia i, 3. n, d. and in corroboration of the statement
that the temple of Zeus Soter was erected by Conon, also Isocr. Euagor.
§. 67. Under Lycurgus former works chiefly were completed, but there
was also something new. See the psephisma in Plutarch x. Orat. p. 279.
H., where perhaps we should read : ^//.it^yx Trx^xXxiStiv roig re viagolxovg
XXI ritv (Txsvodiixnv xxi ro dixr^ov to Aiov. i^siQyxirxro xxi iirtri'Kiat. xxi ro
rt arxoiov to Tlxvx^. xxi ro yv/xvxiriov ro Ai1xe(oi/ xa/riaxivxae. Comp. p. 251.
Paus. i, 29, 16. The noblest private outlay, however, stiU continued to
be that on war-horses and statues, and it is a severe reproach to Dicseo-
genes (Isasus on Dicseog. Inher. §. 44), that he aUowed dedicatory pre
sents, purchased by the person whose property he inherited for three
talents (£615), to Ue scattered about unconsecrated in the studios of
sculptors.

2. ARCHITECTONICS.

1 05. The first requisite for the prosperity of architecture,
the putting forth of every energy in order to accomplish
something great, was already exemplified in the walls built at
this period, especially those of the Peirseus, which, at the
same time that they resembled Cyclopean walls in their colos
sal size, were distinguished by the utmost regularity of exe
cution. The circuit of the waUs of the Peirseus with Munyohia measured 60
stadia ; the height was 40 Greek cubits (Themistocles wanted the double) ;
the breadth was such that during the erection two waggons laden with
stones could pass each other, the stones were xfix^ixioi, closely fitted to
one another (iv ro/xri iyyavioi), and held together without any mortar,
only with iron cramps soldered with lead. The walls of the Parthenon
were buUt in the same way ; the cylindrical blocks of the columns, on the
other hand, were connected by wooden plugs (cypress wood in the tem
ple of Sunium, Bullet, d. Inst. 1832. p, 148), [One of these plugs with its
sheath in Munich,] AU the technical details are here found in the highest
perfection, 106. Further, there was evinced in the construction of I
theatres, odeia, and other buildings for festal amusements, a
clearer and more penetrating understanding which conceived
in the distinctest manner the aim of the building, and knew
how to attain it in the most direct way. The theatron, like 2
the ancient chorus (§. 64, 1), was always still in the main an
open space for dancing (orchestra), having entrances on both
sides. Around it arose the seats, arranged so as to hold the

74 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. Ill,
greatest possible number of persons, and the elevated scaffold
ing of the stage. The building of theatres probably emanated
from Athens, but at this period it had already extended
3 over all Greece, The Odeion also, a smaller theatre with an
umbrella roof, received its form at Athens, and it is in like
4 manner probable that one of the contemporaries of Phidias
first produced at Olympia the ingenious form of the barriers
(zjZiEtf/c) of a hippodrome.
2, On the theatre at Athens §, 101, Rem. 2. That of Epidaurus, a
work of PolycUtus (about 01. 90), was the first in beauty and symme
try ; a portion of the very commodiously built stairs is stiU remaining.
[The seats are stiU almost entire ; the restoration with the stones them
selves removed from their places would be easy.] See Clarke, Travels n,
11. p. 60. Donaldson, Antiq. of Athens, Suppl. p, 41, pi, 1. The theatre
of Syracuse (comp, Houel, T. iu, pi. 187 sqq, Wilkins, Magna Grecia, ch,
2, p, 6, pi, 7, Donaldson, p. 48, pi, 4, 5) [CavaUari in Serradifalco An
tich, di SicUia iv, tv. 17—22, p, 132] was built by Democopus-MyriUa
before Sophron (01, 90), Bustath, ad Od, iu, 68, p, 1457. R. Comp. §.
289. 3. The odeion is pretended to have been built in imitation of the
tent of Xerxes, and the roof was said to have consisted of Persian masts,
hence also Themistocles instead of Pericles has been caUed the founder
(Hirt, Gesch. U. p. 18). But even Attica furnished at an early period
much longer trees than it did afterwards for the roofing of large build
ings. Plato, Critias, p. 111. On the design of an odeion §. 289,
4, On Oleoetas, the son of Aristocles, Bockh, C, I, p, 39, 237, The
author, De Phidia i, 13 ; on his x(peaig Hirt, Gesch. Ui. p. 148. It fulfiUed
the object of bringing aU the chariots round the Spina at an equal dis
tance from the normal starting-point of the circuits.
1 107. Probably also the art of arching, which was not yet
anywhere employed in temples at this period, except perhaps
in the Eleusinian Megaron, was already used in the building
2 of these theatres. According to the tradition of the ancients
it was invented by Democritus, but he perhaps only im-
3 ported it from Italy (see §, 168) into Greece. The same De
mocritus instituted, together with Anaxagoras, investigations
into the perspective design and detailed construction of the
theatrical scene; it was through him, in an especial manner,
that a philosophical spirit of inquiry began to benefit the arts.
2. Poseidon, in Seneca Bp. 90. Democr. dicitur invenisce fornicem ut
lapidum curvatura paulatim inclinatorum medio saxo (key-stone) alli-
garetur. Democritus, according to the most probable account, died 01.
94, 1, about 90 years old.
3. Vitruv. Prsef vii. Namque primum Agatharcus (§. 134) Athenis,
./Bschylo docente tragoediam, scenam fecit et de ea commentarium reU-
quit. Ex eo moniti Democr. et Anax. de eadem re scripserunt, quemad-
modum oporteat ad aciem oculorum radiorumque extensionem, certo

ARCHITECTONICS, 75
loco centre constitute, ad Uneas ratione naturaU respondere. This matter
faUs in with the last days of .Slschylus (about 01, 80), hence Aristotle,
Poet. 4, 16, ascribes soenography or perspective scene-painting to Sopho
cles first. Scenography thenceforward figured as a separate art ; about
the 90th Olympiad we find in Bretria an architect and scenographer
called Cleisthenes (Diog. Laert. ii, 125)'; afterwards there were various
others, as Budorus, Serapion in PUn. Aristot. Poet. 4, 16. Also a piotor
scasnarius in Gori Inscr. Etr. i. p. 390. Comp, §. 324.
108. With regard to the columnar ordinances, the Doric I
was at this period cultivated to a higher degree of grace
without however losing its predominant character of majesty.
The Ionic existed at Athens in a peculiar ornate form, and in 2
Ionia itself in that which was afterwards retained as the
regular canonical form. Beside these appeared about the 85th 3
Olympiad the Corinthian capital, which was unfolded by an
ingenious combination of the volute forms of the Ionic with
freer and richer vegetable ornaments, but only attained gra
dually its canonic form. Accordingly it is found single at 4
first, then multiplied, but only in subordinate portions of the
building. As a leading order it was first employed in small
honorary monuments.
3. See the story of CaUimachus' invention in Vitruv. iv, 1.
4. See §. 109. No. 5, 12, 13, 15. We find it employed throughout for
the first time in the Choregic monument of Lysicrates, which, though
elegant, is by no means to be regarded as a perfect model, 01. Ill, 2.
Stuart i. ch. 4.
109. Whilst the temples of Athens at this period bore the
character of the purest proportion, the choicest forms, and the
most perfect harmony, and a similar spirit was exhibited in
the Peloponnesus, elegance and magnificence were the quali
ties most aimed at in Ionia where the art was later of coming
into full bloom, and the Ionic style was almost exclusively
employed (with striking, indeed, but not so careful execution
in detail). The Sicilian temples on the other hand adhered
to the old Doric forms, and imposed by their gigantic size and
boldness of plan.

1. [Comparison of the dimensions of 17 temples in Serradifalco, Ant,
di SiciUa ii. p. 80, and a ooUocation of 21 SiciUan temples in ground plan.
V. tv. 43]. The Theseion, from 01. 77, 4. (§. 101. rem. 2) tiU later than
80 (§. 118). Peript. hexast. in the Doric order, 104 X 45 f of Pentelic
marble. The height of the columns more than 11, the intercolumnia 3
mod. WeU preserved, even the beautiful lacunaria. Stuart, Antiq. of
Athens iii. ch. 1. Supplem. ch. 8. pi. 1. [L. Ross to Qnatiov xxi 6 )/«oV
roS "AgEo? iv 'AS,i,vxig 1838. 8vo. Archaol. Zeit. 1844. S. 245. In oppo
sition to this Ubrichs AnnaU d. Inst. xiii. p. 75. E. Curtius in Gerhard's
Archaol. Zeit. i. S. 97].

76 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. IIL
2. The Parthenon or Hecatompedon, 50 feet larger (longer) than an
older one whose site it occupied, Hesych. Built by Ictinus and CalUcrates,
a work on it by Ictinus and Carpion. Peript. hexast. hypseth. in the
Doric order, on a high platform, entirely of Pentelic marble. Substruc
tion, Ross Kunstbl. 1835. No. 31. Consists of the encircling colonnade ;
the 'jT^ovyiiov at each end, formed by columns with raiUngs between, the
hecatompedon strictly so called, that is the cella 100 feet in length [breadth
rather, calculated after Stuart p. 8. and Le Roy p, 5, by Ideler in the
Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1812. S. 186] with 16 (or 23?) columns round the
hypsethron ; the parthenon properly so called, or chamber for the virgin
a square enclosed space around the statue ; and the closed opisthodomos
with 4 columns, to the west. The front was to the east. Entire dimen
sions 227 X 101 BngUsh feet, height 65 feet. The height of the columns
12 mod., the intercol. almost 2j, diminution of the shaft ^; the swell
^V ; corner columns 2 inches thicker. Shields hung on the architrave ; re
garding its riches in statuary §. 118. The triglyph frieze ingeniously
composed with the greatest possible saving of stone, Klenze Aphorist.
Bem. S. 368. Tf 1. Fig. 2, 3, The pure splendour of the marble was
enhanced by the gold and colours used in ornamenting the smaller fiUets
and mouldings. The temple suffered particularly on the 28th of Sept, 1687
from the Venetians, and more recently from Elgin ; but it always stiU
excites a wonderful enthusiasm. J. Spon (1675) Voy. de Grfece. Stuart
ii. ch. i. WUkins, Atheniensia, p. 93. Leake, Topography, ch. 8. Bockh
C. I. p. 177. The new editors of Stuart in the German translation (Darm
stadt 1829) i. p. 293, where there is also given at page 349 an account
of the vestiges of the old Parthenon. CockereU's plan in Brondsted, Voy.
dans la Grfece ii. pi. 38. On Heger's Investigations, Gott. G. A. 1832, s!
849. The Parthenon measured anew by J. Hoffer, Wiener Bauzeit. 1838.
N. 40 ff. [There is a model of the restored Parthenon in the gallery of the
Bodleiana at Oxford, 6| feet in length.] One also in the Brit. Museum.
3. The Proptl^a, built by Mnesicles. They formed the access to
the acropoUs as to the court of a temple, and stood in connexion with a
road leading up from the market. Carriage road to the Propylsea of
PenteUc marble slabs. L. Ross in the Kunstbl. 1836. N. 60. A grand
gate, with four subordinate doors, an Ionic portico on the outside and
on each side a Doric frontispiece, the architecture of which was 'very
skilfuUy combined with the Ionic in the interior. Comp N 5 c At the
sides project wings, the northmost of which served as a poiHle;' in front
of the one to the south stood a small temple to Nike Apteros. Stuart u
ch. 5. Kinnard, Antiq. of Athens, Suppl. (on the ascent). Leake, Topogr
ch. 8 p. 176. Le temple de Victoire sans ailes, restaur^ par R Kous-
n« r T ^f ^- ^f"-^*' ^- ^^^^ ^°- ^''^- 1^37. p. 218. [Kunstbl. 1835.
W. 78 1 L. Ross u. B. Schaubert Die AkropoUs von Athen, 1 Abth der T
der Nike Apteros. B. 1839. fo.] ¦ ci J-.
4. The Temple of Athena Polias and Poseidon Brechtheus A very
ancient sanctuary which was renewed after the Persian war but (ac
cording to the Record C. I. n. 160) not completed till after 92' 4 fuU of
sacred monuments, by means of which the plan of the buUding received
pecu lar modifications. A double temple (.«oV S,^^oSf) with a separate
apartment to the west (Pandroseion) a prostyle to the east, and two
porticoes (»eo<rT«<7E,f) on the N.W. and S.W. corners. The edifice stood

ARCHITECTONICS. 77
on two different foundations, inasmuch as a terrace extended along on the
north and west sides, and stopped short towards the north and west (on
which side stood the roix"; o ix-6; in the inscription). Size without the
porticoes 73 X 37 feet. Caryatids {xo^xi, Athenian maidens in the full
Panathenseic costume) [§. 330, 5] around the portico in the south-west
corner (in which the Erechtheian salt spring and the very old olive-tree
appear to have been) ; windows and engaged columns in the Pandro
seion. The frieze of the whole was of Eleusinian Ume-stone with reliefs
(of metal) fixed on {^$x). [Seventeen pieces stand in the Erechtheion,
a Ust of them in Ann. d. I. xv. p. 309 sq.] The Ionic architecture pre
sents much that is peculiar, especiaUy in the capitals (§. 276) ; the care
in execution is unsurpassed. Stuart ii. ch. 2. Wilkins, p. 75. The
author's Minervse PoUadis sacra et sedis. 1820. Rose, Inscript. Grsecse
Vetustissimse, p. 145. C. I. i. p. 261. New Edition of Stuart, p. 482.
Fragments of a second inscription referring to this temple. Kunstbl,
1836. St. 60 [39 f Complete in the 'Efpufisfi ,- d^x,»">^- 1837. p. 30. in Ranga-
bis Antiqu. Hellen. p. 45. and Ann. d. I. xv. p. 286 — 327. An architect
ArchUochus of Agryle therein], Inwood The Erechtheion of Athens,
fragments of Athenian architecture, and a few remains in Attica, Megara
and Epirus, L. 1827. [Von Quast Das Brechtheum zu Athen nach dem
Werk des Hr. Inwood B. 1840. — Temple of Athene Ergane on the acropo
Us. See Ulrichs in the ' A%vx 1841. 4th June, and in the Abhd. der
Miinchner Akad. philos. philol. Kl. iii, 3. S. 627.]
6. Eleusis. Uned. Antiq. of Attica, ch, 1 — 5 (Traduct, par M, Hittorff
Ann, d, Inst. iv. p, 345). a. The great temple {f.iya^ov, dvdxro^ov) erected
under the superintendence of Ictinus of Coroebus, Metagenes, and Xeno-
cles, and planned for the celebration of the mysteries. Departure in the
Eleusinian building from the pure style. Kugler S. 43. A large oeUa with
four rows of Doric columns running across in two tiers ; between them a
large opening for Ught, which was arched by Xenocles (to oirxiov ixaqv<puai
Plut. Pericl. 13. comp. PoUux ii, 54), as this temple must not be
hypsethral. Portico of 12 Doric columns (by Philo in the time of Deme
trius Phalereus) which have already thin fiUets between the flutings.
212. 10, 2 X 178. 6. the measurement of the square within 167 X 166, 6,
Beneath the cella a crypt, undiminished cyUnders supported the upper
floor. The material mostly Eleusinian Ume-stone, Uttle marble. The
size of the whole 220 X 178 f. Statements somewhat at variance, Ionian
Antiq, ch, 6, 19 — 21, new ed. b. The smaller Propylcea in the inner peri-
bolos, with enigmatical disposition of the door. We have here the capi
tal of a pilaster with the leaves of the acanthus, c. The larger Propylma
in the outer court. B^itirely similar to those on the acropolis ; only
without the side buUdings, The panneUed ceiUng (ooocpij) praised there by
Pausanias is here more distinct (whether Appii propylseum, Cicero ad
Att. vi, 1 V). d. A small temple of Artemis Propylcea, a templum in antis,
Doric, e. A smaU temple on the rock above the Megaron, in the inner
peribolos. — None of the buildings at Eleusis were completely finished.
other attic temples.
6. At Rhamnus. The larger temple of Nemesis, hexast. peript., Doric,
71 X 33 £ was probably begun in the time of Pericles (comp. §. 117), but
not finished tiU later (fiUets with the flutings). Rich paintings and

78 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, III.
gildings are observable on the external cornice, and on the cornice over
the frieze in the interior, the outUnes of which are carved. Beautiful
lacunaria, Un. Antiq. ch, 6.
7, Temple of Pallas on Senium, hexast, peript, with propylasa of the
same order, the Doric. Also of the age of Pericles. Ionian Antiq. ii.
ch. 5. pi. 9—14. Un. Antiq. ch. 8.
8. Stoa at Thorious (7 columns in front, 14 on the side. Comp. §. 80.
Rem. u, 3), The columns (11 mod. high) have received but the beginning
of the flutings. Un. Antiq. ch. 9.
II. CHIEF peloponnesian TEMPLES.
9. Temple of Zeus at Olympia, built with the spoils of Pisa (which
feU about the 50th 01.) by Libon the Blean, completed about the 86th
01. Of poros stone. Hexast. peript. hypsethral. The pronaos closed
with grated doors (di^xi x«?ixa?) between columns, so likewise the opis
thodomos corresponding to the pronaos ; the ceUa rather narrow with
upper gaUeries (aroxl vTn^iioi). Size 230 X 95 Greek feet, height 68. On
the ruins, especiaUy Stanhope's Olympia, p. 9. Cockerell, Bibl. ItaUana
1831. N, 191, p, 205, Expedition Scien. de la Moree Livr. 11, pi, 62 sqq,
Comp, Volkel's Nachlass i,
10. 11, Temple of Hera at Arqos by Bupolemus after 01, 89, 2. The
Oltmpieion at Megara before 87, No ruins of these temples, [Disco
very of the foundation, W, Mure Ann, d. Inst, x, p, 308 tav, H. The
same author's Tour in Greece ii, 177,]
12, Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Phioalia, built by Ictinus the
Athenian (Bustath, on the Od, p, 1826, R,), therefore perhaps before 01,
87, 2 (according to the supposition of Pausanias, after the plague, 88).
Size 126 X 48 i. Without, a Doric pteroma ; within, Ionic columns
form niches (probably for Donaria) and an hypsethron, A Corinthian
column stood at the end of the hypsethron behind the statue. On the
ruins Combe, Brit, M, iv, pi, 25 — 28, Stackelberg, ApoUotempel Tf
1 — 5, Donaldson, Antiq, of Athens, Suppl, p. 1. pi. 1 — 10.
13. Temple of Athena Blea at Teoea, buUt by Scopas after the 96th
01. the largest and most beautiful in the Peloponnesus. The combina
tion of Ionic columns externaUy, and Doric and Corinthian above one
another within, is important for the history of architecture. Paus. viii,
45, Slight remains. DodweU, Tour ii. p. 419. Klenze Aphorist. Bem.
S. 647.
14. The very slender Doric columns (more than 13 mod. high) of the
temple of Zeus at Nemea appear to belong to the end of this period.
Ionian Antiq. u. ch. 6. pi. 15 — 18. Descr, de Morfie iii. pi. 72. [Clarke
Trav. u, 2. chap, 18, p. 714, 4to Ed,]
III, IONIA [and caria],
15, D1DYM.E0N AT Miletus, after its destruction rebuilt 01. 71, prin
cipally by Pseonius and Daphnis of Miletus, but never entirely com
pleted. Dipteral decast. hypsethral, 163 feet broad, in magnificent Ionic
style, with engaged Corinthian columns in the pronaos. The columns

ARCHITECTONICS. 79
6J feet thick, 63J high, more slender than those at Ephesus, Samos, and
Sardis (§. 54, 80), with Ughter entablature. Ionian Antiq. i, ch. 3, p, 27.
Choiseul GouflSer, Voy pittor, i. pi, 113, 114, Hirt, Gesoh, ii. p. 62. pi,
9, 11.
16. Temple of Pallas Polias at Priene, built by the learned architect
Pytheus, about 01, 110. According to an inscription, Alexander had the
glory" of consecrating it. C. I, No, 2904. Peript. hexast. of beautiful
Ionic order with propylsea which instead of Ionic columns have pilas
ters inside whose capitals are enriched with griffins in reUef Ionian
Antiq. i. oh. 2. new ed. Choiseul Gouffier, pi. 116.
17. Temple of Dionysus at Teos by Hermogenes, probably built about
the time of Alexander. Peript. hexast. and eustyle, according to Vitru
vius (who principaUy foUows Hermogenes). Ionian Antiq. i. ch. 1.
Choiseul Gouff. pi. 124. Comp. besides Hirt, Gesch. ii, 66.
18. Temple of Artemis Leuoophryne at Magnesia on the Meander,
buUt by Hermogenes, pseudodipteral, according to Vitruvius 198 X 106
f. Leake, Asia Minor, p. 349. To it belongs the elevation, Ionian Antiq.
i. ch. 1. pi. 2. first ed. [R. Rochette after the labours of the architect
Clerges in the Journ. des Sav. 1845. Oct. Nov.]
19. Ruins of a temple of Apollo at Delos in the Doric order (the
height of the columns 12 mod.), Stuart ui. ch. 10. p. 57. [A friese tablet
from the temple of Esculapius, the most important in Cos. See Ross in
Gerhard's ArchaoL Zeit. 1846. Tf 42. S. 281. Temple of Dionysus at
Aphrodisias, octast. peript. probably by Hermogenes ; panther and crater
alternately on the architrave. Ion. Antiq. ui. ch. 2. pi. 13 sqq. cf Fellows
Lycia p. 33, and Texier. The beautiful Ionic temple of Azani in Phrygia
in FeUows' Asia Minor p. 136. 141. and in Texier.]
IV, SICILY,
20. 21. Acragas, Comp. above §. 80, The great Doric temple of
Zeus Olympius was incomplete when Acragas was conquered by the Car
thaginians 01. 93, 3, and also remained so after the renovation of the
city. Diod. xiii, 82. Size according to Diod. 340 X 160"f. (369 X 182
BngUsh f. according to the latest measurements). Height 120, without the
substruction {x^nTi-ihafix). The cella has within pilasters 12 feet broad, and
half-columns without, 20 feet in circumference, but porticoes at the ends
according to Diodorus, according to CockereU however there were here
also pUasters and half-columns. The columns under 10 mod. high. In
the interior there stood on columns or-pillars, gigantic figures in antique
severe style as supporters of the roof [§.. 279]. Nic. Maggiore, Opusc,
Archeol. 1834. cf. BuU. 1836. p. 62. There are many things about
this temple stiU in the dark. See Wilkins, Mag. Gr. ch. 3. pi. 14—
17. Hirt ii, 90. pi. 9, 12. Klenze, Tempel des Olymp. Jupiters 1821,
and in the Kunstblatt 1824. N. 36 (comp. 28, 39). CockereU. Antiq. of
Athens, Suppl. p. 1. pi. 1 — 8, Not far from the above stands the so-
caUed temple of Hercules. Cockerell, pi. 9. More recent excavations
at the [so-caUed] temple of Hercules, BuU. 1836. p. 97. 129. Theron's
monument, the pyramid of a victor horse (PUn. viii, 42), according to
GfittUng in the Kunstbl. 1836. N. 7.

80

HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.

22—24. Selinus. Comp. §, 80, Its large and rich temples are men
tioned in Thucyd, vi, 20, and in connection with its destruction by the
Carthaginians (92, 4), The chief Doric temple was at that time stiU
incomplete, as only the eight columns of the east front were fluted (with
fiUets), and some others begun. Dipteral according to Wilkins, pseudo-
dipt, according to Hittorff and Serradifalco with large columnar pronaos
and hypsethron, 331 X 161 feet according to WUkins, 367 X 161 accord
ing to Gottling in the Hermes xxxiu, p, 248, The columns about 10
mod, high. South from this one in the same eastern portion of the city
stand two other temples, aU together called i pilieri dfi Giganti, 186 X 76
and 232 X 83 f large ; both hexastyle peripteral, and on the whole they
appear to belong to the same period. The middle and smaUest temple is
constructed almost in the same way as the middle temple of the acropoUs,
but at a later period however when more slender (about 10 mod,) and at
the same time greatly tapering (about | mod.) columns made their ap
pearance in Sicily; somewhere about the 80th Olymp. Comp, on the
sculptures §, 90 and 119, WUkins, ch, 4, pi, 1—11, Hittorff and Zanth,
Archit, de la Sicile, Livr. 5, pi, 30 sqq,
26. Bqesta. Hexast. peript. 190 X 77 f the columns not yet flute 1.
WUkins, ch. 6. Gartner's Ansichten der Monumente SiciUens. Hittorff,
pi. 2 — 6. [Syracuse. Hexast. peript. Serradifalco i. tav. 3 — 8. Canina
in the BuUett. 1836. p. 91.] The ceUa 86, 6. x, 47, 4. Palm, entire length
218, 2. P. CavaUari in Serradifalco iv. tv. 6 — 8. p, 120, [Corfu, Not far
from the city Hexast, peript. W. Railton, §. 253. R. 1.]
110. Luxury in private buildings, houses, and monuments,
did not begin at Athens especially till towards the end of this
period (§. 104, 2). It began sooner with the rich and haughty
Agrigentines who built, according to the well-known saying,
as if they expected to live for ever.
See the marvellous accounts in Diodor, xin, 81 of Gellias' palace and
colossal wine-cellar, of the public piscina, the monuments to victorious
horses and favourite birds. The so-called sepulchre of Theron (WUkins
ch. 3. pi. 19) is remarkable on account of its Ionic engaged columns with
Doric entablature, and the cross-vault in the interior. A simUar mix
ture has been observed in the so-caUed Hereon of Empedocles on the
acropoUs of Selinus.
1 111. The greatest problem likewise of the architect, the
construction of entire cities, fell at this period principally to
Hippodamus of Miletus who, by his improvements in the
PeiraBUS, which Themistocles had rather designed as a place of
refuge in time of war, converted it into a splendid city. He
laid out Thurii (01. 83, 3) with large streets at right angles,
and likewise rebuilt Rhodes (Olymp. 93, 1) in a highly sym
metrical and regular manner, and in the form of a theatre,
2 Through him as well as Meton the regular (Ionic) method of
building seems to have gained the ascendancy over the nar
row and angular construction of cities which prevailed in early
Greece,

PLASTIC ART. 81
1. On the designs of Hippodamus, comp. Aristot, Pol. ii, 5, with
Schneider, vii, 10. Photius and Hesych. s. v. ' Wvo^xfiov vifinm; with
Diod. xii, 10, Schol, Aristoph. Bqu, 327 (comp, Meier on the SchoUa, p.
457. Dindorf), On Rhodes, Strab. xiv, 654. Aristeides Rhodiacus.
Meurs, Rhodus i, 10, Perhaps the plan of the beautiful city Cos (103,
3) was simUar, as well as that of the new Halicamassus (by Mausolus ;
the plan in Cuper, Apoth. Horaeri p, 241 is not altogether correct),
[Vitruv. i, 7. De electione locorum ad usum communem civitatis,]
2, On the plans of Meton (the astronomer and hydrauUst) for the
building of a city, Aristoph, Birds, 995 and SchoUa, On the old-Greek
and Ionic mode of laying out towns, comp, Dorians, vol. ii, p, 272 sq. The
cities of the Peloponnesus which grew up after the faU of Sparta were also
certainly more regular, as new Mantinea (01, 102, 2, See GeU, Stadte-
mauern Tf. 35), MegalopoUs (102, 2) and Messene (01. 102, 4) with massive
waUs of square blocks and beautiful fortified gates ; the Doric architec
ture of the portico, around the stadium, however, already declines into
the puny. Leake, Morea T, i, p, 372, pi, 3, GeU, Stadtemauern Tf 36,
Donaldson, Antiq. of Athens. Suppl. p. 19. pi. 1, 2. Expfid. Sclent, de
la Moree, pi. 24 sqq.

.3. THE PLASTIC ART.
A. THE AGE OF PHIDIAS AND POLYCLITUS.

112. The highest bloom of art, which was at this period l
zealously cultivated throughout Greece, but principally at
Athens and Argos, was ushered in by Calamis and Pythagoras, 2
two excellent artists ; the former indeed was not entirely free
from the hardness of the old style, but nevertheless he exe
cuted admirable works of the most various kinds, sublime
statues of gods, delicate and graceful women, and spirited
chargers ; the latter excelled in lifelike representation of the 3
muscles and veins, in exact knowledge of proportion, but at
the same time also (what was more rare at this period) in
profound expression.
1. Calamis (of Athens 1), toreutes [§. 86. R. 2], brass-caster, and sculp
tor, 01. 78 — 87. Pythagoras of Rhegium, brass-caster, pupU of Clearchus,
01. 75 — 87. Paus, vi, 6, vi, 13, comp, Corsini, Dissert, agon, p, 124. 130,
Plin. xxxiv, 8, 19. Eucadmus of Athens, sculptor, 80, Telephanes, the
Phocsean, brass-caster (worked for the Aleuadse and Persian kings) about
80, Polygnotus, painter and sculptor, about 80. PtoUchus of Corcyra,
scholar of Critias, brass-caster, 83. Scymnus and Dionysodorus, brass-
casters and toreutse, scholars of Critias, 83. Aceetor of Cnossus, brass-
caster, 83. [Onatas of .Slgina, 01. 78—83, and his scholars, §. 82.] Phi
dias, son of Charmides, of Athens, scholar of Ageladas, painter, brass-
caster, toreutes, and sculptor, 01. 80—87, 1. Praxias of Athens, scholar
of Calamis, sculptor, 83. Androsthenes of Athens, scholar of Eucadmus,
sculptor, 83. Nesiotes, fellow-labourer of Critias, Ross in the Kunstbl.
1836 N. 16. [R, Rochette, Supplem. au Catal. des Artistes, p. 368.] Poly-
F

82 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.
cLiTus, Sicyonian and Argive, scholar of Ageladas, brass-caster, toreutes,
culptor, and architect, from about 82—92. Myron, an Athenian of
Bleutherse, scholar of Ageladas, brass-caster, toreutes, and sculptor, about
the same time, Callimaohus, brass-caster and toreutes, about 85, Sty-
pax of Cyprus, brass-caster, 85, Aloamenes of Athens, scholar of Phi
dias, perhaps also of Critias, cleruchos in Lemnos, brass-caster, sculptor,
and toreutes, 83—94 (de Phidia i, 19), Colotes, scholar of Phidias, to
reutes, 86, Pseonius of Mende, sculptor, 86, Cleoetas (of Athens ?), brass-
.caster and architect (§, 106, 4), about 86, Agoracritus of Pares, scholar
of Phidias, brass -caster and sculptor, 85—88, Phradmon of Argos,
brass-caster, about 87. CaUon of EUs, brass-caster, about 87, Gorgias
of Lacedsemon, brass-caster, 87. Ctesilaus, brass-caster, 87. Socrates,
the son of Sophroniscus, of Athens, sculptor, about 87. Plato mentions
the sons of Polyclete as artists about 87, Protag. p. 328. Theocosmus
of Megara, scholar of Phidias, brass-caster and toreutes, 87 — 95. Am-
phion of Cnossus, son of Acestor, scholar of PtoUchus, brass-caster, 89,
Sostratus of Rhegium, scholar of Pythagoras, about 89, Nicodamus, a
MsenaUan, brass-caster, 90. Thericles, the Corinthian potter {&-/i^ixXiix),
about 90. Athenseus xi. p. 470, f Bentley's Phalaridea. [Thericles, the
animal painter, shown to have nothing to do with the cups adorned with
animal figures, Rhein. Mus, vi, S, 404 — 20,] Cleiton of Athens, brass-
caster {xvh^ixvro'!!oi6g), about 90, Niceratus of Athens, brass-caster, 90,
ApeUas, brass-caster, about 90, Demetrius, Athenian of Alopece, about
90 (he must not, on account of Simon, be removed too far from the age
of the painter Micon, and I therefore hold the ancient priestess of Pallas,
Lysimache, whom he sculptured, to be the predecessor of the weU-known
Theano, Comp, Lange, Anm, zu Lanzi, p, 84, SUlig, C. A, p, 180). Py-
romachus, about 90. (PUn. xxxiv, 19, 20.) Nauoydes of Argos, son of
Mothon, brass -caster and toreutes, 90 — 95. Periclitus, brother of
Naucydes, scholar of Polyclitus, about the same time (Paus, ii, 22, 8, is
perhaps to be read: to fiiv Tlo'hiK'Kiirog, to Se Hi^lx'hiirog i'Troinaj, ro Se
aSsTvtpoV Tli^ix'Ksirov Nai/xiiSnf), Lycius of Bleutherse, son and scholar of
Myron, brass-caster and toreutes, about 92, Athenodorus and Demeas
of Cleitor, scholars of Polyclitus, brass-casters, 94, Asopodorus of Argos,
Alexis, Phrynon, Deinon, brass-casters, together with Aristides, brass-
caster and architect, all scholars of PolycUtus, about 94, Aristandrus of
Pares, brass-caster, 94, Aristocles, son of Cleoetas, brass-caster and to
reutes, 92 — 96 (comp, Bockh, C, I. p, 237). Canachus of Sicyon, the
younger, scholar of Polyclitus, brass-caster, 95. Deinomenes, brass-
caster, 95. Patrocles, brass-caster, 95. Pison of Calauria, Amphion's
scholar, brass-caster, 95. Alypus of Sicyon, scholar of Naucydes, brass-
caster, 95. Tisandrus, brass-caster, 95. Sostratus of Chios, 95. Archias
of Athens, toreutes, 95 (C. I. ii. 160. §. 42). Antiphanes of Argos,
scholar of PericUtus, brass-caster, 96 — 102. PolycUtus the younger of
Argos, scholar of Naucydes, brass-caster, 95 — 101 (Paus. ii, 22. iu, 18. vi,
2. comp. Corsini, Diss. Agon. p. 123. vi, 6). Mrs, toreutes, 95. D.a!DALUs
of Sicyon, scholar of Patrocles, brass-caster, 96 — 104 (Paus. vi, 2. vi, 3.
comp. Corsini, Diss. Agon. p. 130. 133., x, 9). Stadieus of Athens, brass-
caster, 97. Cephisodotus of Athens, brass-caster, 97 — 104 (he worked
for the undertakings of Conon and for MegalopoUs). Pantias of Chios,
scholar of Sostratus, brass-caster, 100. CaUicles of Megara, son of Theo-

PLASTIC ART. 83
cosmus, brass-caster, 100. [L. Stephani on Attisch. Kunstgesch. in the
Rhein. Mus. iv. S. 1.]
2. Calamidos dura ilia quidem, sed tamen moUiora quam Canachi,
Cicero. Jam minus rigida Calamis, QuintiUan. See above, §. 92. Lu
cian (Imag. 6) praises in his Sosandra to fiulixfix Tiettto'b xxi 'Kihti^og —
xxi TO iit(irx7<.ig Se' xxi xoufiiov riig dvx^o'hitg, Comp. the Hetser. Dial. 3.
SUUg C. A. p. 116.
3. Hie primus {T) nervos et venas expressit, capiUumque diUgentius. —
Vicit Myronem pancratiaste Delphis posito. — Syracusis (fecit) claudican-
tem, cujus ulceris dolorem sentire etiam spectantes videntur. PUnius
xxxiv, 19. IluSayd^-ai/ ¦a-^arov Soxouktos piiStfioS xxi avfi/xir^ixg iaroxxcSixi
Diog. Laert. viii. Pyth. 26. SiUig C. A, p, 399, together with Varro de
L, L. V. §. 31.
113. Phidias the Athenian now appeared, an artist whose l
genius was so vast and his fame so acknowledged that the
works of Pericles' age were all carried on under his direction,
and the entire host of artists of every kind assembled at
Athens were occupied in following out his ideas. He himself 2
worked especially at colossal statues composed of gold and
ivory, for the more perfect execution of which, unexampled
liberality on the part of the states, and a more extended
technical knowledge lent their assistance.
1. The circumstances of Phidias' life, according to the writer, Comm.
de Phidiae Vita I. (comp. Em. David in the Biographie Univers. xxxiv.
p. 27). Born about 73. Instructed at first by native artists, probably
Hegias, about 01. 80, also by the Argive Ageladas, he directed the works
of Pericles from 82 or 83, completed the PaUas in the Parthenon 85, 3,
the Olympian Jupiter after 86. Accused by cabals against Pericles 86,
4, died in prison 87, 1. In opposition to the opinion that he was already
actively employed as an artist about 73, a comparison of the time when
he flourished with that of his predecessors, Critias, Pythagoras, and
Calamis, affords the best evidence.
Under the direction of Phidias there were, according to Plutarch, Per.
12, rixrovig, ic'Kxijrxi, pijosTucoryTTo;, "hfyovfyol, /ixcpeig, x?'^""'^ fixhxxr^^eg xxi
i\i<pavrog (§. 312, 2), ^ay^xCpoi, ¦TToixArxl, ro^evrxi. JJoixiXrxl were weavers
of variegated stuff's, embroiderers, whose tapestries (¦Trx^xTrerxafixrx)
must not be forgotten when we wish to caU up an idea of the general
effect of those temples and ivory statues. Whether Aoesas and Heli
con, the Salaminians from Cyprus, who weaved so magnificent tapestries
for the Delphian ApoUo (comp. Eurip. Ion 1168) and PaUas belonged to
this age ? Athen. u. p. 48. b. Bust, ad Od. i, 131. p. 1400. Rom. (Cy
prian -iroixixix i(pxsixxrav) Plut. Alex. 32. Apostol. u, 27. Xenob. i, 66.
That the embroiderers mentioned were not later than Phidias is the
more probable from Plut, Alex. 32, caUing HeUcon "the ancient" in re
gard to Alexander's time. The mUitary cloak i^ziciiropzxi/.x) of the king
ivas his work, a gift from the city of Rhodes. This art was practised in
an especial manner in Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Carthage (Athen. xii. p.
541. b.)

84 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. III.
2. The moveable drapery of Pallas, according to PhUochorus, was 44
gold talents in weight (about £120,000) ; yet its thickness did not much
exceed a Une, Bredow on Thucyd. u, 13. Single locks of the Zeus, ac
cording to Lucian, Zeus Trag, 25, weighed 6 minse, about 300 louis d'or.
— On the technical composition of these statues §, 312, 2,
114 To these belonged among others the statue of Pallas
Parthenos, 26 Greek cubits in height, which was conceived as
the image of a divine virgin clad in armour, but victorious
and ruling in serene majesty. The grandiose simplicity of
the main figure was here, as in other works of Phidias, re
lieved by rich ornaments on the pedestal, the armour, and
even the border of the sandals.
" Ayx'hf/.x o^ov iv x"^"' '^oiti^ii. Isocr. ¦s-. dviii. 2. ^itiilxg 6 riig
' A^yivxg sSof i^yxirx//,evog. Mgis with gorgoneion. On the helmet a
sphinx (round) and griffins in reUef A lance in the hand, and shield
at her feet ; the latter probably at the same time supported the hand
with the Nike four cubits in height. The sacred serpent (Bricthonius)
beside the lance on the ground. On the shield the battle of the giants
within, and on the outside an Amazonian battle (portraits of Pericles
and Phidias skilfully introduced). The battle of the centaurs on the
border of the Tyrrhenian sandals (Attic national subjects on aU the
sculptures). Pandorse genesis on the pedestal. Paus. i, 24, 6 — 7, with
SiebeUs' notes. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 4 (comp. Ann. d. Inst. u. p. 108). Max.
Tyr. Diss. 14. T. i. p. 260 R. Bottiger, Andeut. p. 86. Nearest to the
Parthenos of Phidias stands without doubt the existing Pallas, in Villa
Albani (Cavaceppi, Raccolta i. t. 1), in the possession of Hope (Speci
mens, pi. 25) [and U. pi. 9], and at Naples (M. Borb. iv, 7. Neapels An
tiken, p. 41), on which Q. de Quincy has even supposed the other to have
been founded (Jup. Olymp. 226. Mon. et Ouvrages d'art ant. restitues,
T. i. p. 63). Often imitated on coins of Asiatic cities. Eckhel, SyU, 5,
10, M, S, Clement, 4, 74, 5, 76, 21, 151, Mionnet Suppl. viu, pi. 14, 1.
Antiochus ix,
115, The wonder and enthusiasm of all the Greeks was
still more excited by the Zeus Olympius. Extreme richness
in the plastic ornaments surrounding the simple and sublime
form, deep science in regulating the proportions of the very
colossal figure, and the loftiest elevation of genius in the con
ception of the Zeus-ideal, caused this statue to be regarded as
! a wonder of the world. The idea on which it is founded is
that of the omnipotent ruler and all-victorious deity graci
ously hearing and benignantly granting the prayers of men.
In it the Greeks beheld Zeus face to face ; to see it was a ne
penthes; not to have seen it before death was almost as great
a calamity as to die uninitiated into the mysteries,
1. The throne of the Olympian Zeus was of cedar wood, with orna
ments and reUefs in gold, ivory, ebony, and precious stones, also painting.
The sceptre was composed of every kind of metal ; the footstool richly
ornamented, the pedestal adorned with sculptures, but probably only on

PLASTIC ART, 85
a border on the front side. The barriers were painted by Pansenus (near
the back doors they were coloured blue), and probably also the fiowers
on the gold-drapery. The figure placed under a portion of the roof,
was colossal even for the temple (§. 109, 9), About 40 feet high on a
pedestal of 12. It appeared stUl larger than it was, Paus, v, 12, 4, Tes
timonies as to the knowledge of perspective : Story of the countenance,
Lucian, Pro Imag. 14. The Contest with Alcamenes, Tzetz. ChU. viii,
193, and the general evidences, §. 324.
2. Zeus held in his right hand a Nike (who probably issued from
him, as in the case of the Olympian Zeus at Antioch, §. 160), in his left
the sceptre with the eagle (comp. The Blean Coins, Stanhope, Olympia
10), Phidias adduces the description of Zeus xxrxvsvau (II. i, 529), as his
model. EiQifivixog xxi ¦jcxvrxxoo Trgaoj-, Dio Chrysost. xii. (Olympicos) p.
216. More general expressions of admiration, Livy xxxv, 28. QuintU.
xu, 10. Dio Chrysost. Or. xii. p. 209 sqq. A. Among the works which
have been preserved, those which bear the greatest affinity are the Ve-
rospi Jupiter and the Medicean and Vatican busts, §. 349. Blean coins
of the Csesars with the Olympian Zeus in De Quincy, pi. 17. p, 312, and
M. Pontana 6, 1,
Volkel iiber den grossen Tempel und die Statue des Jupiter zu Olym
pia, Lpz, 1794, Archseol, Nachlass 1831, p. 1. Siebenkees iiber den Tem
pel, u. die BUdsaule des Jupiter zu Olympia. Niirnb. 1795. Bottiger,
Andeut. p. 93. (Marchese Haus) Saggio sul tempio e la statua di Giove
in Olimpia. Palermo, 1814. Q de Quincy, Jup. Olympien, p. 384. The
author's Comm, de Phidia ii, 11. Rathgeber, Encyclop. Ill, iii. p. 286.
116. Besides these and other works in the toreutic art, I
Phidias executed numerous statues of gods and heroes in brass
and marble as religious images or consecrated gifts. But he 2
unfolded in particular the idea of Athena with great ingenu
ity, in different modifications, inasmuch as he represented
her for Platsea in an acrolith (§. 84) as warlike (Areia), and
for the Athenians in Lemnos, on the other hand, peculiarly
graceful and in a mild character (KaXX(>o^pos). The most co- 3
lossal statue, the brazen Promachus, which, standing between
the Parthenon and the Propylsa, and towering over both,
was seen by mariners at a great distance, was not yet finished
when Phidias died ; almost a century later Mys executed after
the designs of Parrhasius the battle of the centaurs on the
shield, as well as the other works of the toreutic class with
which the casting was ornamented.
1. Petersen, Observ. ad Plin. xxxiv, 19, 1. Ein Programm, Havnise,
1824. Sillig, C. A. p. 344. comp. p. 288. Comm. de Phidia i, 9.
2. The temple of Athena Areia was, according to the circumstantial
account of Plutarch, buUt from the spoUs of Platasa (Aristid. 20) ; but the
age of the work is not quite determined by this. On the Kallimorphos,
Paus. i, 28, 2. Lucian. Imag. 6. PUn. xxxiv, 19, 1. Hiraerius, Or. xxi, 4.
[cf PreUer in Gerhard's Archaol. Zeit. 1846. S. 264].
3. The site of the Promachus is determined by Faus. i, 28, 2. comp.

86

HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, III,

with Herod, v, 77, Here she is also seen on the coin (Leake, Topogr, Vig
nette. Mionnet, Suppl. iu, pi, 18, Brondsted, Reise ii, Vign. 37). She raised
the shield (dvsx^' r^" xutUx) and grasped the spear (oiov roig imoSaiv
ivtarxa^ai ^^XAou<r«, Zosima V, 6, 2), The height of the statue without
the pedestal was probably more than 60 feet, but under 60, as may be
inferred from Strabo vi, p, 278, On the age of the work, Comm, de
Phidia i, 9, 10,
1 117. The disciples of Phidias also, especially Agoracritus
who was sincerely devoted to the master, and Alcamenes who
was more independent and even disputed with his instructor,
2 applied their art principally to images of the gods. Beauty
in full bloom, combined with a mild and tranquil dignity in
the features, doubtless characterized the statues of the female
deities which they producied in emulation of each other —
the Aphrodite in the gardens, by Alcamenes, and the corre
sponding statue by Agoracritus, of Parian marble, which, hav
ing lost the prize, was, with the addition of the proper attri
butes, consecrated as Nemesis at Rhamnus.
2. Comp., besides others, Zoega's Abhandlungen, p. 56. 62. Welcker,
ibid. p. 417. De Phidia i, 20. SiUig, p. 26 sqq. — The ingeniously fash
ioned Hephsestus of Alcamenes. Sillig, p. 32.
1 118. There still exist as works of this first of all schools
of art, the architectonic sculptures with which it adorned the
temples of Athens, doubtless under the immediate superin-
2 tendence and direction of Phidias. First, there are preserved
portions of the eighteen sculptured metopes together with the
frieze of the narrow sides of the cella in the teinple of Theseus,
the style of which evidently belongs to the Phidian school;
secondly, a considerable number of the metopes of the Parthe
non all ornamented in alto-relievo, as well as a great part
of the frieze of the cella, besides some colossal figures and a
mass of fragments from the pediments of that temple, on
which latter the master himself seems chiefly to have em-
3 ployed his hand. In all these works we perceive on the
whole the same spirit of art, only that artists who belonged to
the elder school, which still continued to exist (§. 112. Rem. 1),
and whose workmanship is less round and flowing, seem to
have been sometimes occupied on the metopes, and that in
the frieze the uniform filling up of the space, which the archi
tectonic decoration required, as well as the law of symmetry
and eurhythmy, in many points imposed conditions on the
4 striving after nature and truth. Leaving this out of view, we
everywhere find a truth in the imitation of nature, which,
without suppressing anything essential (such as the veins
swoln from exertion), without ever allowing itself to be sev
ered from nature, attained the highest nobleness and the
purest beauty ; a fire and a vivacity of gesture when the sub-

PLASTIC ART. 87
ject demands it, and an ease and comfort of repose, where, as
in the gods especially, it appeared fitting; the greatest truth
and lightness in the treatment of the drapery where regular
ity and a certain stiffness is not requisite, a luminous projec
tion of the leading idea and an abundance of motives in sub
ordinate groups, evincing much ingenuity of invention; and
lastly, a natural dignity and grace united with a noble sim
plicity and unaffectedness, without any effort to allure the
senses, or any aiming at dazzling effect and display of the ar
tist's own skill, which characterized the best ages not merely
of art, but of Grecian life generally.
2. Theseion. The statues which stood in the east pediment have
disappeared. Ross Qweiov, p. 26. [Not. 63 asserts that 6 or 7 statues
stood in each pediment ; Ulrichs throws doubt on the existence of
those in the back pediment, as there are no traces of their erec
tion in the tympanum.] In the ten metopes on the east the achieve
ments of Hercules ; in the eight adjoining to the north and south
those of Theseus. On the frieze in front a battle of heroes under the
guidance of gods, explained to be that of Theseus and the Pallantidse,
Hyperbor. Romische Studien i. s. 276 [a gigantomachy according to
DodweU Trav. i, 362, according to Uh'ichs Ann, d, Inst, xiii, p, 74 the
HeracUdse defended by Theseus from Burystheus, a view which is op
posed by K, F, Hermann, Getting, Anz, 1843, S, 488 ff,, confirmed by E,
Curtius in Gerhard's Archaol, Zeit. 1843. S. 104 f , and which is pre
ferred " not unconditionally" by 0. Jahn, Jen. L. Z. 1843. S. 1167.] ; the
battle of the centaurs behind. All equally spirited and grandiose. Stucco
casts in the British Museum (R. xiv, 52 — 73). Stuart iii. ch. 1. Dod
weU, Tour i. p. 362. together with engraving. Alcuni Bassirilievi tv. 5.
D. A. K. Tf 20—22.
Parthenon, a. Metopes, about 4 f. high, the projection of the figures
10 inches. In the whole there were 92 tablets ; 16 from the south side
are now in the British Museum, 1 in the Louvre (Clarac, pi. 147), frag
ments in Copenhagen (Brondsted, Voy. in Grhce ii. pi. 43) ; 32 from the
south side were drawn by Carrey by order of Count Nointel 1674 (given
in Brondsted), comp. §. 109, 2, some in Stuart ii. ch. 1. pi. 10 — 12. iv. ch.
4. pi. 28 — 34, and in the Museum Worsleyanum u. ch. 5. Accounts of
others in the new edition of Stuart and in Leake's Topography, ch. 8. p.
226. From these we see that on the front or east side Pallas' combat
with the giants and other battles of the gods (that also about the tripod)
were chiefly represented, in the middle of the south side scenes from the
elder Attic mythology, towards the two corners the battle with the cen
taurs (to this belongs all that is in best preservation), on the north,
among others, the battle of the Amazons, on the west equestrian and
foot battles alternately, probably of historical import. Comp. Stuart's
Antiq. of Athens in the German Ed. ii. p. 658.
b. Frieze of the cella, 3^ feet high, 528 long (of which as much
as 456 is stUl pretty accurately known). There are fifty-three tablets
in the British Museum, besides the stucco castings of the whole west
side, one in the Louvre n. 82. (Clarac pi. 211) ; there have been four

88 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. IIL
lately excavated at Athens (together with a piece of a metope), see HaU.
ALZ. 1833. InteU. 74. There are a great number given in Carrey's
designs which are preserved at Paris and not pubUshed, in Stuart ii. pi.
13 — 30. iv. pi. 6—28, and the M. Worsleyanum. Comp. the general view in
the German translation of Stuart ii. p. 667, D. A. K, pi, 23—25. Three re
cently discovered fragments of the frieze in the Kunstbl, 1835. N. 8., a,
vessel-bearers, b. charioteer (from the plate b, Stuart ii, 1, 18), c, three
men and two cows ; moreover, three of the twelve deities sitting (Posei
don, Thej/seus and Agraulos, according to Visconti) Kunstbl. 1836. N.
60. Cf. Forchhammer in the Archaol. InteU. Bl. 1833. N, 14. BuU. 1833.
p, 89. 137. 1836. p. 113 — 20. The whole represents the Panathenaic pro
cession. On the west side were to be seen the preparations for the caval
cade ; then south and north in the first half, the horsemen of Athens
galloping in files (i-Tri^xfiiopo^oiivreg), next those who took part in the
chariot-contest which succeeded the procession, in the lively action of
apobatce springing up and down (see the German Stuart ii. p. 686,) and
with them goddesses of battle as charioteers ; then farth^ on the south
the old men and women of the city, on the north choruses with avletoe
and hitharistce, ascophori, scaphephori, and hydriaphori, ne&rest the front
on both sides the sacrificial cows with their attendants. On the east
side, surrounded by virgins who bring the consecrated gifts, and the pre
siding magistrates, are seated the 12 gods (Zeus, Hera with Iris or Hebe,
Hephsestus [§. 366, 5], Demeter, the Anakes, Hygieia, Asclepius, Posei
don, Brechtheus t Peitho, Aphrodite with Bros according to the writer)
between whom the priestess of Pallas PoUas with two ersephori and the
priest of Poseidon Brechtheus, who hands the peplos to a boy, form the
central group. There are traces of gold and paint on the draperies and
hair ; the reins, staffs and the Uke were of metal, as weU as the gorgo
neion, and the serpents on the segis of PaUas, (fee. in the tympanum.
c. Statues in the Pediment (height of the pediment 11-^ feet,
breadth 94 feet, depth of the lower cornice 2 feet 111 inch). The Brit
ish Museum has 9 figures from the east pediment, and from the west 1
figure and 5 considerable fragments : delineated, in Marbles of the British
Museum, P. vi. ; Carrey's design (Stuart iv. ch. 4. pi. 1 — 6) gives the
west pediment almost complete, but of the east one figure (Nike) less
than there is in the British Museum. D. A. K. pi. 26, 27. [In the excava
tions conducted by L. Ross, several fragments have come to Ught. A head
from Venice now in Paris, Kunstbl. 1824. S. 92, 253. The Akad. Mus.
at Bonn, S. 86., as a new discovery in Revue Archeol. 1845. p. 832. cf.
1846. p. 335.] On the east the first appearance of Athena among the
gods (as in the Homeric Hymn 28. (7£/3*f S' e^e ¦Trdvrxg o^avrxg d^xvxroug —
sriiaiv "S 'T'TTi^iovog dy'hxog viog htrovg oixiiTroixg Sn^oj x^ovov) ; on the west
Pallas contending for the tutelar dominion of Athens conquers Poseidon
by teaching Brichthonius how to yoke the horse created by the former.
So, according to the writer's explanation, De Phidia Comm. iU. Others
differing from the above are given by Visconti, Leake, Q. de Quincy,
Mon. restitues T. i. p. 1. Brondsted, Voy. en Grfece ii. p. x. CockereU in
Marbles of the Brit. Mus. P. vi. Comp. Reuvens in the Classical Journal,
N. 53, 56. Antiquiteiten, een oudheidkundig, Tijdschrift ii, i. s. 1. ii. s.
66, and MiUingen, Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 197. [The birth of Athene from
the head of Zeus, according to Gerhard Drei Vorles. Berl. 1844, ac-

PLASTIC ART. 89
cording to Welcker in the Classical Mus. L. 1845. vi. p. 367 — 404. the
birth of the goddess who immediately attains her fuU stature, among the
gods of Olympus in the middle, and the gods of Attica at each side ; and
the moment is that of the declaration of the victory of Athena who turns
to her chariot, whilst Poseidon expresses his discontent, with the gods who
took part with either at the sides.] For general accounts : Memorandum
on the subject of the Earl of Elgin's Pursuits in Greece, 2 Ed. 1815.
Visconti, Deux Memoires sur les ouvrages de sculpture de la collection
d' Elgin. 1816. Q. de Quincy, Lettres h, M. Canova sur les Marbres
d' Elgin, 1818. [The Elgin marbles in outUnes after the London ed,
(of Stuart) 1816, Leipz, and Darmst. fo, with the temple, 51. pi,]
The reUefs of the temple of Nike Apteros are later than these works,
but in many respects related to them, and display uncommon energy
and animation (§. 109, Rem. 3, comp, Leake, Topogr. p. 193) ; iu the
' British Museum, R. xv. n. 257—260. in Stuart ii, ch, 5, pL 12, 13, They
partly represent battles of Greeks with Persians, and partly of Greeks
with one another. [In Ross and Schaubert Tf. 11, 12. Brit. Mus. ix. pi.
7 — 10. p. 30, new arrangement of the tablets which are divided between
Athens and London, and violently divorced from one another.] The in
fluence of the Phidian style is also recognizable in the Athenian sepul
chral reliefs of this and the succeeding period, Clarac, M, de Sculpt, pi.
154, 166 (comp. pi. 152). D. A. K. pi. 29. Stackelb. Graber, Tf 1, 2.
Perhaps this would be the proper place for again placing together the
sculptures scattered elsewhere which evidently manifest the spirit of the
Phidian school, and whose noble simplicity and freshness of nature in the
forms as weU as easy negUgence in the attitudes distinguish them at the
first glance from aU others. For the present I may here mention the
famous reUef of Orpheus finding Burydice §. 413. R. 4, the fragment of a
heroic combat from a very large frieze in the ViUa Albani, in Winck. M.
I. 62, Zoega Bassir. i, 61. comp. p. 247, and the representation of the giv
ing away the bride referred to in §. 429. R. 3 ; moreover, the fragment in
Zoega ii, 103, which was in the court of the Louvre in 1822.
4. The ancients extol in Phidias especially to i^iyx'huov xxi to xx^i^ig
xfix, Demet. de Bloc. 14. to cn/ivov xxi fnyxT^onx'""' >"*< x^iufixrixiv,
Dionys. Hal. de Isocr. p. 542.
119. The influence of this school in enlivening, and rescu
ing from antique stiffness was also shown in other districts of
Greece in the plastic adornment of temples, but it was modi
fied in a remarkable manner by the genius and tendencies of
other individuals and schools of art. The splendid groups in
the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, executed by
Alcamenes and Pseonius of Mende have entirely disappeared ;
but the remains of the metopes on the pronaos and opisthodo
mos (comp. §. 109. ii, 9.) representing the labours of Hercules
manifest a fresh truthfulness and naive grace which have no
longer anything of the fetters of the old style, but still how
ever remain far short of the grandeur of the Phidian ideal for
mations (especially in the conception of Hercules). The reliefs
of Phigalia give, in individual groups, distinct indications of

90 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.
Athenian models, and display in the composition a matchless
power of invention combined with the most lively imagination ;
on the other hand we perceive in them a less purified sense
of forms, a love of exaggerated violent gestures and almost
strained postures, a throwing of the drapery into folds singu
larly tight or as if curled by the wind, and in the conception of
the subject itself a harsher character than can be ascribed to
the Phidian school. In Sicily indeed we find the old style
preserved in all its severity even at this period for architec
tonic ends, in the giants of the Agrigentine temple of Zeus ;
but the fragments from the tympana of this sanctuary as well
as the metopes found in the southernmost temple of the lower
city of Selinus (comp. §. 109. iv, 24.) show that here also, in
the decades immediately subsequent to the activity of the Phi
dian school, a freer and livelier treatment had found its way
from Athens.
2. Olympia. On the east pediment were to be seen— the workman
ship of Pseonius — around the statue of Zeus, Qilnomaus with his wife
Sterope, on the one side, and Pelops and Hippodameia on the other, then
the charioteers, quadrigse, and attendants of the horses, and lastly the
river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus in symmetrical disposition ; on the west
pediment, by Alcamenes, as central point of a battle with centaurs,
Peirithous the sou of Zeus, whom Cseneus helps in rescuing his wife who
had been carried off by Burytion, whilst Theseus chastises two centaurs
as robbers of boys and girls, Paus. v, 1 6. But of the twelve labours of
Hercules (in the enumeration of which in Pausanias, v, 10, 2, Cerberus
has probably faUen out), the combat with the Cnossian buU, the vanquished
and dying Uon, a local goddess (perhaps the Stymphalian nymph Metopa),
a portion of the hydra and of the Amazon lying on the ground, on the opis-
thodom, parts of Diomed, the boar, Geryon in the pronaos, together with
several smaller fragments, were discovered in the year 1829, and are now
at Paris. The hair, which was not worked out, was indicated by colours.
Exped. Sclent, de la Moree pi. 74—78. Clarac M. d. Sculpt, pi. 195 bis.
D. A. K. pi. 30. Comp. R. Rochette Journal des Sav. 1831. p. 93. BuUet.
d. Inst. 1832. p. 17, 33. Ann. p. 212. Welcker's Rhein. M. I. iv. p, 503.
HaU, Encyclop, III, iu, p. 243.
3. Phigalia. The frieze of the temple of Apollo Epicurius (§. 109.
ii, 12) discovered by Linckh, von HaUer, Cockerell, Foster and others,
ran over the Ionic columns around the hypsethron ; it is in the British
Museum, in tolerably complete preservation. It represents in alto-relievo
the battle of the Centaurs and Amazons, and between them Apollo and
Artemis as auxiliary deities fastening to the scene in a chariot drawn
by stags. The group of Cseneus is treated as on the Theseion, the rape
of the maiden and boy as in the pediment at Olympia. Bassirilievi della
Grecia disegn. da G. M. Wagner, 1814. Marbles of the British Museum
P. iv. 0. M. Baron von Stackelberg's ApoUotempel zu Bassse in Arca-
dien und die daselbst ausgegr. Bildwerke. 1828.
4. Agrigentum. On the giants §. 109. iv. 20 ; the Caryatides of the
temple of Athena Polias (§. 109. i, 4) have in common with these a firm

PLASTIC ART, 91
and upright posture, although they are in other respects animated by a
quite different artistic spirit. The pediment groups represented the
battle of the giants on the east, and the capture of Troy on the west ;
the sUght fragments of these belong to the noblest style of art, CockereU,
Antiq, of Athens, Suppl, p, 4. frontisp.
Selinus, Portions of 5 metopes from the pronaos and posticum of the
temple nearest the sea, dug up in 1831, by the Duke of Serradifalco and
by VUlareale, from the indications of AngeU, now in Palermo, Actseon
clothed in the hide of a stag (as in Stesichorus), Hercules with the Queen
of the Amazons, PaUas and Ares [a giant], Apollo and Daphne (!) are
thought to be recognised in them. The bodies of calcareous tufa, with a
coating of paint. Only the extremities are of marble after the manner
of acroUths (§. 84), only white extremities however in women [as in the
vase paintings]. Bullet, d. Inst. 1831. p. 177. Transactions of the Royal
Soc. of Litter, ii, i, vi. [Serradifalco Ant. d. SioUia ii. tav. 30 — 34.]

120, Beside this Attic school rose also tlie Sicyonico-
Argive school (comp. §, 82) to its zenith, by means of the great
Polyclitus. Although, according to some, it was still left to
this master to carry the toreutic art to perfection in his colossal
statue of Hera at Argos, he nevertheless remained far behind
Phidias in the fashioning of gods in general. On the other
hand the art of modelling brazen statues of athletes, which pre
vailed in the Peloponnese, was raised through him to the most
perfect representation of beautiful gymnastic figures, in which
peculiarity of character indeed was not neglected, but still
however the main object was the representation of the purest
forms and justest proportions of the youthful body. Hence
one of his statues, the Doryphorus, whether this was the in
tention of the artist or whether it was the judgment of pos
terity, became a canon of the proportions of the human frame,
which at that time were in general shorter and stouter than
afterwards. In like manner was ascribed to him, according
to Pliny, the establishment of the principle, that the weight
of the body should be laid chiefly on one foot (ut uno crure
insisterent signa), whence resulted the contrast, so significant
and attractive, of the bearing and more contracted with the
borne and more developed side of the human body.
2. On the Hera in the sanctuary at Argos, especially Paus. ii, 17,
Maximus Tyr. Diss. 14. p, 260 R,, Bottiger Andeut, s, 122, Q, de Quincy
p, 326. [His copy is worse than a caricature.] Comp. §. 363. The head
of the statue is copied on later coins of Argos (MiUingen, Anc. Coins pi.
4, 19. Cadalvene, RecueU pi. 3, 1. Comp. the HPA APPEIA of the
Alexandrian coin of Nero, Eckhel D. N. iv. p. 63) ; it is adorned with the
same broad Stephanos (comp. §. 340) as the Hera Olympia represented in
older style on the coins of BUs, the Lacinian Hera on coins of Pandosia,
and of Crotona (according to Eckhel ; of Veseris according to MiUingen,
Anc. Coins pi. 2, 8), and also the Platsean Hera, placed together in D. A.
K. tf. .30. 'I'd Woy^vx'hiirov ioxvx rri rixv^l, xxKkitrrx roiv 'wxvrav — accord-

92 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.
ing to Strabo viii. p. 372. Toreuticen sic erudisse, ut Phidias aperuisse
(judicatur) PUn. xxxiv, 19, 2, [He previously says of Phidias, primusque
artem toreuticen aperuisse atque demonstrasse merito judicatur, in both
passages evidently referring to their brazen statues, in the same way as to
reutice is in another passage, xxxv, 36, 8, contradistinguished from paint
ing, as plastice in the strict sense, or as the plastic art, sculpture generally.
Schneider in his dictionary remarks that Pliny means sculpture in bronze ;
but this expression indeed has been exposed to strange interpretations,
arbitrary and accidental inaccuracies of aU sorts], (on the other hand ac
cording to QuintU, Phidias in ebore longe citra semulum). Comp, for
general information the criticisms in Cic. Brut 18. Quintil. xii, 10.
Schorn, Studien, s. 282. Meyer, Geschichte i. s. 69.
3. Diadumenum fecit molUter puerum (a similar statue from VUIa
Parnese, Winckelm. W. vi. tf 2. Gerard, Ant. Bildw. 69). — Doryphorum
viriUter puerum [counterparts with reference to Prodicus, see Welcker
Kl. Schr. ii. S. 482] — destrigentem se {dTo^vo^evov) et nudum talc in-
cessentem (i. e. ¦yrxyx^xnxarriv d'T^oTrn^vi^ovrtt, see Jacobs ad Philostr. p.
435), duosque pueros item nudos talis ludentes {dar^xyxy^i^ovrxg). PUn.
ibid. SUUg C. A. p. 364 sqq.
4. As to the Canon, Plin. ibid. (Doryphorum, quem et canona artifices
vocant), Cic. Brut. 86. Orat. 2, Quintil, v, 12, Lucian de Salt, 75, Hirt,
Abh, der Berl, Acad, 1814, Hist, CI, s, 19. [Thiersch Bp, S, 367 rejects
the emendation quem et for et quem, comp. Creuzer zur Archaol. i, S. 38,]
As a writing only in Galen Tn^l rav xxS ' Iirirox^xr-nv xxi TlKdr. iv, 3.
T. V, p, 449, Kiihn, and elsewhere, Quadrata {rer^xyavx) Polycl, signa
esse tradit Varro et prene ad unum exemplum, Plin.' This subject treated
more minutely §, 332, [cf, §. 130, 2,]
1 ] 21. It accords very well with this character of Polyclitus
that he conquered Phidias, Ctesilaus, Phradmon and Cydon
3 with his amazon in a contest of artists at Ephesus, The
amazon of Phidias leaning on a lance has been recognised in
the one in the Vatican preparing to leap, and the wounded
amazon of Ctesilaus in a Capitoline statue. Accordingly we
must conceive that of Polyclitus to be the highest point at
tained in the representation of those blooming and powerfully
3 developed female forms, Polyclitus as well as Ctesilaus was
also already distinguished in portrait statues ; the former
sculptured Artemon Periphoretus, the latter Pericles Olympius.
2. On the Amazon of the Vatican (Raccolta 109, Piranesi Stat, 37, M,
Prang, ui,14, BouiU, u, 10 ; there is one equally fine in the Capitol, nu
merous other copies of the same original), the writer de Myrina Amazone
in Commentat. Soc, Gott. rec, vii, p, 59. D. A. K. Tf 31. Comp. Gerhard
BuUet, d, Inst, 1830, p, 30, 273, Beschr, Roms, i, §, 94, Hirt, Gesch!
der Kunst, s, 177, [The Akad, Mus. at Bonn 1841. S. 63 IF.] On the
wounded Amazon (in the Capitol, M. Cap. iii. t. 46 ; in the Louvre n.
281, BouiU. u, 11. in the Vatican Gerh. Beschr. Roms. S. 96). See the
ed. Winckelm. iv. s. 356. vi. s. 103. Meyer Gesch. s. 81. Anm. 78. On a
fine but mutilated statue of the same kind, only in a somewhat hard style
in the castle at WorUtz, Hirt, ibid. s. 160. A torso in the Royal cabinet

PL.4.STIC AUT. 93
of antiquities at Vienna, under the natural size, is very remarkable from
this, that, in the sharp features of the countenance with the head inclin
ing to the left, in the hair disposed in a wiry manner around the fore
head, in the stiffly folded upper and under drapery (the latter covers also
the right breast), the Amazonian ideal is preserved as it had been already
developed by the generation of artists before Phidias and OtesUaus.
3. Artemon Periphoretus was constructor of maohineB for Pericles in
the war against Samos (01. 84, 4) ; the pretended Anacreontic poem
(Mehlhorn, Anacr. p. 224) on him was doubtless of later origin. [The
poem is certainly genuine, and Artemon Trs^icpo^nrog, an effeminate con
temporary of Anacreon, who must be distinguished from Artemon the
constructor of machines ; the A. Periphoretus of Polyclete was a com
panion to the Hercules Ageter, as is shown in the Rhein. Mus. iii, 1. S.
155 ff., to which the author himself has referred in the margin.] PUny
mentions the statues of Artemon and Pericles. On Sosandra §. 112.
Colotes, a pupil of Phidias, sculptured ^Ai?osopAi according to a striking
statement in PUny. Stypax fashioned (in sport) a slave of Pericles as
'uirKxyxvoTrr-tig, whom PUny seems to have confounded with the workman
of Mnesicles (Plut. Pericl. 13).

122. Art expressed itself still more corporeally in Myron I
the Eleutherean (half a Boeotian) who was in an especial man
ner led by his individuality to conceive powerful natural
life in the most extended variety of appearances with the
greatest truth and ndivetk (primus hie multiplicasse veritatem
videtur). His cow, his dog, his sea- monsters were highly 2
vivid representations from the animal kingdom ; from the 3
same tendency sprang his dolichodromus Ladas, who was re
presented in the highest and most intense exertion, his dis
cobolus conceived in the act of throwing, and the numerous
imitations of which testify to its fame, his pentathli andjoa?i-
cratiastoe. With regard to mythic forms, Hercules was parti- 4
cularly suited to him, and he sculptured him together with
Athena and Zeus, in a colossal group for Samos. He remained, -5
however, in the indifferent, motionless cast of countenance,
and the stiff workmanship of the hair on the same stage with
the earlier brass-casters (especially those of .fflgina), from
whom, generally speaking, he differed less than Polyclitus
and Phidias.
1. On Myron, Bottiger, Andeut. s. 144. SiUig C. A. p. 281. Myron
qui psene hominum animas ferarumque sere expresserat, Petron. 88, is
not in contradiction with : — corporum tonus curiosus, animi sensus non
expressisse videtur, PUn. xxxiv, 19, 3. [Statins SUv. iv, 6, 25, quse
docto multum vigilata Myroni Aera, overlooked by Sillig, coinciding with
Ovid's operosus.]
2. On the cow rendered famous by epigrams (Anthol. Auson.), with
distended udders according to Tzetz. ChU. viu, 194, see Gothe, Kunst
und Alterthum ii, p. 1. (It cannot however for various reasons be the

94 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.
one on the coins of Epidamnus). Four other cows by Myron, Propert. ii,
31, 7.
3. On the Ladas, Anthol, Pal, T, ii, p, 640, Plan, n. 53, 54. On two
brazen figures at Naples as imitations (?), Schorn's Kunstblatt 1826. N.
45. Comp. M. Borb. v, 54. The discobolus a distortum et elaboratum
signum, Quintil. ii, 13. Lucian minutely describes a copy, Philops. 18,
rov i'jrixixv(p6rx xxrdro ax'^^f^^r^g x(pimug, d'TTiar^xfi^ivov iig r^v iiaxo<p6^ov,
yiqi^x oxKx^ovrx tw iri^a, ioixorx ^vvxvxirrviffOfiivcd f^erd T^f (io'^vig. Besides
on the act of throwing, Ovid M, x, 177. Ibis 687. Stat. Theb. vi, 680.
comp, Welcker ad Philostr, p, 352, Imitations in statues : M, Capitol,
ui, 69 ; M, Frang, i, 20. BouiU. ii, 18 (in the Vatican from Hadrian's
ViUa) ; Piranesi Stat. 6. Guattani M. I. 1784. Febr. p. ix. (in the VUIa
Massimi) ; [now in the palace Massimi alle Colonne, by far the finest
copy, and one of the first statues in the world] ; Specimens pi. 29 (in the
Brit. Museum) ; and in gems : M. PioClement. i. t. agg. A. n, 6, D. A.
K. tf. 32. Comp. Franc, CanceUieri del Discobolo scoperto neUa Villa
Palombara R. 1806. Welcker's Zeitschr. i. s. 267. Amalthea iii. s. 243.
[Meyer in the Propyl, ii, 1. S. 85. Wagner in the Kunstbl. 1830. No. 54.
The figure is imitated not merely in the Philostratic picture, but also in
a reUef with game-contests represented by children M. du Louvre, pi.
187. n. 465. To the weU known repetitions of the statue may be added
one at Turin, besides which MiUin Voy. au Pigment mentions one at
Naples, and one in the Vatican. Beschr. Roms. ii, 2. S. 242. n. 10.]
4. PUn. ibid. Cic. Verr. iv, 3, 5. Strab. xiv, 637 b.
5. On the workmanship of the hair see Plin. and comp. the observa
tion by the edit, of Winckelm. vi. s. 113. on two copies of the discobolus.
Myron also made goblets and the like (Martial vi, 92. viii, 51) as did
likewise PolycUtus, and Lycius the son of Myron {Auxiov^yvi T).
123. The efforts of CaUimachus and Demetrius appear to
have been deviations from the prevailing spirit and taste. An
industry never satisfied with itself distinguished the works of
CaUimachus, but also spoiled them, and procured for him the
appellation of Catatexitechnus, because his skill was- frittered
away in the minute finish of insignificant details. On the
other hand Demetrius the Athenian was the first who, in por
traits of individuals, especially elderly people, aimed at a
fidelity which faithfully rendered even the accidental — what
is not essential to the representation of the character, and
at the same time not beautiful. — The spirit of Polyclitus in
particular seems to have lived on among the artists who dis
tinguished themselves near the end (as Naucydes) and after
_ the end of the Peloponnesian war (as Deedalus), even although
they were not scholars of Polyclitus. Brass-casting still con
tinued to prevail ; the artists were chiefly occupied with gym
nastic figures, statues of athletes and honorary statues.
1. On CaUimachus, see SUUg C. A. p. 127, and Volkel's Nachlass s.
121. On xxrxnn^irtxiH, comp. also ibid. s. 152. The frequent use of the

PLASTIC ART. 95
auger, the first application of which to marble is ascribed to him (comp.
§. 66. Rem. 2), the Corinthian capital (§. 108), the elegant lyohnos of
PaUas PoUas (executed perhaps after the 92d 01.), the saltantes Lacsense,
emendatum opus, sed in quo gratiam omnem diUgentia abstulerit, agree
very weU with this soubriquet.
2. Dem. nimius in veritate, QuintU. xii, 10, His PeUchus of Corinth
(comp, Thuc, i, 28) was xjoyaorajf, (px'hxvrixg, ijfiiyufivog r^v dVx/ioX^v,
ilve/M)fiivog roil 'Truyavog rdg rQi^xg ivixg, iTrianfiog rdg (p'hilixg, xuroxv^iiaTru
ofioiog, according to Lucian Philops, 18, where Dem. is caUed «>Sjn)iroffo;df.
A Signum Corinthium of precisely the same style of art is described by
PUny, Epist. iu, 6,
3, See especiaUy the accounts of the sacred gifts presented by the
Lacedsemonians of .^gospotami (the sea-blue nauarchi) Paus, x, 9, 4.
Plut, Lysander 18, de Pyth, orac, 2. Comp. Paus. vi, 2, 4. An iconic
statue of iysander in marble at Delphi. Plut Lys. 1.

B. THE AGE OF PRAXITELES AND LYSIPPUS.
124 After the Peloponnesian war a new school of art i
arose at Athens and in the surrounding district, — not con
nected with the previous one by any discoverable succession,
— whose style in like measure corresponded to the spirit of
the new, as that of Phidias did to the character of earlier Attic
life (§. 103). It was chiefly through Scopas who was born 2
at Paros, an island related by race to Athens and then subject
to it, and Praxiteles, a native of Athens itself, that art first
received the tendency to more excitable and tender feelings,
which corresponded to the frame of men's minds at that time.
It was combined however in these masters in the most beau
tiful manner with a noble and grand conception of their sub
jects. 1. Plastic artists of the period : Mentor, toreutes, between the 9Qth
01. (he imitated the cups of Thericles in sUver) and the 106th (when
some of his works perished in the Artemision of Ephesus) ; Cleon of
Sicyon, a scholar of Antiphanes, 98 — 102 ; Soopas the Parian, probably
son of Aristander (§. 1 12. Bockh C. I. 2285 b.), architect, sculptor and
brass-caster, 97 — 107. Polycles of Athens, a scholar of Stadieus (I),
brass-caster, 102 ; Damocritus of Sicyon, a scholar of Piso, brass-caster,
102 ; Pausanias of ApoUonia, brass-caster, about 102 ; Samolas from Ar
cadia, brass-caster, about 102. Eucleides of Athens, sculptor, about 102
(?) ; Leocharbs of Athens, brass-caster and sculptor, 102 — 111. (About
104 he was, according to the Ps. Platon. Letter xiu. p, 361, a young and
excellent sculptor) ; Hypatodorus (Hecatodorus) and Aristogeiton of
Thebes, brass-casters, 102. Sostrates, brass-caster, 102 — 114. Damophon
from Messenia, brass-caster, 103 sqq, ; Xenophon of Athens, brass-caster,
103 ; CaUistonicus of Thebes, brass-caster, 103 ; Strongylion, brass-caster,
about 103 (l). Olympiosthenes, brass-caster, about 103 (?) ; Euphranor,
the Isthmian, painter, sculptor, brass -caster and toreutes, 104 — ^110.

96 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Pf.u. III.
Praxiteles of Athens (0. 1. 1604. Opera ejus sunt Athenis in Oeramico,
PUn. N. H. xxxvi, 4, 5), sculptor and brass- caster, 104—110. Echion
[or Action], brass-caster and painter, 107 ; Therimachus, brass -caster
and painter, 107 ; Timotheus, sculptor and brass-caster, 107 ; Pythis,
sculptor, 107 ; Bryaxis of Athens, sculptor and brass-caster, 107—119 ;
Herodotus of Olynthus, about 108; Hippias, brass-caster, 110; Lysippus
of Sicyon, brass-caster, 103—114 (with Paus. vi, 4, comp. Corsini Diss.
Agon. p. 126), according to Athen. xi. p. 784, as late as 116, 1 (?) ; Lysis-^
trates of Sicyon, brother of Lysippus, plastes, 114 ; Silanion of Athens, ai
self-taught artist; Sthenis, Euphronides, Ion, and ApoUodorus, brass-
casters, 114 ; Amphistratus, sculptor, 114; Hippias, brass-caster, 114 (to
be inferred from Paus. vi, 1.3, 3) ; Menestratus, sculptor about 114 (?) ;
Choreas, brass-caster about 114 ; PhUo, son of Antipatrus (?), brass-
caster, 114 ; Pamphilus, a scholar of Praxiteles, 114. Cephissodotus (or
-dorus) and Timarchus, sons of Praxiteles, brass-casters, 114 — 120.
1 125. Scopas, principally a worker in marble (the product
of his home), the mild light of which doubtless seemed to him
better suited to the subjects of his art than the sterner brass,
borrowed his favourite themes from the cycles of Dionysus
2 and Aphrodite. In vthe former he was certainly one of the
first who presented the Bacchic enthusiasm in a perfectly free
3 and unfettered form (comp. §. 96, Rem. 21) ; his mastery in the
latter was shown by the collocation of Eros, Himeros and
Pothos, beings differing from one another by slight shades, in
4 one group of statues. The Apollo-Ideal is indebted to him
for the more graceful and animated form of the Pythian Cith-
aroedus ; he produced it by lending to the accustomed figure
in art (§. 96, Rem. 17) a greater expression of rapture and
5 exaltation. One of his most splendid works was the group of
sea-deities who escorted Achilles to the island of Leuce — a
subject in which tender grace, heroic grandeur, daring power
and a luxuriant fulness of strong natural life are combined
in such wonderful harmony, that even the attempt to conjure
up and conceive the group, in the spirit of ancient art, must
6 fill us with the most cordial delight. It is highly probable
that the character of the forms and gestures peculiar to the
Bacchian cycle, was first tranferred by Scopas to the repre
sentation of beings of the ocean, whereby the Tritons took
the shape of Satyrs, and the Nereids of Meenads of the sea, and
the entire train seemed as if animated and intoxicated with
inward fulness of life (comp. §. 402).
2. Dionysus at Cnidus in marble, Plin. xxxvi, 4, 5. A Masnad with
streaming hair as x'l^a'jopoi/of, in Parian marble, CaUistratus 2. Anthol.
Pal. ix, 774, and Plan, iv, 60 (App. ii. p. 642), probably the one on the
reUef in Zoega, Bassir. iLj^tv. 84, which also recurs on the reUefs, ibid. 83,
106, on the vase of SosiS(ius (BouiU. iii, 79), in the Marquis of Lans-
downe's coUection and in the British Museum (R. vi. n. 17*). A Panisc
Cic. de. Divin. i, 13.

PLASTIC ART. 97
3. At Rome a naked Venus Praxiteliam illam antecedens (in order of
time?), Plin. xxxvi, 4, 7. Venus, Pothos (and Phaethon?) in Samo-
thrace, Plin. ibid. Eros, Himeros and Pothos at Megara, Paus. i, 43, 6.
Scopas' brazen Aphrodite Pandemos at Elis, sitting on a goat, formed a
remarkable contrast to Phidias' Urania with the tortoise, which was
placed beside it. Paus, vi, 25, 2. Chametasras ?
4. The ApoUo of Scopas was, according to Pliny, the chief statue of
the temple by which Augustus expressed his gratitude to his tutelar deity
for the victory at Actium, and hence it appeal's on Roman coins since
the time of Augustus with the two legends : Ap. Actius and Pala-
tiniis. See Eckhel D. N. vi. p. 94, 107. vu. p. 124. Comp. Tacit. Ann.
xiv, 14. Sueton. Nero 25 (with the notes of Patinus). It is described by
Propert. ii, 31, 15 : Inter matrem, (by Praxiteles, PUn.) deus ipse itUerque
sororem (by Timotheus, Plin.) Pythius in longa carmina veste sonat. The
one in the Vatican discovered together with the muses in the viUa of
Oassius is a copy of this Palatine ApoUo. See M. PioCl. i. tv. 16 (comp.
Visconti p. 29, who was inclined however to consider the statue by Tim-
archides, PUn. xxxvi, 4, 10 as the original). M. Frang. i. pi. 5. BouUl.
i, pi, 33,
5, Sed in maxima dignatione. On. Domitii delubro in Circo Flaminio,
Neptunus ipse et Thetis atque Achilles, Nereides supra delphinas et cete
et hippocampos sedentes. Item Tritones, chorusque Phorci et pristes
ac multa aUa marina omnia ejusdem manus, prseclarum opus etiamsi
totius vitse fuisset. Plin. . On the mythus of the statuary, see especially
v. Kohler, Mem, sur les lies et la Course d'Achille, P^tersb, 1827.
Sect. 1.
126. The Roman connoisseurs could not determine, as in 1
some other works, whether the group of Niobe (which stood
in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome) was by Scopas or
Praxiteles. At all events the group gives evidence of a style 2
of art which loved to represent impressive and agitating sub
jects, but treated them at the same time with the moderation
and noble reserve which the genius of the Greeks in the best
ages required. The artist does his utmost to win over our 3
minds for the stricken family punished by the gods ; the noble
and grand forms of the countenances, in which family relation
ship is expressed, appear in no instance disagreeably distorted
by bodily pain and fear of the impending danger ; the coun
tenance of the mother — ^the apex of the whole representation
— expresses the despair of maternal love in the purest and
most exalted form. A judgment on the composition and the 4
motives which animated and held together the groups in their
parts is rendered very difiicult by the state in which they
have come down to us. This much however is clear that, 5
besides the mother, among the other figures also there were
several united into smaller groups, in which the effort to pro
tect and assist others interrupted the series of fugitives trying
to save themselves, in a manner equally satisfactory to the
eye and the mind. G

98 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, III.
1. Par hsesitatio est in tempio ApoUinis Sosiani, Nioben cum liberis
morientem (or Niobse liberos morientes) Scopas an Praxiteles fecerit,
PUn. xxxvi, 4, 8. The epigrams pronounce for Praxiteles (Anthol. Pal.
App. ii. p. 664. Plan, iv, 129. Auson. Epit. Her. 28). The temple of
Apollo Sosianus was probably founded by C. Sosius who was under An
toninus in Syria (com. Dio. Cass, xlix, 22, with PUn. xiii, 11), [Wagner
S. 296,] As to the group having been placed on a pediment (according
to Bartholdy's idea), see Guattani, Memorie Bnciclop, 1817. p. 77, and
Le statue della favola di Niobe sit. nella prima loro disposizione, da C. R.
CockereU. F. 1818, also (Zannoni) Galeria di Firenze, Stat. P. ii. tv. 76.
[Wagner disputes this.] Thiersch doubts it, but nevertheless gives to
the group the triangular form and bilateral disposition. [Not the trian
gular form, S. 369. comp. 273.]
4. To the Florentine group (found at Rome in 1683 near the gate of
S. Giovanni) many unsuitable figures have been added (a discobolus, a
Psyche, a muse-like figure, a nymph, a horse). The group of youthlul
pancratiasts Ukewise, although found hard by, does not fit weU into the
whole, but seems to have been executed after the symplegma of Cephisso
dotus, the son of Praxiteles (digitis verius corpori quam marmori impres-
sis, PUn.) [?]. But even the rest of the statues are of unequal merit,
nay of different marble. Of the Niobids at Florence, besides the mother
with the youngest daughter, ten figures may be held as genuine, and
(conformably to the remark of Thorwaldsen) the so-caUed Narcissus
(Galeria tv. 74) may be added to them. It is stUl very doubtful whether
the Florentine figures are those which were famous in antiquity, as the
treatment of the bodies, although in general exceUent and grandiose, does
not however display that uniform perfection and Uving freshness which
characterized the works of the Greek chisel at the best period. — On the
contrary the breathing Ufe of Greek art cannot but be recognised in the
so-caUed lUoneus in the Glyptotheca at Munich (no. 126) ; though worthy
of a Scopas, it cannot however receive an entirely satisfactory explanation
from a union with the Niobids. Comp. Kunstblatt 1828. No. 45. The so-
caUed Niobid at Paris (L. 441. Clarac, pi. 323), is more probably a Msenad
struggUng away from a Satyr. Of the authentic figures in the group,
out of Florence the sublime head of the mother (very fine in Sarskoselo
and in Lord Yarborough's coUection) and the dying outstretched son
(also at Dresden and Munich) are most frequently to be met with.
6. Besides the mother, the following partial groupings are indicated :
a. The pedagogue (Gal. 16) was so placed beside the youngest son (Gal.
11) that the latter pressed towards him on the left side while he drew
him to himself with the right arm, according to the group found at
Soissons, which is copied (with a confounding of right and left) in R.
Rochette M. I. pi. 79. comp. p. 427. b. A son (Gal. 9) supported, with
his left foot advanced under her sinking form, a dying sister,  who
is preserved in a group in the Vatican, caUed Cephalus and Procris,—
and endeavoured to shield her by spreading his garment over her ; ac
cording to the observations of [Canova], Schlegel, Wagner, and Thiersch
(Epochen, s. 315). c. A daughter (Gal. 3) in Uke manner tried with out
spread upper-garment to protect the son who is sunk on his left knee
(Gal. 4, Race. 33) ; a group which can be recognised with certainty from
a later gem-engraving (Impronti gemm. d. Inst, i, 74). I also recognise

PRAXITELES. 9!)
these two Niobids, the brother protected by his sister (D. A. K. Tf 33,
d. e.), in the group M. Cap. iii, 42. in which however more accurate in
formation is desirable regarding the restorations, by means of which the
sister appears to have been brought from the upright posture into this
stooping attitude. [Scarcely tenable, 0, Jahn Archaol. Beitr. S. 1 78.]
Fabroni, Dissert. suUe statue appartenenti aUa favola di Niobe. F,
1779 (with unsuitable iUustrations from Ovid), H. Meyer, Propylaen
Bd. u. St. 2, 3, and Amalthea i. s. 273 (Erganzungen), A, W, Schlegel,
BibUoth&que UniverseUe 1816, Litter. T. ui, p. 109, [OSuvres T, 2,]
Welcker, Zeitschr. i. s, 588 ff, Thiersch, Epochen, s, 316, 368, Wagner in
the Kunstblatt 1830, N. 51 ff. [Welcker on the grouping of Niobe and
her chUdren, in the Rhein. Mus. iv. S. 233. Feuerbach Vatic. Ap. S. 260
ff. Guigniaut R6Ugions de 1' Antiqu. pi. 215 bis. Bxplic. p. 331-33, Ed,
Gerhard Drei Vorles, 1844. S. 49 ff. Ad. Trendelenburg, Niobe, cinige
Betrachtungen iiber das Schone u. Erhabene Berl. 1846.] Drawings in
Fabroni, in the Galerie de Florence i . . iv. and the Galeria di Firenze,
Stat. P. i. tv. 1 sqq. D. A. K. tf 33, 34. Comp. §. 417.
127. Praxiteles also worked chiefly in marble, and for 1
the most part preferred subjects from the cycles of Diony
sus, Aphrodite and Eros. In the numerous figures which he 2
borrowed from the first, the expression of Bacchic enthusiasm
as well as of roguish petulance was united with the most
refined grace and sweetness. It was Praxiteles who in several 3
exquisite statues of Eros represented in consummate flower
the beauty and loveliness of that age in boys which seemed
to the Greeks the most attractive ; who in the unrobed Aph- 4
rodite combined the utmost luxuriance of personal charms
with a spiritual expression in which the queen of love herself
appeared as a woman needful of love, and fllled with inward
longing. However admirable these works might be, yet in 5
them the godlike majesty and sovereign might, which the
earlier sculptors had sought to express even in the forms of
this cycle, gave place to adoration of the corporeal attractions
with which the deity was invested. The life of the artist with 6
the Hetserae had certainly some influence in promoting this
tendency ; many a one of these courtesans filled all Greece with
her fame, and really seemed to the artist, not without reason,
as an Aphrodite revealed to sense. Even in the cycle of 7
Apollo, Praxiteles thought fit to introduce many changes ;
thus in one of his most beautiful and finely imagined works
he brought the youthful Apollo nearer in posture and figure
to the nobler satyric forms than an earlier artist would have
done. Altogether, Praxiteles, the master of the younger, as 8
Phidias was of the elder, Attic school, was almost entirely a
sculptor of deities; heroes he seldom executed, athletes never. ,
1. Of Praxiteles as a worker in marble, Plin. xxxiv, 8, 19. xxxvi, 4,
5. Phsedr. v. Prsef. Statins S. iv, 6, 26. O xxrx/xi^xg xx^ug roig y\i^ivoig
s^yoig rd riig ^vx'iig 'n-x^ri, Diodor. xxvi. Bcl. 1. p. 512. Wess.

100

HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.

2. Cycle of Demeter, see Preller Demeter u. Persephone, S. 91.
Dionysus of BUs, Paus. vi, 26, 1, perhaps the one described by CaUistra
tus 8, of brass, a beautiful youth crowned with ivy, engirt with a nebris,
resting his lyre (?) on the thyrsus, and with a tender and dreamy expres
sion. Besides this youthful form, which was then but newly introduced,
Praxiteles also represented the god in the older style, in mature man
hood, as in the group which Pliny describes, xxxiv, 8, 19, 10 : Liberum
patrem et Bbrietatem nobilemque una Satyrum quem Grseci itt^i^&irrov
cognominant. It is not ascertained whether the Satyr of the Tripod-
street (Paus. i, 20, 1. Athen. xiii, 591 b. comp. Heyne, Antiq. Aufs. u,
s. 63) is the same. This is taken to be the one which is often to be met
with leaning on the trunk of a tree and reposing after playing on the
flute: M. PioCl. ii, 30; M. Cap. iii, 32; M. Frang. ii. pi. 12; BouUl. i, 55.
comp. Winckelm. W. iv. s. 75, 277. vi. s. 142. Visconti PioCl. u. p. 60.
Satyr at Megara, Paus. i, 43, 5. Praxiteles executed a group of Monads,
Thyads, Caryatic dancers (§. 366.) and SUeni in noisy procession. PUn.
xxxvi, 4, 6. Anthol. Pal. ix, 766. Pan carrying a wine-skin, laughing
nymphs, a Danae, in marble, Anthol. Pal. vi, 317. App. T. ii. p. 705.
Plan, iv, 262. Hermes carrying the young Dionysus, in marble (Paus.
V, 17, 1), probably copied in the reUef, Zoega, Bassir. i, 3, and on the vase
of Salpion. §. 384.
3. Bros. a. At Parion, in marble, naked, in the bloom of youth,
PUn. xxxvi, 4, 5. b. At Thespise, of Pentelic marble with gilded wings
(Julian Or. ii. p. 54 c. Spanh.), a boy in youthful bloom {iv a^x), Lucian,
Amor. 11. 17. Paus. ix, 27. Dedicated by Phryne (or Glycera), carried
away by Caligula, then again by Nero, at the time of Pliny in Octavise
scholis (Manso Mythol. Abhandl. s. 361 ff.). At Thespise stood a copy
by Menodorus, Paus. JuUan, from ignorance, speaks of the Thespian
statue as if it were of brass. .aSgypt. Anthol. Pal. App. ii. p. 687. Plan.
iv, 203. c. The Eros of marble in the sacrarium of Hejus at Messana,
similar to the Thespian, Cic. Verr. 1. iv, 2, 3. (Comp. Amalthea iii. s.
300. Wiener Jahrb, xxxix, s. 138). d. e. Two of brass, described by
CaUistratus 4, 11, the one reposing (Jacobs, p. 693), the other encircUng
his hair with a fillet. The Parian or Thespian statue is probably imi
tated in the beautiful Torso from OentoceUe, with languishing expression,
and hair arranged in the fashion of youth (Crobylus), M, PioCl. i, 12.
Bouill. i, 15,-the more perfect one, with wings, is preserved at Naples, M.
Borbon. vi, 25. The Bros of the Elgin CoUection in the Brit. Mus. is
similar, only it is stiU more slender and deUcate. R. xv. n. 305.* D. A.
K. Tf 35. [Brit. Mus. T. ix.]
4. Aphrodite, a. The one ordered by the Ooans velata specie, that
is entirely draped, Plin. xxxiv, 4, 5, b. That purchased by the Cnidians,
in the temple of Aphrodite Buploea, placed in a chapel specially fitted up
for it (sedicula quse tota aperitur, Plin., i/ewj dfi<pt^v^og, Lucian Amor. 13.
¦Tre^iaxivru ivl x^if^ Anthol, Pal. App, T. u. p. 674. Plan, iv, 160) ; after
wards in Byzantium, according to Cedrenus. Of Parian marble ; Lucian
gives the essential features. Amor. 13 sq. Imag. 6, as foUows: liu-n^liri
yi'hani f^tx^ov vTrof^iihiuax. — O^qvuv ro iiiy^xf/.^ov xxi rZiv otp^x'hfiuv ro
iyjoV xfix TM Cf>xii^^ xxi xE;:i;»§;o'^i»ij). — Ilxv Se to xaXTiOf xvriig dxxhvTerov,
oiihi^ixg ia^iyrog x^'n'sxovffyigt ysyu^vc-yrxi, Tr'h^^v oax rri iri^x p^E/pi.T^tf xiZu

PRAXITELES, LEOCHARBS. 11)1
'KiKn^arug i-rnx^ii-msiv. — Tav Ss Toff laxioig ivsacp^xylafiivav £| ixxri^av ru-stuv
oix xv EiVo( rig ag ijiiig 6 yiT^uig. Mdjow te xxi xvijfiYig st' euSu TSTaiWEi/Uf
aixqi TToSo'f iix^ijiafiivoi pu^ftoi. From this and from the coins of Cnidus
in honour of PlautiUa we can recognise this Aphrodite in the statue in
the gardens of the Vatican (Perrier, n. 85. Episcopius, n. 46, Race. 4),
in the recently draped one in the M. PioCl. i, 11, and another brought to
Munich (n. 135) from the Braschi palace (Plaxman, Lectures on Sculpt.
pi. 22), and from these also in busts (in the Louvre 59. BouUl. i. 68) and
in gems, Lippert Dactyl. I, i, 81. Her nudity was accounted for by the
laying aside her dress in the bath with the left, the right covered her
lap. The forms were grander, the countenance, notwithstanding an ex
pression of smiUng languishment, was of a loftier character and rounder
form, than in the Medicean Venus; the hair was bound by a simple
fillet. The identity of the Cnidian and the Medicean Venus was main
tained by Meyer ad Winckelm. W. iv, ii. s. 143. Jenaer ALZ. 1806. Sept.
67. Gesch. der Kunst. i. s. 113, in opposition to Heyne Ant. Aufs. i. s.
123. Visconti M. PioCl. i. p. 18. Levezow, Ob die Mediceische Venus
ein Bild der Knidischen sei. B. 1808. Thiersch Epochen, s. 288. — c. A
brazen one, Plin. d. One of marble at Thespise, Paus. ix, 27. e. An
Aphrodite by Praxiteles stood in the Adonion at Alexandria on Latmus,
Steph, B. s, V, ' A7iE|ai/Sj£;a. Peitho and Paregorus ('7rx^(pxixig, Homer)
with the Aphr, Praxis at Megara. Paus, i, 43,
6, According to Clem. Alex. Prot. p. 36. Sylb. Arnob. adv. gent, vi, 13,
Praxiteles took Cratina as the model of his Aphrodite ; according to others
Phryne, who also stood sculptured in marble by him at Thespise (Paus.
ix, 27) and gilt at Delphi (Athen. xiii. p. 591. Paus. x, 14, 5. Plut. de
Pyth. orac. 14, 16), the trophy of Hellenic voluptuousness according to
Crates. Comp. Jacobs in Wieland's Att. Mus. Bd. iii. s. 24. 51. Accord
ing to Strabo he also made a present of an Bros to Glycera, ix, p, 410.
According to Pliny he represented the triumph of a sprightly hetsera
over an Attic matron ef melancholy disposition : Signa flentis matronse
et meretricis gaudentis (Phryne). Comp. B. Murr " Die Mediceische
Venus und Phryne."
7. Fecit et (ex acre) puberem [ApoUinem] subrepenti lacertse comi-
nus sagitta insidiantem, quem Sauroctonon vocant, PUn. comp. Martial,
Epigr, xiv, 172, Seitz maintained that this lizard-slayer is no Apollo,
Mag, Bncycl, 1807, T. v. p. 259. There is now perceived in this an allu
sion to augury by Uzards (Welcker, Akad. Kunstmus. zu Bonn, s. 71 ff.
A, Feuerbach Vatic. Apoll, s, 226), but playfuUy handled. Imitations,
possessing naive grace and loveUness, very similar to the satyr of Prax
iteles in the posture of the feet, are often to be met with (VUl. Borgh,
St, 2, n, 5. Winckelm. M. I. i. n. 40. M. Royal, i. pi, 16 ; M, PioCl. i,
13 ; a brazen one in Villa Albani) ; also on gems (Millin, Pierr, grav, pi.
5 and elsewhere). There is also mention made of an ApoUo with his
sister and mother ; Leto and Artemis several times (osoulum quale Praxi
teles habere Dianam credidit, Petron.), and numerous other statues of
deities by Praxiteles. SiUig C. A. p. 387. On the encaustic treatment
of the statues of Praxiteles, §. 310.
1 28. A like spirit of art animated Leochares, whose Gany- 1

102 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, III.
mede was an equally noble and charming conception of the
favourite of Zeus borne upwards by the eagle, although the
2 subject had always a questionable side. The striving after
personal charms still more predominates in the Hermaphro
dite, an artistic creation for which we are probably indebted
3 to Polycles. The tendency to the affecting is shown particu
larly in Silanion's dying Jocasta, a brazen statue, with deadly-
4 pale countenance. Timotheus (§. 125, R. 4) and Bryaxis
also seem to have been fellow -artists and contemporaries of
Praxiteles ; they both ornamented the tomb of Mausolus
5 jointly with Scopas and Leochares, after 01. 106, 4 (§. 149).
There were likewise portrait-statues of Macedonian princes
by Leochares and Bryaxis, and in Athens itself [where Deme-
6 trius erected models, §. 123, 2,] many artists were employed
on honorary statues (comp, §. 420). All the masters just
named (only information is wanting as to Timotheus) were
Athenians ; they form together with Scopas and Praxiteles
the newer school of Athens.
1. Leochares (fecit) aquilam sentientem quid rapiat in Ganymede, et
cui ferat, parcentemque unguibus (fitiioftivxig ovix^'mi, Nonn. xv, 281) eti
am per vestem, PUn. xxxiv, 19, 17. comp. Straton, Anthol. Pal. xu, 221.
The statue in the M. PioCl. iu, 49, is a decided imitation. It represents
the devotedness of the favourite boy to the erastes in the aUusive man
ner of antiquity. For that the eagle denotes the lover himself, is brought
out more clearly for example on the coins of Dardanus (Choiseul, Gouf
fier Voy. Pitt. u. pi. 67, 28), where the subject is more boldly handled.
Ganymede is therefore even placed together with Leda, as in the por
tico at Thessalonica (Stuart, Ant. of Athens ui. chap. 9. pi. 9. 11), as
mascula and muliebris Venus. Hence it is probable that this concep
tion of ancient art (§. 361) also belongs to the same period.
2. Polycles Hermaphr. nobUem fecit, PUn. That the elder Polycles,
of this period, is here meant, becomes stiU more probable from observing
that in Pliny xxxiv, 19, 12 sqq. the alphabeticaUy enumerated plastse
stand again under each letter in the same way that they were found af
ter one another in the historical sources (a rule which is tolerably gen
eral, and by which perhaps the age of some other artists can be deter
mined) ; accordingly this Polycles Uved before Phoenix the scholar of
Lysippus. Whether his hermaphrodite was standing or lying (§. 392,
4), is a question difficult to answer.
3. On the Jocasta see Plut. de aud. poet. 3. Quajst. Syrn. v, 1.
5. By Leochares, statues of Amyntas, Philip, Alexander, Olympias,
and Burydice, of gold and ivory, Paus. v, 20 ; of Isocrates, Plut. Vit. x.
Oratt. A king Seleucus by Bryaxis. Polyeuctos against Demades asks,
in Apsines Art. Rhetor, p. 708, whether an honorary statue held a shield,
the akrostoUon of a ship, a book, or prayed to the gods ? [Lungin. de
invent, ed, Walz T, ix. p. 545.]
6. Even the reliefs on the Choregic monument of Lysicrates (§. 108)
— Dionysus and his satyrs quelling the Tyrrhenians^may show clearly

SCULPTURES OF XANTHUS, 103
the state of art at Athens during this period; disposition and design
exceUent,, the expression in the highest degree animated, the execution
however already less careful. Stuart i. oh. 4. Meyer, Gesch. Tf 25 — 27.
D. A. K. Tf 27. comp. §. 385.
[128.* Here lies the extreme boundary beyond which the
second large monument on the acropolis of Xanthus cannot
be brought down. It was not till his third journey that Sir
Richard Fellows, after the most assiduous excavation, had
the good fortune to discover the widely scattered constituent
parts, out of which he afterwards ingeniously attempted to
re-construct in design the building known under the name of
mausoleum, or monument in honour of Harpagus. And it is
still a question whether this restoration of the Ionic building
can establish, with complete certainty, that the statues, which
even surpass the Maenads of Scopas in boldness and lightness
of representation, belonged to the building whose masterly
friezes point rather to the time of the Phigalian sculptures.
There are two of these friezes, the one 3 f 4 in,, the other 1 f 11 in, high,
the larger one consisting of twelve marble tablets. The composition as a
whole and the connexion of particular parts has not been ascertained, as
only a portion has been discovered. The larger frieze exhibits a battle
with the fire and animation of the representations of PhigaUa, but a real
battle, and with the imitation of reality even in the accoutrements of the
combatants, by which it is difficult to distinguish the two sides. There
are distinctly to be seen, Ionic hoplitse in long drapery, Lycians such as
Herodotus (vu, 92) describes them, others wear anaxyrides, the archers'
leathern armour ; two kinds of helmets, the laiseion (Philostr. Imag. p.
323). On five tablets there are hopUtse fighting with horsemen, on
others merely foot soldiers, the most diversified battle groups. The
lances, swords and bows were not expressed ; only as an exception to
this principle we find a shaft in marble, and a hole for inserting the sword
in the hand. On the smaUer frieze is represented the capture of a city, a
defeat outside, which is viewed from the walls by the besieged, attack on
the principal gate, a saUy, storming ladders placed against weU manned,
triple walls towering above one another, ambassadors surrendering the
city. Before the conqueror with Phrygian cap and mantle, who is
seated on a throne and over whom a parasol is held (a sign of the high
est rank, which passed from the Persians to Egyptians, and is even in
use at the present day in Marocco, that of the imperial prince among the
spoUs of the French), two old men stand speaking, accompanied by five
men in armour. On a corner stone there are prisoners, who are not
soldiers, led away with their hands tied at their backs. DetaUed descrip
tions given by Sam. Birch, Britannia xxx. p. 192 — 202 (with explana
tions which are to be received with caution), and E. Braun in the N.
Rhein. Mus. ui. S. 470., afterwards enlarged in the Archaol. Zeit. 1844. S.
358 ff. comp. BuU. 1846. p. 70. Now, these scenes are referred to the
conquest of Xanthus by the general of Cyrus; on this point there is
hitherto no disagreement with Sir C. FeUows (Xanthian Marbles 1842.
p. 39). Col. Leake indeed assumes (Transact, of the R. Soc. of Liter.
Second Series i. p. 260 ss.), on account of the style, that the monument

104 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IIL
of Harpagus was not raised soon after the taking of the city (01. 58, 3),
but on the contrary not tiU about 01. 70, perhaps by the grandson of
Harpagus, who figures in Herodotus 01. 71, 4 ; judging from it, we
might rather come down another century (01. 95) " or two ; " but the
history of Asia Minor after Alexander wiU not allow this. However,
we may abide by the one century, as we would besides think of the
period of Scopas and Praxiteles, and this objection of history against the
evidence of the style as to the age is removed : Sir Edward Head also (in
the Classical Museum, No. u.), although he agrees with Leake in other
respects (p. 224. 228) assigns the monument to 01. 83 or 96, or even later
(p. 230). But the contents of the frieze itself are opposed to this suppo
sition : they are not merely different from the history ifi details as Leake
apologetically admits, but entirely and essentiaUy, and are even in some
measure directly the opposite. After the Xanthians had been driven back
into the city by the masses of Harpagus, they collected together their
wives and children, their slaves and other property, in the acropolis,
consumed them with fire, and then, bound by a fearful oath, they
rushed upon the enemy, and sought in combat a common death, so that
Xanthus received an entirely new population, with the exception of
eighty heads of families who were in other countries at the time of the
destruction. It is impossible therefore that the Persians, who passed
over the dead into the open acropolis, could be represented negotiat
ing with the Xanthians during the heat of the storming, nearly about the
time when the true history, — whose peculiar nature does not admit a
weU-grounded suspicion of distortion or exaggeration, and which could
neither be artistically concealed nor forgotten in general, — was related by
Herodotus or soon after. Add to this, that the frieze does not exhibit any
Persians fighting, who must have been conspicuous in the army of Har
pagus above the Ionian and JSolian auxiliaries. So important an histo
rical representation compels us therefore to resort to another supposition.
The Xanthians who also defended their city with simUar obstinacy against
Alexander, and again destroyed themselves with their wives and chUdren
in the war of Brutus and the Triumvirs, after the enemy had effected an
entrance by stratagem, might have also at an early period have made an
attempt, like the lonians, to shake off the Persian yoke, the bad result of
which was triumphantly and threateningly presented by this monument
to the eyes of their descendants ; it is probable, however, that this would
not have been passed over by Herodotus. Or the representation of the
conquered city does not refer to Xanthus, but to external deeds of the
Persian commissary in Xanthus, as the Greek verses on the pUlar of
peace from Xanthus mentioned by Appian, and now in London, covered
over with Lycian characters, extol the son of a Harpagus for proving
himself in the laud-fight (xH^l ¦a-xf^nv) the best among aU the Lycians —
who fought therefore along with, not against him — destroyed many
fortresses, and procured for his kinsmen a share of the dominion (the
conquered foreign cities, under the royal sanction). This was probably
in the war with Euagoras, who also caused CiUcia to revolt, and was
beaten by the Persians in a sea fight, 01. 98, 2, and six years afterwards
in Cyprus itself (Franz in the Archaol. Zeit. 1844. S. 279). The lonians,
then, were here also mercenaries in the service of Artaxerxes, as there
were probably Arcadians fighting on the other side, the Swiss of antiquity,
as we know from ancient comedy. Of the two pediments, there are pre-

PLASTIC ART. 105
served the half of one with a battle scene, and pieces of the other with
two gods enthroned and standing figures probably with thank-offerings
to the gods for the victory, and this perhaps on the fa§ade. Among
the statues of different size, for the most part very incomplete, which
Sir C. FeUows has placed in the intercolumnia of the front and back
pediments and on the acroteria, our admiration is most excited by the
female figures which are represented hastening away, either inclined to
the right or left, in highly animated movement, partly looking round,
whereby the not less bold than inventive hand of the master has devel
oped so many beauties in Unes of the body — to which the seemingly
transparent drapery adheres — and the flying masses of drapery, that in
consideration of them we may easUy overlook what is amiss or incom
plete in the rapid execution. These peculiarities of treatment may be
distinguished from antique hardness. On the pUnths of these figures
there is a fish, a larger fish, a lobster, a spiral sheU, a bird which we
must in this connexion take to be a sea-bird, not a dove ; and besides
those figures with their corresponding signs, we may also assume that
there were similar animals attached to two similar figures which be
longed to the series, although they are wanting with the greater portion
of the whole. Now, if these symbols evidently indicate Nereids, we can
only conceive their flight to be occasioned by the disturbance of their
realm from a sea-fight, such as that against Euagoras, or by a battle on
shore, which compeUed the enemy to rush helter-skelter to their ships,
as for instance in Herod, v, 116 ; and only on this supposition could
Nereids be introduced appropriately on a monument commemorating a
victory. In that case they would also furnish a further proof that the
capture of Xanthus by the first Harpagus is not represented in the
friezes, but rather a later victory of the Persian authorities over a re-
beUious outbreak. But the unmistakeable reference of these Nereids to
a sea-fight seems also to lend a strong confirmation to the architectonic
combination that they belonged to the same building as these friezes.
This union of the tumult of battle on shore and (allusively) at sea, with the
image of stormed cities, produces a good general effect. In this way was
the Assyrian and Persian custom of representing battles (§, 246,* 248.
R, 2) here imitated by an Ionian hand and in the purely Greek style.
Besides this monument there have been also brought to London from
Xanthus, two Uons, the tomb named from the winged chariot with remark
able representations (Asia M, p. 228, Lycia p, 165), a frieze of chariot and
horsemen (Lycia p, 173), a chase, probably from a tomb, as weU as the
procession of peasants paying their tribute in tame and wUd animals
and other natural productions (Lycia p. 176), — aU of the best period of
art. The foUowing also seem to be very good, the fragments of a battle
of Amazons and a festal procession. Ibid. p. 177, BeUerophon vanquish
ing the Chimaera, p. 136, which is of colossal size and has also been taken
from a tomb ; and not a few cf the reUefs from sepulchral monuments, which
represent merely domestic scenes or war (p. 209 does not even seem to
form an exception) contain very exceUent and peculiar compositions, p.
116 (comp. the title-plate, where we must read ME202), 118. 135. 141,
166. 178. 197. 198. 200. 206. 207. 208.]

106 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. Ill,
1 129. As the first artists of this school still bore in them
the spirit of Phidias, although in a state of transformation,
and therefore chiefly endeavoured to express an inward spir
itual life in gods or other mythic shapes; so, on the other
hand, Euphranor and Lysippus especially continued the Ar-
givo-Sicyonic school — that of Polyclitus, the aim of which
was always more directed to fine corporeal forms, and the re-
2 presentation of athletic and heroic energy. Among heroes,
the character of Hercules was perfected by Lysippus in a new
style, and the powerful structure of his limbs, developed by
labour and exertion (§. 410), was piled up to that colossal
size which the art of later sculptors always strove to at-
3 tain. The statues of athletes did not now occupy the artists
so much as formerly, although six sculptures of this kind are
quoted as works of the incredibly active Lysippus ; on the
contrary it was chiefly idealised portraits of powerful princes
4 that the age demanded. In the form of Alexander, Lysippus
even knew how to lend expression to defects, and, as Plutarch
says, he alone could duly blend the softness in his eyes and
the posture of his neck with what was manly and lion-like
5 in Alexander's mien. Accordingly, his portrait-statues were
always animated and skilfully conceived ; whilst, on the con
trary, other artists of the time, as Lysistratus, the brother of
Lysippus, who was the flrst to take casts of the face in stucco,
merely made it the aim of their art to produce a faithful re
semblance of the external form before them.
1. Cicero, Brut. 86, 296 (comp. Petron. Satyr. 88), Polycleti Dory
phorum sibi Lysippus magistrum fuisse aiebat. Exactly as PolycUtus
did §. 120, he executed according to PUny destringentem se. Hence .also
why they have been confounded, SUlig C. A. p. 254. N. 7.
2. Euphranor (as painter) primus videtur expressisse dignitates her-
oum, PUn. xxxv, 40, 26. — Lysippian statues of Hercules, Sillig C. A. p.
259. a. Hercules reposing for a little from some great undertaking, the
Farnesian colossal statue (Maffei, Race. 49. Piranesi, Statue 11. M.
Borbon. iii, 23, 24) found in the baths of CaracaUa, under which em
peror the statue probably was brought to Rome (Gerhard Neapels Bildw.
S. 32.), executed by the Athenian Glycon after an original by Lysippus
as is proved by the inscription on an inferior copy (Bianchini, Palazzo
del Cesari tv. 18). The hand with the apples is new, the genuine legs
were substituted in 1 787 for those by Gugl. deUa Porta. The Hercules
with the name of Lysippus is in the Pitti palace, and a second copy with
the name FATK-QN at Volterra in the house Guarnacci. The Farnesian
statue in Pea's Winckelmann ii. tv. 7. ui. p. 469, a smaUer copy in marble
Gal. di Firenze Stat. T. iii. tv. 108, smaU ones in bronze 110. 111. p. 26
sqq. Of little bronze figures there is no reckoning the number, scarcely
any other famous original has so many. On the reference of the statue,
see Zoega Bassir. ii. p. 86, 0. Jahn Telephos u. Troilos S. 63. A statue
precisely simUar is described by Libanius (Petersen, De Libanio Com-

PLASTIC ART. 107
ment. ii. Havn. 1827) ; the figure is also often to be met with otherwise
in statues and gems, and on coins (Petersen p. 22) ; the head is perhaps
surpassed by that in Marbles of the Brit. Mus. i. 11, in depth of expres
sion. Comp. Winckelm. W. vi, i. s. 169. ii. s. 166. Meyer, Gesoh. s. 128.
D. A. K. Tf 38. b, Hercules resting after the completion of his labours,
a colossus at Tarentum, brought by Fabius Max. to the Capitol, after
wards taken to Byzantium, described by Nicetas De Statuis Constan-
tinop. c. 6. p. 12 ed. WUken. [Fabr. Bibl. Gr. vi. ed. 1. p. 408.] He sat,
anxiously stooping, on a basket (in reference to the cleaning of Augeas'
staUs), on which lay the Uon's hide, and supported the left arm on his
bent knee, the right lay on the right leg which hung down. This is
evidently the figure so frequent on gems, in Lippert, Dact, i, 285 — 87. ii,
231. Suppl. 334 — 346, c. Hercules bowed down by the might of Eros,
and despoUed of his weapons (Athol, Pal, ii, p, 655, Plan, iv, 103), pro
bably preserved in gems in a figure similar in form to the preceding.
Lippert, Dact. i. 280, 281. n. 225—27. Suppl. 331. Gal. di Fir. v. tv. 6,
2. 3. d. A smaU bronze Hercules {fnir^x-Tri^iog), described by Statius S.
iv, 6, and Martial ix, 44, of the grandest form and serene expression, as
if at the banquet of the gods, sitting on a stone covered with the Uon's
hide, a goblet in his right hand, the left resting on his club. Evidently
(according to Heyne) the model of the Torso (§. 160 and 411). [The
Hercules of gilded bronze in the Capitol puts one in mind of Lysippus by
its more slender proportions, its longer and less thick neck, and by its
exceUence, although it is somewhat injured by mannerism and overload
ing in the execution, as is the case with imitations of other masterly
compositions. The figure also occurs on coins of Berytus (Rasche Suppl.
i. p. 1361) and others.]
3. Euphranor's Alexander et PhiUppus in quadrigis, PUn. Lysippus
fecit et Alexandrum Magnum multis operibus a pueritia ejus orsus — idem
fecit Hephsestionem — Alexandri venationem — turmam Alexandri, in qua
amicorum ejus {irxi^av) imagines summa omnium similitudine expressit
(Alexander, around him 25 hetseri, who had faUeu at the Granicus, 9
warriors on foot, see PUn. comp. VeUei. Paterc. i, 11, 3. Arrian i, 16, 7.
Plut. Alex. 16) — fecit et quadrigas multorum generum. On Alexander's
Edict, SUUg C. A. p. 66. N. 24.
4. Chief statue of Alexander by Lysippus, with the lance (Plut. de
Isid. 24) and the later inscription : Aioxaoivri 3' hixev 6 ;ga?ixEOf sig A/a
T^ivuauv' Vxv i/'TT ifiol ri^'.^xt, Ziv, ail S' " OT^v^ttov £x~ (Plut. de Alex. virt.
ii, 2. Alex. 4. Tzetz. Chil. viii. v. 426, <fec.). An equestrian statue of
Alexander as founder (of Alexandria, as it seems) had ray-like waving
hair, Libanius Ekphr, T. iv. p. 1120 R. On the agreement in character
of Alexander's statues, Appulei. Florid, p. 118 Bip. The hair arched up
from the forehead (reUcina frons, dvxaroAti rvig x6fi.ru, Plut. Pomp. 2) is
always one of the principal distinguishing marks. From the statue with
the lance, the helmeted and pecuUarly inclined head is preserved on the
coins of the Macedonians from the times of the Cesars (Cousinery, Voy
age dans la Maced. T. i. pi. 5. n. 3, 5, 8) ; with it corresponds the Gabinian
statue (Visconti, Mon. Gab. 23) and the similar head of the statue in the
Louvre, 684. Bouill. ii, 21. Clarac, pi. 263. On the contrary the head
of Alexander in the Capitol, taken by many for Helius (Winckelm. M. I.
n. 176), may have been taken from that equestrian statue. The Ron-

108 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.
danini statue, at Munich (n. 152. Guattani M. I. 1787 Sett.), of Alexan
der arming himself for battle, has little of the Lysippian character,
especiaUy in the proportions. The bronze of Alexander struggUng in
the press of battle is excellent, M. Borb. iii, 43 b. Comp. §. 163, 6. The
head of the dying Alexander at Florence is an archseological enigma.
Morghen, Principj del disegno tv. 4 b. Le Blond Le vrai portrait d' Al
exandre. Mem. de I'Inst. Nat. Beaux Arts i. p. 615. As a true portrait,
but executed without the spirit of Lysippus, the Cav. Azara's bust is of
most value, in the Louvre, 132. Visconti Iconogr. Greoque, pi, 39, 1,
Meyer, Gesch, Tf 13. 29. D. A. K. Tf 39. 40. On Alexander as the son
of Zeus and Hercules §. 158, 2.
5. Hominis autem imaginem gypso e facie ipsa primus omnium ex
pressit ceraque in eam formam gypsi infusa emendare instituit Lysistra
tus. — Hie et simiUtudinem reddere instituit ; ante eum quam pulcherri-
mas facere studebant (on the contrary §. 123). PUn. xxxv, 44.
I 130. Observation of nature and the study of the early
masters, which Lysippus closely combined with each other,
led the artists to many refinements in detail {argutice ope-
rum) ; the hair in particular was arranged by Lysippus more
2 naturally, probably more for pictorial effects. These artists
also directed the most earnest study to the proportions of the
human body ; but here the striving to exalt especially portrait-
figures, as it were, beyond the human standard, by an extra
ordinary degree of slenderness, led them to a new system of
more delicate proportions, which was begun by Euphranor
(also by Zeuxis in painting), but first carried out harmonically
by Lysippus, and which afterwards became prevalent in Greek
3 art. It must however be admitted that this system-sprang,
less from a warm and cordial conception of nature, which
particularly in Greece displayed itself to greatest advantage in
more compact figures, than from an endeavour to elevate the
4 work beyond the real. The tendency likewise to the colossal
which will be found to predominate in the next period,
already announced itself clearly in the works of these artists.
1. ProprisB hujus (Lysippi) videntur esse argutise operum, custoditse
in minimis quoque rebus. PUn. xxxiv, 19, 6. Statuarise arti plurimum
traditur contuUsse capiUum exprimendo. Ibid. Comp. Meyer, Gesch. s.
130. QuintUian particularly applauds the Veritas in his and Praxiteles'
works xii, 10.— Lysippus and ApeUes criticised each other's works, Syne-
sius Ep, i. p, 160. Petav.
2. Euphr. — primus videtur usurpasse symmetriam, sed fuit in uni-
versitate corporum exiUor, capitibus articulisque grandior (precisely
the same of Zeuxis xxxv, 36, 2) : volumina quoque composuit de symme-
tria. — Lys. stat. arti plur. trad. cont. capita minora faciendo quam antiqui,
corpora graciUora siccioraque, per quse proceritas signorum major vide-
retur. Non habet Latinum nomen symmetria quam diUgentissime cus-
todivit, nova intactaque ratione quadratas (§. 120) veterum staturas per-
mutando. PUn. xxxiv, 19, 6. xxxv, 40, 25. Comp. below §. 332. On his

ENGRAVED STONES AND DIES. 109
principal of representing quales viderentur homines, Wien. Jahrb. xxxix.
s. 140.
4. Fecit et colossos (Euphranor), Plin. xxxv, 40, 26. Lysippus' Jupi
ter at Tarentum was 40 cubits high ; comp. Silig C. A. p. 257, 259.

THE ART OF ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES.
131, The luxury of ring-wearing at this period raised the l
art of the dactylioglyphist to the height which it was capable
of attaining in proportion to the other branches of the forma
tive art ; although the accounts of writers do not mention the 2
name of any artist of this class, except that of Pyrgoteles who
engraved Alexander's signet-ring. In gems also we can here 3
and there find a composition and treatment of forms corre-
spoiiding to the Phidian sculptures ; but works of this descrip
tion in which the spirit of the school of Praxiteles is mani
fested are far more numerous.
1. On the rings of the Cyrenasans (BupoUs Maricas) and the emerald
of Ismenias the aulete, bought in Cyprus, with an amymone, jUlian V.
H, xu, 30. PUn. xxxvii, 3. Musicians in particular were richly adorned
with them {atp^xyiiowxxQyoxofi^rxi) and likewise ornamented their in
struments in the same way ; comp. Lucian Adv. Indoct. 8, Appulei. Flo
rid, p. 114. Bip.
2. On the pretended gems of Pyrgoteles, Winckelm. Bd. vi. s. 107 ff.
Comp. FioriUo, Kleine Schriften u. s, 185, A fact adduced by R, Ro
chette, Lettre k M. Schorn, p, 49, shows that, even during antiquity, the
name of this as weU as other famous artists was fraudulently used. We
have no ground for assigning to this period other names which are only
known through gems (see v, Kohler in Bottiger's Archseol, u, Kunst, i.
s. 12) ; however some of the more celebrated stone-engravers were per
haps not much later.
132. There was also great care bestowed on the engraving 1
of coin-dies, often in districts and towns which are not other
wise known as the seats of schools of art ; yet, during the first
half of the period the design of devices on coins, although often
grandly conceived and full of character, still retained for the
most part a certain hardness; in the second half, on the con
trary, especially in the cities of Sicily, the highest and bright
est point that has ever been reached in beauty of expression
was attained (but accompanied often with a surprising awk
wardness in the mechanical process of stamping). At the 2
same time the art was advanced by the custom of multiply
ing the already extremely numerous t}'pes of coins, by the
commemoration of victories in sacred games, deliverance from
dangers by the help of the gods, and other events which
admitted of mythological representation ; and thus we have

110 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. Ill,
often presented to us here in the smallest conipass a plastic
scene replete with ingenious thoughts and allusions.
1, In coins, to the first half of this period (pefore the end of the Pelo
ponnesian war) belong,— besides those of Athens which maintained their
primitive impress even in the best age (see Diog, Laert, vii, 1, 19.) —
many of Corinth, of Argos with the wolf, also those of Sicyon or Secyon
(Ann. d. Inst. u. p. 336) with the sharply drawn chimera ; in SicUy the
coins of SeUnus with the river gods SeUnus and Hypsas (between 01. 80
and 94), those of Naxus with the noble head of the bearded Dionysus,
and the saucy form of the old Satyr, also the fine Agrigentine coins with
the two eagles on the hare (before 01, 93, 3), — The fine sUver pieces of
Pheneus and Stymphalus were probably struck after the Peloponnesian
war, when Arcadia was enriched and polished by the school of Polycli
tus ; then about the 104th 01, the coins of the Arcadian league with the
head of Zeus and Pan ; from that time begin the coins of Megalopolis and
Messene which were generaUy inferior. About 01, 100, when Olynthus
presided over the Chalcidian confederation, the Chalcidian silver money
with the head of ApoUo and the cithern, was current there (See Cadal-
vfene Recueil, pi. 1, 28) : the splendid coins of Opus are worthy of the
best period, as'weU as many of Thessaly, Lesbos, Cos, aud Crete. To those
of Philip are related those of Philippi, but of remarkably hard design. In
Italy many coins of Tarentum, Heracleia, Thurii, Velia, and Metapon
tum belong to this period ; and in like manner the costly master-pieces
of Sicilian engravers (comp. §. 317), the great Syracusan pentekontaUtres
at the head (Etrusker i. s. 327. Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 81), are to be ascribed
to one age, that of the two Dionysii (Payne Knight, Archseol. Brit, xix.
p, 369), in which also the towns of Sicily dependent on Carthage partici
pated in the same zeal for art. But when Timoleon restored (01. 109, 2)
the colonial connexion of Syracuse with Corinth, it is probable that the
great amount of money in Sicily was struck, with less attention to beauty,
with the head of PaUas and Pegasus, which were also in use in the other
colonies of Corinth at that time (with other initial letters instead of the
Corinthian Koppa), R. Rochette, Ann. d, Inst. i. p. 311 sqq. Coins of
the Campanians in Sicily by the Due de Luynes, Annali d. Inst. i. p. 150.
Engravings of Greek coins available for the history of art in Landon's
Numismatique du Voy. du J. Anacharsis, 2 vol. 1818, in the more recent
works of T. Combe, Mionnet, Millingen, R. Rochette, Cadalvfene, Cousinery,
(fee. Very fine ones in the Specimens of ancient coins of Magna Grecia and
Sicily, sel. from the cabinet of the Lord Northwick, drawn by del Frate
and engr. by H. Moses ; the text by G. H. Nohden. 1824. 25. D. A. K.
Tf 41, 42. [Duo de Luynes. Choix de m6d. Grecques 1840. fo. 17 Tf.
Prokesch CoUection in Gerhard's Arch. Zeit. Tf 21. 22. 32. 41. 43. Aker-
mann. Ancient Coins of Cities and Princes. L. 1844 — 46. P. 1 — 6. 8vo.]
2. Plut. Alex. 4. says of PhiUp that he put the Olympic victories on
his coins ; with regard to those of Sicily the same is proved by ocular
evidence. — The Arcadians denoted their sovereignty over Olympia, from
the treasures of which they paid their troops, by deUneating the head' of
Olympian Zeus, and their god Pan sitting on the rock of Olympia and
sending forth the eagle of Zeus. On the coins of SeUnus we see Apollo
and Artemis approaching as plague-sending deities, but at the same time

PAINTING. Ill
on the reverse the gods of the rivers, with the waters of which Empedo
cles had removed the pestilential air of the marshes, offering a libation
to Esculapius. The coins of Alexandria looked very well without being
good in comparison with the Attic tetradrachms, as Zeno states in Diog.
L. vu. 1. 18.

4. PAINTING.

133. At this period, painting reached, in three great stages, l
a degree of perfection which made it, at least in the opinion
of the ancients, a worthy rival of the plastic art. Ancient 2
painting, however, remained more closely allied to sculpture
than the modern, by reason of the predominance of forms
over the effects of light; sharpness and distinctness of design,
separation of the different figures in order not to confuse their
outlines, a uniform distribution of light and clear illumina
tion throughout, and the avoidance of great foreshortenings
(notwithstanding considerable knowledge of linear perspec
tive) still belonged, although not without exceptions [§. 140,
2.], to its character in general.
2. Artifices etiam quum plura in unam tabulam opera contulerunt,
spatiis distinguunt ne umbrse in corpora cadant. Quintil. viu. 5, 26.
The shading should merely make the corporeal form of each figure stand
out by itself.
134. The first painter of great renown was Polygnotus the i
Thasian, who was naturalized at Athens and a friend of
Cimon. Accurate drawing and a noble and distinct manner of 2
characterizing the most different mythological forms was his
great merit ; his female figures also possessed charms and grace.
His large tabular pictures were conceived with great know- 3
ledge of legends, and in an earnest religious spirit, and were
arranged according to architectonico-symmetrical principles.
1. Polygnotus, son of the painter Aglaophon, probably at Athens, from
79, 2. Painted for the Poecile, the Theseion, Anaceion, perhaps also the
portico at the Propylsea, the Delphian temple (PUny), the Lesche of the
Cnidians, the temple of Athena at Platsea, at Thespise. Bottiger, Ar
chseol. der Mahl. i. s. 274. SUUg C. A. p. 22, 372. De Phidia i, 3.
2. "H9oy5«(poff, i}Bix6g, i. e. the painter of noble characters, Aristot.
Poet. 6, 15. PoL viii, 5. Comp. Poet. 2, 2, and §. 138. Instituit os aper-
ii-e, etc. PUn. xxxv, 9, 35. Lucian praises the beautiful lines of the eye
brows, the soft bloom of the cheeks, a Ught disposition of deUcate dra
pery (ia^^rx eg ro Xe^^rirxrov i^ei^yxafievviv). Imagg. 7. Primus mulieres
lucida veste pinxit, Plin. [Comp. Nouv. Ann. de la Sect. Frang. de
I'Inst. Archfiol. ii. p. 389 sq. where a resemblance to the style of Polyg
notus is sought for in the vase with Boreas and Oreithyia pi. 22, 23. now
in Munich. Kindred to these are Vases Luynes, pi. 21, 22. AchiUes tak
ing leave of Nereus, pi. 28. Zeus committing the infant Bacchus to the

112 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IIL
Naiads, pi. 34. and in Gerhard's Trinkschalen Tf 9. Peleus and Thetis,
&c.] On the technical treatment of his paintings, comp. §. 319. [135.
R. 3.]
3. On the pictures in the Lesche, lUon overthrown, and the departure
of the Greeks on the right ; on the left the visit of Odysseus to the ne
ther world, Paus. x, 25—31. Caylus, Hist, de I'Ac. T. xxvii. p. 34. F.
und J. Riepenhausen Gemalde des Polygnot in der Lesche zu Delphi.
Th. i. 1805. mit Erlauterungen von Chr. Schlosser (the Destruction of
Troy, comp. therewith Meyer in the Jen. ALZ. JuU 1805, and Bottiger
Archseol. der Mahl. s. 314). Peintures de Polygn. k Delphes dessinees et
gravees d'aprfes la descr. de Pausanias, par F. et J. Riepenhausen, 1826,
1829 (on the composition comp. Gott. G. Anz. 1827, s. 1309). [0. Jahn
Die Gemalde des Polygnot in der Lesche zu Delphi, Kiel 1844.] In the
picture of the infernal world particular regard must be had to the allu
sions to the mysteries, which were introduced partly in the corners (the
priestess Cleoboea, Ocnus, the Uninitiated), and partly in the middle.
Here sat the mystagogue Orpheus in a circle of bards and old men, sur
rounded by five Trojan and five Grecian heroes. Comp. Rathgeber, in
the Bncycl. under Ocnus. In the picture of lUon, Neoptolemus, the un
wearied avenger of blood (whose tomb was in the neighbourhood), pre
sents an interesting contrast to the gentle Menelaus, who only seeks to
carry off the beauteous prize. With this picture that on the Nola vase,
Tischbein's Homer ix, 5, 6, held to be somewhat antique, has some, but
only a few, features in common. On these pictures in general. Corre
spond, de Diderot, T. iii. p. 270 sq. (6d. 1831). Gothe's W. xUv. s. 97.
135. Together with Polygnotus several other painters
(chiefly Athenians, but also Onatas of .fflgina) are mentioned
with distinction ; for the most part they decorated temples
and porticoes with large historical pictures abounding in
figures, the subjects of which they also willingly took from
the history of the times. One of these, Dionysius, equalled
the expressive and elegant drawing of Polygnotus, but wanted
his grandeur and freedom.
1. Iphion the Corinthian in Simonides ccxxi. Schneidew. SiUax the
Rhegian, about 75. Ibid, ccxxii. Owatas also a painter, from 78 — 83.
MicoN of Athens, painter and brass-caster, distinguished particularly in
horses, 77—83. (SiUig C. A. p. 275, comp. above §. 99, 1. In Simonides
ccxix. and ccxx. we must with Scheidewin read Mixav. Mixuv is also to
be restored in Arrian, Alex, vii, 13). Dionysius of Colophon, Micon's
contemporary (comp. Simonides §. 99. Rem. 1). Aristophon, brother of
Polygnotus. Euripides (the tragic poet, Eurip. Vita ed. Blmsleius) about
the same time. Timagoras of Chalcis, 83. PAN.a)Nus of Athens, Phidias'
aSE?i(p/5oi7f, about 83—86. Agatharohus, scene- and house-painter, from
about 80 (so that he fecit scenam for the last trUogy of jEschylus) till 90,
(Comp, Volkel's Nachlass, s. 103, 149). Aglaophon, son of Aristophon,
as it appears, 90 (comp. ibid. 113). Cephissodorus, Phrylos, Buenor of
Ephesus, DemophUus of Himera, Neseas of Thasus, 90. Cleisthenes of
Bretria (above §. 107. Rem. 3), about 90. Nicanor, ArcesUaus of Paros,
encaustic painters, about 90 (?). Xeuxippus of Heraclea, about 90

PAINTING; APOLLODORUS. 113
(comp. Heindorf ad Plat. Protag. p. 495). Cleagoras of Phlius, 91 (Xen.
Anab. vii, 8, 1). Apollodorus of Athens, 93.
2. In the Poecile (bracoatis Ulita Persis) there were : 1. The Battle
of Marathon by Micon (or PanEenus, also Polygnotus) ; the generals of
both ai-mies Ukenesses; the Plateeaus with Boeotian helmets (Demosth.
ag. Nesera, p. 1377), Gods and heroes were mingled together ; the bat
tle taken at several stages ; besides the flight to the ships (Bottiger,
Archseol. der Mahl. s. 246). 2. The capture of Troy and the judgment
on the violation of Cassandra, by Polygnotus. 3. Battle of the Atheni
ans and Amazons, by Micon. 4. Battle at OSnoe. See Bottiger, s. 278.
[0, Jahn Archaol. Aufs. S. 16.] Plato, Euthyphr. p. 6, speaks also of
battles of gods with which the temples (?) were painted. [The same
statement §. 319. R. 5. without any mark of doubt.]
3. Dionysius, according to .Sllian, V. H. iv, 3, imitated closely the
style of Polygnotus in regard to the representation of character, the pas
sions, gestures, and deUcate drapery, but without his grandeur ; comp.
Aristot. Poet. 2. aud Plut. Timol. 36. who caUs his works forced and la
borious, as Pronto ad Verum 1. non inlustria [referring to the mate
rials! ; in PUny he is oaUed dvd^a'!roy^x(pog, in the same way as Demetrius
§. 123. 136. But Apollodorus of Athens, the sciagrapher, was the 1
first who directed a deeper study to the gradations of light
and shade, and by these essential requisites he constituted an
epoch. His art was doubtless built on the perspective scene- 2
painting of Agatharchus (§. 107. Rem. 3), and its immediate
aim was to deceive the eyes of the spectator by the semblance
of reality; but this involved a sacrifice in regard to careful
drawing (hence many unfavourable criticisms by the ancients
on sciagraphy altogether) ; however, it was at all events a
necessary preliminary step for the higher development of art.
1. ApoUodorus invented ip^o^dv xxi dmx^aaiv axixg, Plut. de glor.
Athen. 2. Hesych. (Luminum umbrarumque rationem invenisse Zeuxis
dicitur, QuintU. xii, 10). He said of himself : MafiJjirerxi rig fidXXov »j
fiifiiiaerxi. Neque ante eum tabula uUius ostenditur quse teneat oculos,
PUn. Similar, reaUy unjust criticisms, QuintU. xii, 10.
2. ApoUodorus was sciagrapher or scenographer according to Hesy
ohius. On the close connexion of both, Scheider Bcl. Phys. Ann. p. 265.
On the destination of sciagraphy to produce effect at a distance (axix-
yf^xipix x(jx<fi%g xxi xTxriihog, Plato Critias, p. 107), Plat. Resp. x. p. 602.
comp. Phsedo, p. 69. Parmen. p. 165. Thesetetus, p. 208, with Heindorf 's
Notes. Arist. Rhet. iu, c, 12.

137. Now began with Zeuxis the second age of improved
painting, in which art arrived at illusion of the senses and
external charm. The novelty of these achievements seduced
the artists themselves into a degree of presumption unheard
H

114 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.
3 of among architects and plastic artists ; although their art,
as well in regard to the earnestness and depth with which
subjects were conceived, as in respect of moral severity, al
ready seemed to have degenerated from the spirit of the earlier
4 period. At this epoch the Ionic school was in the ascendant ;
conformably to the character of the race (§. 43) it had a
greater tendency to softness and voluptuousness than the old
Peloponnesian, and the immediately preceding Attic school
1. See the stories of the grapes of Zeuxis and the curtain of Parrha
sius, (fee. The tradition also bears on this, that Zeuxis laughed himself
to death over an old woman painted by him, Festi Sched. p. 209. MiiU.
On the iUusion of painting. Plat. Sophist, p. 234. Resp. x. p. 698. Many
evidently held this to be the highest aim of art, in the same way that the
tragic art since the time of Euripides sought to attain divxrn (formerly
it aimed at 'ixTr'Avi^ig').
2. Apollodorus wore a lofty tiara after the Persian fashion [which
was imitated by Alcibiades and the rich CaUias], Hesych. Zeuxis at last
gave away his works in presents because their price coqld not be esti
mated (Plin. xxxv, 36, 4), and on the other hand he took money for
admission to see his Helena (^1. V. H. iv, 12). Parrhasius was proud
and luxurious as a satrap, and asserted that he stood at the boundaries
of art.
3. Parrhasius pinxit et minoribus tabellis libidines eo genere petu-
lantis joci se reficiens. An instance, Sueton; Tiber. 44. comp. Burip.
Hippol, 1091, Clem, Alex. Protr. iv. p. 40. Ovid, Trist. ii, 624. Lobeck,
Aglaoph. p. 606.
4. Ephesus was at the time of AgesUaus (95, 4) full of painters,
Xenoph, H, iii, 4, 17, [Several §, 139, R, 2,]— The painters of the period :
Zeuxis of Heraclea, or Ephesus (the head-quarters of the school, Tolken,
Amalth, iii, s. 123), somewhere about 90 — 100 (PUny puts him at 95, 4 ;
but he painted for 400 minse the palace of Archelaus, who died 96, 3,
M\ia.n V. H, xiv, 7. comp. PUny xxxv, 36, 2. — An Bros crowned with a gar
land of roses in Aristoph. Acharn. 992. Olymp. 88, 3, is ascribed by the
Schol. to Zeuxis. [Sillig C. A. p. 464 doubts the correctness of this, R.
Rochette Peintures ant. in^d. p. 170 contradicts him]), also a worker in
clay. Parrhasius of Ephesus, son and scholar of Buenor, about 95
(Seneca, Controv. v, 10. is a mere fiction). [Kunstbl, 1827. S, 327. Feu-
erbach's Vatic, ApoUo S, 71,] Timanthes of Cythnos (Sicyon) and Co
lotes of Teos, at the same time, Buxenidas, 95. Idaus (AgesUaus'
qtxXx^x, Xenoph, H, iv, 1, 39), about the same time. Pauson, the pain
ter of ugUness (Aristot,), about 95 (see, however, Welcker in the Kunst
blatt 1827, S. 327), [The author's explanation is contested Kunstbl,
1833. S, 88,] Androcydes of Cyzicus, 95—100. Eupompus of Sicyon,
95 — 100. Brietes of Sicyon, about the same period.
2 138. Zeuxis, who appropriated the discoveries of Apollo
dorus in sciagraphy and improved upon them, made single
figures of gods and heroes his favourite subjects in painting.
He appears to have been equally distinguished in the repre
sentation of female charms (his Helena at Crotona) and sub-

PAINTING; ZEUXIS. 115
lime majesty (his Zeus on the throne surrounded by gods) ,
yet Aristotle (§. 134. Rem. 2) misses ethos in his pictures. Par- 2
rhasius could give still more roundness to his, and was much
richer and more varied in his creations ; his numerous pic
tures of gods and heroes (as his Theseus) attained a canonic
consideration in art. He was overcome, however, in a pictorial 3
contest by the ingenious Timanthes, in whose sacrifice of Iphi-
genia the ancients admired the expression of grief carried to
that pitch of intensity at which art had only dared to hint.
1. The centaur-family is the best known of the works of Zeuxis — a
charming group in which also the blending of man and horse and the
accuracy of execution were admired. Comp. the gem M. Florent. i. tb.
92,5. 2. Parrh. in Uneis extremis palmam adeptus — ambire enim se extre-
mitas ipsa debet. PUn. On him as law-giver of art, Quintil. xii, 10. —
On his Demos of the Athenians, where in one figure very contradictory
traits were expressed by form of body, expression, gestures, and attri
butes, a singular hypothesis has been built (an owl with heads of other
animals) by Q. de Quincy, Mon. Restit. T. u. p. 71 sqq. On the earlier
opinions, G. A. Lange 1820. N. 11. [Lange Vermischte Schr. S. 277.]
3. Graphic agorves in Quintil. ii, 13. PUn. xxxv, 35. 36, 3. 5, at Cor
inth, Apostol. XV, 13, in Samos, .311. V. H. ix, 11. Athen. xii, 543. Ti
magoras of Chalcis composed a song of victory to himself. The pic
ture in Pompeu (Zabn's Wandgemalde 19. R. Rochette M. I. i, 27. M.
Borb. iv, 3. comp. §. 415, 1) has at least the veiled Agamemnon in com
mon with the picture of Timanthes. Comp, Lange in Jahn's Jahrbii-
chern 1828, s. 316. [Verm. Schr. S. 163.] The picture Antich. di Erco-
lano u, 19 may be compared with his Marsyas religatus [also a vase-
painting]. In unius hujus operibus inteUigitur plus semper quam pin-
gitur (as in the very charmingly conceived picture of the Cyclops), Plin,
xxxv, 36, 6,

139. Whilst Zeuxis, Parrhasius and their followers, under 1
the general name of the Asiatic school, were opposed to the
Grecian (Helladic) school, which flourished before, and whose
chief seat was at Athens, the school of Sicyon now arose by 2
means of Pamphilus in the Peloponnese, and took its place
beside those of Ionia and Attica as a third essentially differ
ent. Its chief distinctions were scientific cultivation, artistic 3
knowledge, and the greatest accuracy and ease in drawing.
At this period also encaustic painting was cultivated by Aris- 4
tides of Thebes and Pausias of Sicyon ; but according to Pliny
it had been already exercised by Polygnotus (comp, §. 320).
2, The Sicyonic painters as a class, Athen. v. p. 196 e. Polemon (§.
35, 3) wrote on the poecile at Sicyon, built about 01. 120, Athen, vi,
253 b. xiii, 577 c. [In the first Ed. followed, " Hence Sicyon Helladica,
which expression of later writers can only perhaps he derived from the

116 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IIL
language of ealier connoisseurs." And in ^ginet. p. 156 the distinction
between the Athenian and HeUadic painting and the Asiatic is correctly
drawn. Suid. ^ixvav ii vSv 'EAXaj.]
Celebrated painters of the period : Pamphilus of Amphipolis, scholar
of Eupompus (school of Sicyon), 97—107. Aristides of Thebes, scholar
of Buxenidas, perhaps 102 — 112, also encaustic painter. Leontion, at the
same time [drops out in the Cod. Bamberg]. Pausias of Sicyon, son of
Brietes, scholar of Pamphilus, encaustic painter, at the same time.
Ephorus of Ephesus, and ArcesUaus (Ionic school), about 103. Euphra
nor, Isthmian, that is, of Corinth (he worked, however, at Athens, and is
numbered by Plutarch, De Glor. Athen. 2, among the Attic painters),
encaustes, 104—110. Cydias of Cythnos, enc. 104. Pyrrho of BUs, about
105. Echion [if it is not JEtion], Therimachus, 107 (§. 124). Aristodemus,
107. Antidotus, scholar of Euphranor, enc. 108. Aristolaus, son and
scholar of Pausias, enc. 108. Mechopanes (?) [perhaps 'M.nx<'<P«'''yis ; iov
Nicophanes is very remote], 108. Melanthius, scholar of Pamphilus,
about 104 — 112. Ctesidemus, about 108. Philochares of Athens, brother
of jEschines, 109. Glaucion of Corinth, about 110 (?). Alcimachus, 110
(Plin. comp. Corsini, Dissert, Agon. p. 128). Apelles of Colophon, an
Bphesian by his school (through Ephorus and ArcesUaus), but also a
Sicyonian (through Pamphilus), 106 — 118. (Comp. Tolken, Amalthea
iii. s. 123). Nicomachus, son and scholar of Aristodemus (school of Si
cyon), 110 sqq. Nicias of Athens, son of Nicomedes, scholar of Antido
tus, enc. (assists Praxiteles), 110 — ^118. Amphion (?) [Cod. Bamb. Mel-
anthio], 112. Asclepiadorus of Athens, 112. Theomnestus, 112. Theon
of Samos, about 112. Carmanides, scholar of Euphranor, 112. Leonidas
of Anthedon, scholar of Euphranor, 112 (he was a writer on proportions).
Protogenes, the Caunian (also brass-caster), 112 — 120. Athenion of
Maronea, scholar of Glaucion, enc, about 114 (?). GryUon, about 114
Ismenias of Chalcis, 114 (?).
3. Pamphilus prsestantissimus ratione, Quintil. xii, 10. He taught
10 years for one talent. Required preparatory mathematical knowledge.
Drawing was now received into the circle of a liberal education, PUn.
xxxv, 10, 40. comp. Aristot. Psedag. by Orelli, in the Philol. Beytragen
aus der Schweitz, s. 96. [Teles in Stobseus, xcviii, 72, mentions, among
the teachers of the ephebi, the painter and the x^/novixog, Axiochus 7 and
Kebes 13 the xpirixoiig instead.] The story in PUn. refers to the delicacy
and firmness of outline, xxxv, 36, 11. which Q. de Quincy, Mem. de I'Inst.
Royal. V, 300, interprets too freely ; the expression in ilia ipsa must be
retained. The same figure was outlined on the same space three times
always more minutely aud accurately. The one corrected constantly the
drawing of the other. Comp. Bottiger, Archseol. der Mahl. s, 154. Mel-
anthius, the painter, in his books of painting in Diog. L. iv. 3, 18. hiv
xv^x^eixv nvx xxi (rx7\viq6rr,rx roig 'e^yotg iTrir^ixeiv, Ofioiug Se xxv roig vi^eaiv.
1 140. Aristides of Thebes rendered himself conspicuous on
the third stage by his representations of passion, and affecting
2 subjects ; Pausias by figures of children, and animal and flower
3 pieces, and with him began the painting of lacunaria ; Euphra-
4 nor was distinguished in heroes (Theseus) and gods ; Melan-

PAINTING ; APELLES. 117
thins, one of the most thinking artists of the school of Sicyon,
occupied, in the opinion of Apelles, the first rank in regard
to disposition ; Nicias, of the newer Attic school, painted 5
chiefiy great historical pictures, naval engagements, and
equestrian battles, in which he attained high excellence.
1. (Aristides) primus animum pinxit et sensus hominum expressit,
quse vocant Grseci ijBvi (on the contrary §. 133, Rem. 2), item perturba-
tiones (the irx^ri). Hujus pictura oppido capto ad matris morientis ex
vulnere mammam adrepens infans : inteUigiturque sentire mater et
timere, ne emortuo lacte sanguinem lambat. Plin. xxxv, 36, 19. comp.
JSmUian. Anthol. Pal. vii, 623.
2. On the black buU of Pausias (a master-piece of foreshortening and
shading) and the beautiful garland-weaver, Glycera, PUn. xxxv, 40, 24.
— Idem et lacunaria primus pingere instituit, nee cameras ante eum
taUter adornari mos fuit ; that is, he introduced the decorative ceiUng-
pictures, afterwards common, consisting of single figures, flowers and
arabesques. The ornamenting of lacunaria with painted stars and the
Uke had been previously practised in temples.
3. In the twelve gods which Euphranor painted for a portico in the
Cerameicus, after he had exhausted himself in Poseidon, he seems, in
regard to Zeus, to have been contented with a copy of Phidias' work. See
the passages in SUlig, C. A. p. 208, add. Schol. II. i, 528. — ^From Bchion's
nova nupta verecundia notabiUs, something has perhaps passed into the
so-caUed Aldobrandini Marriage, comp. §. 319.
141. Before all, however, ranks the great Apelles, who I
united the advantages of his native Ionia — grace, sensual
charms, and rich colouring — with the scientific severity of the
Sicyonian school. To his richly endowed mind was imparted 2
charts, a quality which he himself avowed as peculiarly his,
and which serves to unite all the other gifts and faculties
which the painter requires ; perhaps in none of his pictures was 3
it exhibited in- such perfection as in his famous Anadyomene,
But heroic subjects were likewise adapted to his genius, espe- 4
cially grandly conceived portraits, such as the numerous like
nesses of Alexander, his father and his generals. He not only
represented Alexander with the thunderbolt in his hand (as
jcsjauwipo'goe), but he even attempted, as the master in light and 5
shade, to paint thunder-storms (jS^ovTri, aar^a.'Trri, -/.i^amo^oXia),
probably at the same time as natural scenes and mythological
personifications. 1. Parrhasius' Theseus was, according to Euphranor, nourished with
roses ; on the contrary Antidotus, Athenion and Pausias, scholars of
Aristolaus and Mechopanes [Mechophanes §, 139, R, 2,], were severi, duri
in coloribus (especiaUy Mechopanes by means of sU, which was much-
used §, 319,) There evidently prevailed in the Ionic school a more glow
ing, in the Sicyon a more sober tone of colour.

118 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. III.
3. The Anadyomene stood in the Asclepieion in Cos (y^x/ifix Kaiov,
CaUim. Fragm. 254 Bentl), and was transferred by Augustus to the
temple of D. Julius at Rome, where, however, it was in a decayed state
even at the time of Nero. [Most Ukely that of which Petron. says : quam
Grseci Monocnemon vocant, etiam adorant, see Philostr. Imag. p, Ixi.
Kunstbl. 1827. S, 327. (in opposition to SiUig). There also an Amazon
by StrongyUon was called siixv/iftog, and Monocremon is the corrupted
reading. See §. 318.] It was, according to some (PUny), painted from
Pancaste, — according to Athenseus, from Phryne. Epigrams by Leonidas
of Tarentum, and others. Ilgen, Opusc. i. p 34. Jacobs in Wieland's
Att. Mus. ui. s. 50. A later picture of the Anadyomene, Bartoli, Pitt, i,
22. comp. Anacreont. 51.
4. On the standing out of Alexander's arm with the thunderbolt,
Plin. xxxv, 36, 16. In Uke manner Nicias is praised for painting so ut
eminerent e tahdis pictures, and Euphranor for the i^ixov. [Fr. Linde-
mann De imagine Al. M. ab Ap. picta Lips. 1820. 8vo.]
5, Comp. PhUostr. i, 14. Welcker, p. 289. PUn. xxxv, 36, 17. On
the glazing of the pictures of ApeUes, §. 319, 6. — Arnaud, Sur la vie et
les ouvrages d'ApeUe, M6m. de I'Ac, des Inscr, T, xlix. p. 200. [ApeUes
and Antiphilus by Tolken in Bottiger's Amalthea iii. S. Ill — 134.]
142. Contemporaneously with him flourished, besides those
named, Protogenes, whom Apelles himself, whose genius raised
him above every low feeling, had rendered celebrated, — a self-
taught artist whose, often too careful, industry and accurate
study of nature made his works, which were few in number,
invaluable. Theon also, who was distinguished by the liveli
ness of his inventions {(pawasiai, visiones), belonged to this
short-lived period of bloom in painting.
1. Protogenis rudimenta cum ipsius naturse veritate certantia non
sine quodam horrore tractavi, Petron. 83. His most famous picture was
that of the city-hero Jalysus with the dog and the reposing satyr, a my
thic representation of the city and district, on which he was 7 years
engaged (11 according to Pronto), 01. 119. PiorUlo, Kleine Schriften i.
s. 330 IF. Cic. Verr. iv, 60. mentions as one of his finest pictures Para-
lum pictum (pictam), namely, the ship Paralus, which he painted toge
ther with the Ammonian trireme in the propytea of the acropoUs at
Athens, and as a portion, too, of the picture of the island of Pha3acia, as
may be conjectured from Plin. xxxv, 36, 20. Paus, i, 22, 6,— It is my
opinion, although it be not perfectly fixed, that in this passage of Paus,
(cf Hermann de pict, parietum p, 19, who does not consider the matter in
its connexion) the. name of Protogenes, as painter of the picture of the
Nausicaa in the Athenian Propylseum, has faUen out ; also that PUny
xxxv, 36, 20 aUudes to the same picture, which also contained the repre
sentation of a harbour in which lay the Athenian state-vessels Ammonias
and Paralus, after the latter of which Cicero named the whole picture,
[The latter part of this note is from the App, to the 2d Ed, Afterwards
there was reference made in the margin to Welcker's explanation, which
is perfectly different, Zwei Gemalde des Protogenes bei Plinius in Zim-

VASE-PAINTING. 119
mermann's Zeitschr. 1837, N. 83 f. Comp, R, Bochette Lettres Arch6olog,
1840. i. p. 46—61. Westermann in the Jahrb, t. Philol, xxv, S, 480.]
2, Bottiger's Furienmaske, s. 75. On the matricide of Orestes by
Theon, R. Rochette, M. I. p, 177.
143. The glorious art of these masters, as far as regards 1
light, tone, and local colours, is lost to us, and we know no
thing of it except from obscure notices and later imitations ;
on the contrary, the pictures on vases (with thinly scattered
bright figures) give us the most exalted idea of the progress
and achievements of the art of design, if we venture, from
the workmanship of common handicraftsmen, to draw conclu
sions as to the works of the first artists. There were dis- 2
covered in the excavations at Volci (§. 99, 2) in particular
abundant specimens: 1st, of elegant and noble, but still stiff,
symmetrical, and over-ornate drawing; but also 2dly, of a free
and at the same time simple and grand style, such as we might
suppose to have been borrowed from Polygnotus ; also 3dly, a
very interesting example of over-laboured and trifling imita
tion of nature somewhat in the manner of Dionysius (§. 135, 3).
On the other hand, among the vases of Nola, which are, as re
gards the mass, of later date, together with older styles there
were found specimens of an ease, delicacy and tender grace such
as must have first emanated from the Ionic school of painting.
2. Specimens of (1) : The contest over the body of Patroclus and the
reconciUation with AchiUes, on a cup from Volci, Inghirami, G. Omer.
ii, 254. Peleus bringing Thetis to the grotto of Chiron, vase from Volci ;
Ingh. ibid. 236. Vasi fittiU 77. Thetis among the Nereids carried off, on
the lid of a Nola vase, more in an imitated style, M. I. d, Inst. 37. comp.
J. de Witte, Ann, v, p, 90. ApoUo and Idas, fighting about Marpessa (?)
on an Agrigentine vase, M. I. d. Inst. 20. comp. Ann. ii. p. 194. iv. p.
393. BuUet. 1831, p. 132. Poseidon hurling the island of Nisyros on
the giant Ephialtes, on a SicUian vase, MUlingen, Un. Mon. i, 7.
(2.) Athena receiving the child Brichthonius from the Earth, in
presence of Hephsestus, vase from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 10. Ann. i. p. 292.
AchiUes and Hector hastening to combat ; the former held back by Phoenix,
the latter by Priam, vase of Volci. (The figures of the heroes still very
antique.) M. I. d. Inst. 35, 36. comp. Ann. iii. p. 380. iv. 84. Tityus
subdued by ApoUo, vase of Volci (the drawing of the muscles here also
in an older style). M. I. d. Inst. 23. comp. Ann. ii. p. 225. ApoUo, after
his voyage in the shape of a dolphin, striking the cithern on a tripod
encompassed with the wings of swans, vase of Volci. M. I. d. Inst, 46,
Ann, iv, p, 333, MicaU, Mon, 94,
(3.) Vase of Sosias, the inside picture representing Achilles bind
ing the wounds of Patroclus, with a careful observation of all details in
the figures and dress ; the outside probably represents the gods assembled
at the marriage of Peleus and promising good fortune, in an older and
less studied style, M, I, d, Inst, 24, 25, Ann, u, p, 232, iii, p, 424. iv, p.

120 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV.
397. [Now in Berlin, No. 1030. Gerhard Trinkschalen des K, Mus.
Taf 6,](4.) The heroes Actseon, Castor, Theseus and Tydeus united in the
chase on a vase probably from Nola, of extremely graceful design, MU-
Ungen, Un, Mon. i, 18. Rape of Thetis, ingenious, but more carelessly
handled, ibid, i, 10. -AchiUes and Patroclus taking leave of their fathers,
with other pictures, on a magnificent vase in the Louvre, probably from
Locri or Croton, of very careful, noble design, ibid, i, 21. Comp, D. A, K.
Tf. 43 — 46. Women and two Erotes, in variegated colours and with
gilding extremely graceful, Stackelb. Graber Tf, 27. GUdings the same,
pi. 27. 30. Polychrom, Attic vases, with light and shadow. Steles with
libations, the same, pi. 44 — 46. [Similar and very beautiful Cab. Pour-
talfes pi, 25,] Charon's boat, Hermes brings a woman to it pi. 47, a man
comes along with him 48 (mythically explained by Stackelb.). [Poly
chrom. Lekythi, many of which from Athens are now scattered about, in
R. Rochette Peint, Ined, pi, 9, 10, A collection formed several years ago
in Athens, and containing several exceUent specimens, is now in Paris.]

FOURTH PERIOD.
FROM THE UliH TO THE THIRD YEAR OF THE ISSth OLYMPIAD
(386—146 B. C.)
TEOM ALEXANDER TO THE DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH.

1. EVENTS AND CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD.
I 144. In consequence of the conquest of Persia by a Gre
cian prince, and the foundation of dynasties by his generals,
the arts of design found unexpected and manifold occasions
2 for great works. New cities, laid out and built in the Grecian
3 style, arose in the midst of the Barbaric land; the Grecian
4 gods received new temples. The courts of the Ptolemies, the
Seleucidee, the Pergamenian and other princes gave continued
and abundant occupation to art.
2. Alexandria near Issus, 01. Ill, 4?, in Egypt, 112, 1. (St. Croix
Examen des Hist. d'Alex. p. 286), in Ariadna and Arachotis 112, 3., on
the Paropamisus 112, 4., on the Acesines 112, 2, and so forth (70 cities in
India 1), R. Rochette Hist, de I'Btab. T. iv. p. 101 sqq, — Antigonia
(afterwards named Alexandria) in Troas, Philadelphia, Stratonice Do-
cimea, and other cities in Asia Minor; Antigonia 01, 118, 2, Antiochia
on the Orontes 119, 4,, at the same time Seleucia on the Tigris and many
towns in Syria,— Cassandria 116, 1., Thessalonica. UranopoUs, on mount

EVENTS AND CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD. 121
Athos by Alexarchus, brother of Cassander (Chois. Gouff. Voy. Pitt. ii.
pL 15).
3. Daphne is an example, a sanctuary of the Pythian Apollo, and
place of recreation near Antioch, since 01. 120 or thereabouts. Gibbon,
Hist, of the Decline, <fec,, ch. 23. T. ii. p. 396 (1781). The Seleucidse
were reputed descendants and great worshippers of Apollo (as is proved
by their sacred presents sent to the Didymseon, and the restitution of
the statue by Canachus; Apollo at the tripod, and sitting on the om
phalos, on their coins). See Norisius, Epochse Syro-Maoedonum Diss. 3.
p. 150.
4. The Ptolemies were patrons and encouragers of art down to the
Vllth (Physcon), under him a general dispersion of artists and men of
learning about 01. 102. Ainong the Seleucidse, Seleucus I. and IL, Antio
chus III. and IV. In Pergamus, Attains I. and Eumenes II. Besides
these, the Syracusan tyrants, Agathocles and Hieron II. Pyrrhus of
Epirus, likewise son-in-law of Agathocles, was a friend of art ; see as to
Ambracia's riches in art, Polyb. xxii, 13. Liv. xxxviii, 9.
145. At the same time that the horizon of the Greek ar- 1
tists was thereby undeniably extended, they were stimulated
by the Avonders of the east to rivalry in colossal grandeur and
magnificence. The reason, however, why, strictly speaking, 2
no blending of the styles of the different nations took place,
probably lies in this, that the civilization of antiquity, and
especially of the Greeks, was intrinsically stable, sprung from
a native germ, and therefore guarded from external influence ;
but at the same time also in the distinct separation which 3
long continued between the conquering and the native races;
so that the cities where Greek art was exercised were scat
tered like islands amidst foreign environment.
3. This separation, with regard to Bgypt, where it was most sharply
defined, is very clearly brought out by recent investigations (§. 217, 4).
The administration there preserved entirely the character of a standing
army established in a foreign country. In the religion the Ponto-Egyp-
tian Serapis and the Agathodsemon Knuphis were added to the HeUenic
deities ; on the coins of the Ptolemies, however, down to the latest times
the only strange god to be seen is Ammon who had been long Hellenised
already (Eckhel, D. N. i, iv. p. 28). Neither have the coins of the Alex
andrine Cesars many Egyptian divinities ; it is otherwise with the nomi-
coins, §. 232. Antioch had a Grecian demos with phylse and popular
assembUes in the theatre, and a council chosen from old and wealthy
families. All its gods were Grecian, only that Isis received a temple
under Seleucus IL, and the Chaldsean astronomy early found admission.
There are Egyptian symbols on coins of Antiochus VII., and on those of
the VIII, a Zeus-Belus as a god of the stars. Cities of mixed popula
tion Uke Antiochia fxiioliaq^x^og (afterwards Edessa) in Osrhoene, were
of rare occurrence. Malalas, T. ii. p. 60. Ven.
146. The cities of ancient Greece, moreover, always re
mained the seats of artistic industry; but few artists sprang

122 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV.
up in the Grecian settlements in the east, and nowhere did a
school of art of any repute attach itself to any of the courts.
Comp. §. 154. On the trade of Sicyon with Alexandria in objects of
art, Plut. Arat. 13. Athen. v. p. 196 e. Among others Bryaxis the
Athenian (§. 128, 6. 158, 1) and Eutychides the Sicyonian (§. 158, 5)
worked for Antioch.
I 147. Now it can admit of no doubt that the schools of art
in Greece were in a flourishing condition, especially at the
beginning of this period, and that the pure feeling for art
which characterized the earlier times still continued long
alive in individual minds nurtured by the models of the best
2 era. On the other hand, art must have experienced a detri
mental influence when the intimate union in which it had
subsisted with the political life of free states was weakened,
and on the contrary the pleasure and gratification of indi-
3 viduals prescribed as its great aim. It must have been led
into many a devious path when it was called upon to gratify
now the vanity of slavish-minded cities, now the freaks of
splendour and magnificence of pampered rulers, and to pro
duce with expedition a great amount of showy workmanship
for the pageantry of court-festivals.
2. Comp. on the union of art with public life in republican times,
Heeren Ideen iii, 1. s. 513. On the other hand, on the spirit of this
period, Heyne, De genio ssecuU Ptolemssorum, Opusc. Acad. i. p. 114,
3, The character of these court festivals is shown in the description
of that appointed by the 2d Arsinoe in honour of Adonis at Alexandria,
under Ptolemy the 2d, Theocrit, xv, 112 sqq. Aphrodite and Adonis
on couches in an arbour, where many little Erotes hovered around [auto-
maticaUy, as at the festival at Florence in the Weisskunig ; various au
tomata are mentioned in the sequel], two eagles soaring up with Gany
mede, and the like, AU composed of ivory, ebony, gold, magnificent
tapestries, foliage, fiowers and fruits, Comp, Groddeck, Antiq. Versuche
i. s, 103 ff",- Further, in the description of the pompa instituted by Ptol,
11, in honour of aU the gods, especiaUy Dionysus and Alexander, from
CaUixenus, ap, Athen, v, p. 196 sqq. Thousands of images, also colossal
automata, such as the Nysa nine cubits in height. A (pxKhog x^vaoig itnxav
ixxrov ei'xoai (as in the temple at Bambyce) lixyey^x/xptivog xxi 'Sixish/xivog
amfifixai 'iixxqvaoig, 'exav sw' xx^au dare^x xqvmvv, ov riv jj ¦Tre^ipi.er^o; Trrixav
sf. Comp. §. 150. Manso Vermischte Schriften ii. §. 336 u. 400.  Also
the pompa of Antiochus the Fourth, in which there were images of all
gods, dsemons and heroes, regarding whom there was any legend, gUded
for the most part, or clothed in drapery embroidered with gold. Polyb.
xxxi, 3, 13.
1 148. To these external circumstances, brought about by
the progress of political life, are to be added others which lay
in the internal life of art itself Art appears on the whole to

ARCHITECTONICS. 123
have completed the cycle of noble and dignified productions
for which it had, as Hellenic art, received its destination.
The creative activity, — the real central point of the entire 2
activity of art, — which fashions peculiar forms for peculiar
ideas, must have flagged in its exertions when the natural
circle of ideas among the Greeks had received complete plas
tic embodiment, or it must have been morbidly driven to ab
normal inventions. "We find, therefore, that art, during this 3
period, with greater or less degrees of skill in execution, de
lighted now in fantastical, now in effeminate productions cal
culated merely to charm the senses. And even in the better
and nobler works of the time there was still on the whole
something, — not indeed very striking to the eye, but which
could be felt by the natural sense, — something which distin
guished them from the earlier works — the striving after effect.
1. Hoc idem (eminentissima ingenia in idem artati temporis spatium
congregari) evenisse . . . plastis, pictoribus, scalptoribusque, si quis tem-
porum institerit notis, reperiet, et eminentia cujusque operis artissimis
temporum claustris circumdata. Vellei. i, 17. Visconti's theory of the
long continuance of Greek art in a state of equal exceUence, throughout
six centuries (I'^tat stationnaire de la sculpture chez les anciens depuis
PIricles jusqu'aux Antonins), which found acceptance in France and
now also to some extent in Germany, cannot even be reconciled with
the general history of the human mind. [K5hler in Bottiger's Archaol.
und K. I. S. 16.]
2. A comparison with the history of the other arts, especiaUy oratory,
is here useful, (comp. §. 103, rem. 3) ; in it the Asiatic and Rhodian styles
of rhetoric arose side by side during this period, principally through the
influence of the Lydians and Phrygians, who were naturally more in-
cUned to pathos, bombast and parade.

2. ARCHITECTONICS.

149. Architecture, which had formerly the temple as its I
chief subject, seemed at this period much more active in min
istering to the comfort of life and the luxury of princes,
and in laying out cities so as to produce a splendour of gen
eral effect. Among these Alexandria constituted an epoch. 2
It was built after the design of Deinocrates, whose powerful
genius alone kept pace with Alexander's spirit of enterprise.
The fitness and regular beauty of this plan, the magnificence 3
and colossal magnitude of the public, and the solidity of the
private buildings, made this city a pattern for the rest of the
world, {vertex omnium civitatum, according to Ammian). But, 4
however, if we leave out of consideration the grandiose fabrics
to which commerce gave occasion, it is probable that Antioch,

124 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV.
when it was completely built, produced a still more striking
and pleasing impression ; its magnificent edifices remained
throughout antiquity models for all similar undertakings in
that part of the world (§. 192).
2. Deinocrates (Deinochares, Cheirocrates, Stasicrates, Timochares)
was the architect of Alexandria, the restorer of the Temple at Ephe
sus, — the same who, according to PUny xxxiv, 42, proposed to trans
form Mount Athos into a kneeUng figure ; he is also said to have under
taken the magnetic temple of the second Arsinoe (01. 133) ; from which
entirely fabulous building we must distinguish the real temple of Arsinoe-
Aphrodite Zephyritis (Valckenaer ad Theocr. Aden. p. 365 b). Auson.
Mos. 311 — 17. [Booking in his ed. 1845 assumes that this Dinochares was
different from the founder Dinocrates, with Tross, whom Osann opposes
in the Mem. d. Inst. I. p. 341 sqq. The variation in the form of the
names is customary, Lobeok Aglaoph. p. 996. 1301.] The buUding of
Alexandria was conducted by Cleomenes of Naucratis (Justin, xiii, 4.
Comp. Fr. Diibner), together with whom Olynthius, Brateus, and Libius'
sons Heron and Epithermus (?), are named as architects by Jul. Vale
rius (de R. G. Alex, i, 21. 23). At the same period Uved Crates the
canal-builder (Diog. Laert. iv, 23. Strab. ix, p, 407. Steph, Byz. s. v.
'ABtivxi); Sostratus the Cnidian was somewhat later (01. 116); on his
hanging portico, Hirt, Gesch. ii, 160. Amphilochus, son of Lagus, a cele
brated architect of Rhodes, perhaps also at this period (Inscr. in Clarke's
Travels ii, i. p. 228). C. I. n. 2545. Satyrus the architect. Phoenix the
machine-maker under Ptol. II. Plin. xxxvi, 14, 3. Ctesibius under Ptol.
Euergetes II. Becker's GaUus I. S. 187.
3. On Alexandria, comp. Hirt ii, 78. 166. Mannert, Geogr. x, i. p.
612. The city extended in an oblong form, divided at a right angle by
two main streets upwards of 100 feet in breadth, the longer one stretch
ing 30 stadia, from the west gate which led to the necropolis, to the east
gate, that of Canobus. About a fourth of the whole was occupied by the
acropoUs (Bruchion) on the north-east, with the palace, the mausoleum
(cZfix), the museum and propylsea (consisting of four gigantic piUars on
which arose a round temple with a cupola, according to the description in
Aphthonius, which is however rather obscure, Progymn. 12. p. 106. Walz.)
[On the citadel of Alexandria after Aphthonius by Heffter. Zeitschr. f.
A. W. 1839. n. 48. On the so-called Pompey's PiUar, see §. 193. R. A
similar granite column " next to this one the largest in the world," with
out base and capital, 37 f 8 in. high, 5 f 3 in. in diameter (that of Alex
andria is 9 feet) and in one piece, was seen by Clarke at Alexandria Troas
on a hill above the city, and he conjectured therefore that both were in
tended to carry a' statue of Alexander. Trav. ii. 1. p. 149. (iii. p, 188 8vo,
ed,). This is wrong, as seven other columns of precisely the same di
mensions are stiU to be seen lying in the quarries not far from thence,
and Uke those of one block, unbroken and without trace of a pedestal. Sir
Ch, FeUows Asia Minor, p, 61 sq, (Many of the same kind Ue in the quar
ries above Carystus,) AbdoUatif saw in Alexandria four hundred columns
broken in two or three pieces, of the same stone as those enormous ones,
and of a third or fourth of the size as it would seem, AbdoU, traduit par
SUv, de Sacy, p, 282,]

PALACES, TOMBS, 125
4. Antioch consisted of four towns with separate waUs, enclosed by a
great wall ; the 1st and 2d were built under Seleucus I., on the south bank
of the Orontes, the waUs by the architect Xenseus ; the 3d under Seleucus
IL and Antiochus III, on an island in the river, very regular with streets
intersecting each other at right angles ; in the northern portion the large
and magnificent palace of the king with double colonnades behind, over
the waU of the city ; the 4th under Antiochus IV, on the slope of Mount
Silpion, which quarter of the city comprehended the acropolis and the
catacombs, Ukewise, in the lower portion, the principal street 36 stadia
in length, Uned with two covered colonnades and intersected by another
of the same description at right angles, with triumphal arches {rer^x-jrv-
Xoig) at aUthe crossings. The author's Antiochense Dissertationes (1834).
150. The more splendid fitting up of apartments, which 1
was unknown to republican Greece, such as we afterwards
find it at Rome, and such as Vitruvius describes it, certainly
originated at this period, as can be gathered indeed from the
names of the Cyzican, Corinthian and Egyptian rooms (ceci).
An idea of it may be formed from the inventive magnificence ^
and splendour with which the Dionysian tent of the second
and the Nile-ship of the fourth Ptolemy were fitted up, and
all this merely ibr single festal and pleasure parties. But 3
besides the palaces of the rulers the mass of the population in
the great cities was cared for by the erection of theatres, pro
bably also thermffi and nymphgea (§. 292, 1, 4), and the liter
ary men had their museums (§. 292, 5),
2, On the Dionysian tent for the pompa of Ptolemy the Second (§, 147,
4, 244, 5.) CaUixenus in Athen. v. p. 196 sq. Colossal columns of the form
of palms and thyrsi ; on the architraves, under the roof of the tent which
arose in the form of a cupola (oii^xviaxog), there were grottos in which
personages of Tragedy, Comedy and the Satyric Drama, apparently Uving,
sat at table, Caylus, Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. xxxi. p. 96. Hirt, s. 170.
— On the vxiig Bx\xfiyiy6g of Ptolemy the IV., a floating palace, CalUxenus,
ibid. p. 204. In it there was an oecos with Corinthian capitals of ivory
and gold : the ivory reliefs on the golden frieze, however, were but of
ordinary workmanship ; a temple of Aphrodite in form of a cupola
(simUar to the Cnidian chapel, §. 127, 4) with a marble image ; a Bac
chian haU with a grotto, a dining-room with Egyptian columns, and
many things of the kind. [Alexandrina beUuata conchyliata tapetia, to
gether with peristromata picta Campanica, Plautus Pseud, i, 2, 16.]
151. This epoch was equally magnificent in its sepulchral 1
monuments, in which species of edifice the Mausoleum of the
Carian queen Artemisia, even before the time of Alexander,
challenged emulation. Even the funeral piles destined for 2
the flames, were at this period sometimes raised to a towering
height, with a senseless waste of money and art.
1. Mausolus died 106, 4. Pytheus (§. 109, iii.) and Satyrus, the
architects of his monument. An almost square building (412 f.) with a
peristyle (25 yards high) supported a pyramid of 24 steps; on which
stood a quadriga, aere-vacuo pendentia Mausolea, Martialis de spectac. 1.

126 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. 17.
Height of the whole 104 f, ReUefs on the frieze by Bryaxis, Leochares,
Scopas, Timotheus (Praxiteles according to Vitruvius) of which there are
still probably remains on the citadel of Budrun. (Of these reliefs, partly
Amazonian battles, there is some account in R. Dalton's Antiq. and
Views in Greece and Egypt, L. 1791. Appendix ; Ionian Antiq. u. pi. 2
add. in the 2d ed. [Five pieces were brought to London in 1846. They
contain 22 groups which are described by Ulrichs in Gerhard's Archseol.
Zeitung 1847, S. 169-176, and Gerhard ibid. 177-185 gives an account
of the Mausoleum after Chas. Newton in the Classical Museum xvi, comp.
W. R. Hamilton in the Trans, of the Royal Soc. of Literature 1847. ii. p.
251-267. 308.] On a beautiful Caryatid torso likewise from thence, BuUet.
d. Inst. 1832. pi. 168). See Caylus, Mem. de I'Ac, xxvi, p, 321, Chois.
Gouff, Voy. Pitt, i, pi. 98. Hirt, s. 70, Tf 10, 14, PhUo de septem orbis
spectac, c, 4 and in OreUi's Ed, p, 127, Leonis AUatu diatr, and p, 133 Cuper,
de nummo Mausoleum Artem. exhib, Quatremfere de Quincy Rec, de Dis
sert, 1, A similar monument at Mylasa, R, Rochette in the Journ, des
Sav, 1837, p, 202, This form of monument is to be found widely diffused
in Syria ; simUar to it was the tomb erected in Palestine about the 160th
Olympiad, by the high priest Simon to his father and brothers, — a build
ing surrounded with columns and serving as a foundation to seven py
ramids, Joseph, Ant. xiii, 6.
2. The so-caUed Monument of Hephsestion was only a funeral pile
{¦pTv^d, Diod. xvu, 115) ingeniously and fantastically constructed by Deino
crates in pyramidal terraces (for 12,000 talents ?). The pyre of the elder
Dionysius (Athen. v. p. 206) described by Timreus was probably simUar,
and the rogi of the Cesars on coins present the same fundamental form.
Comp, §. 294, 7, Ste Croix, Examen p, 472, Caylus, Hist, de I'Ac. des
Inscr. xxxi. p. 76. Q. de Quincy, M^m. de I'Inst. Royal iv. p. 396. Mon.
Restitu6s ii. p. 105.
1 152. Mechanics, however, the favourite science of the
period, showed itself still more worthy of admiration, in large
and curiously constructed chariots, in boldly devised warlike
machines, and, above all, gigantic ships with which the princes
2 of Egypt and Sicily tried to outdo one another. Hydraulics
was applied to manifold water-works with equal success.
1. On the state-chariot (x^/axfix^x) for Alexander's body. Hist, de
I'Acad, des Inscr, xxxi, p, 86, Ste Croix p, 511, Q, de Quincy, Mem. de
I'Inst, Roy. iv. p. 316. Mon. Restitues u. p. 1.— The beleaguering ma
chine of Demetrius Poliorcetes, Helepolis, buUt by Epimachus, frus
trated by Diognetus, 01. 119, 1. About the same time (Vitruv, vii. Prsef),
perhaps, however already under the administration of Lycurgus, PhUo
buUt for the Athenians the large ship-houses. The machines of Archi
medes at Syracuse, 01. 141, 3. The Tarentine machine-buUder Hera-
clides, inventor of the Sambuca, cont^emporaneous. Polyb. xui 4.
Athen. xiv. p. 634. Polysen, v, 17.— Enormous ship of Ptolemy 'the
Fourth with 40 banks of oars. Hiero the Second's great ship with 3
decks and 20 banks of oars, built by Archias of Corinth, and launched by
Archimedes.— There are a few detaUs on the history of mechanics among
the Greeks (there is a great deal unknown) in Kiistner's Gesch. der
Mathematik ii. s, 98, Comp, Hirt, ii, s, 259.

TEMPLES. 127
2. Ctesibius of Alexandria, under Ptol, VII, His pupil Heron the hy
drauUst. 153, It must be understood, however, that temple-archi
tecture also was by no means neglected at a time which took
so much delight in building, and which moreover liberally in
dulged in magnificent display towards the gods. The Corin
thian order now became more and more common, and took
its place among the chosen and established forms which the
Roman artists retained. But all the stately edifices erected
by the Greek rulers in the east, as well as Grecian civilization
itself, have vanished and scarcely left a vestige behind ; Athens
alone, which now did little by its own exertions, but was
emulously adorned by foreign monarchs, has still some traces
remaining. 2, At this time it was a favourite practice to adorn the Corinthian
capitals with foUage of gUded bronze, as in the Museum at Alexandria
(Aphthonius). Comp. §, 150, Rem, 2.
3, Temples op the Period, Temple of Apollo at Daphne, at the time
of the Emperor Julian, amphiprostyle, with internal colonnades (Jo.
Chrysost, de Babyla c. JuUanum c, 17. 21), Temple of Bel and Atergatis
(Zeus and Hera) at HierapoUs or Bambyce, built by Stratonice (about
123), the model of Palmyra, Over the naos arose the thalamos (the
choir) ; the walls and roof were entirely gilded. Lucian, De Dea Syria,
Probably to this time also belonged aU the important buildings at
Cyzicus, especiaUy the' temple, according to Dio Cass. Ixx, 4, the largest
and most beautiful of aU temples, with monolith (?) columns 75 feet
high and 24 in circumference. [SimUar monoUths §. 149. R. 3.] This is
perhaps the magnificent temple of Zeus whose marble seams were marked
by gold threads (PUn. xxxvi, 22). An earthquake destroyed it under
Antoninus Pius, who restored it in honour of Hadrian, See Aristides,
Paneg, Cyzic, i, p, 241. Malalas, p, 119. Ven. The temple of ApoUonis
at Cyzicus was built by Attains IL, one of her four sons, after 01. 156, 3 ;
comp. §. 167, 2. Regarding the plan of Cyzicus (it was simUar to that of
Carthage, Rhodes and MassaUa), PUn. ibid. Strab. xii. p. 575. xiv. p. 663 ;
the ruins have not been yet properly investigated (Renouard de Bussiferes,
Lettres sur I'Orient i. p. 165. pi, 11),
Temple of Olympian Zeus at Syracuse built by Hiero the Second.
Diodor. xvi, 83, Cic, Verr. iv, 53. [Serradifalco iv, tav, 28 sq, p, 153.]
The Doric ruin at HaUcarnassus (Chois. Gouff. i. pi. 99 sq.) perhaps
belonging to the time after Mausolus, shows the order in its decline ; it
is without character. [At Cnidos a Corinthian pseudoperipteral prostyle.
Ion. Ant. iii. ch. 1. pi. 6 sqq., a Doric temple, about 200 years before Christ
(p. 30) pi. 26 ; at Aphrodisius Ibid, ch, 2 a Corinthian, pi, 23. A Corin
thian temple at Labranda, FeUows Asia Minor, p. 261, perhaps later.]
4. At Athens edifices were reared by the kings (Gymnasion of Ptol.
II. ; Portico of Eumenes, and of Attains, an Odeion of the Ptolemies?),
above all Antiochus Epiphanes, who, about the 153d Olympiad, caused

128 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per, IV.
the temple of Zeus Olympius (§. 80, i, 4) to be changed into the Corinthian
style by Cossutius a Roman (C. I. 363. comp. p. 433) ; however it was first
completed by Hadrian. Stuart iii. ch. 2. Comp. Ersch Bncycl. Attika
s. 233. At a later period Ariobarzanes II. of Cappadocia renewed the
Odeion of Pericles which was burnt 173, 3, by Aristion. The architects
were C. and M. StaUius and Menalippus. C. I. 357. The octagonal
horologic building of Andronicus Cyrrhestes with pecuUar Corinthian
columns also belongs to this time. Stuart i, ch, 3, Hirt, s. 152. There
was at Rome an imitation of it, but with 12 figures of the winds. See
Polenus, Bxercit. Vitruv, u, 2. p. 179. [Magnificent gymnasia in Asia
Minor, §. 292. R. 2.]

3. THE PLASTIC ART.

1 154. Together with the immediate scholars of Praxiteles,
the Sicyonian school in an especial manner flourished from
the beginning of this period, till the 120th Olympiad and
even somewhat later. In it brass-casting was practised in
its ancient perfection and noble style, by Euthycrates, indeed,
with more severity {austerius) than the taste of the time ap-
2 proved. According to historical accounts the art of brass-
3 casting afterwards died out {cessavit deinde ars) ; and although
for a while very meritorious statuaries were still active in
Asia Minor, yet casting in brass, and art in general were
visibly declining, till at the end of this period, by the study of
earlier works, a restoration of art was brought about at Athens,
which coincided with the ascendancy of Greek taste at Rome.
Plastic artists of this period, whose time is known : Aristodemus,
brass-caster, 118. Eutychides of Sicyon, a scholar of Lysippus, brass-
caster and painter, 120. Dahippus and Beda, sons and scholars of Ly
sippus, Euthycrates and Phoenix, scholars of Lysippus, brass-casters,
120. Zeuxiades, a scholar of Silanion, brass-caster, 120 (comp. Welcker
in the Kunstblatt 1827. No. 82). Dsetondas of Sicyon, brass-caster, 120.
Polyeuctus, brass-caster at Athens, about 120 (?). Chares of Lindus,
scholar of Lysippus, 122 — 125. Praxiteles, the younger, brass-caster,
123 (in the Testament of Theophrastes?). .Sition (Betion) of Amphipo
lis, carver, about 124 (Theoo. Bp. 7. Oallimach. Bp. 26). Tisicratbs of
Sicyon, a scholar of Euthycrates, sculptor, 126. Piston, brass-caster,
contemporary of Tisicrates (?). Cantharus of Sicyon, scholar of Euty
chides, sculptor, 125. Hermocles of Rhodes, brass-caster, 126. Pyro-
MACHirs, brass-caster and painter, 125 (120 according to Pliny) till 135
(comp. §. 157*). Xenocrates, scholar of Tisicrates (or Euthycrates),
brass-caster, 130. Isigonus, Stratonicus, Antiochus [rather Antigonus,
from PUn. xxxiv, 8, 84 SiUig], brass-casters, about 135 and later. Micon,
son of Niceratus, of Syracuse, brass-caster, 142. J<iginetes, plastes, 144.
Stadieus 150. Alexandrus, son of king Perseus, toreutes, 153 (Plutarch
Paulus 37). Antheus, CaUistratus, Polycles, Athenseus (?), CalUxenus,
Pythocles, Pythias, and Tiraooles and Timarchides, the sons of Polycles
(Paus. X, 34, 3. 4.), brass-casters, also inpart sculptors, 155. The sons of

SCULPTURE, RHODIAN SCHOOL. 129
Timarchides, sculptors, 158. See §. 159 [A series of Rhodian brass-casters
was discovered by L. Ross on the acropolis of Lindus, partly from Soli, Ca-
lymna and other places, Archimenidas, Epicharmus, father and son, Xeno,
Mnasitimus, Peithandrus, Protus, Pythocritus, Sosipatrus, all of whom he
places before the time of the Roman supremacy, and the majority even
pretty far back into the Macedonian period. N. Rhein. Mus, iv, S, 161 f ]
155. The Rhodian school was an immediate off-shoot I
from the school of Lysippus at Sicyon ; Chares of Lindus, a
scholar of Lysippus, executed the largest of the hundred co
lossi of the sun at Rhodes. As the Rhodian eloquence was 2
more flowery than the Attic, and more allied to the spirit
of the Asiatic, we may readily believe that the plastic art
likewise at Rhodes was distinguished from that of Athens by
the striving after dazzling effect. Rhodes flourished most 3
from the time of the siege by Demetrius (119, 1) till it was
laid waste by Cassius (184, 2) ; at this time also the island
may probably have been most a centre of the arts,
1, The Colossus was 70 Greek cubits in height, cast in separate parts,
said to be of the metal of Helepolis, executed from 122, 1. to 126, 1. It
stood near the harbour, but not over the entrance — only tiU the earth
quake, 139, 1, (Thus according to the chronographers ; but according
to Polybius v, 88, the earthquake took place before 138, 2 ; in that case
the statue must also have been executed somewhat earlier). See PUn.
xxxiv, 7, 18. PhUo of Byzantium, De vii. mundi miraculis (evidently a
later work by a rhetorician) c. 4. p. 15. together with AUatius' and
OreUi's Remarks, p. 97 — 109. Caylus, M^m. de I'Ac. Inscr. xxiv. p. 360.
Von Hammer, Topograph. Ansichten von Rhodes, s. 64. On the other
colossi, Meurs. Rhod. i, 16. The Jupiter of Lysippus at Tarentum 40
cubits high.
3. Hermocles the Rhodian executed the brazen statue of the eunuch
Combabus ; but it is quite uncertain whether the numerous other statues
of heroes and kings in the temple at HierapoUs were also by him.
156. To this time, then, probably belongs the Laocoon: a I
miracle of art as regards the noble and refined taste in the
solution of so difficult a problem, and the profound science dis
played in the execution, but evidently calculated for dazzling
effect and exhibition of skill, and of a certain theatrical cha
racter compared vnth the works of earlier ages. At. the same 2
time the pathos in this production appears to be woj-ked up as
high as the taste of the ancient world and the nature of the
plastic art could ever admit, and much higher than the time
of Phidias would have allowed.
I. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 11 : Laocoon, qui est in Titi Imp. dome, opus om
nibus et picturse et statuarise artis prseponendum (i. e. a work of sculpture
of such boldness in composition as brass-casting and painting can hardly
attain). Ex uno lapide eum et Ubeios draconumque mirabUes nexus de
consiUi sententia fecere summi artifices, Agesander et Polydorus et
I

130 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per, IV.
Athenodorus Rhodii (Athenodorus was the son of Agesander, according
to an inscription), SimUiter (viz, also de consiUi sententia) Palatinas
Csess, domes, etc. Discovered in 1506 in the neighbourhood of the baths
of Titus ; in six pieces ; the right arm restored after models by Giov.
Agnolo. Some portions of the sons are also new. Race, 1. M, PioCl. ii,
39, Piranesi, Statue, M, Frang. iv, 1. M, BouiU. ii, 15, A pyramidal
group arranged in a vertical plane. The secondary figures also subordi
nated laccorliing toi size, as in Niobe. Three acts of the same tragedy;
the father in the middle, in whom energy and pathos at the highest pitch.
Antique heads of Laocoon in the coUection of Prince Arensberg, and at
Bologna [in the Villa Litta at Lainata near Milan]. Winckelm. W. vi,
1, s, 101 ff. comp. ii, s. 203 ff. Heyne Antiq, Aufs. ii. s, 1. Lessing's
Laocoon, Propylseen Bd, i, St, 1. Thiersch Epochen, s, 322. The head
of the Duke of Arensberg at Brussels, in the Mon. d. Inst, ii, 416, comp,
Schorn AnnaU ix, p. 163., on that at MUan p. 160. [The former is not
antique, Das. Akad. Kunstmus. at Bonn 1841. S. 14; the Farnesian head
referred to by Winckelmann seems to represent Capaneus.]
1 157. The Farnesian Bull, the work of Trallian artists,
which was brought from Rhodes to Rome, also appears to be
long to the Rhodian school. It is outwardly imposing indeed,
2 but without a satisfying spiritual import. The representation
of the scene was at that time a favourite subject in Asia Mi
nor, and it is exactly the same as in the temple of ApoUonis
at Cyzicus (§. 153), whose reliefs, representing, in numerous
mythological and historical groups, examples of the piety of
sons toward their mothers, are deserving of notice as a work
of fine conception and skilful invention towards the end of
this period.
1. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 10 : Zethus et Amphion ac Dirce et taurus, vin-
culumque, ex eodem lapide, Rhode advecta opera ApoUonii et Taurisci.
Probably restored even at the time of CaracaUa, then again in modern
times, and overloaded with unsuitable figures (such as Antiope [?]). Pira
nesi, Statue. [Gal. Myth. pi. 140. Clarac pi. 811. 811 St.] Maffei, Race.
48. Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s. 128 ff. (comp. ii. s. 233.) vii. s. 190. Heyne,
Antiq. Aufs. ii. s. 182. Fr. Paganuzzi, Sopra la mole scultoria volg. den.
il Tore Farnese. [The author's Annali ix. p. 287 — 92. Two mural paint
ings and other monuments in AveUino Descriz. di una Casa di Pompei
1843. p. 40. Welcker Alte Denkm. 6, 352-370.]
2. The same group on a coin of Thyatira, Eckhel N. Anecd. tb. 15 1
and probably also at Antioch, Malalas, p. 99. Ven. — It is also described
in the Epigr. on the Cyzican ReUefs, Anthol. Pal. ui {dye xxi ix rxii^oia
xx^xvrere 'ii'jr'hxxx aeiQtiv, o(p^x ii/ixg o-ujsj rijaie xxrd ^uXoxov). These
reUefs (nrvXomvxxix, the way in which they were put on is difficult to
determine) represented, for example : Dionysus conducting Semele to
Olympus, Telephus discovering Auge, Pytho slain by ApoUo and Artemis,
down to the Catansean brothers, Cleobis and Biton, and Romulus and
Remus, On the subjects, comp. especiaUy Polyb. xxiii, 18. As to the
rest, Visconti, Iscr. Triopee, p. 122. Jacobs, Exc. Grit, in Scriptt. Vet.
u. p. 139. Animadv. ad Anth. ui, iu. p. 620. [Hall. Litt. Zeit, 1836.
Oct. S. 226' f Letronne Append, aux Lettres d'un antiqu. p. 85.]

PERGAMENIAN AND BPHESIAN SCULPTORS. 131
157.* Before this, Pyromachus had acquired at Pergamus
the chief renown as an artist. He made a famous statue of
Esculapius in the splendid temple of that deity there. He
was the first of the artists who celebrated the victories of At
tains the First and Eumenes the Second over the Celts by
groups of brazen statues, to which some famous statues of an
tiquity, distinguished for impressive and affecting representa
tion, are indebted for their first origin. An eminent school of
artists seems to have flourished contemporaneously at Ephesus,
at that time a rich and prosperous city, and to have repre
sented similar battle-scenes ; of which an excellent specimen,
worthy of Lysippian models, is still preserved to us,
1. On Pyromachus' Pergamenian Bsoulapiits, Polyb. xxxu, 25. Dio
dor. Exc. p. 588. together with Valesius and WesseUng. We can recog-
i^se the figure with tolerable certainty as the most usual representation
of the god on numerous coins of Pergamus, (Chois. Gouff. Voy. Pitt. ii.
pi. 5) ; the statue. Gal. di Fir. 27, corresponds most with it, and many
others also, but less accurately. Comp. §. 394.
2. With regard to these Celtic battles, Plin. xxxiv, 19. The De
feat of the Celts, which was dedicated by Attains at Athens, was also a
group of statues (Paus. i, 25, 2. comp. with Plut. Anton. 60). R. Ro
chette sur les represent, d' Atlas, p. 40, takes these for reliefs, and distin
guishes from them the group of statues in Plutarch. To these, in the
first place, belongs, in aU probabiUty, the dyinq Gladiator, who indeed
puts us in mind of CtesUaus' vulneratus deficiens (PUn. xxxiv, 19, 14), but
is distinctly shown to be a Celt by his moustache, the arrangement of
his hair, the chain round his neck, &c. Nibby, (Osserv. sopra la statua
volg. app. U Gladiator moribundo. R, 1821), building on Propertius' de
scription of the Palatine gates of ivory (u, 31), brought the figure into
connexion with the destruction of the Gauls ; but it would have suited
stUl better as the corner figure in one of these battle-scenes. See R,
Rochette in the Bulletin Universel, Set, vii, 1830, Ao(it. Welcker Rhein.
Mus. i, S, 529, [Das. Akad, Kunstmus, in Bonn, 2d ed. S. 80. A gladiator
in the posture in which he has faUen, according to Gottling Thusnelda
and ThumeUcus, S. 16 f] In the M, Capit, iii, 67, Piranesi, Stat. 36.
Maffei, Race. 65. M. Prang, ii, 22, A similar torso at Dresden, n. 298.
Leplat, pi. 79. Further also, according to the supposition of R. Rochette,
the group in the villa Ludovisi, caUed Arria and Vmivs, representing a
barbarian killing his wife and himself to escape captivity. Piranesi 9.
Maffei 60. 61. comp. Heyne, Vorlesungen, s. 240. [Clarac, pi. 825. No.
2072, as Macareus and Canace.]
3, The three Agasias op Ephesus (Agasias, son of Dositheus, on the
Borghese Gladiator ; Agasias, son of Menophilus, about 100 years before
Christ, C. I, 2285. b, ; and Agasias as father of Heraclides, on a statue
in the Louvre 411, stiU pretty distinctly recognisable) point out clearly
that the name Agasias was customary in a family of artists at Ephesus,
or had become famous there through a great master. The Borghese
Gladiator in the Louvre 304 (according to a notion of Lessing's a Cha
brias, according to Mongez, MIm, de I'Inst, Nat, Litt, ii, p, 43 [p, 423 —

132 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. IV.
69.], an athlete, according to GibeUn, ibid. iv. p. 492, and Hirt, a player
at baU, according to Q. de Quincy, Mem. de I'Inst. Roy. iv. p. 166, a hop-
Utodromos) is most probably a warrior with shield and lance warding
off a horseman, and was perhaps taken by Agasias from a larger battle-
group in order to finish it with particular refinement of art. Maffei,
Race. 76. Piranesi, Stat. 13. M. Roy. i, 8. Clarac, pi. 304. comp. §. 328,
4. The so-caUed Jason (§. 412) might also come in here.
1 158. In the cities where the Macedonian rulers resided,
the temple statues, however, were executed more after the
model of earlier works of celebrity than according to more
2 modern ideas of artists. On the contrary, the task most fre
quently imposed on artists at that time — the glorification of
the kings by portrait statues — gave occasion to many new
and ingenious productions, especially as the identification of
the princes with particular deities in form of body, costume,
3 and attributes, afforded great scope to the artistic fancy. In
the flrst generations after Alexander there were still doubt
less produced many works of the kind, conceived in the noble
and grand style of Lysippus; but it can be very plainly seen
from the coins of these dynasties how soon the portrait repre
sentations of the Seleucidse, the Ptolemies, and the kings of
Macedonia, degenerated into mean and insignificant effigies.
4 At the same time flattery, which was carried to an extrava
gant height, often prescribed the most precipitate execution ;
nay, they were satisfied with merely changing the heads or
5 the inscriptions on existing statues. With the likenesses of
the rulers were often also combined statues of the city-god
desses (Ti;^a; irOXim') ; a Species of figures which were at that
time very prevalent, and which could be individualized in an
interesting manner, by a regard to localities and productions.
1. The Daphnsean ApoUo of Bryaxis, a colossal acrolith (§. 84), was
very similar to the Palatine Apollo of Scopas, only that he poured out a
libation from a goblet with the right hand. The Olympian Zeus which
was erected at Daphne by Antiochus the Fourth was in material and
form quite a copy of that of Phidias. See the author's Antiochense Dis
sert, i, 17, 24. The chief statue of Serapis at Alexandria is ascribed in
Clemens, Protr. p. 14. Sylb. (the account is very confused) to Bryaxis,
and by Jul. Valerius i, 36. to the architect Parmenion.
2, In the divine costume of the kings Alexander was the model of
the Macedonian dynasties ; he even appeared in his later days some
times adorned with the drapery and horns of Zeus Ammon, and some
times with the lion's hide and club of Hercules (Athen, xii, p. 537), and
wished also to be represented by the artists in that manner (Clemens,
Protr, 4, p, 16, Sylb, comp, Paus, v, 24, 3), I have no doubt therefore
that, 1st, the head with the horn of Ammon and the diadem on the
beautiful coins of Lysimachus, which is to be found on later coins of
the Macedonian nation at the time of the Romans, with the legend
" AXi%xv\o\i, and 2d, the head with the lion's hide, with features more or

MACEDONIAN SCULPTORS, 133
less resembling, on the coins of many cities of Asia and some in Europe,
during Alexander's reign, and afterwards on those of the Macedonian na
tion with the same legend, and copied exactly on later contorniati (Eck
hel, D. N. viii. p. 289), must represent Alexander. Alexander with the
hide of an elephant on a coin of ApoUonia in Caria, and of Ptolemy the
1st (like Demetrius of India in later times) is an ingenious modification
of the latter idea. See on this question Eckhel, D. N. ii, p. 108 (with him
Arneth, Wien, Jahrb, xlvii, s, 171, against Alexander with the Uon's hide),
Visconti, Iconogr. ii, p, 43 (in favour, with Umitations), Chois, Gouff', Voy.
Pitt. U. p. 41, Stieglitz Archaol. Unterhalt. ii. s. 107, especiaUy the more
recent investigations of Cadalvfene RecueU des M4d. p. 107, 260, and Cou
sinery Voy. dans la Mac6d. i. p. 229. pi. 3 — -5. comp, Mionnet Suppl. ii,
pi. 8. iu, pi. 10, D. A, K. Tf 39. After Alexander, Demetrius Poliorce
tes, a new son of Dionysus aud Poseidon, was represented with the horns
of a buU and in the attitude of the god of the sea (thus on a Hercula
nean bronze, Visconti u. p. 58. pi. 40, 3. 4) ; in like manner Seleucus the
First (Appian Syr. 67, Libanius T, i, p. 301. Reiske, on coins) and At
tains the First (Paus. x, 15, 2) as rxv^oxe^ag; many of the Macedonian
kings with goats' horns on account of the legends of Caranus (Vise. ii.
p. 61. 69. 341) ; the princes surnamed Epiphanes especially with the rays
of HeUus, but others also (Vise. ii. p. 337). Lysimachus' figure was quite
Uke that of Hercules (Anthol, Pal, u, p, 654, Plan, iv, 100),
3, There is in the Louvre (No, 680) a fragment of a bust, in a grand
style, of Demetrius Poliorcetes (whose fine and noble aspect, according
to Plut, Dem, 2, no artist could approach). On the whole, the busts of
the successors of Alexander are rare ; the name of Ptolemy is often in
correctly appUed ; Visconti only assigns two Herculanean bronze busts
to Ptolemy the First and his queen Berenice, pi, 52, 3, 4, 6, 7, Busts less
to be reUed on, Antich, di Brcolano v. tv, 61 sqq. M, Borb. vii, 12. Spec,
of ancient Sculpture ii, 40, 41. Arsinoe ii, 39. a female Ptolemy, Musa
5ed Oii^xvix, consort of Phraates IV, on coins, R, Rochette deux Suppl,
&. la Notice sur quelques Med, Gr, de rois de la Bactriane et de I'lnde.
p. 51 sq.
4. The 360 (or, according to Dio Chrys, Or, 37, p. 122, even 1500)
statues of Demetrius Phalereus are well known. The pcerxppv^/xi^eiv
(which was practised even on pictures of ApeUes in the time of the Cesars,
Plin. xxxv, 36, 16) and parxy^xCpeiu (Pausanias' indignation thereat, 1,
2, 4, comp. SiebeUs, 18, 3. ii, 9, 7. 17, 3) was usual at least in Athens as
early as the time of Antony (Plut. Anton. 60), but especiaUy in Rhodes,
according to Dio Chrys. Or. 31 ( Vohixxog), p. 669 sqq. comp. 37 {Ka^iviiixxog),
p, 121, R. Kohler, Miinchn. Denkschr. vi. s. 207. Winckelm. W. vi, i.
s. 285. Bottiger Andeut. s. 212.
5. The Tyche, or female genius of Antioch, executed by Eutychides,
was a richly draped woman with a mural crown, sitting on a rock (the
hill of Silpion) in a negligent posture, holding ears of corn or a palm in
her right hand. At her feet arose with half his body the river Orontes
in the form of a youth. Around her stood Seleucus and Antiochus
crowning her; it was within a little open temple with four columns
{rer^xxiovm). Visconti, PioCl. ui. p. 72. tv. 46. [Clarac pi. 767. No. 1906.
of which there is a smaUer repetition in the Vatican, one in the Vigna

134 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV.
Campana at Rome, and a miniature copy in bronze in the CoUegium Ro
manum], Diss, Antioch, i, 14. A great many city-goddesses of Asia
were copied from this one, — In the Tychseon of Alexandria (as it appears)
the goddess of Fortune stood in the middle crowning the Earth, and
the latter Alexander, Libanius iv, p. 1113, Reiske. In the temple of
Homer, erected by Ptolemy the Fourth, his reputed native cities [seven
in number] stood around the throne of the bard, jElian V. H, xiu, 21.
comp, §, 405.
159. In these seats of royalty were made an immense
number of ingeniously embossed and engraved vessels; Syria,
Asia Minor, even Sicily was full of such treasures of art;
however the real bloom of this art was past when the Ro
mans conquered the East, Probably belonged also to this
period, which aimed at the striking in so many things, the
so-called [iix^onyiioi, under which name are always quoted dur
ing antiquity the toreutae Myrmelides of Athens, or Miletus,
and Callicrates the Lacedaemonian (the ancient Theodorus of
Samos only from misapprehension),
1. Mentor indeed, the most skilful cselator argenti {Mevro^ou^y^
TTorii^ix), belonged to the preceding period (§, 124), and Boethus (not a
Carohedonian but a Calchedonian) [Wiener Jahrb, xxxix, 149,] seems to
have been his contemporary ; but Acragas, Antipatrus, Stratonicus and
Tauriscus of Cyzicus, must have belonged to this period. Antiochus the
Fourth had many dealings with toreutse, Athen, v, p, 193, d,
2, The great problem was always an iron quadriga (comp. §. 311, 5)
which a fly could cover. The works in ivory were only visible when
back bristles were held upon them. See the passages in Facius ad Plu-
tarchi Exc. p. 217. Osann ad Apulei. de Orthogr. p. 77. Bockh, C. I. i.
p. 872 sq.

1 160. Notwithstanding all the exertions of luxury, we may
however assume with certainty that art had sunk even at
the time of Philip, the enemy of the Romans, and of Antio
chus the Great, and while it was stirred by no great ideas it
2 even fell behind more and more in technical perfection. But
half a century later there appeared, especially at Athens, brass-
casters, and at the same time sculptors, who, although stand
ing according to Pliny far beneath the earlier artists, yet
achieved what was excellent, because they adhered with
right feeling and fine taste to the great models furnished by
3 the true period of bloom in art. This band of restorers of art
was joined by Cleomenes the Athenian, who deserves high
admiration for his Aphrodite, as a successful cultivator of the
4 ideal created by Praxiteles, his son Cleomenes, distinguished
by his soft handling of marble, also, in the following genera
tions indeed, the Athenians Glycon (§. 129. Rem. 2) and Apol-

RESTORATION OF ART. 135
lonius, son of Nestor (§. 411, 3), who chiefly adhered to the
models of Lysippus. The reliefs on the monument of Cyrrhes
tes (§. 153), however excellent they may be in the plastic
embodiment of the eight principal winds represented in them
(§. 401), betray in the execution a much ruder style of tech
nical treatment than can be ascribed to these revivers of the
formative art.
2. Among the brass-casters of the 155th Olympiad were Polycles and
Timocles ; — ^probably the family of Attic artists known through Paus. x,
34. comp. vi, 12 : Polycles with two sons, Timocles and Timarchides.
At that time Metellus buUt with Grecian architects (§. 180) the great
portico with the temples of Jupiter and Juno, and evidently employed
on the sculptures with which they were adorned, various artists then
living (and therefore in part not mentioned by Pliny in his chronologi
cal Usts, which were derived from Greek sources). We can gather from
Pliny xxxvi, 4, 10, that Polycles, Timarchides and his sons were then at
Rome, as weU as Dionysius and Philiscus of Rhodes. At Elatea there
was a bearded Esculapius and an Athena Promachus, whose shield was
an imitation of that in the Parthenon at Athens, by Timocles and Timar
chides. Comp. Hirt, Gesch. der Bild. Kunst. s. 295, where wiU be found
what is most essential for the history of the Restoration of Art; only the
passage in PUny does not require the alteration he would make, [L, v,
Jan Jen. Litt. Zeit. 1838. S. 256—58.]
3. Cleomenes of Athens, the son of Apollodorus and who executed the
Medicean Venus, was probably also the sculptor of the Thespiades, in the
possession of Asinius PolUo (from which are to be distinguished those in
the temple of FeUcitas). Comp. on him and his son Visconti Decade
phUos. et litter, an. x. n. 33, 34. Volkel's Nachlass, s. 139. The Medicean
Venus is composed of eleven pieces ; only the hands and a portion of the
arms were wanting. There were ornaments in the ears, and her elegantly
arranged hair was gilded. She is sprung from the Cnidian Venus, only
her nakedness did not now need to be accounted for by the bath (the
dolphin too is merely a support, and does not bear reference to any sea-
journey) ; and the countenance has the smaUer and more delicate forms
of the refined art of that time. M. Frang. ii, 5, comp, §, 377, 3,
4, Cleomenes, son of Cleomenes, was, according to the inscription,
sculptor of the statue in the Louvre 712, usuaUy called Germanicus, ac
cording to Clarac Marius Gratidianus (see on this point Gott, G, A. 1823,
s, 1325), according to Thiersch's idea Quintius Flamininus (whose coun
tenance on a stater probably struck in Greece, in Mionnet, Suppl, iii,
p, 260, Visconti, Iconogr, Rom. pi. 42, 2 is very different from this
statue), at aU events a Roman or Greek of later times, who is pointed
out by his costume of Hermes and his gestures to be an orator. The
workmanship is excellent, but the statue has Uttle life. M. Frang. iv, 19.
Clarac, pi. 318.
5. The same ApoUonius [Nestor's son] whose name appears on the
Torso, is said to be also named on a statue of Esculapius at Rome. Spon,
MisceU. Brud. Antiq. p. 122 [and is named on a Satyr, Winckel, Vorrede
der Kunstgesch, S, xiu, (1809), mentioned also by Dati Vita de' pittori.

136 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per, IV.
p, 118], In both names, ApoUonius and Glycon, there are to be observed
letters which pass into the cursive character {w). These made their ap
pearance in inscriptions on stone not long before the Christian era.

THE ART OF ENGRAVING STONES AND DIES.
161. The luxury in engraved stones was carried to a greater
height particularly by the custom, derived from the east and
now chiefly maintained by the court of the Seleucidse, of adorn
ing with gems, cups, craters, lamps and other works in precious
metals. For this and other purposes, where the figure on the
stone was merely intended to be ornamental and not to form
impressions as a seal, the gems were cut in high relief, as
cameos, for which variegated onyxes were preferred (§. 313).
To this class belong the cups and goblets entirely composed of
engraved precious stones (onyx-vessels) which made their ap
pearance at the same time. In this sort there were executed
real wonders in beauty and technical perfection, at the earlier
stages of this period when art was still animated by a higher
spirit. 1, According to the letters of Parmenion (Athen, xi, p, 781) there
were among Alexander's Persian spoils cups set with gems {¦^rorvi^ix Xi5o-
xohXnrx) weighing 66 Babylonian talents, 34 minse. Theophrastes' brag
gart (Char. 23) also brought home Xi^oxoXXnrx Tror^^ix from Alexander's
expedition, and therefore considered the Asiatic superior to the European
artists. On the luxury of the Seleucidse in these matters, Cic. Verr. iv,
27, 28, 32. Athen. v. p, 199, compared with Virgil Mn. i. 729. A tpvxrviq
/3«g/3«g;xoV Xi^oxoXKog with other sUver vessels presented by Seleucus II. to
the Didymseon, Corp, Inscr, no. 2852, 48.
3. Mithridates, whose kingdom was the great mart of precious stones,
had, according to Appian (Mithr, 116), two thousand cups of onyx with
gold chasings In Cic, Verr. iv, 27. Vas vinarium ex una gemma per-
grandi, truUa excavata.
4, The noblest work is the Gonzaga cameo (now in the possession of
the Russian emperor) with the heads of Ptolemy the Second and the first
Arsinoe (according to Visconti) almost half a foot long, in the most beauti
ful and ingenious style, Visconti Iconogr, pi. 63. That of Vienna with
the heads of the same Ptolemy and the second Arsinoe is an exceUent
work although not so grand in style. Eckhel, Choix des Pierres grav.
pi. 10. The same Ptolemy is very ingeniously costumed in a fragment
to be seen at BerUn. Beger. Thes. Brand, p. 202. A beautiful cameo
with the heads of Demetrius the First and Laodice of Syria in Visconti
pi. 46. The cameo in MiUin M. I. u, pi. 15, p, 117. belongs to this time.
Compare the description of the very skilfully cut agate, with Apollo and
the Muses, which was in the possession of Pyrrhus, in Pliny xxxvii 3.
Nicomedes IV, of Bithynia, Impronte gemm, iv, 85.

COINS. PAINTING. 137
1 62. The degeneracy of art in the Macedonian dominions l
is manifested more clearly in the coins than in anything else,
and at the same time in the most certain and authentic man
ner. During the first half of the period they display gener- 2
ally excellent design and execution, such as those of Alexan
der himself, Philip Arrhidseos, Antigonus and Demetrius Poli
orcetes, of Lysimachus, of Seleucus Nicator, Antiochus Soter
and Theus, especially the coins of Agathocles, Hicetas and
Pyrrhus, struck in Sicily, which cannot be surpassed in deli
cate handling, but are however far inferior to earlier works
in power and grandeur. The Macedonian coins fron Anti- 3
gonus Gonatas, and the Syrian coins from Antiochus II. down
wards, are of much less value ; even the Sicilian coins of
Hiero II. and his family (Philistis, Gelon and Hieronymus)
are inferior to the earlier ones. In like manner, among the 4
coins of the Ptolemies, which however are not generally of
high excellence, the older ones are distinguished as the best.
But among the coins which were struck by Grecian states
after the time of Alexander many will be found remarkable
for easy and powerful handling, none however to which can
be awarded the praise of genuine perfection in art.
2, 3, Mionnet's impressions give sufficient examples ; and the custom
which began with Alexander of putting portraits of the princes on
coins faciUtates very much the chronological arrangement ; although,
especiaUy in the case of the Ptolemies, where distinct surnames are
wanting, the assigning of the coins to the rulers who caused them to be
struck has its difficulties. VaUlant's Seleucidar. Imperium and Hist.
Ptolemssorum, Frohlich's Ann. Regum Syrise, P. van Damme Recueil de
M6d. des Rois Grecs.
4. The money of the Achaian league from Olympiad 133 — 158 (Cou
sinery, Sur les Monn. d'Arg. de la Ligue AchSenne.), the Cistophori
struck in anterior Asia Minor about 01. 130 — 140 (Neumann N. V. ii. p.
35, tb. 1), the large Athenian and Rhodian silver coins, which can be
easUy distinguished from those of earlier times, form particularly impor
tant classes for the history of art. Cavedoni Oss, sopra le antich. monete
di Atene. Modena 1836, Bullett. 1837. p. 142.

4. PAINTING.

163. Painting was zealously cultivated, especially at the I
beginning of this period, in the three schools which flourished
during the preceding period ; no one however of the successors
made even a distant approach to the fame of the great masters
of the time immediately previous. At Sicyon, where artists 2
were assembled in greatest number, the works of the earlier
masters were more admired about the 134th Olympiad than

138 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. IV.
3 augmented by similar productions. The tendencies which
were peculiar to this period gave birth sometimes to pictures
which ministered to a low sensuality, sometimes to works
which attracted by their effects of light, and also to carica-
4 tures and travesties of mythological subjects. Hasty painting,
which was rendered necessary by the state-processions in the
cities where the kings resided (§. 147), must have ruined
5 many an artist. At this time also rhyparography (so-called
still-life) probably made its appearance, and scenography was
applied to the decoration of the palaces of the great (§. 209).
6 As the love of magnificence among the great now also de
manded the decoration of painting on their floors, the mosaic
art arose, and quickly developing itself, undertook to repre
sent great combats of heroes and highly animated battle-
7 scenes. The painting of earthen vases, which was so favour
ite an occupation in earlier times, died out in the course of
this period, and sooner, so far as can be observed, among the
Greeks of the mother country and the colonies than in many
of the but superficially Hellenised districts of Lower Italy,
where these vases continued longer to be esteemed as objects
of luxury, but thereby also present very clearly to the eye the
degeneracy of design into a careless manufacture-work, or a
system of mannerism and affected ornament,
1, Floruit circa PhUippum et usque ad successores Alexandri pictura
prsecipue, sed diversis virtutibus, QuintU. xii, 10. comp. Plant. Poenul,
V, 4, 103. Artists of note ; Antiphilus from Egypt, a pupil of Cteside
mus, 112 — 116 (it does not necessarily foUow from the circumstance of
his painting Alexander as a boy that he had seen him when a boy),
Aristides, son and pupU of Aristides of Thebes, about 113, Ctesilochus,
brother and scholar of Apelles (Ionic school), 115, Aristides, brother
and scholar of Nicomachus (Sicyonic school), about 116. Nicophanes and
Pausanias (school of Sicyon) at the same time as it appears. Philoxencs
of Bretria and Corybas, a scholar of Nicomachus (school of Sicyon), about
116. Helena, daughter of Timon, contemporaneous. Aristocles, Nico
machus' son and scholar (school of Sicyon), about 116. Omphalion, a
scholar of Nicias (Attic school), about 118. Nicerus and Aristo, sons
and scholars of Aristides of Thebes, 118. Antorides and Euphranor,
scholars of Aristides (Aristo?), 118. Perseus, scholar of ApeUes (Ionic
school), 118. Theodorus (SiUig. C. A. p. 443), 118. ArcesUaus, son of
Tisicrates, about 119. Clesides, 120 (?). Artemon, 120 (?). Diogenes,
120. Olbiades (Paus. i, 3, 4), 125. Mydon of SoU [Cod. Bamberg. Monac.
MUo], scholar of the brass-caster Pyromachus, 130. Nealces of Sicyon,
132. Leontiscus (school of Sicyon), about 134. The second Timanthes
of Sicyon, 135 (as it seems). Erigonus the colour-grinder of Nealces, 138.
Anaxandra, daughter of Nealces, 138 (Clem. Alex. Strom, iv. p. 523),
Pasias, scholar of Erigonus (Sicyonic school), 144, HeracUdes, from
Macedonia, ship-painter, encaustes, 150, Metrodorus, at Athens, philo
sopher and painter, 150,
2, On the Sicyonic school, particularly Plut, Arat, 13, The Anacre-

PAINTING, 1,39
ontic poem (28), where painting is called the Rhodian art, belongs for
that very reason to the time after Protogenes,
3, Polemon in Athen, xiii, p, 567 mentions Aristides (probably him
of the 116th Olympiad) together with Nicophanes and Pausanias as
¦uro^voyqxcpoi. Of the same stamp (if not identical) with Nicophanes was
Chserephanes, who painted «xoAai7Toi/f oftiT^ixg yuvxixZv xjoV xvi^xg, Plut,
de aud. poet. 3, The boy blowing the fire by AntiphUus, Plin. ; he first
painted gryUi (§, 435). A parturient Zeus by Ctesilochus [in vases pa
rodies on Hercules, as queUer of the Cercopes (d'HancarviUe iii, 88. Saint
Non Voy. Pitt. T. ii. p. 243), the judgment of Paris, &c.]; on such paro-
dic treatment of mythi, see Hirt, Gesch. s. 265, and below §. 390, 6.
Galaton's spitting Homer was certainly meant as a hit at the Alexan
drine poets.
4. Pausias {nfn^itaiog ¦ttIvx^), Nicomachus, but especiaUy Philoxenus
(hie celeritatem prseceptoris secutus, breviores etiamnum quasdam pic
turse vias et compendiarias invenit), and afterwards Lala figured as rapid
painters. QuintiUan xu, 10, celebrates ihefacilitas of AntiphUus. The
passage Petron. 2 is enigmatical : Pictura quoque non aUum exitum fecit,
postquam jBgyptiorum audacia tam magnse artis compendiariam invenit.
5. Pyreicus (time unknown) tonstrinas sutrinasque pinxit et asellos
et obsonia ac similia : oh hoc cognominatus rhyparographos, in iis con-
summatse voluptatis, Quippe ese pluris veniere quam maximse multorum,
Comp. PhUostratus i, 31, u, 26 (Xenia). Rhopography, on the other hand,
denotes the representation of restricted scenes in nature^a small por
tion of a wood, a brook and the Uke. Welcker ad PhUostr, p. 397, [Ob
sonia ac simUia, fruits and flowers, §, 211. R, 1. 434, R, 2. are not dirty,
even shops, laden asses, the class generaUy are not conceived by a healthy
sense under the aspect of dirt adhering to them ; the name would not be
trivial but a disgusting term of reproach ; it cannot be a Grecian artis
tic expression. Besides Cicero the Btym. M. gives pairoy^xipovg, from
pavig, ilxn. The appeUation of Pyreicus refers to another kind of
pavoy^a(i)ix, from paTTog, misceUaneous wares which the merchant ship
brings (.lEschyl, fr. Hect. Bekker. Anecd. p. 61). Such pa^rog were dis
played in the booths, asses were laden with them, even fish may be com
prehended under that name. To this refers an obscurely composed ar
ticle in Phot, Suid. and Zonaras, and the aUusion of Leonidas Tar.
puTvixd yqxipxfiivx in jocular double entendre (SyU. Epigr. Gr. p. 98.). On
the contrary rhyparographus rests solely on the passage in PUny, and
emendation therein, which is even rejected by Passow and Pape in their
dictionaries. The explanation of stUl-Ufe is, as the author himself re
marked, contested by A, W, Becker de com. Romanor. fab, p, 43, Fruit
pieces were also speciaUy called Xenia, PhUostr. i, 31, Vitruv. vi, 7, 4.
ideo pictores ea quse mittebantur hospitibus picturis imitantes Xenia
appeUaverunt, whereby the conjectured explanation to Philostratus is
confirmed.] 6. The first mosaics which are mentioned are the unswept room
(or^oj daxqaroc) of Sosus the Pergamenian, of clay tesserse, PUn. xxxvi,
60 ; the cantharus there introduced with the doves drinking and sunning
themselves is imitated, but imperfectly however, in the mosaic from
Hadrian's VUIa, M, Cap, iv, 69 [a more perfect repetition found at

140 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, IV.
Naples in 1833], Then the floors of several apartments in Hiero's great
ship (§, 152, 1) of stone mosaic, which represented the entire mythus of
lUon [on which 300 workmen were employed for a year, Hiero, OL 127, 3
— 148], Among those that have been preserved, that which was dug up
in the Casa del Fauno at Pompeii on the 24th of Oct. 1831 [now in the
Museum at Naples, in the HaU of Flora], consisting of small pieces of
marble [of glass, as has been shown by more recent investigation] is most
deserving of being assigned to this period. It gives an idea of the Uvely,
almost tumultuous manner, departing considerably from the Greek taste,
in which battle scenes were conceived by the painters of this time, among
whom PhUoxenus painted a battle of Alexander with Darius, and Helena
the battle of Issus, The mosaic certainly represents one of Alexander's
battles, — that of Issus (Curtius iii, 27), according to the opinion of Quar-
anta, also adopted by MinUtoli, Notiz iiber den 1831 gefundenen Mosaik-
Fussboden B, 1835. [by G, B, Baizini Due Lettere, Bergamo 1836,, Heeren
in the Getting, Anz, 1837. No. 89, also in the Rhein. Mus, iv. S, 506],
which is the most probable, — according to AvelUno [and JaneUi, Nuove
rifiess. sul gran. mus. 1834.] that at the Granicus, — according to NiccoUni
[and Roulez Not. sur la mos. de Pomp6i 1836.] that of Arbela, — according
to Hirt that with the Mardi on account of Bucephalus. M. Borb. viii.
tv, 36—45, Kunstblatt 1832, N, 100, Schulzeitung 1832, N. 33, BerUn.
Jahrb. 1832, ii, 12, [The author's D. A. K. 1 Tf 65, Zahn Ornam, Neue
Folge Taf, 91 — -93, Mistake of Schreiber Die Marcellusschlacht in
Clastidium, Freiburg 1843, 4to, not materially rectified by the turn given
to it by Bergk, Zeitschr. i. A, W. 1844, No, 34 f ]
7, If the Nola vases, which are distinguished by elegance of form
and design, fine varnish and agreeable dark yellow colour, may belong
to the time of Philip and Alexander, when the people were greatly at
tached to everything Greek (Dionys. Hal, Exc, p, 2315, Reiske) ; so, on
the contrary, the vases of Apulia (from Barium, Rubi, Canusium), mostly
large and slender, of curious forms and mannered design, as weU as those
of a similar description which were found in the interior of Lucania
(Armento), wiU belong to a period when art, in an already degenerate
state, found its way together with Grecian luxury to the SabeUo-Oscan
tribes (perhaps at the time of Pyrrhus), The subjects, which bear refer
ence sometimes to the luxurious enjoyment of Ufe, sometimes to the mys
teries of Bacchus, and are handled in a very arbitrary and unrestrained
manner, point at the condition of Lower Italy before the SO. de Baccana-
libus, 564, a, u, c, (comp. Gerhard, Bullet, d, Inst, 1832, p. 173), Large
vase from Ruvo with a variety of scenes Md, I, u, 30 — 32, B, Braun
AnnaU viii, p, 99, Another with reliefs on the neck and handles, paint
ings on the belly, HaU, L, Z, InteU, 1838, N, 91, Others from ApuUa,
ibid. 1837. N. 30. In the same way may the decline of art be traced on
the Campanian vases, comp. §. 257, and, on the last epoch of vase paint
ing, §. 177.

1

PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE.
] 64. The carrying away works of art, which appeared as
robbery of sanctuaries in the mythological times, as real artis-

PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE. 141
tic plundering in the Persian wars, and as the work of pecu
niary want especially in the Phocian war, [as robbery on
the part of the tyrants here and there,] now became under
the Romans a regular recompense which they appropriated
on account of their victories. In this, however, they had be- 2
fore them the example of many of the earlier Macedonian
princes, who hardly all adorned their residences by purchase.
There were also many monuments destroyed from hatred of
tyrants (as by Aratus), and numerous temples, by the .ffito-
lians especially, from sheer brutality.
1. To this class belongs the stealing of PaUadia, and the Uke, as well
as the deorum evocationes. In the Xoanephori of Sophocles the gods them
selves carried their images out of Iliou. Later also statues were stiU
oftener stolen from pious motives. See the examples in Pausanias viii,
46. Gerhard's Prodromus, s. 142. Xerxes took the ApoUo of Canachus
(§. 86) and the Attic tyrannicides (§. 88). Then the melting of works
of art by the leaders of the Phocian mercenaries {S^poog ' 'E^i(pvhng ; the
golden eagles) ; and the temple robberies of Dionysius.
2. The .ffitolians laid waste in the war of the League, from 139, 4
downwards, the temples of Dodona and Dion, of Poseidon on Tsenaron, of
Artemis at Lusoe, Hera at Argos, Poseidon at Mantinea, the Pamboeo-
tion, Polyb. iv, 18, 62, 67. v, 9, 11. ix, 34, 35; on the other hand Philip
the Second ravaged Thermon twice, Pol. v, 9. xi, 4 (2,000 dvl^ixvrsg). He
also, about 144, laid waste the temples of Pergamon (Nicephorion), Pol.
xvi, 1 ; after this (156, 3) Prusias plundered the treasures of art at Per
gamon, in the Artemision of Hiera-Kome, and the temple of Apollo Cy-
nius at Temnos, Pol. xxxu, 25,
165. The Roman generals plundered at first with a cer- 1
tain moderation, as Marcellus at Syracuse and Fabius Maxi
mus at Tarentum, merely with the design of adorning their
triumphs and the public buildings. In particular the tri- 2
umphs over Philip, Antiochus, the .31tolians, the Gauls of
Asia, Perseus, Pseudophilip, above all the conquest of Corinth,
and afterwards the victories over Mithridates and Cleopatra
filled the Roman porticos and temples with works of art of the
most various kinds. The Romans became lovers of art from 3
the time of the Achaian war; the generals now pillaged for
themselves ; at the same time the struggle for military sway,
as in the case of Sylla, necessitated the melting of valuable
objects. Even sacrilege, strictly so-called, which at an earlier 4
period the college of high priests was appointed to prevent,
was less and less abstained from ; the plunderers passed from
the offerings to the religious images. The governors of pro- 5
vinces (Verres is one of many), and after them the Cesars,
completed the work of the conquering generals ; and an
approximate calculation of the plundered statues and images
soon runs up to a hundred thousand.

142

HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per, IV,

1. The Generals, On the moderation of MaroeUus (01. 142, 1), Cic,
Verr, iv, 3, 62, On that of Fabius (142, 4), Liv, xxvii, 16; but on the
other hand, Strab, vi. p, 278. Plut. Fab. 22. MarceUus even gave pre
sents to Grecian temples, Samothrace for instance, Plut. Marc. 30. On
the treasures of art at Capua (OL 142, 2). Liv. xxvi, 34.
2. T, Quinctius Flamininus' triumph over PhUip the Third, 01, 146,
3,, introduced aU sorts of works of art from the cities of the Macedonian
party. L. Scipio Asiaticus over Antiochus the Third, 147, 4, (vasa cselata,
triclinia serata, vestes AttaUcse, see especiaUy PUn. xxxui, 53, xxxvii, 6,
Liv, xxxix, 6), Triumph of Fulvius NobiUor over the iEtoUans and Am
bracia (285 brazen figures, 230 of marble, comp. §, 144, 180), 01. 148, 1.
(Reproaches for plundering temples, Liv. xxxviii, 44). Cn, ManUus over
the Asiatic Gauls, 01, 148, 2 (also particularly vases, tricUnia serata,
abaci, Plin, xxxiv, 8, and xxxvn, 6), L. jEmiUus Paulus over Perseus,
163, 2 (250 chariots fuU of works of art), Quintus CseciUus MeteUus
Macedonicus over PseudophiUp, 158, 2, particularly statues from Dion,
Destruction of Corinth by Mummius, 158, 3. On Mummius' barbarity
(without maUce however), VeUei, i, 13, Dio Chrys, Or. 37. p. 137 sq.
Roman soldiers play at dice on the Dionysus and suffering Hercules of
Aristides, Polyb. xl, 7. From this time forward a taste at Rome for
signa Corinthia and tabulse pictse, PUn. xxxiii, 53. xxxvii, 6. But every
thing did not come to Rome ; many went to Pergamon ; much also was
thrown away. Other regions of Greece were also plundered at that time.
Comp. Petersen, Einleitung, s, 296. Carthage destroyed at the same
time, where there were in Uke manner Greek and Sicilian works of art
(Phalaris' BuU, Bockh ad Pind. Schol. p. 310, the great ApoUo, Plut.
Flamin. 1). — Somewhat later, 161, 3, the bequest of Attains the Third
brought particularly Attcdica aulcea, peripetasmata to Rome. — In the
Mithridatic war SyUa conquered and plundered Athens (173, 2) and
Boeotia, and caused the treasures of Olympia, Delphi and Epidaurus to
be deUvered to him. The whole army plundered and stole (comp. Sallust.
Catil. 11). — LucuUus about 01. 177 acquired many fine things, but chiefly
for himself. — The pirates plundered, before 178, 2, the temples of ApoUo
at Clarus, Miletus, Actium, and in Leucas, of Poseidon on the Isthmus,
Tsenarum, and Calauria, of Hera in Samos, at Argos and Crotona, of
Demeter at Hermione, of Esculapius at Epidaurus, of the Cabin in Sa
mothrace, until they were overcome by Pompey. Plut. Pomp, 24. Pom
pey's triumph over Mithridates (179, 4) brought especiaUy engraved
stones (Mithridates' DactyUotheca), figures of gold, pearls and such
valuables to Rome ; victoria ilia Pompeii primum ad margaritas gem-
masque mores incUnavit. Plin. xxxvii, 6. Octavian procured treasures
of art for Rome from Alexandria (187, 8) and also from Greece.
5. The Governors. Verres' systematic plunder in Achaia, Asia, and
particularly in Sicily (01. 177) of statues, pictures and vasa coelata. Fra-
guier, Sur la Gal6rie de Verres, M6m. d^ I'Ac. des Inscr. ix. Facius Mis-
ceUen. s. 150. Comp. §. 196, 2. — Plena domus tunc omnis et ingens
stabat aoervus numorum, Spartana chlamys, conchylia Coa, et cum Parr-
hasii tabulis signisque Myronis Phidiacum vivebat ebur, nee non Poly
cleti multus ubique labor : rarse sine Mentore mensse. Inde Dolabellse
atque hino Antonins, inde sacrilegus Verres referebant navibus altis

PILLAGE AND DEVASTATION IN GREECE, 143
occulta spoUa et plures de pace triumphos, Juvenal viii, 100, Cn, Dola
beUa, Cons. 671, Proc, in Macedonia and Cn, DolabeUa, praetor of Sicily
(Verres was his Quaestor) were both accused repetundarum ; Cn, Dola
beUa, Cicero's son-in-law, plundered the temples of Asia, Cic. Phil, xi,
2. A proconsul plundered the Athenian Poecile according to Synesius,
Ep. 135. p. 272 Petav. Bottiger, Archseol. der Mahlerei, s. 280.
The Emperors. EspeciaUy CaUgula, Winckelm, W, vi, 1, s, 235 ; Nero,
who out of envy threw down the statues of the victors in Greece, brought
500 statues from Delphi for the Golden House, (fee, Winckelm. s. 257.
On Athens' losses, Leake, Topogr. p. xUv. sqq. And yet Mucianus (Ves
pasian's friend) stUl reckoned 3,000 statues at Rhodes according to Pliny
xxxiv, 17 ; there were not fewer at Delphi, Athens and Olympia. Comp.
below §. 252.
For general accounts : Volkel iiber die Wegf iihrung der alten Kunst-
werke aus den eroberten Landern nach. Rom. 1798. Sickler's Gesch. der
Wegnahme vorz. Kunstwerke aus den eroberten Landern in die Lander
der Sieger 1803 (less accurate). Petersen Einleitung, s. 20 ff. [R. Ro
chette Peintures ant. in^dites. 1836.]

EPISODE.
ON GREEK ART AMONG THE ITALIAN NATIONS BEFORE
OLYMPIAD 158, 3 (A. C. 146, A. U. 606, ACCORDING
TO THE CATON. ERA),

1. ORIGINAL GREEK RACE.
1 166. There can be no doubt that the inhabitants of Lower
and Central Italy were on the whole more closely allied to the
Pelasgian Greeks than to any other Indo-Germanic race.
2 Hence even the striking resemblance, not to be explained
merely by external conditions of locality, of the old city-walls
in the mountainous regions of Central Italy to those of an-
3 cient Greece ; perhaps too the same connexion of race and
culture may account for many of the older architectural
structures in Italy and the neighbouring islands, especially
the circular buildings resembling the treasuries of the Greeks
1, On this point Niebuhr's Roman History i, p. 26 sqq. (2d ed,) The
author's Etrusker i. s, 10 ff'. Further iUumination on this subject de
pends entirely on the investigations into the Latin tongue and the re
mains of the Umbrian and Oscan languages. [Grotefend Rudim. i.
Umbriacaj P. 1—8, 1836—39, 4to. Rud, i. Oscae 1839. 4to. Th. Momm-
sen Oskische Studien B, 1845. Nachtrage 1846],
2. The so-caUed Cyclopean waUs are found chiefly crowded within
the ancient country of the Aborigines or Cascans, which was afterwards
occupied by the Sabines (here Varro already found the ruins of cities and
ancient sepulchres very remarkable, Dionys. i, 14,) among the neighbour
ing Marsi, Hernici {herna, rocks), in Eastern and Southern Latium, like
wise in Samnium. So in Lista, Batia, Trebula Sufiena, Tiora; Alba
Fuoentis, Atina; Alatrium, Anagnia, Signia, Prseneste ; Sora, Norba,
Cora, Arpinum, Fundi, Circeii, Anxur, Bovianum, Calatia, .^sernia;
comp, §. 168. Nearly aU of Umestone, therefore in the neighbourhood of
the Apennines, but by no means however throughout Italy, only in the
portion between the Arnus and Vulturnus. These structures clearly be
long to an older system, and can hardly be derived even in Signia and
Norba from Roman colonies, although building with large polygonal
masses was a practice maintained much longer in substructions espe
cially of streets. The waUs are almost aU in the second Cyclopean man
ner (§. 46), the doors pyramidal with a huge stone as a Untel, or alto
gether converging to the top. Here and there are to be found traces of

THE ETRUSCANS. 145
phallic figures hewn upon them, as at Alatrium and Arpinum. [Comp.
with the gates in Dionigi tv. 54. those at Chteronea, Thoricus, Missolongi,
DiauUs in DodweU, Views, pi. 16, 22. 27. 44 sq. 28. 31. Several in Abeken
MitteUtalien, Tf. 2.] The Letter of Marcus AureUus to Fronto (e cod.
Vatic, ed. Mai. iv. 4) shows how fuU these walls were of antique struc
tures, at Anagnia not a corner without a temple ; in like manner there
were found at Norba numerous substructions of old buUdings composed
of polygons. M. I. d. Inst. tv. 1, 2. Ann. i. p. 60 sq. As to the rest,
besides the literary sources quoted at §. 46 : Marianna Dionigi, Viaggi
in alcune citti, del Lazio. R. 1809. fol. Middleton, Grecian Remains in
Italy. L. 1812. foL MicaU, Ant. Monumenti tv, 13. Gerhard, Ann, d.
Inst, i, p. 36 sq, iu, p. 408. Memorie i, p, 67, DodweU, BuU, d, Inst.
1830. p. 251, 1831, p. 43, 213, Petit-Radel also in the Ann, d, Inst, iv, p.
1. and 233 sqq, iv. p, 350. Memorie i. p, 55, Bunsen, Carta del site dei piti
antichi stabiUmenti Italici neU agro Reatino e le sue adjacenze M. d, I. ii,
1. Anna.1i vi. p. 99 — 146. comp. p. 35. [W. Abeken MitteUtalien vor den
Zeiten Romischer Herrschaft, nach s, Denkmalen dargesteUt, with 11
pi. 1843, Hist. Einl. Archit, S. 121. Plastik und Malerei S. 263. Ueber-
sicht der Kiinste in ihrer Technik und ihren Leistungen S, 365].
3. At Norba sometimes quadrangular, sometimes circular chambers
with converging layers of stones instead of a vault. The same system is
observed in an ancient aqueduct at Tusculum, Donaldson, Antiq. of
Athens, Suppl, p, 31. pi, 2. [Canina Tusculo tv. 14,] In ancient times
there were in Sardinia in the so-caUed lolsean towns (Paus. x. 17, 4)
architectural works reputed to be DsedaUan (Diod, iv, 30), among them
vaulted buildings (doXoi) after the HeUenic manner, Ps, Aristot. Mirab.
Ausc. 104. These have been discovered in the so-called nur-hags, mostly
symmetrical groups of conical monuments, composed of horizontal layers
of rather rude stones, piled up without mortar, and arched in the man
ner of the thesauri, Petit-Radel's work on the subject, quoted at §, 46.
BuU, 1833, p, 121. Similar to the Talajots in Majorca and Minorca, BuU.
1834. p. 68, Arch,_ InteU, 1834, St, (34) Phoenician ? Micali, Ant. Monum.
tv. 71. HalUsche'ALZ. 1833, InteU. p. 13 (101), These, however, are
probably not earUer than the time of the Etruscans : comp, the author's
Etruscans ii. s. 227. and §, 170, 3. In Sicily, the Cyclopean structure of
Cefalu (Cephaloedion), see in particular G, F, Nott, Ann, d. Inst. iii. p.
270. M. I. tv. 28, 29 (Dsedalus was, according to tradition, also architect
of colossal waUs in Sicily, comp. §. 50. 81, especiaUy on Mount Bryx, at
Camicus, Diod, iv, 78. comp, Paus. viii, 46, 2). The Torre de Giganti in
Gozzo (Gaulos) seem to bear some resemblance to the nur-hags. Houel,
Voy. Pitt. T. iv. pi. 249 — 251. Mazzera, Temple Antediluvien ; Kunst
blatt 1829. N. 7. Capt. W. H. Smyth, Notice of some Remains at Gozza
near Malta. Archseologia, Vol. xxii. p. 294, pi. 26 — 28. Giant Tower.
Four divisions of the ground by waUs, two round ceUs with terraces and
inner enclosures. (Said not to be depended on.)

2. THE ETRUSCANS.

167. However, we see the striving at the erection of stu- 1
pendens time-defying monuments, such as it must have been
K

146 GREEK ART IN ITALY,
in earlier times, afterwards disappear among the Oscan and
SabelHan races (from whom the Romans themselves were
sprung), and the native peoples of Central and Lower Italy lose
almost all significance for the history of art. On the other hand.
Northern Italy, as far down as the Tiber, was overspread by
the Etruscans or Rasenians, a race which, judging from the evi
dence of the language, was originally very foreign to the Gre
cian, but nevertheless had adopted more of the Hellenic civi
lization and art than any other race not of the Greek family,
in those early times. The principal reason is probably fur
nished by the colony of the Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians which was
driven from Southern Lydia (Torrhebis), and established it
self chiefly around Caere (Agylla) and Tarquinii (Tarchonion).
The latter city maintained for a while the dignity of a lead
ing member among the confederate cities of Etruria, and
always remained the chief point from which Greek civiliza
tion radiated over the rest of the country. [Connexion with
Corinth about 01. SO, §. 75,] However, the Etruscans received
much that was Hellenic from intercourse Avith the Lower
Italian colonies, especially after they settled at Vulturnum
(Capua) and Nola, as well as in later times by their trade with
Phocsea and Corinth,
An extract from the views unfolded by the author in the Introduction
to his work on the Etruscans. With Niebuhr these Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians
are aboriginal SiceU; with others (such as Raoul-Rochette) the Etrus
cans were altogether a Pelasgian tribe.

168. The Etruscans, then, appear in general as an indus
trious people {fiXore-xyov 'i'^wg), of a bold and lofty spirit of
enterprise, which was greatly favoured by their priestly aris
tocratic constitution. Massive walls, mostly of irregular
blocks, surround their cities (not merely their acropoleis);
the art of protecting the country from inundations by the
construction^ of canals, and outlets from lakes, was very zea
lously practised by them. For the purpose of draining the
low marshy ground and carrying away the filth, the Tarquin-
ian princes built the Cloacse at Rome, particularly the Cloaca
Maxima for the Forum: enormous works in which, even
before Democritus (§. 107), the art of arching by means of
cuneiform stones was employed in a quite effectual and ex
cellent manner. The Italian construction of houses with a
principal room in the middle to which the drop from the sur
rounding roof was directed, was also derived from the Etrus
cans, or at least received from them an established form. In the
laying out of cities and camps, as well as in all kinds of de
marcation, there was displayed a feeling for regular and invari
able forms which was strengthened by the disciplina Etrusca.

THE ETRUSCANS, 147
2. Cities waUed in the Etruscan manner : Volaterra; (whose arched
gate however is pointed out as a Roman restoration, BuU, d. Inst. 1831,
p. 61), Vetulonium, Busellas, Fsesulse, Populonia, Cortona, Perusia, Veil
(W. GeU. Memorie d. Inst, i). The waUs of Saturnia (Aurinia), Cosa,
Palerii . (Winckelm. W. iu. s. 167), as weU as the Umbrian waUs of
Ameria, Spoletivun, <bc. consist of polygonal blocks, MicaU tv. 2 — 12.
3. The Canals of the Padus diverted its waters into the ancient lagune
of Adria, the Septan maria. There were simUar canals at the mouths of
the Arnus. Etrusker i. s, 213, 224, The emissary of the Alban lake,
which was occasioned, perhaps also conducted, by an Etruscan haruspex,
was excavated in hard volcanic rock, 7,500 feet long, 7 deep and 5
broad. Sickler, Almanach aus Rom. i. s. 13. tf 2. Hirt, Gesch. der Bau
kunst u. s. 105 ff", Niebuhr's Roman History u, p, 504, On simUar
canals in Southern Etruria, Niebuhr i, p, 129.
4, In order to remove the doubts thrown out by Hirt as to the age
of the Cloaca, Gesch. i. s. 242, comp. Bunsen, Beschreibung der Stadt
Rom. i. s. 151. Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 44, who agrees with Piranesi, Magnifi-
cenza de' Romani, t. 3.
5. The cavcedium is caUed by a Tuscan word atrium; the middle of
which is the impluvium or compluvium. The most simple cavsedium at
Rome was called Tuscanicum, afterwards tetrastylum, Corinthium. Varro
de L. L. V, 33. §. 161. Vitruv, vi, 10, Diod. v, 40,
1 69. The Tuscan temple-architecture was an offshoot from l
the Doric, not however without considerable deviations. The
columns, provided with bases, were more slender (14 moduli
according to Vitruvius) and stood further apart {arceostylum),
as they only carried a wooden entablature, with the ends of
the beams jutting out {mutuli) over the architrave, far-pro
jecting cornice {grunda) and lofty pediment. The plan of the 2
temple received modiflcations in reference to the consecrated
enclosure for the observation of auspices,^ — ^the augural tem
plum ; the basement became more like a square, the cella or
several cellse were carried to the back {postica), ranges of
columns filled the anterior half {antica), so that the principal
door fell exactly to the middle of the building. The Capito- 3
line temple with three cellffi was built according to this rule
by the Tarquinian princes. Although elegant and rich in
the execution, this style of architecture never attained the
solemnity and majesty of the Doric, but had always something
flat and heavy. No remains of it now exist; the Etruscan 4
cinerary urns betray in the architectonic enrichments a cor
rupted Greek taste of later times,
1. Vitruv. iii, 3, 5. On the Tuscan columnar ordinance Marquez Ri-
cerche deU' ordine Dorico, p. 109 sqq, Stieglitz Archseol, der Baukunst
ii, i. s, 14. Hirt, Gesoh. i, s. 251 ff". Klenze Versuch der Wiederherstel-
lung des Toscanischen Tempels, Miinchen 1821. Inghirami, Mon, Etr.
iv, p, 1, tv, 6, 6, [Memorie per le belle arti, T, 3, p, cclxx,] There is

148 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
nothing of it preserved except perhaps two fragments of columns at V»lci
and Bomarzo, M. I. d. Inst. tv. 41, 2 c. Ann. iv. p. 269. On the mutuli,
especially the Puteolian Inscription, Piranesi Magnific, tv, 37. Scheppig
iiber Capitaler von besondrer Form in Volci, ToscaneUa, (fee. AnnaU d,
Inst, vii, p, 187, Monum, u, 20,
2, Comp, with this the author's Etrusker ii. s. 132 fil and tf 1,
3. The Capitoline temple (207^ X 192^ feet large) contained three
ceUse : those of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva ; the anterior space was caUed
ante cellas. Vowed and buUt from about the 150th year of Rome down
wards: dedicated in 245. StiegUtz, Archseol. der Baukunst ii, i. s. 16.
Hirt, Abh. der Beri. Akad. 1813. Gesch. i. s. 246, Tf 8, 1. Comp. Etrus
ker u. s. 232. The massive substructions, Piranesi, Magnific. tv. 1. The
same style is also presented in the wall of the peribolus of the Jupiter
Latiaris on the Alban hiU,
1 170. In edifices also for games we find Grecian funda
mental forms, just as the games themselves were in great
2 part Greek, Sepulchres, on which the Etruscans bestowed
more attention than the elder Greeks, were in many cases ex
cavations in the rocks, whose construction was determined by
the nature of the ground, being subterranean when plains ex
tended, and on the surface where walls of rock presented them
selves. Above the excavated sepulchral chambers mounds fre
quently arose, which sometimes, by their substructions and
great dimensions, recal the monuments of Lydian rulers (§.
3 241*). In the monuments which were entirely walled the
favourite form was that of conic towers, which sometimes con
tained chambers for the dead (like the Sardinian nur-hags),
sometimes were only placed as ornaments on a quadrangular
substruction; the latter form appears developed in a quite
fantastic manner in the legends of Porsena's Mausoleum.
1. The Circi (at Rome under Tarquin I.) correspond to the Hippo
dromes. Ruins of Theatres at Fsesulse, Adria on the Po, Arretium,
FalerU (BuU. d. Inst. 1829. p. 72). Amphitheatres for gladiators, per
haps of Tuscan origin; several ruins. An- Etruscan fountain discovered
at Fiesole, Ann. vU. p. 8.
2. a. Subterranean tombs in the tuif under plains with stairs or gal
leries leading down, and a vestibule ; often consisting of several chambers
disposed symmetrically ; sometimes buttresses left standing in them ; the
roof horizontal, but also rising in the gable shape. On the same plan the
tombs of Volci (see particularly Possati, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 120. Lenoir
and Knapp, iv. p. 254 sqq. M. I. tv. 40. 41), similar ones at Clusium,
Volaterrffi and elsewhere. Gori, M. Etr. iii. cl. 2 tb. 6 sqq. b. Subter
ranean tombs in the tuff, and tumuli above them ; with horizontal gal
leries, but stairs Ukewise, mostly smaU single chambers, in other respects
Uke those of the first kind. Of this sort were the most of those at Tar-
quinu, iu which the bodies were found lying on stone-beds (see C.
Avvolta, Ann. d. Inst. i. p, 91. tv. B. Lenoir and Knapp, ibid. Inghirami,

ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. 149
tv. 22. MicaU, tv. 64. MUUngen, Transact, of the Royal Society of Litera
ture ii, i. p. 77). c. Sepulchral chambers, above which tumuli faced with
masonry, with a tower-Uke structure therein, like the so-called Cocu-
meUa at Volci, the diameter of which is 200 feet (Micali, tv. 62, 1).
SimUar waUed tumuli at Tarquinii and Viterbo. d. Chambers hewn out
of the perpendicular waUs of rook, with simple or ornamented entrance to
the interior, at Tuscania or ToscaneUa (MicaU, tv. 63) and Bomarzo (Ann.
d, Inst, iv. p. 267. 281. 284), e. Chambers hewn out of rocky waUs of the
same description, with fagades over the entrance, which is more concealed.
These sometimes exhibit merely door-ornaments, as at the Tarquinian
town Axia, sometimes Doric temple-frontons enriched with scroUs in
the Etruscan taste, as at Orchia. OrioU, Opuscoli Lett, di Bologna i. p.
36. u. p. 261. 309. [The same author, Ann. v. p. 18—56, in Mon, d, I. i,
48 and 60,, Tombs of Norchia and Castel d'asso, Castelaccio,] In Inghi
rami, iv. p. 149, 176. Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 18. Comp. Ann. iv. p. 289. M.
I. tv. 48.
3. [Pr. OrioU dei sepolcrali edifizi dell' Etr, media e in generale deU'
archit. Tuscanica, PoUgrafia Fiesol. 1826, 4to.] WaUed sepulchral cham
bers, for example at Cortona (the so-caUed Grotto of Pythagoras), some
times also vaulted, Gori, M, Etrusc. iii. cl. 2. tb, 1, 2, p, 74, Inghirami
iv. tv. 11. Tombs near Cervetri (Csere), M. d, Inst, ii, 19. Ann. vii, p,
177. Comp. HaU. A. L. Z. 1834. Int. Bl. No. 38. 1836. Int. Bl. No. 6.
Tombs at Csere with pointed vault, ibid. 1836. No. (30) Bull. 1836. p. 56.
[Heideloff iiber die Spitzbogen der alten 1843. 4to. comp. Edin. Rev.
clvi. p. 449. P. B. Visconti Mon. Sepolc. di Ceri R. 1836. fol. Canina
Descr. di Cere ant. R. 1838. fol. comp. BuU. 1838. p. 169. Kunstbl. 1839.
No. 40. The large and particularly rich tomb, Mus Gregor. ii. tv. 107.
Tombs of Casre and Monterone, MicaU M. I. 1844. tv. 55—67. p. 355].
A tomb at Perugia, pubUshed by Speroni, Bull. 1834. p. 191. Vermig-
lioU il Sep. de' Volumni Scop, in Perugia nel 1840. Perugia 1840.
4to. very valuable. Cavedoni osserv. supra un Sepolcreto Etrusco neUa
coUina Modenese; Mod. 1842. 8vo. comp. BuU. 1841. p. 75. Sepulchral
monuments at Sovaua, M. d. I. iii, 65 — 57. Ann. xv. p. 223. 233. comp.
BuU. 1843. p. 155.] Monuments of a conic form near Volaterrse simi
lar to the nur-hags. Inghir. Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 20. tv. A. Conic pointed
9olumns on a cubic substruction in the so-called tomb of the Horatii
near Albano. Bartoli, Sepolcri Ant. tv. 2. Inghir. vi. tv. f 6, and on
Etruscan urns (at the decursio funebris R, Rochette M, I, i, pi, 21, 2.
On the tomb of Porsena, PUn, xxxvi, 19, 4 ; early treatises by Corte-
novis, Tramontani, Orsini, more recent by Qu. de Quincy, Mon. Re
stitues i. p. 125, the Due. de Luynes, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 304 (M. I. tv.
13), Letronne, ibid. p. 386. [E. Braun II laberinto di Porsenna comparato
coi sep. di Poggio-Gojella ultimamente dissotterati nel agro Clusino
R. 1840. fol. Comp. BuU. 1840. p. 147. 1841. p. 6.]
171. Among the branches of the formative art, working I
in fictilia especially flourished in Etruria. Vases of clay were 2
made in Etruscan cities in very different styles, sometimes
more after the Greek model, and sometimes in native man
ners deviating from that standard. In the latter the love for
plastic ornaments is everywhere observable. In like manner 3

150 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
temple ornaments (antefixa), reliefs or statues in the tym
pana, statues on the acroteria and in the temples, all of
clay, were in use in Italy ; of which the quadriga on, and the
Jupiter painted red on festivals, in the Capitoline temple, are
examples. The former was executed at Veil, the latter by a
Volscian, Turrianus of Fregellse.
1. Elaborata hsec ars ItaUas et maximse Etrurise, Plin, N, H, xxxv, 45.
2. Tuscvm fictile, catinum, in Persius and Juvenal, They are divided
into the foUowing principal classes : 1. Vases manufactured and painted
in the Greek style, see §, 177. 2. Blackish vases, mostly unburnt, of
clumsy, even canobus-Uke form, sometimes with single figures in reUef
on the feet and handles, sometimes with encircling rows of faintly im
pressed little figures of men, animals, and monsters: an antique Ara
besque, in which also oriental compositions (§. 178), and sometimes
Grecian mythi, especiaUy that of the Gorgons, are introduced; these
were chiefly the produce of Clusium. Dorow, Notizie int. alcuni vasi
Btruschi, in the Memorie Rom. iv. p. 136. and at Pesaro 1828, Voy.
Arch6ologique dans I'anc. Btrurie. P. 1829. p. 31 sq. BuU. d. Inst. 1830.
p. 63. .MicaU, tv. 14—27. [Mon. ined. 1844, tv, 27—34,] M, Etrusco
Chiusino, P. 1830 sqq. (comp. BuU.d. Inst. 1830, p, 37. 1831. p, 52. 1832.
p. 142). On the blackening of the vases at Chiusi, BuU. 1837. p, 28.
[Besides at Chiusi there are many of them especiaUy in the mus, at Flo
rence,] 3. Shining black vases with ornaments in relief of beautiful
Greek design, found at Volaterrse, 4. Arretine vases, manufactured as
late as the time of the Cesars, coral-red, with ornaments and figures in
reUef. Plin., Martial, Isidor. Inghir. v. tv. 1. Excavations, Bull. 1834.
p. 102. 1837. p. 105. Fragments of Modenese vases. Bull. 1837. p. 10.
[A. Fabbroni Storia degU ant. v. fitt. Aretini cong. tav. Arezzo 1841. 8vo.]
3. The proofs, Etrusker ii. s. 246. The existence and native place
of Turrianus indeed depend very much on particular manuscripts of
Pliny. [The distinction between Veil and Volscian is not weU grounded
according to MSS. not interpolated, L. v. Jan. Jen. Litt. Zeit. 1838. s.
258.] From the country of the Volscians, however, come the very antique
painted reUefs: BassirUievi Volsci in terra cotta dipinti a vari colon
trovati neUa cittk di Velletri da M. Carloni (Text by Beccheti). R. 1785.
M. Borb. X, 9—12. Inghir. vi. tv. t— x, 4. comp. MicaU, tv. 61. They
represent scenes from Ufe, chiefly agones. There is not otherwise much
of this branch of art remaining besides the cinerary cistse (of Clusium),
as to which see §. 174, Comp, Gerhard, Hyperb, Rom, Studien, s. 206.
172. With the plastic art, in the original sense of the
word, was also connected brass-casting among the Tuscans.
Brazen statues were very numerous in Etruria: Volsinii had
about 2,000 of them in the 487th year of the city; gilded
bronze statues also adorned the pediments ; there were colossi
and statuettes, of which latter a great number is still preserved.
Only it is often difficult to distinguish the genuine Etruscan
amid the mass of later Roman works.

ETRUSCAN STATUARY, 151
2, Metrodorus in Pliny xxxiv, 16, Vitruv. iii, 2, Tuscanicus Apollo
L pedum a polUce, dubium sere mirabUior an pulchritudine, Plin, xxxiv,
18. Tyrrhena sigUla, Hor.
3. The foUowing are celebrated works: a. The Chimsera of Arreti
um at Florence (full of power and Ufe), Dempster, Etr. Reg. i. tb. 22.
Inghir. iu. t. 21. MicaU, Mon. tv. 42, 2. b. The she-wolf in the Capi
tol, probably that mentioned by Dionysius i, 79, and Liv. x, 23. which
was consecrated in the year of the city 458, and stood beside the Rumi-
nal fig-tree, of stiff' design as to the hair, but powerful in expression.
Winckelm. W. vu. tf. 3. c. MicaU, tv. 42, 1. [UrUchs de lupa senea in
the Rhein. Mus, iv. p, 619. Lord Byron CMlde Harold iv, 25,] c. The
Aule MeteU, caUed Arringatore or haruspex, at Florence, a carefully
handled portrait, but not remarkable for spirit, Dempster i. tb, 40,
d. The Minerva of Arezzo, at Florence, a graceful form of art now be
come eff'eminate, Gori, M. Flor, iu, tb. 7. M. Etr. T. i. tb, 28. e. Apollo
in archaic Greek form with Etruscan necklace and sandals, M. Etr, i, tb.
32, ; one at Paris, Jouin, des Sav, 1834. p. 285. f. The boy standing, with
the goose, a figure of graceful and na'ive character, in the Mus. of Ley-
den, MicaU, tv. 43. g. The Mars of Todi, BuU. 1837. p, 26, Int. Bl. der
A. L, Z. 1836, No, 6. KunstbL 1838. No. 65 ; an unknown combatant
perfectly simUar in England, Specimens of anc. sculp, u, 4. [and in the
Mus. at Florence, MicaU, Mon, 1833. tv. 39. Copy of the warrior of
Todi Mus. Chiaram. ii, tv. B. M. Gregor. i. tv. 29. 32 — 39. 45.] Comp.
also, besides Gori M, Etr. i,, Micali, tv. 29. 32—39. 42-^44, especially
32, 2. 6 and 33, as examples of the odd and disproportioned kind ; 29, 2,
3, orientalizing figures with wings (from a sepulchre at Perugia) ; 39, an
early Greek figure of a hero, but with Etruscan pecuUarities of costume ;
35, 14 (Hercules), 36, 5 (PaUas), 38, 1 (a hero) simUar to the early Greek
works, but more clumsy and awkward ; 38, 5, as an example of Etruscan
exaggeration in the expression of force ; 44, 1, the boy of Tarquinii in a
later style, but stiU harder than the one above described at f. Perugia
furnishes most bronze figures, Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom, Studien, s. 202.
Eleven smaU figures, Mon. d. Inst, ii, 29, AnnaU viu, p. 52, [The oldest
of aU a female bust from the so-caUed grotta Bgizia near the PoUedrara
at Vulci, in Braun's possession, BuU, 1844. p. 106. Comp. MicaU, Mon.
ined. 1844. tv. 4 — 8. ibid. tv. 11 — 16. Bronze figures and implements
from Falterona in 1838. tv. 17 — 19. other bronze figures and reliefs.
There is also from Vulci one of the finest bronze statues, in Grecian style,
of the period of the emperors, erroneously taken for PaUas Ergane, from
a helmet found at the same time, as the head which had been fixed on
was wanting in Munich, BuU. 1835. p. 11. 120. 1836. p. 146. Kunstbl.
1838. s. 78. 349, Zschr. f AW, 1839, s. 192. M. Chiaram. u. tv. 1],
] 73. Moreover, the work of the toreutes {ciseleur, graveur, \
orfivre) ¦n'as especially prized in Etruria, nay Tyrrhenian
bowls of embossed gold, and all sorts of bronze works, such
as candelabra, were in demand at Athens itself, even at the
time when art was at its highest point of cultivation; in like
manner silver cups, thrones of ivory and precious metal, as
the curule chairs, facings of brass, silver and gold for state-
chariots {ciirrus triumphales, thensce), and richly decorated ar-

152 GREEK ART IN ITALY,
mour were made in great quantity and of high excellence.
There have been even preserved in sepulchres many speci
mens of embossed work, which served as ornaments for such
articles. They are handled in an antiquely elegant and care
ful style. To this class likewise belong the bronze mirrors
(formerly called paterae), together with the so-called mystic
cistce, which latter were derived from Latium indeed, but at
a time when Etruscan styles in art were still prevalent there.
1, On Etruscan vessels of bronze and precious metals, Athen. i. 28 b.
XV, 700 c, and the enumeration in the author's Etrusker ii. s. 253, On
the triumphal chariots and thensse, i, s. 371. ii. s, 199, Handle of an
Etruscan brazen vessel in fantastic style, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. cL
2. A collection of Tyrrhene candelabra displaying a bold invention,
especiaUy in animal and monster ornaments, in MicaU, tv. 40. There
were found in a sepulchre at Perugia in the year 1812, beside various
round figures, several bronze plates which adorned a chariot ; some of
them remained at Perugia, and some were brought to Munich (n, 32
— 38) ; they present in embossed relief with engraved Unes, and in a
rude Tuscan style, monsters, gorgons, beings compounded of fish and
men or horses, and a boar-hunt, Vermiglioli, Saggio di Bronzi Etr. tro
vati neir agro Perugino, 1813, Inghir. iii, tv, 18, 23 sqq, Ragiou. 9.
Micali, tv. 28. [A bronze chariot from Vulci very much patched toge
ther and with a few winged figures, as facing pieces, the two wheels very
large, the end of the axle-tree a beautiful ram's head, in the poss. of the
prince of Mussignano at Rome. Pine tripod from Vulci, M. d. I. iu, 43.
Ann. xiv. p. 62, Three others, Mon, ii, 42. AnnaU ix. p. 161. An in
comparable candelabrum from Vulci, §. 63. R. 1. Bronze vessels of aU
sorts, also with sculptures, from the tombs of Cere, Vulci, Bomarzo Mus.
Gregor. i. tv. 1—21. 38—42. 46—75. U. tv. 101—106. (Statuettes only i,
43. ii, 103. L, Grifi Monum, di Cere ant. R, 1841, fol. 12. pi. extremely
antique and sometimes rude.] From Perugia are also derived three other
plates, which form the foot of a candelabrum, with figures of deities in
relief (Juno Sospita, Hercules, Hebe ?), at Munich (n. 47) and Perugia,
Inghir. ui. tv. 7. 8. Ragion. 3. MicaU, tv. 29. Further, the fragmentary
bronze plates exhibiting remarkable care in the antique treatment, which
represent a war-chariot, and, as it seems (?), an Amazonian battle (MicaU,
tv. 30), together with other interesting articles of a similar description.
Moreover, embossed silver plates with ornaments of gold riveted on them
(therefore works of the empsestic art, §. 59), which represent an eques
trian fight, and a battle of wild beasts, now in the British Museum,
MUUngen, Un, Mon. ii, 14. Micali, tv. 45. In 1829 eleven bronze shields
were found in a Tarquinian sepulchre with heads of Uons and panthers,
and buUs with human countenance embossed ; the eyes coloured in en
amel. BuU. d. Inst. 1829. p. 150. MicaU, tv. 41, 1—3. Other shields
with stripes of figures of men and animals, see Ann. i. p. 97. Silver vase
from Clusium, with the representation of a pompa in the archaic style.
Dempster i. tb. 78. Inghir. iu. tv. 19. 20. [An Etr. mirror case in ara
besque style. Spec, u, 6. Gold fibulse, Micali, tv. 45, 3. Gerhard BuU.
1830. p. 4 — 9. [One of the most remarkable Etr. works is the large
sepul, lamp {Auxvog), found in 1741 from the neighbourhood of Crotona

ETRUSCAN TOREUTICS, 163
placed in the pubUc Museum there. Bull. 1840. p, 164. Mem, d. I. iii, 41.
42. Ann. xiv. p. 53. MicaU, M, I. 1844, tv, 9, 10; on the bottom a Me
dusa, 16 Ughts around, and as many figures, satyrs and sirens alternate
ly ; 170 Tuscan pounds in weight. PUn. xxxiv, 8. placuere et lychnuchi
pensiles in delubris — also in tombs. Tripod from Vulci, Luynes Nouv.
Ann, de I'Inst. Archaol. ii. p. 237. pi. 24, 51 tripods in pi. C]
3. The so-caUed paterse, as mystic mirrors, are treated off in greatest
detaU by Inghir. ii, p. 7 sqq. R. Rochette, M. I. p. 187 ; however, the
use of mirrors in the mysteries of the Etruscans has not yet been point
ed out ; the author holds them to be mirrors {xxXxx hoTrr^x) which were
put into the grave with the dead among other utensils and treasures of
Ufe {xre^iuftxrx). Gott. G. A. 1828. s. 870. 1830. s. 953. [No one any longer
doubts that they were mirrors, neither wUl the distinction into domestic
and mystical hold good. Only Micali defended the paterse and adheres to
them even in his last work, as Thiersch did in the Jahresberichte der k.
Berl. Akad, of 1829-31, vu. s. 63 f. Lanzi, L. Vescovali and Inghirami re
cognised them as mirrors, and such are often found painted on vases, for
example, with judgments of Paris and in waU paintings (Pitt. d'Ercol, iii,
26). Zahn New Series ii, 10,] There are also extant mirror-covers in a
simUar style, {M(psiov m^oyyv'h.ov Aristoph, Nub. 761. Xiiip/o:/ Hesych.) The
figures on the reverse are mostly but outlines, seldom in relief, generally
in a later, sometimes effeminate, sometimes exaggerated style ; the sub
jects mythological, and in great part erotic; but also often treated
merely as an indifferent ornament. Many in Lanzi, Saggio ii. p. 191. tv.
6 sqq. Bianconi, De Pateris Antiquis. Bon, 1814, There are some of
the Borgia and Townley paterse engraved on separate leaves, Inghir. u.
PI. i. and ii. Micali, tv. 36, 47, 49, 50. The finest specimen [of pure
Greek art] is the mirror found at Volci, in the possession of Gerhard,
where, in a design fuU of soul and grace, Dionysus, in the presence of
the Pythian Apollo, embraces Semele, who had been brought up from
the infernal world. See Gerhard, Dionysus and Semele. B, 1833. On
others, see §, 361, 3. 367, 3. 371, 2. 384, 2. 396, 2, 410, 4, 413, 2, 414,
2, 4. 415, 1. 430, 1. and elsewhere. The Palsestrian cista from San Luca
now in the Mus, Gregor. i, 37. [Gerhard Etr, Spiegel 1. 2. Th, Gotter-
bilder 2, Th. Heroenbilder 1843, 1845. 4to. 240 Taf E. Braun Tages
u. des Hercules u. der Minerva heiUge Hochzeit. Miinchen 1830. fol.
comp. Rhein. Mus. i. s. 98. Mus. Gregor. i. tv. 22—36.]
These mirrors are sometimes found in the sepulchres with other arti
cles of dress and the bath (as, according to PUny xxxvi, 27, specula et
strigUes were placed in the graves), iu little round boxes of embossed
bronze, which are now also called cistx myslicoe. See especiaUy Lami,
Sopra le ciste mistiche, and Inghir. ii. p. 47. tv. 3. [Plautus MosteU i,
3, 91. cum ornamentis arcula,] On the Uds of these stand figures as
handles ; claws of animals form the feet ; engraved designs decorate ves
sel and lid. Most of them come from Prseneste, where they seem to have
been preserved in the temple of Fortune as consecrated gifts from women.
The best known are : 1, That adorned with beautiful and interesting re
presentations from the mythus of the Argonauts (The landing in Bithy
nia, Amyous and Polydeuces), with the inscription, Novios Plautios med
Romaifecid, Dindia Macolniafilea dedit; from which we must assign the
work to about the year 500 a. u. M. Kircheriani Aerea i. The Mag-

154 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
nuUi, Plautu are Prsenestines, Grotefend A. L. Z. 1834. No. 34. [but the
Novios who executed the work at Rome was an Oscan from Capua;
comp. Mommsen Oskische Studien, S. 72. A drawing in Gerhard's Spiegel
i, 2. Father Marchi wiU pubUsh one worthy of the great artist. An
other work on this incomparable cista by Emil Braun with most excel
lent designs wiU appear in Leipzig, and the designs of Bourpis, a legacy
from Brondsted, have already appeared at Copenhagen, engraved at Paris
by de Cogny. Comp. Heyne Ant, Aufs. i, 48, M. PioCl. i, p, 81, The
Rom, CoU. possesses two other works of Oscan artists, a Jupiter with C,
POMPONIO QVIRlNA (the tribus) FECID and a beautiful Medusa
with C, OPIOS FECID, Pupidus Stenisis was an Oscan vase painter,
BuU. 1846, p, 98. Oscan goblets in the Mus, at Berlin, No. 1613-18 of
the vase coUection,] 2, The one found in 1826, in which cista, Ud and
mirror are ornamented with the mythi of AchiUes, in R, Rochette, M.
I. pi. 20. p. 90. Stackelberg, Kunstbl. 1827. St. 32. 33. [47. Gal. Onier.
167.] 3. The one found in 1786, in the British Museum, with the sacrifice
of Polyxena, and at the same time of Astyanax, in R. Rochette, pi. 58.
In opposition to this, Welcker in the Rhein. Mus. iu, 605. [Gerhard Etr.
Spiegel. Tf 15. 16 as a dead offering of AchiUes for Patrocles.] On the
Brondsted and nine other cistse which have become known, Gerhard,
Hyperb, Rom. Studien, s. 90. R. Rochette, p. 331. A cista with patera
found at Palestrina in 1794 described by Uhden. See Gerhard Archseol.
InteU. Bl. 1836. s. 35. Brondsted de cista aerea Prsenestina Havn, 1834.
A mirror in it with Aurora. [The fifth was found at Prseneste in 1817,
Mem. SuUe belle arti R, 1817, Apr. p, 65. Fr. Peter in the Ann. d. Acad.
di Lucca, Kunstbl, 1818. No. 2. Cistse of this kind were found also at
Vulci, and one at Baseggio in Rome. The fine cista from the Academy
of S. Lucas is now in the Mus. Gregor. i, 37.]

1 ] 74. There was less attention paid in Etruria to carving
in wood (clay images supplied the want of the Grecian f dara)
2 and to sculpture in stone; only a few stone figures show by
their careful and severe treatment that they come down from
3 the flourishing era of Etrurian art ; the usually painted, some
times gilded bas- and haut-reliefs of the cinerary urns,— which
sprang out of abridged stone-coffins, — belong, with few excep
tions, to a handicraft-like style of technical treatment charac
teristic of later times, probably in great part to the period of
Roman ascendancy.
1. PUn. xiv, 2. xxxvi. 99. [? xxxiv, 16. xxxv, 46.] Vitruv. ii, 7. The
marble of Luna not yet employed in sculpture. See Quintino, Mem. della
R. Ace. di Torino. T. xxvii. p. 211 sq.
2. So the reliefs on cippi and bases of columns in Gori, M. Etr. i,
tb, 160, iii, cl, 4, tb. 18. 20. 21, in Inghir, vi. tv, a, (Mi Afiles Tites, <fec.)
c, D. E, 1, p, 6, z a, MicaU, tv. 61, 1, 2, 52—56 (Reliefs dug up at Clu
sium and in the neighbourhood, which mostly represent funeral ceremo
nies, and have a simple antique character ; comp, Dorow, Voy, Archeol,
pi, 10, 3, 12, 2, [MicaU, M, Ined, 1844, tv. 22, a four-cornered pedestal
with death-bed, funeral procession, banquet and games from the neigh-

ETRUSCAN SCULPTURES AND GEMS, 155
bourhood of Chiusi, now in BerUn ; similar tv, 23 — 26. Sepulchral re
liefs, tav. 48. 49, Gorgon masks, 50. 51,] Rudely executed and obscene
reliefs on a waU of rock at Corneto, Journ. des Sav. 1829. Mars, To this
class belong the antique figures of animals, sphinxes and men hewn out
of a sort of peperino which are found on the CocumeUa and the entrances
of the sepulchres of Volci, M, I. d. Inst. tv. 41, 9. 12, MicaU, tv, 57, 7,
3. The urns were of alabaster (Volaterras), calcareous tufa, travertine,
and very often of terracotta (Clusium). The subjects ; 1. From the
Greek, chiefly the tragic mythology, with frequent reference to death
and the infernal world; moreover Etruscan figures of Mania, Mantus
(Charun) with the hammer, the furies, Ambrosch de Charonte Etr,
Vratisl. 1837. 4to. E, Braun Ann, ix, p, 253. [Charon XAPV, on an
Etruscan vase together with the death of Ajax, and with Penthesilea,
Mon, del I. ii, 9. Ann. vi, p. 274. On an amphora with Alcestis Cha
ron with his hammer beside another death-demon with a serpent. But
on an earthen cista Charon appears with hammer and the oar, which was
denied by Ambrosch ; the entrance for the dead enwreathed with skulls
of animals, Charon's hammer, Archaol. Zeit, 1846, s. 360,] 2, Scenes of
splendour from life : triumphal processions, pomps, banquets. 3, Repre
sentations of death and the Ufe to come: leave-takings; death-scenes;
journeys on horseback, on sea-monsters, 4, Fantastic figures and mere
decorations. The composition mostly skiKul, the execution rude. The
same groups are repeated with diff'erent signification. The recUning
figures above {accumbentes) are often portraits, hence the disproportioned
size of the heads. The Bacchian worship was already banished from Italy
at the time of these works ; only one older sarcophagus from Tarquinii
(MicaU, tv. 59, 1) has the figure of a priest of Bacchus on the lid. The
inscriptions mostly contain merely the names of the deceased, in a later
character. (The Etruscan language and character perished after Augustus,
and before Julian.) Uhden, Abhandl. der Akad. von BerUn vom J. 1816,
s, 26, 1818, s. 1. 1827. s. 201. 1828. s. 233. 1829. s. 67. Inghir. i. and
vi. v2. Micali, tv. 59. 60. 104 — 112. Several pubUshed by Zoega (Bassir, i.
tv, 38 — 40, R. Rochette, Clarac and others. Individual examples, §. 397.
412, 2. 416, 2. 431. and elsewhere. [Urns from Cere, Bomarzo and other
places partly of clay, Mus. Gregor. i. tv. 92 — 97. Those of a tomb at
Perugia, with inscriptions, BuU. 1845. p. 106.]

175. The Etruscans, who took pains to adorn the body in 1
every way, and were therefore very fond of rings, practised
engraving on precious stones at an early period; several scar- 2
abaei of the oldest style, judging from the characters inscribed
on them and the places where they were found, are decidedly
Etruscan. The steps by which the art advanced, have been 3
stated above (§. 97); on the highest which the Etruscans at
tained there is combined an admirable delicacy of execution
with a predilection for violent postures and overcharged dis
play of the muscles, whereby even the choice of the subjects
was mostly determined. Circular plates of gold also, with en- 4

156 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
graved or even impressed figures of an arabesque description,
have been found in the most recent excavations, by which
altogether the richness of the Etruscans in articles of decora
tion which was made known to us by the ancients, has re
ceived a remarkable confirmation.
2. For the Etruscan origin VermigUoU, Lezioni di Archeol. i, p, 202.
Etrusker ii. s. 257, comp, also R, Rochette's Cours, p. 138, [Scarabreus
with Greek inscr, found in ^gina and also in Greece, Finlay in the BuU.
1840, p, 140, Since then many have come to light there,] To the ear
Uer known chefs-d'oeuvre— the gem with the five heroes against Thebes
(found at Perugia), Theseus in the infernal world, Tydeus x'woi,vof<,ivog,
Peleus squeezing the water from his hair (Winckelm, M, I, ii. n. 101. 105.
106. 107, 125, Werke vii, tf, 2. 3. a similar figure, Micali, tv. 116, 13.),
are now added Hercules slaying Cycnus (Impronti d. Inst, i, 22, Micali,
tv. 116, 1), Hercules sorrowfuUy musing (MicaU, tv, 116, 5), Hercules
opening the cask of Pholus (MicaU, tv, 116, 7), and others, found parti
cularly at Volci and Clusium. [The so-caUed Etruscan gem-border.]
4. There are various of these engravings on gold-rings given in the
Impronti d. Inst. I. 57—62, III, 68 — 62, very Phoenician, and in MicaU,
*tv. 46, 19 — 23 ; in all there is exhibited a striving at monstrous combi
nations, which took advantage especiaUy of Babylonio- Phoenician works
of the kind. There is in MicaU, tv. 45. 46, a collection of gold buckles
(one very large put together in a rude taste, and adorned with engraved
combatants, lions, birds Ul-proportioned in design) and clasps (which are
sometimes very finely decorated with sphinxes and lions), necklaces, and
pendants (among them Egyptian Phthas- idols of enameUed terracotta, in
Etruscan chasing), diadems, chains, rings, and other articles of decoration.
Comp. Gerhard, Hyperbor. Rom. Studien, s. 240. A neck ornament, Mon.
d. Inst, ii, 7, AnnaU vi. p, 243, Discoveries at Csere, BuU. 18136. p. 60,
1839. p, 19, 72 (this last simUar to Micali, 45, 3), [The different crowns
and garlands, sacerdotal breast-plates, the necklaces and bracelets, rings
and clasps, and so forth of the new papal collection, Mus, Gregor, i, tv,
67—91. Grifi Mon, di Cere, tv, 1, 2, P, Secchi Tesoretto di Etr, arredi
in oro del Cav. Campana, Bull. 1846. p. 3. The Campana collection is
rich in the most curious articles, which are not confined to the Etrus
can, and which display a skill and delicacy of workmanship now unat
tainable, although it is inferior to the Mus. Gregor. in numbers. The
bracelet mostly as an ItaUc national ornament according to K. F. Her
mann Gott. Gel, Anz, 1843, s, 1158, 1844, s. 604, Schiassi sopra una ar-
milla d'oro del M, di Bologna. Bol. 1816. 8vo.]
I 176. In coins the Etruscans had at first their native system
— cast pieces of copper, perhaps originally four-cornered, which
2 represented the pound with its parts. The types are some
times very rude; they show, however, an acquaintance with
Greek coin-figures of iEgina, Corinth, and other places (tor
toises, Pegasus, shells, and the like) ; many of them have even
3 a noble Greek style. Etruria came nearer to Greece in her
silver and gold coins, but such were struck only by a few
cities.

ETRUSCAN PAINTING, 157
1. There is JEs grave of Volaterrse, Camars, Telamon, Tuder, Vetto-
na and Iguvium, Pisaurum and Hadria (in Picenum), Rome (since Ser-
vius) and many unknown places. The as, originally equal to the libra
(xiVfot), is denoted by I or L, the decussis by X, the semissis by C, the
uncia by 0 (globulus). Continual reductions on account of the rising
price of copper (originally the Ubra ^ obolus, 268 : 1), hence the age of
asses can be nearly determined by the weight. From 200 (Servius)
to 487 a. u. c. the as sinks from 12 to 2 uncise. The four-cornered pieces
with an ox are votive coins according to Passeri. — Passeri, ParaUpomena
in Dempst, p. 147. Eckhel, D. N. i, i. p. 89 sq. Lanzi, Saggio T. ii.
Niebuhr, R. H. i. p. 458 sqq. Etrusker i. s. 304 — 342. Copies especiaUy in
Dempster, Guarnacci, Arigoni, Zelada ; brimstone impressions by Mion
net. [Jos. Marchi and P. Tessieri L'ses grave del M. Kircheriano ovvero
le monete primitive de' popoU dell' ItaUa media. Rom. 1839. 4to. PL obi.
fol. MiUingen opposed with soundest criticism Consider, sur la numism.
de I'ancienne ItaUe. Florence 1841. Supplement Flor. 1844. GennareUi
La moneta primitiva e i mon. deU' ItaUa ant. R, 1845, 4to. Lepsius
ueber die Tyrrhen. Pelasger in Etrurien u. ueber die Verbreitung des Ita-
Uschen Miinzsystems von Etrurien aus. Leipz. 1842.]
2. Many of Tuder for example, with wolf and cithara, are in a good
Greek style. The Janus of Volaterrse and Rome is for the most part
rudely designed, without a Greek model.
3. SUver coins of Populonia (Pupluna x. xx.) similar to those of Ca
mars, perhaps chiefiy from the fifth century of Rome. Gold of Populo
nia and Volsinii (Felsune). At Rome the Denarii (l-84th of a pound)
begin a. u. 483.

177, Etruscan painting, in like manner, is only a branch 1
of the Greek ; mural painting, however, seems to have been
practised here sooner than we hear of it in Greece, Numer- 2
ous sepulchral chambers, especially at Tarquinii, are painted
with figures in variegated colours which, without much striv
ing at truth to nature, rather having a harmonic effect for
their aim, are laid almost pure and unmixed on the stucco
with which the walls of these grottoes are coated over. The 3
style of drawing passes from a severity and care which show an
affinity to early Greek works, into the hasty and caricature-like
manners which prevailed in the later art of the Etruscans.
According to Pliny, wall-paintings of distinguished beauty were
also executed in Italy (Caere, Lanuvium, Ardea), but of course
not until after the times of Zeuxis and Apelles. Greek vase- 4
painting became earlier known to the Etruscans (§, 75) ; how
ever that people must have found it more advantageous in
general to make use of Greek manufactures, whether these
were introduced by commerce through Tarquinii, Adria, and
other towns where art was cultivated, or whether they were
made by Greek artists in the country (comp. §. 99, 2, 257),
Only the comparatively few vases, inferior in artistic value, 5

158 GREEK ART IN ITALY,
which are inscribed with Etruscan characters, can afford a
sure criterion by which to distinguish Etruscan and Greek
productions. 2. 3, The Etruscan sepulchral paintings faU into two classes, 1. The
earUer ones, approaching nearer to the Greek style, also adhere in the
subjects to Greek customs and ideas. To this class belong a. the grotto
del fondo Querciola (discovered in 1831), of remarkably pure and simple
design ; banquets of the dead ; a procession to the tomb which is fiUed
with vases placed over one another, M. I, d, Inst. tv. 33. b. The grotto
del fondo Marzi (1830) ; the style of drawing Etruscan exaggerated, ban
quets and dances of the dead in vine-arbours and gardens, as in Pindar,
after Orphean sources. M. I. d. Inst. tv. 32. c, d. e. The three sepul
chres opened in 1827, and delineated by Baron v, Stackelberg and Kestner,
previously made known [the engravings have been lying for years with
Cotta] by MicaU, tv. 67. 68. The inscriptions, BuUet. d. Inst. 1833. fol. 4.
Banquets (of the deceased or those performing the obsequies), procession
to the tomb, gymnic games, chariot races with spectators on platforms.
The least carefully painted grotto is remarkable for the Etruscan proper
names over the figures of those celebrating the festival of the dead. Comp.
R. Rochette, Journ. des Savans 1828, p. 3, 80. Kestner, Ann, d, Inst. i. p,
101, Stackelberg in Jahn's Jahrb. i, s, 220, [Hypogsei or sep, caverns
of Tarquinii by Rev. 0. Byres, edited by Frank Howard, L, 1842. foL
Mus. Chiusin. u. tv. 181 — 186, The pictures of the Tarquinian grottoes
also in the Mus. Gregor, i, tv. 99 — 104, after the copies on the waUs of the
museum as weU as at Munich.] f. Grotto of Clusium (also in 1827) with
chariot races and gymnic games, which are painted on the tufa itself in a
careless but bold style. On the last discovered subterranean pictures in
sepuL of Chiusi, Annali vii. p. 19. 2. The later ones, which have nothing
of the severity of the old style but an easy and sometimes, by overstretch
ing the figures, caricatured design ; here also the subjects are taken more
from Etruscan reUgion, perhaps from the Acheruntian books of the day.
Of this class is the Tarquinian tomb in which white and black genii, arm
ed with hammers, contend for the possession of the deceased. See WU-
cox, PhUosoph. Trans. Uii. tv. 7 — 9. Agincourt, Hist, de I'Archit. pi. 10,
1. 2. Inghir, iv, tv, 25—27, and vi. tv. c 3. MicaU, tv. 66. Another
tomb (Dempster ii, tb. 88, Aginc, pi, 11, 6. Inghir. tv, 24) shows the
damned hung up and punished with instruments of torture. The earlier
accounts of the painted hypogsea of Etruria are summed up by Inghir.
iv. p. Ill — 144; comp, C, Awolta, Ann, d. Inst, p, 91. BuU. 1831. p.
81. Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom. Stud, s, 129. comp, p, 234, On three newly
discovered Tarquinian sepulchres with exceUent paintings, BuUet, 1832.
p. 213. [Kestner on two sepulchres discovered in Vulci at Ponte deUa
Badia, BuU, 1833, p, 73, M, d, I, u, 2—5, OrioU Ann, vi, p. 153—190. WaU
paintings of a tomb at Veil, decorated with figures of athletes, in Mi
caU, M. I, 1844, tv, 58 ; of one with sphinxes, horses, panthers in the style
of Thericles, see BuU, 1843, p. 99 sqq. Other tombs at Veil have been
since opened by Campana,]
5. Among the vases of Volci there are only three that have Etruscan
inscriptions which refer to the subjects painted ; [there is one in Braun
with a sentence in the Etr. character ; Prince Borghese found at Bomarzo

DEVELOPMENT OF ART, 159
early in 1845 a small vase with the Etr. alphabet complete, comp, Mus,
Gregor, ii. tv, 103 ; two goblets from Bomarzo with names, BuU. 1846, p,
105,] on several others, of rudest workmanship, there are painted Etrus
can names of persong (Kale Mukathesa).acoording to Gerhard, Ann. d.
Inst. iu. p. 73. 175. Micali, tv, 101. In subsequent excavations insti
tuted by Baron Beugnot other two pictures of a vase were found, which
by the mixture of Etruscan genii and the inscriptions (Aivas, Charun ;
Turms, PentasUa) maintain a great resemblance to the cinerary cistse,
HaUische ALZ. 1833. InteU. 46, M, d. I. u, 8. Aivas throwing himself
on his sword. Ataiun attacked by dogs, ii. 9. A. Aivas stabbed by an
other, a gladiatorial conceit, Charu present. B. A woman (HIN0IA),
Charon (TVPMVCAS), a woman (nENTASILA), yeUow figures, extreme
ly rude drawing, Ann. vi. p. 264. Vase from Perugia, Ann. iv. tv, a, comp.
V. p. 346. [Meloger and Atalanta according to Zannoni in the Antologia
di Firenze.] Mirror with numerous inscriptions, BuU. 1835, p. 122, 158,
A bowl found at Clusium has a gorgoneion with Etruscan inscription.
Micali, tv. 102, 5. A fragment of a vase, of better workmanship it seems,
with Etruscan inscription (Tritun, Alacca) in Inghir, v, tv, 56, 8. There
was also found at Volci a goblet with the voyage of Odysseus past the
Island of the Sirens, and the inscription i^eceiiai ^oeofom (ALZ., ibid.),
and also at Tarquinii a vase with a figure of Bros in later style, and the
words Volcani pocolom. Levezow Berl. V: no. 909, in Orte two drinking
cups with rude figures, Lavernte poculum. Salutes poculum, BuU. 1837.
p, 130, proofs that painted vases were stiU manufactured in Etruria even
when it was subject to the Romans in the sixth century of the city,
[MilUngen was last in possession of the two Durand goblets, not Feoetiai
but iEcetias pocolom, so that Secchi (erroneously) read Bgerise and Be-
lolai pocolom. In the Gregor, Mus. Lavernse pocolom and Keri pocolom.
(that is, Ceri Mani.) Etruscan vases in Micali, M. Ined. 1844. tv. 36 —
47, in Berlin after Gerhard's newly acquired^ monuments, n. 1620—29.
1790 — 95. Of those goblets there are according to Millingen's statements
about 6 known with Etruscan characters, and another with inscription
but without figures.]

1 78. Now what results, for the entire development of art 1
in Etruria — ^partly from the consideration of these different
species of art and classes of monuments, and partly from some
intimations of the ancients — is nearly this: that the power- 2
ful, indeed, but, at the same time, sombre and severe spirit of
the Etruscan nation, which was denied the free creative fancy
of the Greeks, showed itself in art much more receptive than
productive, inasmuch as at its early acquaintance with the
works of Greek, especially Peloponnesian artists, it faithfully
appropriated their style, and adhered to it for centuries; not 3
neglecting, nevertheless, to avail itself also, for decorative
statuary, of the unintelligible, but for that very reason more
interesting forms which commerce with the East introduced,
while at the same time the taste for bizarre compositions and
distorted shapes which was inborn in the Etruscan race, mani-

160 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
fested itself here and there in different ways and in all sorts
of works; — but that when art in Greece attained its highest
stage, the intercourse of the two nations, on the one hand,
was too restricted by reason of various events, — especially the
Samnitic conquest of Campania about the year of Rome 332
— and on the other, the Etruscan nation itself was already too
much broken, too degenerate and inwardly decayed, and after
all did not possess sufficient artistic spirit to be able to ap
propriate art in an equal degree when carried to perfection;
hence, notwithstanding the excellence of particular perform
ances, the art of the Etruscans, on the whole, declined into a
sort of plodding handicraft, and lost all pretension to Greek
elegance and beauty. Accordingly, the art of design was
always a foreign plant in Etruria, foreign in forms, foreign in
materials which she borrowed almost entirely, not from the na
tional superstition, which was but ill-adapted to artistic repre
sentations, but from the divine and heroic mythi of the Greeks.
2 — 5. Accordingly the Etruscan works fall into five classes : 1. The
real Tuscanica, Quintil. xii, 10. Tvppnvixd, Strab. xvii. p. 806 a., works
which are placed in the same rank with the earliest of Greek art. Heavier
forms, and details of costume, as well as the almost universal want of
beard in the Etruscan works of art, constitute the difference. To this
class belong many bronzes and engraved works, some stone statues, many
gems, some paterse, and the older wall-paintings. 2. Imitations of orien
tal, chiefiy Babylonian, figures which had become diffused by tapestries
and engraved stones; always merely in decorative statuary of an ara
besque character. Thus on the Clusinian vases, whose figures often recur
on Perso-Babylonian stones (as the woman holding two lions in Dorow,
Voy. Archeol. pi. 2, 1. b., is very simUar to that in Ouseley, Travels i.
pi. 21, 16), and at the same time bear a great resemblance to those on the
so-called Egyptian vases (§. 76), (for instance, quite the same female
figure strangling two geese, appears on both, Micali, tv. 17, 5. 73, 1) ; and
on engraved stones, especially where there are animal compositions
(comp. §. 175), and battles of wild beasts similar to those of Persepolis,
That the Greek monstra did not yet satisfy the Etruscans is shown by
the figure of the scarabseus in MicaU, tv, 46, 17 ; a centaur of the an
tique form, with gorgon-head, wings on the shoulders, and the fore-feet
Uke the claws of an eagle. 3. IntentionaUy distorted shapes, especially
in bronzes (§. 172) and in mirror-designs. Comp. Gerhard, Sformate
Imagini di Bronze, Bullet, d. Inst. 1830. p. 11. The later wall-paintings
(§. 177) also belong to this class. 4. Works in a fine Greek style, very
rare ; only a few mirror-designs and bronzes. 6, Works of the later me
chanical exercise of art, which is to be observed in nearly all cinerary
urns. On the pecuUar Etruscan profile in ancient works in stone, and
its difference from the Egyptian, Lenoir, Ann. d, Inst. iv. p. 270.
[Epochs of Etr. art according to Micali, AnnaU xv. p. 352 s. On Etruscan
antiquities. Quarterly Review, 1845. N. cU. by an eminent connoisseur.]
Literature of the Etruscan antiquities of art. Thomas Dempster's
work (written in 1619) De Etruria Regali, 1. viu. ed. Tho. Coke. F. 1723.

DEVELOPMENT OP ART. 161
2 vols. fo. The engravings of works of art and explanations have been
added by Ph. Buonarotti. A, F. Gori, Museum Btruscum 1737-43. 3
vols, (with Passeri's Dissert.) The same author's Musei Guarnacci Ant,
Mon. Etrusca 1744 fol. Saggi di Dissertazioni dell' Acad. Etrusca di Cor
tona beginning from 1742, 9 vols. 4to. Museum Cortonense a Fr. Va-
lesio, A. F. Gorio et Rod. Venuti lUustr. 1750 fo. Scipione Maffei, Osser
vazioni Letterarii, T. iv. p. 1—243. v. p, 265—395, vi, p, 1—178, J, B,
Passeri in Dempsteri libros de E, R, ParaUpomena, 1767 fo, Guarnacci
Origini ItaUche, 1767 — 72, 3 vols. fo. Heyne's Treatises in the Nov. Oom-
mentarr. Gott. iii. v. vi, vii, Opusc, Acadd, T, v, p, 392, Luigi Lanzi,
Saggio di Lingua Etrusca 1789. 3 vols, (who after the example of Winck
elmann and Heyne in some measure cleared up the field which was
before in confusion). Franc. Inghirami, Monumenti Btruschi o di
Etrusco nome, 7 vols, text in 4to, 6 vols, engravings, fo. 1821 — 1826.
Micali, Storia degU Antichi PopoU Italiani, 1832, 3 vols, a new
edition of the work Italia avanti il Dominio de' Romani, the atlas of
which, entitled Antichi Monumenti, far surpasses earlier ones in copious
ness and importance of the monuments comprised in it, and therefore is
here alone made use of [The last coUection not less rich, Mon. ined, a
iUustraz. deUa storia d. ant. pop. Ital. Firenze, 1844, 2, vols. fol. Comp.
AnnaU xv. p. 346. R. Rochette Journ. des Sav. 1845. p. 349. Cavedoni
Oss. crit. sopra i mon. Etr. del Micali, Modena 1844. 8vo.] Etr. Museo
Chiusino dai suoi possessori pubbl. con brevi espos. del. Cav. Fr. Inghira
mi, P. I. 1833. P. II. 1832 (sic). [Musei Etrusci quod Gregorius XVI. in
sedd. Vatic, constituit. P. I. II. 1842. 2 vols, fol.] SmaUer works by Ver
migUoU, OrioU, CardinaU and others.

3. ROME BEFORE THE YEAR OF THE CITY 606 (OL. 158, 3).
179. Rome, which was an inconsiderable town before the 1
dominion of the Etruscans, received through them the struc
tures that an Etruscan capital required, and at the same time
a circuit of very considerable extent (about seven millia). Its 2
temples also were now provided with statues of which Rome
is said to have been entirely destitute before; however, the 3
gods of Rome long remained of wood and clay, the work of
Etruscan artists or handicraftmen.
1. To these belong the great Cloaca (§. 168), the laying out of the
Forum and Comitium, the Circus (§. 170), theCapitoUne temple (§. 169),
the prison (robur TulUanum, S. Pietro in Carcere), which sprang from
the latomia of the Capitoline hiU, the temple of Diana on the Aventine,
the waU of Tarquinius or Servius (Niebuhr i. p. 394), and the Servian
walls (Bunsen, Beschreibung Roms i. s. 623). On the substructions of
the Via Appia in the vale of Aricia and the tomb of the Horatii and Cu-
riatu M. d. I. ii, 39. Canina Ann. ix. p. 10.
2. On the worship without idols at Rome before the first Tarquin,
Zoega de Obel. p. 225.
3. Comp. Varro in Plin. xxxv, 45. with PUn. xxxiv, 16.
L

162 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
1 180. At the time of the republic the practical sense of
the Romans, which was directed to the common good, urged
them much less to what is called fine architecture than to
the construction of grand works in water- and road-architec
ture; however, the military roads, which had a bottom of
gravel, and were paved with large stones, did not make their
appearance till the sixth century, and the extensive aqueducts
2 on arcades till the beginning of the seventh. Temples indeed
in great number were vowed and dedicated at an early period
even to allegorical deities; but few before those of Metellus
3 were distinguished by their materials, size or art. Men of
course were lodged still more meanly than the gods; there was
long even a want of great public courts and halls; and build
ings for games were but slightly constructed for the temporary
4 object. And yet of the arts of design, architecture was most
adapted to the Roman customs and views of life; a Roman
named Cossutius built for Antiochus at Athens about 590 (§.
5 1 53, Rem. 4). The sarcophagi of the Scipios show how Greek
forms and decorations had everywhere found entrance, but
also how they were combined and mingled after the example
of the Etruscans, without regard to destination and character.
1. The care of the Romans about road-making, aqueducts, and re
moval, of filth, is placed by Strabo v. p. 235 in contrast with the indif
ference of the Greeks as to these things. Draining of the Alban lake
about 369 (§. 168), of the Velinus by Curius 462. (Niebuhr ui. p. 266.)
Aqueducts : Aqua Appia (under ground for 10 millia, 300 feet on arches)
442, Anio Vetus 481, Marcia 608, the Tepula 627, the Julia by Agrippa
719. (Frontinus de aquseduct. 1.) New Cloacse 568. 719. Draining of
the Pomptine marshes 592 (again under Csesar and Augustus). Roads :
Via Appia, 442 (at first unpaved ; 460 it was paved with basaltic lava to
a distance of 10 miUia from the city) ; Plaminia 532. 566 ; improvement
in road-making during the censorship of Fulvius Flaccus 578 ; exceUent
roads of C. Gracchus about 630. Bridges over the Tiber. Comp. Hirt,
Gesch. der Baukunst u. s. 184 ff.
2; The temple vowed by the Dictator Postumius, and dedicated in
261 by Sp. Cassius to Ceres, Liber, and Libera, near the Circus Maximus.
is worthy of notice,— Vitruvius' model of the Tuscan order, the first, ac
cording to Pliny, which was adorned by Greeks, Damophilus and Gor
gasus, as painters and statuaries in clay. The Temple of Virtus and
Honor, dedicated by MarceUus 547, and decorated with Greek works of
art. Temple of Portuna Equestris, 678, buUt by Q. Fulvius Flaccus,
systyle according to Vitruv. ui. 3 ; the half of the marble tUes of the
Hera Lacinia were to have formed the roof Liv. xlii, 3. The Temple of
Hercules Musarum at the Circus Plaminius, built by M. Fulvius NobiUor,
the friend of Ennius, 573, and adorned with brazen statues of the Muses
from Ambracia. See Plin. xxxv, 36, 4., together with Harduin, Bumenius
pro restaur, schol. c, 7, 3, and the coins of Pomponius Musa, Q. Me
teUus Macedonicus buUt 605, with the spoils of the Macedonian war two
temples to Jupiter Stator and Juno, in which marble first made its ap-

BUILDINGS AND SCULPTURES OF EARLY ROME. 163
pearance, surrounded by a large portico (in 722, named after Ootavia),
Jupiter's temple peripteral, that of Juno prostyle, according to Vitru
vius and the Capitoline plan of Rome, The former, according to Vitru
vius, was built by Hermodorus of Salamis; according to Pliny, the
columns were executed by Sauras and Batrachus of Lacedsemon (lacerta
atque rana in columnarum spiris; comp, Winckelmann, W. i, s. 379,
Fea, s. 459). Comp. Sachse, Gesch. der Stadt. Rom. i. s. 537. On the
statues therein, §. 160, 2. Hermodorus of Salamis also built the temple
of Mars at the Circus Plaminius after 614. Hirt ii. s. 212.
3. A rude rebuUding of the city with unburnt bricks, 366. The first
basiUca mentioned {iixaiXixri arad) was by Cato 668 ; at an earlier period
the temples of Janus served as places of assembly. Edifices by the censor
Fulvius NobiUor 573 for intercourse. A Senatus consultum against
permanent theatres {tkeatrum perpetuimi) 597. comp. Lipsius ad Tac.
Ann. xiv. 20. The columna rostrata of Duilius in the first Punic war. On
other honorary columns, PUn. xxxiv, 11.
5. See especiaUy the Sarcophagus of Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus
Gnaivod patre prognatus, etc. (Consul 464) in Piranesi Monurnenti degli
Scipioni, t. 3. 4. WinckeUn. W. i, tf 12, Hirt, tf, 11. P, 28. On the
insignificant remains of repubUcan Rome, Bunsen i, s, 161. On the tombs
of the Scipios, Gerhard Beschr. Roms u, 2. s. 121.
181. The plastic art, which was at the beginning very little
exercised among the Romans, gradually became important to
them, through political ambition. The senate and people,
foreign states from gratitude, the Thurinians first, erected to
meritorious men statues of brass in the forum and elsewhere;
many even did so to themselves, as Spurius Cassius, according
to Pliny, had already done about 268. The images of their
ancestors in the atrium, on the other hand, were not statues,
but masks of wax designed to represent the deceased at pro
cessions. The first brazen statue of a deity was, according to
Pliny, one of Ceres, which was cast from the confiscated pro
perty of Spurius Cassius. From the time of the Samnitic
wars, when the dominion of Rome began to extend over Magna
Grecia, statues and colossi were likewise, according to the
Greek custom, raised to the gods as consecrated gifts.
1. Pliny (xxxiv, 11 sqq.) indeed gives out many brazen statues as
works of the time of the kings and the early republic, and even beUeves
in statues of Evander's time, and in the dedication of a Janus by Numa,
which indicated the number 356 by bending the fingers in the manner
of the Greek mathematicians. But the most of those mentioned by him
evidently belonged to a later period. The statues of Romulus and Camil-
lus were in heroic nudity quite contrary to the Roman custom, unless
PUny (ex his RomuU est sine tunica, sicut et CamilU in Rostris) is to be
explained from Asconius in Scaur, p. 30. OreU. RomuU et Tatii statuas
in Oapitolio et CamilU in rostris togatse sine tunicis. Romulus was an
ideal figure, the head of which is preserved on coins of the Memmian fa
mily ; the same appUes to Numa (Visconti, Iconogr. Rom. pi. 1) ; on the

164 GREEK ART IN ITALY.
contrary, Ancus Marcius appears to have retained a family Ukeness of
the Marcii. The foUowing are more genuine works of the earUer period,
viz., the Attus Navius (comp. with Pliny Cic. de Div. i. 11), the Minu-
cius of the year 316, and the probably Greek statues of Pythagoras and
Alcibiades (erected about 440), and of Hermodorus of Ephesus, a parti
cipator in the decemviral legislation. Comp. Hirt Gesch. der Bild.
Kunst s. 271. Statues of Romans before Pyrrhus (454) Cicero Cael. §.
39. c. intpp.
2. See Plin. xxxiv, 14. In the year 593 the censors P, Corn. Scipio
and M. Popilius took away aU statues of magistrates around the forum
which had not been erected by the people or senate. A statue of Cor-
neUa, the mother of the Gracchi, stood in the portico of Metellus.
3. On the Imagines Majorum, Polyb. vi, 53. with Schweighauser's
note. Lessing Sammtl. Schriften Bd. x. s. 290. Bichstadt iii. Prolu-
siones. Qu. de Quincy, Jup. Olymp. p. 14. 36. Hugo's Rechtsgesch.
(eleventh ed.) s. 334. Appius Claudius first dedicated images of his an
cestors on shields (comp. §. 345*) in the temple of BeUona, which was
vowed in the year 456 (not 259). Plin. xxxv, 3.
6. The Hercules dedicated on the capitol in 448 is worthy of remark
(Liv. ix. 44) ; and also the colossal Jupiter consecrated by Spurius Car-
viUus on the capitol after 459, visible from the Jupiter Latiaris. It was
cast from the magnificent armour of the sacred legion of the Samnites
(comp. Liv. ix, 40. x, 38) ; at its feet was the statue of CarvUius cast
from the filings {reliquiis limes'). Plin. xxxiv, 18. Novius Plautius,
worker in brass at Rome, about the year 500, §. 173. Rem. 4.
182. In the consular and family coins (as those marked
with the names of the superintendents of the Mint, especially
the tresviri monetales, were called) the art gives evidence of
great rudeness during the first century after the coining of
silver began (483); the impression is flat, the figures clumsy,
the Roma-head ugly. Even when the more multiplied family-
types made their appearance, the art still remained rude and
imperfect. The early occupation with painting, especially
in the case of Fabius Pictor, contrasting as it did with the
customs of Rome otherwise known to us, is remarkable. How
ever, the application of painting to the perpetuating of war
like exploits and the adorning of triumphs also contributed to
its being held in honour among the Romans.
1. The oldest consular coins had on the obverse the head with the
winged helmet (Roma, according to others PaUas) ; on the reverse the
Dioscuri, instead of whom, however, a chariot and horses (bigati, serrati)
were soon introduced. The famUy coins had at first the general Roman
emblems of the consular coins, only different gods were represented on the
chariot ; afterwards different types made their appearances bearing re
ference to the reUgion and history of the famiUes. The denarius of the
Pompeian family with the she-wolf, the children, and thefostlus is interest
ing. The wolf is weU designed, probably after the Etruscan one (§.
172) ; every thing else stUl bad and rude. The principal works on this

EARLY ROMAN PAINTINGS. 165
portion of Numismatics by Car. Patin, Vaillant, MoreUi, and Havercamp.
Eckhel D. N. u, v. p. 63 sqq. especially HI. Stieglitz, Distributio nu
morum famUiarum Roman, ad typos accommodata (an instructive book).
Lips. 1830. B. Borghesi on family coins in Giornale Acad. T. Ixiv. Ixv.
Cavedoni Monete ant. italiche impresse per la guerra civUe, BuUett. 1837.
p. 199.
2. Fabius Pictor painted the temple of Salus, and that too in a mas
terly manner, in 451. Liv. x, 1, Plin, xxxv, 7. Val, Max, viii, 14, 6,
Dion. Hal. Frgm. by Mai xvi, 6. Letronne Lettres d'un Antiquiare, p. 412.
Append., p. 82. denies that the passage in Dionysius refers to Fabius.
M. Pacuvius of Rudise, the tragedian (half a Greek), painted the temple
of Hercules in the Forum Boarium about 560. Postea non est spectata
(hsec ars) honestis manibus, Plin. A painter named Theodotus in Nse-
vius (Pestus, p. 204. Lindem.) [Panofka in the Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 133
ff.] about 530, was evidently a Greek, as weU as the roixoy^xcpog Deme
trius, 590. Diodor. Exc. Vat. xxxi, 8. comp. Osann, Kunstblatt 1832. N.
74. [TO(x''y§«?">? is only Osann's conjecture for ro-7toy^x<l>og ; rovioy^xcpog
is more likely in the sense which we discover from Vitruvius, from topia ;
R. Rochette Suppl. au Catal. des artistes, p. 271 sqq. prefers TOOTyja(po?,
although roTTog cannot be pointed out in the sense of landscape.]
3. Examples in PUny xxxv, 7, especiaUy M. Valerius Messala's battle
against the Carthaginians in Sicily, 489, and Lucius Scipio's victory
over Antiochus about 564. Lucius Hostilius Mancinus in 606 explained
to the people himself a picture representing the conquest of Carthage,
Triumphs made pictures necessary (Petersen, Einleit, s, 58) ; for that
purpose .SlmUius Paulus got Metrodorus from Athens (ad excolendum
triumphum), PUn. xxxv, 40, 30.

FIFTH PERIOD.

FROM THE YEAR 606 OF THE CITY (OLYMPIAD 158, 3) TILL THE
MIDDLE AGES.

1. GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON THE CHARACTER AND SPIRIT OF THE
TIME.
183. As the whole history of civilized mankind (with the l
exception of India), so also was the history of art now concen
trated at Rome; but merely through the political supremacy,
not on account of the artistic talents of the Romans. The
. Romans, although on one side intimately allied to the Greeks,
were yet as a whole of coarser, less finely organized materials.
Their mind was always directed to those external relations of 2
men to one another, by which their activity in general is

166 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V.
conditioned and determined (practical life) ; at first more to
those which concern the community (politics), then, when
freedom had outl.ved itself, to those which exist between in-
3 dividuals (private life), especially such as arose with reference
to external possessions. To preserve, increase, and protect
the res familiaris, was nowhere so much as here regarded as a
4 duty. The careless, unembarrassed, and playful freedom of
mind which, heedlessly abandoning itself to internal impulses,
gives birth to the arts, was a stranger to thfe Romans ; even
religion, in Greece the mother of art, was among them de
signedly practical, not only in its earlier form as an emana
tion of Etruscan discipline, but also in its later, when the
5 deification of ethico-political notions prevailed. This practical
tendency, however, was among the Romans combined with a
taste for magnificence which despised doing things by halves,
or in a paltry style, which satisfied every necessity of life in a
complete and comprehensive manner by great undertakings,
and thereby upheld architecture at least among the arts.
3. Compare on this point (a principal cause of the great perfection
of the civU law) Hugo's History of Law, eleventh ed. p. 76. Juvenal
xiv. shows how avaritia was inoculated in the young as good husbandry.
Horace often places as iu A. P. 323. the economico-practical education of
the Romans in contrast with the more ideal culture of the Greeks. Om
nibus, diis, hominibusque, formosior videtur massa auri, quam quidquid
ApeUes, Phidiasque, GrsecuU deUrantes, fecerunt. Petron. 88.
1 184. The character of the Roman world in reference to
art, throughout this period, can be best understood if viewed in
2 four stages: 1st. From the conquest of Corinth to Augustus. The
endeavours of the great to impose, and to gain the people by
the magnificence of triumphs, and games of unprecedented
3 splendour, drew artists and works of art to Rome. In indi
viduals there was awakened a genuine taste for art, for the
most part indeed united with great .luxury, like the love for
4 art of the Macedonian princes. The charm of these enjoy
ments was only enhanced in private life by the resistance of
a party who cherished old-Roman predilections, although in
5 public life these had apparently the ascendancy. Hence
Rome was a rallying point for Greek artists, among whom
there were many of great excellence who vied with the an-
6 cients; artistic science and connoisseurship here fixed their
seat. 2. See §. 182, 3. M. .fflmiUus Scaurus, SuUce privignus, in 694. brought
to Rome for his games as sedile the pledged statues of Sicyon, PUn. xxxv,
40, 24. xxxvi, 24, 7. Pictures also were spoiled from want of skiU, in
cleaning for such purposes, xxxv, 36, 19. In Cicero's time magistrates
often lent one another works of art from a distance, Cic. Verr. iv. 3.

CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD. 167
Scenographic pictures, in which iUusion was the highest aim, were also
employed at the games. Plin. xxxv, 7.
4. See Cato's speech (657), Liv. xxxiv, 4. Plin. xxxiv, 14. Cicero was
afraid to be held by the judges a connoisseur in art : nimirum didici
etiam dum in istum inquire artificum nomina. Verr. iv, 2, 7. Cicero's
love for art, however, was very moderate, see Epp. ad Div. vii, 23.
Parad. 5, 2. Not so with Damasippus, Epp. ibid. Herat. Sat. u, 3, 64.
6. The intelligentes stood in contradistinction to the iliurxi, Cic. ibid.
But evenPetronius' Trimalchio says amid the most ridiculous explanations
of art : Meum enim intelUgere nulla pecunia vendo. Important passages
on connoisseurship in Dionys. de Dinarcho, p. 664. de vi Dem. p. 1108.
[ Juv. i, 56 doctus spectare lacunar.] The test was : non inscriptis auc-
torem reddere signis, Statius, SUv. iv, 6, 24. The idiotoe, on the contrary,
were often deceived with famous names. Beck, De Nom. Artif in Mo
num. artis interpolatis. 1832.
185. II. The Time of the Julii and Flavii, 723 to 848 1
A. u. (96 A. D.). Prudent princes, by means of magnificent
undertakings which also procured to the common people ex
traordinary comforts and enjoyments, brought the Romans
into entire oblivion of political life; half insane successors,
by the gigantic schemes of their folly, gave still ample occu
pation to the arts. Although art even in such times must 2
have been far removed from the truth and simplicity of the
best ages of Greece, still, however, it everywhere manifested
during this ijentury spirit and energy ; the decline of taste is
yet scarcely observable.
1. The saying of Augustus : that he would leave the city mxirmorea
which he had received lateritia. Nero's burning and rebuilding.
186. III. From Nerva to the so-called Triginta Tyranni, I
96 to about 260 years after Christ. Long-continued peace in
the Roman empire; splendid undertakings even in the pro
vinces; a transitory revival of art in Greece itself through
Hadrian; magnificent erections in the East. With all this 2
zealous and widely-extended exercise of art, the want of in
ternal spirit and life is shown more and more distinctly from
the time of the Antonines downwards, along with the striv
ing after external show; vapidity and inflation combined, as
in oratory and literature. The force of the spirit of Greco- 3
Roman culture was broken by the inroad of foreign ideas;
the general want of satisfaction with the hereditary religions,
the blending together of heterogeneous superstitions must
have been in many ways pernicious to art. The circumstance 4
that a Syrian sacerdotal family occupied for a while the Ro
man throne had considerable influence. Syria and Asia Mi- 5
nor were at that time the most flourishing provinces, and an
Asiatic character emanating from thence, is clearly observable
in the arts of design as well, as in literature.

168 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V.
3. The worship of Isis, which made violent intrusion about the year
700 a. u. and often served as a cloak to Ucentiousness, became graduaUy
so prevalent that Commodus and CaracaUa openly took part in it. — The
worship of Mithras, a mixture of Assyrian and Persian reUgion, became
first known in the Roman world through the pirates, before Pompey,
and was estabUshed at Rome from the time of Domitian, and stiU more
from the time of Commodus. The Syrian worship was in favour even
under Nero, but became prevalent particularly from the time of Septi-
mius Severus. — Add to this, the Chaldsean GenethUology ; Magic amu
lets, §. 206 ; theurgic phUosophy. Comp. Heyne, Alexandri Severi Imp.
reUgiones misceUasprobantis judicium, especially Bpim. vi. : de artis fin-
gendi et sculpendi corruptelis ex religionibus peregrinis et superstitioni-
bus profectis, Opusc. Acadd. vi, p, 273.
4. Genealogy also is of importance to the history of art :
Bassianus
Priest of the sun at Emesa
 \ 
Julia Domna Julia MMSi.
the wife of Septimius Severus |
 \  \ 
Bassianus ' Septimius Scemias Julia Mamm.«a
CaracaUa Geta by a Roman senator by a Syrian
I I
Heliogabalus Severus Alexander.
1 187. IV. From the Triginta Tyranni to the Byzantine times.
2 The ancient world declined, and with it art. The old Roman
patriotism lost, through political changes and the powerless-
ness of the empire, the hold which the rule of the Csesars had
3 still left it. The living faith in the gods of heathendom dis
appeared ; attempts to preserve it only gave general ideas for
personal substances. At the same time was altogether lost
the manner of viewing things to which art is indebted for its
existence,— the warm and living conception of external nature,
4 the intimate union of corporeal forms with the spirit. A dead
system of forms smothered the movements of freer vital
power; the arts themselves were taken into the service of a
tasteless half-oriental court-parade. Before the axe was laid
externally to the root of the tree the vital sap was already
dried up within.

2. ARCHITECTONICS.

I 188. Even before the Csesars Rome was provided with all
kinds of edifices which seemed necessary to adorn a great
2 city, after the manner of the Macedonian structures; — ele-

STRUCTURES AT THE CLOSE OF THE REPUBLIC. 169
gantly built temples, although none of considerable extent;
curiw and basilicce, which became more and more necessary to
the Romans as places of assembly and business, as well as
markets {fora) surrounded with colonnades and public build
ings; buildings also for games which the Roman people was
formerly accustomed to see even although magnificent, con
structed only for a short duration, were now built of stone
and in gigantic masses. In the same way luxury in pri
vate buildings, after it had timidly and hesitatingly taken the
first steps, soon advanced rapidly and unprecedently to a
great height; at the same time the streets were crowded with
monuments, and superb villas swallowed up the space destined
for agriculture.
2. Temple of Honor and Virtus buUt by the architect C, Mutius for
Marius, according to Hirt u. s. 213; others (as Sachse i. s. 450)' hold it
to be that of MarceUus, §. 180. Rem. 2. The new capitol of SuUa and
Catulus with unaltered plan, dedicated in 674. The temple of Yenus
Genitrix on the Forum JuUum, vowed in 706 ; Temple of Divus J-uUus,
begun in 710.
3. The Curia of Pompey 697 ; the magnificent BasiUca of .^miUus
Paulus, the consul 702, with Phrygian columns (BasiUca .SlmiUa et Ful-
via, Varro de L. L. vi. §. 4). The BasiUca JuUa, which Augustus com
pleted and then renewed, at the south-west corner of the Palatine. See
Gerhard, DeUa BasiUca GiuUa. R. 1823. Adjoining it was the new Forum
.JuUum, completed by Augustus. On the design of a Forum §. 295.
4. In the year 694 M. .^mUius Scaurus as sedile fitted up magnifi
cently a wooden theatre ; the wall around the stage consisted of three
tiers of piUars (episcenia), behind which the waU was of marble below,
then of glass, and then of gUded wainscot : 3,000 brazen statues, many
pictures and tapestries. Curio the tribune's (702) two wooden theatres
were united into an amphitheatre. Pompey's theatre (697), the first of
stone, for 40,000 spectators, was copied from that of Mitylene.- On the
upper circuit stood a temple of Venus Victrix. Hirt ui. s. 98. [Canina
sul teatro di Pompeo in the Mem. d. acad. Archeol. 1833.] The first am
phitheatre of stone erected by StatiUus Taurus under Augustus, The
circus Maximus was fitted up for 150,000 men in the reign of Csesar.
5. The censor L. Crassus was much censured about the year 650 on
account of his house with six small columns of Hymettic marble. The
first that was faced with marble (a luxury which now crept in) belonged
to Mamurra, 698 ; but even Cicero lived in a house which cost llsxxxv,
that is J26,090. Mazois, Palais de Scaurus, fragm. d'un voyage fait k
Rome vers la fin de la republ. par Merovir prince des Su&ves. In Ger
man with notes by the brothers Wiistemann. Gotha 1820.
6. LucuUus' vUlas, Petersen Einl. p. 71, Varro's Ornithon (after the
tower of the Winds at Athens, de R, R, iu, 3). Monument of Csecilia
MeteUa, the wife of Crassus, almost the only ruin of that time. — Archi
tects in the time of Cicero, Hirt u. s. 267. Cyrus in Cicero's letters.

170 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. V.
1 189. In the time of the first Csesars Roman architecture
in public buildings cultivated a character of grandeur and
magnificence, which was certainly the most conformable to
the relations and ideas of a people that governed the world.
2 Pillars and arches took their place in considerable buildings
as a leading form, together with the columns and their entab
lature, while at the same time the fundamental law was ob
served that both forms, but each preserving its own place,
should go side by side, so that the arches formed the internal
construction of the building, the columns the external front,
and where no roof rested upon their entablature should fulfil
3 their end as supports to statues. However, there were more
severe scholars of the Greek masters, such as Vitruvius, who
were even already forced to complain of the mixture of hete-
4 rogeneous forms; a reproach, that must also indeed apply to
the so-called Roman capital which did not make its appear
ance till after Vitruvius. Purity of architecture required to
be even at that time learned from the edifices of the Grecian
mother country and Ionia.
3, See Vitruv. i, 2, iv, 2, on the blending of the Ionic dentels with the
Doric triglyphs. It is found exempUfied in the theatre of Marcellus.
Vitruvius complains more loudly of scenography which mocked at aU
architectonic principles, §, 209,
4, The Roman or Composite capital places the Ionic corner-capital
entire over the lower two-thirds of the Corinthian, into which however
the former had been already taken up in the most suitable manner ; it
loses thereby all unity of character. The columns are carried to a height
of 9 to 91 diameters. First introduced in the arch of Titus.
1 190. Augustus, with a true princely disposition, compre
hended all branches of a Roman order of architecture: he
found the field of Mars still for the most part unoccupied,
and together with Agrippa and others converted it into a
superb city agreeably interspersed with groves and verdant
2 lawns, which eclipsed all the rest of the city. The succeed
ing emperors crowded with their buildings more around the
Palatine and the Via Sacra; one enormous fabric here arose
3 on the ruins of another. In the room of the gigantic edifices
of Nero, which only ministered to the debauchery and vanity
of the builder, the Elavil planted structures of public util
ity; in their time, -however, a perceptible decline of good taste
4 took place. A terrible event in the reign of Titus has pre
served to posterity the animated spectacle of a whole Roman
country-town, in which, notwithstanding the utmost econ
omizing of space, and on the whole a slight and cheap style
of building, there are to be found nearly all kinds of public
buildings which a capital possessed, and a taste for elegant
form and pleasing ornament are seen everywhere diffused.

ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 171
1. Under Augustus (Monum. Ancyranum) :
I. In Rome. a. BuUt by the Emperor. Temple of Apollo Palatinus,
completed in 724, of Carrara, and the colonnades around of Punic marble ;
libraries in it. Sachse u. s. 10. Petersen Einl. s. 87. Temple of Jupiter
Tonans, now of Saturn (three Corinthian columns together with entabla
ture on the Capitoline hiU are remains of a restoration, Desgodetz, Les
Edifices Antiques de Rome, ch. 10) ; of Quirinus, a dipteros ; of Mars Ultor
on the capitol, a smaU monopteros, which we still see on coins, and in the
forum of Augustus a large temple, of which three columns still remain.
Piale, Atti deU' Ace. Archeol. Rom. ii. p. 69. The Roman/o?'a according
to Bunsen, Mon. d. Instit. ii, 33. 34. Theatre of Marcellus, built into the
Palace Orsini, 378 feet in diameter (see Guattani M. I. 1689, Genu. Febr.
Piranesi, Antichitk Rom. T. iv. t. 25 — 37. Desgodetz, ch. 23). Portico of
Octavia (formerly of MeteUus) together with a curia, schola, library and
temples — a vast structure. A few Corinthian columns of it remaining, as
is thought (comp. Petersen Einl. s. 97 ff). Mausoleum of Augustus toge
ther with the Bustum on the field ©f Mars beside the Tiber ; remains of
it. Aquoe. Vice. [The bust^at the Corse, Beschr. Roms iii. 3 Einleitung.]
b. BuUdings of other great personages (Sueton. August. 29). By M.
Agrippa, great harbours and cloacse ; the portico of Neptune or the Argo
nauts ; the Septa JuUa and the Diribitorium with enormous roof (PUn.
xvi, 76, and xxxvi. 24, 1. e cod. Bamberg. Dio Cass. Iv, 8) ; the large
Thermae. The Pantheon formed an advanced building in front (727) ; a
circular edifice 132 feet high and broad within, with a portico of 16
Corinthian columns of granite ; the waUs reveted with marble, the lacu
naria adorned with gUded rosettes. Brazen beams supported the roof of
the portico, the tUes were gUded. Dedicated to the gods of the Julian
family (Jupiter as Ultor, Mars, Venus, D. Julius and three others), colossal
statues of whom stood in niches. — [Instead of the words Pantheon lovi
Ultori in the second passage of PUny, the Cod. Bamb. has vidit orbis : non
et tectum diribitorul There are only six niches.] — Other statues in
tabernacles, the Caryatides of Diogenes on columns. Colossi of Augus
tus and Agrippa in the portico. Restored 202 after Christ. S. Maria
Rotonda. Desgodetz, ch. 1. Hirt in the Mus. der Alterthums W. Bd. i.
s. 148. Guattani 1789. Sett. Mem. Bncycl. 1817. p. 48. [Beschr. Roms
iu, 3. s. 339—69.] Four [legal] documents by Fea. 1806 and 1807, [on
the removal of the adjoining houses]. Wiebeking Biirgerl. Baukunst, Tf
24. Rosini's Vedute. By Asinius PolUo the atrium of Libertas with n,
bibUotheca and busts of literary men. See Reuvens in Thorbecke, De
Asinio PolUone. CorneUus Balbus' Theatre. — Pyramid of Cestius.
On the picturesque appearance (scenography) of the Campus Martius
at this time, Str. v. p. 266, Comp, Piranesi's imaginative panoramic
view : Campus Martius, R. 1762,
II. Out of Rome. In Italy the arches in honour of Augustus at
Rimini (see Briganti's work), Aosta and Susa (Maffei, Mus. Veron. p.
234. Work by Massazza), which are stUl standing. Road cut through
the hiU of PosiUppo by T. Cocceius Auctus. R. Rochette, Lettre k M.
Schorn. p. 92. In the provinces, several temples of Augustus and Roma ;
ruins at Pola. The stoa of Athena Archegetis at the new forum of

172 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Pee. V.
Athens with an equestrian statue of L. Csesar (slender Doric columns)
about 750. C. I. n. 342. 477. Stuart i. ch. 1. Remains of a smaU temple
of Augustus have been lately discovered (C. I. 478). McopoUs near Ac
tium, and near Alexandria built by Augustus. Ara maxima built to Au
gustus in 744 by the nations of Gaul, on an inscription in Osann Zeitschr.
f. A. W. 1837. s, 387. Sumptuous buUdings by Herod the Great in Ju-
dsea (Hirt, in the Schriften der Berl. Acad. 1816) ; the new temple en
deavoured to bring the old style of Solomon into harmony with the Greek
taste now prevaiUng in architecture. Temple of C, and L. Csesar at Ne-
mausus, Nismes, an elegant Corinthian prostyle pseudopeript,, buUt 752
(1 after Christ), Clerisseau, Antiquites de Nismes. Comp, §. 262, 2.
2, The Claudii, The camp of the Prsetorians (a. d. 22) marks the
time of Tiberius, and the street-Uke bridge of vessels across the bay of
Baise that of CaUgula (Mannert Geogr. ix, 1, s, 731). Claudius' great
harbour of Ostia with gigantic moles and a pharos on an artificial island,
afterwards stUl more improved by Trajan (Schol, Juven, xu, 76) ; his
aqueducts (aqua Claudia et Anio .novus) and draining of the lake
Pucinus. [Completed by Hadrian, Martiniere Geogr. Lex. iv. s. 1973 sq.]
Bunsen AnnaU d. Inst. vi. p. 24. tav, d'agg. A, B, [L, Canina suUa sta-
gione delle navi di Ostia, sul porto di Claudio 1838, Atti del acad. pontef 1
Claudius' triumphal arch on the Flaminian way (on coins, Pedrusi vi. tb.
6, 2), buried ruins of it. Bullet, d. Inst. 1830, p, 81. Palatine palaces of
the Csesars, Del palazzo de' Cesari opera postuma da Franc, Bianchini.
Ver, 1738. A new Rome regularly built arose from Nero's conflagration
(65). The golden house (on the site of the tran^itoria) extended across
from the Palatine to the EsquiUne and CseUus, with porticoes several
mUlia in length and large parks laid out in the interior, and indescrib
able splendour particularly in the dining-haUs. The architects were Celer
and Severus... The FlavU destroyed the greatest part; numerous cham
bers have been preserved in the EsquiUne, behind the substruction-waUs
of the baths of Titus, See Ant. de Romanis, Le antiche Camere Esqui
Une 1822, and Canina's Memorie Rom. u. p. 119. comp. §. 210. Nero's
baths on the Campus. [Canina sul porto Neroniano di Ostia R. 1837,
from the Atti d, acad, pontef]
3. The Flavii, The third capitol, by Vespasian, higher than the ear
Uer ones (on coins, Eckhel D, N, iv, p, 327); the fourth, by Domitian,
StiU always according to the same ground-plan but with Corinthian pU-
lars of PenteUc marble, within richly gilded (Eckhel, p. 377). Temple
of Peace, by Vespasian (Eckhel, p. 334) ; extensive ruins on the Via Sa^
era. The cross-arch of the centre-nave was supported by eight Corin
thian columns; at each side three subordinate compartments Bra-
mante borrowed from them the idea of St. Peter's. According to others
it belonged to a basiUca of Constantine (Nibby del tempio d Pace et
deUa bas. di Constant. 1819. La bas. di Constant, sbandita deUa Via
Sacra per lett. deU' Av. Fea. 1819). Desgodetz, ch. 7. Comp Caristie
Plan et Coupe du Forum et de la Voie Sacree. Amphitheatrum Flavi-
um (CoUseum) dedicated by Titus, in the year 80, and used at the same
time as a Naumachia. The height 158 Parisian feet, the smaU axis 156
(Arena) and 2 X 166 (Seats), the large, 264 and 2 x 156 Desgodetz
ch. 21. Guattani 1789. Febr. Marzo. Five small treatises by Fea

ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 173
Wagner de Flav. Amph. Commentationes. Marburghi 1829 — 1831. comp.
§. 290, 3. 4. Titus' palace and thermse. Domitian built many mag
nificent edifices, as to which Martial, Stat, Silv, iv, 2, 48, Large domed
haU on the Palatium by Rabirius, The Alban citadel (Piranesi, Anti-
chitJi d' Albano). Forum PaUadium of Domitian or Nerva with richly
decorated architecture ; chamfered corona ; modillions and dentels toge
ther ; see Moreau, Fragmens d' Architecture, pi. 7. 8, 11, 12. 13, 14, 17, 18.
Guattani 1789. Ottobre. Arch of Titus on the Via Sacra, the architec
ture somewhat overloaded, the corona channelled. BartoU, Vet. Arcus
August, cum notis I. P. BeUoru ed, lao, de Rubeis 1690, Desgodetz, ch.
17. comp. §. 294, 9. [Gius. Valadier Narraz. artist. deU' operate nel
ristauro dell' arco di Tito. In Roma 1822. 4to.]
4. Under Titus (a, D..79), Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabijs buried.
History of their discovery, §. 260. Pompeii is highly interesting as a
miniature picture of Rome. A third portion of the city has been laid
open, and here there are a principal forum, with the temple of Jupi
ter (t), a basilica, the Chalcidicum and Crypta of the Eumachia, and the
CoUegium of the Augustales (1), the forum rerum venalium, two theatres
(the unroofed one buUt by Antoninus Primus, M. Borbon. i, 38), thermse,
numerous temples mostly smaU, among them an Iseum, many private
buUdings, in part very stately dwellings provided with atrium and peri
style, such as the so-caUed house of Arrius Diomedes, that of SaUust, of
Pansa, and those called after the tragic poet and the faun ; the street of
sepulchres before the gate towards Herculaneum ; separated from these
the amphitheatre to the east. Almost everything on a small scale, the
houses low (also on account of earthquakes), but neat, clean, and com
fortable, sUghtly buUt with rubble stones, but cast with excellent plaster ;
beautiful fioors of particoloured marble and mosaic. The columns mostly
of the Doric order with slender shafts, but sometimes Ionic with singular
deviations from the regular form, and with a coating of paint (Mazois,
Livr. 26), also Corinthian, The most antique structure is the so-caUed
temple of Hercules, Much had not yet been -restored after the earth
quake of 63 A, D,
Principal Books : Antiquites de la Grande Grfece, grav. par, Fr, Pira
nesi d'aprls les desseins de J. B. Piranesi et expl. par A, J. Guattani. P,
1804. 3 vols, fo, Mazois' splendid work, Antiquit6s de Pomp6i, begun in
1812, continued since 1827 by Gau, [Completed with the fourth part
1838,] Sir W, GeU and Gandy, Pompeiana or Observations on the Topo
graphy, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii. L. 1817. New Series 1830,
in 8vo, Goro von Agyagfalva's Wanderungen durch Pompeii, Wien
1826. R, Rochette and Bouchet, Pomp&, Choix d'Edifices Inedits, be
gun Paris 1828, [contains Maison du pofete trag. broken off at the 3d
part, 22 pi,] Cockburn and Donaldson, Pompeu illustrated with pic
turesque Views, 2 vols, fo, W. Clarke's Pompeii, translated at Leip
zig 1834, M. Borbonico, Comp, §, 260, 2. The latest excavations, BuU.
1837. p. 182. [Engelhardt Beschr. der in Pompeii ausgegrabenen Ge-
baude, Berlin 1843, 4to. (from CreUe's Journal for Archit,) The Library
of Entertaining Knowledge, Pompeii 2 vols. 2d Bd, London 1833. L.
Rossini le antichitk di Pompeii deUn. suUe scoperte fatte sine I'anno 1830.
R. fol. max. 75 tav.]

174 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V.
191. The vast buildings erected by Trajan, the struc
tures of Hadrian which vie with everything earlier, and even
particular edifices reared under the Antonines, present archi
tecture in its last period of bloom, on the whole still as noble
and great as it was rich and elegant, although, in particular
works, the crowding and overloading with ornaments, to which
the time had a tendency, was already very sensible. We find
also, even from the time of Domitian, the insulated pedestals
of columns (stylobates) which arose from continuous posta-
ments (stereobates). They have no other ground and aim
than the straining at slender forms and the greatest possible
interruption and composition.
1. Trajan's Forum, the most stupendous in all Rome according to
Ammian. xvi, 10, with a brazen roof which must have been perforated
(Paus. v, 12, 4. X, 6, 6. gigantei contextus, Ammian.) ; many columns and
fragments of granite found there recently. In the middle the column
(113 A. D.) with the braizen statue of the emperor (now St. Peter). Pe
destal 17 feet; base, shaft, capital and pedestal of the statue 100 feet.
The shaft 11 feet thick below and 10 above. Composed of cylinders of
white marble ; with a stair inside. The band with the reUefs becomes
broader as it ascends, which diminishes the apparent height. BartoU's
Columna Trajana. [1673. Col. Traj. 134. sen. tabuUs insc, quse olim Mu-
tianus incidi cur, cum expl, Ciacconi, nunc a C, Losi reperta imprimitur.
R. 1773,] Piranesi's superb work 1770, Raph, Fabretti, De Columna Tra-
jani. R. 1683, Against the traces of colours which Semper and others as
serted, Morey in the Bull. 1836, p, 39, The Basilica Ulpia adorned with
numerous statues, on bronze coins (Pedrusi vi, tb. 25). A great number
of architectural works, — thermse, odeion, harbour, aqueduct (on coins).
Traj anus herba parietaria. Almost all by ApoUodorus, Dio Cass. Ixix, 4,
as likewise the bridge over the Danube, a. n. 105. Comp. Eckhel D. N. vi. p.
419. Arches of Trajan are still in existence at Ancona (very fine, of large
masses of stone), and at Benevento, of almost Palmyrenian architecture.
Works on these by Giov. di Nicastro and Carlo NoUi. The correspon
dence with Pliny the younger shows the Emperor's knowledge, and his
interest in the buildings in aU the provinces. Pliny's ViUas (Mustius the
architect,) treatises upon them by Marquez and Carlo Fea.
Hadrian, himself an architect, put Apollodorus to death from hatred
and jealousy. Temple of Venus and Roma, pseudodipt. decast., in a fore
court with a double colonnade, chiefly of marble with Corinthian columns,
large niches for the statues, beautiful lacunaria and brazen roof. See
Caristie, Plan et Coupe n. 4. The front view (with the history of Ro
mulus on the pediment) on the bas-relief in R. Rochette M. I. i. pi. 8.
Tomb on the further side of the Tiber, described by Procopius, BeU.
Goth, i, 22. Now the castle of S. Angelo, Piranesi, Antichitk iv. t. 4—
12. Restorations, Hirt Gesch. Tf 13, 3. 4. 30, 23. Bunsen (after Major
Bavari's investigations) Beschr. Roms ii. s. 404. A structure square be
low supported a circular building which probably diminished upwards in
three stages. [Circus in the neighbourhood of the Mausoleum, a treatise
thereon by Canina, 1839, in the Mem. d. Acad. Rom. di Archeol.] Tibur-

ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 175
tine vUla, full of imitations of Greek and Egyptian buildings (Lyceum,
Academia, Prytaneum, Canopus, Poecile, Tempe, [Lesche, in great part
preserved] a labyrinth of ruins, 7 mUlia in circuit, and a very rich mine
of statues and mosaics. Pianta della vUla Tiburt. di Adriano by Pirro
Ligorio and Franc. Contini. R. 1751. Winckelm. vi, 1. s. 291. As euer
getes of Greek cities Hadrian completed the Olympieion at Athens (01.
227, 3. comp. C. I. n. 331), and built a new city to which he gave his
name ; the arch over the entrance to it is still standing ; there were there
a Herseon, Pantheon, and Panhellenion, with numerous Phrygian and
Libyan columns. Probably the very large portico 376 X 262 feet, north
from the citadel, with stylobates, is also one of Hadrian's edifices. Stuart
i. ch. 5 (who takes it to be the Poecile), Leake, Topogr. p. 120. To the
Attic monuments of the time belongs also that in commemoration of the
Seleucid PhUopappus' admission to the citizenship of Athens, erected in
the Museion about the year 114 under Trajan. Stuart iii. ch. 5. Grandes
Vues de Cassas et Bence, pi. 3. Bockh C. I. 362. In Egypt Antinoe
(Besa), beautifuUy and regularly laid out in the Grecian style, with co
lumns of the Corinthian order, but of free forms however. Description
de I'Bgypte, T. iv. pi. 53 sqq. Decrianus, architect and mechanician,
§• 197.
Under Antoninus Pius, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, at first
probably destined only for the latter, a prostyle with beautiful Corin
thian capitals, the cornice already greatly overloaded. Desgodetz 8.
Moreau pi. 23. 24. ViUa of the Emperor at Lanuvium. The column in
honour of Antoninus Pius erected by Marcus AureUus and Lucius Verus,
merely a column of granite, of which nothing more than the marble
postament is preserved, in the garden of the Vatican, §. 204, 4 : Vignola
de Col. Antonini. R. 1705. [Seconda Lettera del sgr. M. A. de la Chausse
sopra la col. d. apoth. di A. P, Nap, 1805.] Column of Marcus AureUus,
less imposing than that of Trajan (the bas-relief band is of the same
height throughout). [The col. of Marcus AureUus, after P. S. BartoU's
designs, by Bellori 1704,] A triumphal arch erected at the same time
in the Flaminian way, the reliefs of which are stUl preserved in the palace
of the Conservatori. Herodes Atticus, the preceptor of M, AureUus and
L, Verus (comp. FiorUlo and Visconti on his inscriptions) showed an in
terest in Athens by the embellishment of the stadion and by building
an odeion. A theatre at New-Corinth. [A temple, supposed to have
been built in the time of the Antonines at Jseckly near Mylasa, Ion. An
tiq. i. ch. 4.]
192. After the time of Marcus Aurelius, although the love 1
of building did not cease, a more rapid decline in architectural
taste took place. Decorations were crowded to such a degree 2
that all clearness of conception was destroyed, and so many
intermediate mouldings were everywhere introduced between
the essential members that the principal forms, especially the
corona, completely lost their definite and distinctive character.
By seeking to multiply every simple form, interrupting the 3
rows of columns together with the entablature by frequent
advancings and retirings, sticking half-columns to pilasters.

176 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V,
making one pilaster jut out from another, breaking the ver
tical line of the shafts with consoles for the support of sta
tues, making the frieze belly out, and filling the walls with a
great number of niches and frontispieces, they deprived the
column, the pillar, the entablature, the wall and every other
member, of its significance and peculiar physiognomy, and
together with a bewildering perplexity produced at the same
4 time an extremely tiresome monotony. Although the techni
cal construction on the whole was excellent, the workmanship,
however, in detail become more and more clumsy, and the care
in the execution of the enriched members diminished in pro-
5 portion as these were multiplied. The taste of the nations of
Syria and Asia Minor had evidently the greatest influence on
this tendency of architecture; and there likewise are to be
found the most distinguished examples of this luxuriant and
6 florid style. Even native structures in the East may not have
escaped all influence ; the mixtures of Greek with indigenous
forms in barbaric countries, which can be pointed out, appear
chiefly to belong to this period.
1. Under Commodus, the temple of Marcus AureUus with convex
frieze (built into the Dogana). The arch of Septimius Severus, bungled
in the design (the middle columns advance without any aim), overloaded
with tracery of rude workmanship. [Suaresius Arcus Sept. Sev. R. 1676.
fol.] Another arch erected by the Argentarii. Desgodetz, ch. 8. 19. Bel
lori. Septizonium quite ruinous in the 1 6th century. A labyrinth built
by Qu. Julius Miletus as an institution for the recreation of the people.
Welcker, SyUoge, p. xvii. Cakacalla's thermse, an enormous structure
with excellent masonwork ; light vaulted roofs of a composition of pu
mice-stone, of great span, particularly in the cella solearis (a swimming
bath towards the east), comp. Spartian Carac. 9. (The chief mine of the
Farnesian statues, the earlier of exceUent, the more recent of ordinary
workmanship.) A. Blouet's Restauration des Thermes d'Ant. CaracaUa.
On new excavations, Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom. Studien, s. 142. The so-
caUed circus of CaracaUa (probably of Maxentius ; the inscription how
ever does not entirely decide) before the Porta Capena, badly buUt.
Lately laid open. Investigation on the subject by Nibby; Kunstblatt
1825. N. 22. 50. 1826. N. 69. Hbliooabalus dedicated to the god after
whom he was named a temple on the Palatium. Severus Alexander,
Thermse and other bathing establishments ; many earlier buUdings were
then renewed. There are many things besides at Rome which have come
down from the time of florid architecture, such as the so-called temples
of Jupiter Stator, Portuna ViriUs (now Maria Bgiziana), and Concordia
(a later restoration of a temple to Divus Vespasianus, according to Fea).
5. In Syria, Antioch was adorned by almost every emperor with
buildings, particularly aqueducts, therma, nymphsea, basilica, xysta,
and edifices for games, and its ancient splendour (§. 149) was often
restored after earthquakes. At Heliopolis (Baalbeck) the great temple of
Baal buUt in the time of Antoninus Pius (Malalas, p. 119. Ven.), peript.
decast. 280 X 165 Par. P., with a quadrangular and a hexagonal fore-

ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OF THE EMPERORS. 177
court ; a smaUer temple peript. hexast. with a thalamus (comp. §. 163.
Rem. 3) ; a strangely designed tholus. R. Wood, The Ruins of Baalbeck,
otherwise HeUopolis. L. 1757. Cassas, Voy. pittor. en Syrie ii. pi. 3 — 57.
Souvenirs pendant un voy. en orient (1832. 33.) par M. Alph. de Lamar-
tine, P. 1836. T. iii. p. 15 sqq. Magnificent description on the temple of
the Sun, data by Russegger, in the BuU. 1837. p. 94 sq. Palmyra
(Tadmor) sprang up as a place of tratfic in the desert in the first century
after Christ, and flourished, after being restored by Hadrian, during the
peaceful reign of the Antonines, afterwards as the residence of Odenatus
and Zenobia, tiU its conquest by Aurelian. See Heeren, Commentatt. Soc.
Gott, rec. vu. p. 39. Diocletian also caused baths and churches to be
buUt there, and Justinian renewed them (according to Procopius and
Malalas). Temple of Helios (Baal) octast. pseudodipt. 185 X 97 feet,
with columns having metal foUage fixed on, in a large court (700 feet
long and broad) with Propylsea, on the east. SmaU temple prost. hexast.
on the west. Between them a street of columns 3,500 feet in length, an
imitation of that at Antioch. Round about ruins of a palace, basUicse,
open colonnades, markets, aqueducts, honorary monuments, tombs (that
of lambUchus bmlt A. D. 103, of very remarkable architecture) ; for games
only a smaU stadium. Wood, The Ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tadmor.
1753. Cassas i. pi. 26 sqq. In simUar style were laid out the cities of
Decapolis, east from the Jordan, especiaUy Gerasa (on which Burck-
hardt treats in his Travels in Syria, p. 263, and Buckingham, in greater
detaU, Trav. in Palestine, p. 363 sqq. with various plans and sketches)
and Gadara (Gamala in Buckingham, p. 44). The same gorgeous and
overloaded architecture prevaUed in Asia Minor, as is shown in the tem
ple at Labranda (Kiselgick, according to others, Euromus, Choiseul,
Gouff. Voy. Pitt. i. pi. 122. Ionian Antiq, i. ch. 4), the monument of My
lasa, with columns eUiptical in transverse section (Ion. Ant. ch. 7. pi. 24
sq, Chois, pi, 86 sq,), the ruins of a temple at Ephesus (Ion, Ant, pi, 44, 46.
Chois. pi. 122) ; the portico of Thessalonica (Stuart iii. ch. 9) also belongs
to this time. In the rock-sepulchres near Jerusalem, especiaUy those
caUed the tombs of the kings, the period of which it is difficult to deter
mine (Munter Antiq. Abhandl. s. 96 sq. Raumer's Palastina s. 212. 216)
there appear simpler forms of Greek architecture ; only the character
of the ornaments is oriental (grapes, palms and the Uke), Cassas iii. pi.
19—41. Forbin, Voy. d. le Levant, pi. 38.
6. In the remarkable ruins of Petra, the rock environed and almost
inaccessible city of the Nabatheans, which was enriched by the com
merce from the Red Sea, there are found rock-built temples with domes,
theatres, sepulchres, ruins of palaces ; also colossal statues ; on the
whole, Grecian forms, but arbitrarily composed, and disfigured by a love
of fantastic multipUcity of forms. See especially Burckhardt, Trav. in
Syria, p. 421. Leon de Laborde and Linant, Voy. de I'Arabie Petree,
Livr. 2 sqq. Not only do we find an interesting combination of later
Roman with native forms in the empire of the Sassanidse (§. 248) but
also in that of Meroe, especiaUy at the small temple near Naga (CaU-
liaud, Voy. h. Meroe i. pi. 13).
193. Reckoning from the time of the Thirty Tyrants, and 1
still more from that of Diocletian, luxuriance passed over en-
M

178 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Pee. V.
tirely into rudeness which neglected the fundamental forms
2 and principles of ancient architecture. Columnar was so
combined with arched architecture that the arches were at
first made to rest on the entablature, and afterwards were
even made to spring immediately from the abacus in vio
lation of the laws of statics, which require undiminished and
angular pillars under the arch; at length they went so far
as to give the entablature itself, together with the dentels
3 and modillions, the form of an arch. They placed columns
and pilasters on consoles, which projected from the walls
in order to support arches or pediments ; they began to give
the shafts screw-channelled and otherwise convoluted forms.
4 Covering members were on account of the multiplicity of
the parts regarded as the principal thing, and were loaded
on those lying beneath in a most unwieldy manner, as the
cornice was on the entablature in general, and in its separate
5 subordinate parts. The execution was universally meagre,
tame and rude, without roundness or effect; there was left
however, as a remnant of the Roman spirit, a certain gran
deur in the design ; and in the mechanical details things were
6 still done worthy of admiration. In consequence of the new
organization of the empire fewer buildings were undertaken
7 at Rome itself, but on the other hand provincial cities, espe
cially from the time of Diocletian, flourished with new splen-
8 dour. What injured Rome most was the transference of the
throne to Constantinople.
6. GaUienus' arch, of travertine, in a simple style destitute of art. Un
der AureUan the walls of Rome were widened, attention to security began
(Nibby's statements in Mura di Roma 1821 are not always correct, see
Stef Piale in the Dissert. deU' Ace. Archeol. ii. p. 95). Great double
temple of Bel and HeUus. Salaried teachers of architecture. Diocle
tian's Thermse in tolerable preservation ; the circular haU in the centre,
the groined vault of which is supported by eight granite columns, was
converted by Michael Angelo in 1660 into the beautiful church S. Maria
degli AngeU. Desgodetz 24. Le Terme Diocl. misur. e disegn. da Seb. Oya.
R. 1558. Strong castle and vUla of the Ex-emperor near Salona (at
Spalatro) in Dalmatia, 705 feet long and broad. Adam's Ruins of the
Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, 1764. fol. The column in honour of
Diocletian at Alexandria (otherwise Pompey's pillar) is very large indeed
(88| Par, f ) but in bad taste. Descr, de I'Bgypte T, v, pi. 34. Anti
quites, T, ii, ch, 26, Append., Norry Descr. de la Colonne de Pomp6e.
Hamilton's .Slgyptiaca, pi. 18. Cassas iu. pi. 68. [(§. 149. R. 2). Clarke Tra
vels ii, 2. a title plate, Dalton Mus. Gr. et Mg. or Antiquities from draw
ings, pi. 43, The shaft is good in style, the capital and base bad, on
which account Norry, Leake in the Classical Journal, vol. 13. p. 153, and
Wilkinson Topogr, of Thebes 1835, regard it as a Grecian work of the
flourishing period of Alexandria, and suppose from the inscription 20 feet
high which was restored by ViUoison and Leake, that it was only at last
dedicated to Diocletian, J. White .^gyptiaca, Oxf 1801, thought that

ARCHITECTURE IN THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 179
Ptol. PhUad. raised it to his father. Only Zoega de obel. p. 607 has
shown that Apthonius in his description of the acropoUs of Alexandria,
Progymn. 12 speaks of this column as the far-conspicuous central point
of the buUdings on the acropoUs which were derived from the Ptolemies
(oigX*' ^^ ¦'¦'''' ''"r'av rri ri/g xiovog xojulpJi ve^ieariixxai), and that the place
where it now stands also agrees therewith. This testimony cannot be
shaken, although the inscription given by Cyriacus, which says that the
column was erected by Alexander the Macedonian (Deinocrates being
the architect), and which is defended by Osann in the Memorie d. Inst.
archeol. iii. p, 329, cannot be genuine. Accordingly the column did not
first proceed from the granite quarries of Syene in the years 205 — 209, as
Letronne maintains in Rech. pour servir k Phist. de I'Bg. p. 367, and Journ.
des. Sav. 1836. p. 693, and the present author also has Conceded in the
HaU. A. L. Z. 1835. Jun. s. 246. that the shaft may have been taken from
that column which was erected on the same site in the time of Alexander
or the Ptolemies.] The arch of Constantine, adorned with Dacian vic
tories from Trajan's arch, the new sculptures very iU proportioned.
Baths of Constantine. Tomb of Constantia, the daughter of Constantine
(the so-called temple of Bacchus, Desgodetz, ch. 2,), beside the church of
S. Agnes ; and of Helena the wife of Julian, a tholus, in the style of the
Pantheon, on the Via Nomentana. The corrupt style of architecture at
that time, with its twisted and convoluted columns, is not seen so dis
tinctly in ruins as on sarcophagi (for example that of Probus Anicius,
about 390. BatteUi's Dissertation on it, R, 1706), also on coins of Asia
Minor, for instance those of Blaundos under PhUippus Arabs,
7. Besides Rome, the foUowing were places of importance : Mediola-
num, on the buildings of which see Ausonius' (died in 390) Clarse Urbes
5, Verona, with the colossal amphitheatre, and the gates built in 265
in three stories with spirally-fluted columns, and pUasters on consoles ;
[Count Orti Manara DeUe due antichissime porte esist, in Verona ai
tempi de' Romani, Verona 1840, fol,] Treveri, where there are many
ruins, the Porta Nigra, a strong work, although rude in detail, comp. §,
264; Narbo, Carthage.
8. At Byzantium, Septimius Severus had already done much in build
ing ; the city was now quickly provided with edifices for the requirements
of the people and the court. A forum of Augustus, other fora, senatus,
regia, the palatium, baths, such as the Zeuxippeion, the hippodrome
(Atmeidan), with the obeUsk erected by Theodosius and the serpent-
tripod, reputed to be from Delphi. At first temples were also dedicated
to Roma and Cybele, Theodosius built the Lauseion and thermse. The
anemodulion (somewhat resembUng the Athenian Tower of the Winds)
was a remarkable monument. See Nicetus Acom, Narratio de statuis
antiq. quas Franci destruxerunt, ed. Wilken, p. 6. For general accounts,
Zosimus, Malalas, and other chroniclers, Procop. De MAif. Justiniani,
Codinus, and an anonymous author, Antiqq. Cpolitanse, GylUus (died in
1655), Topogr. Cpoleos, Banduri Imperium Orientale, Heyne Serioris
artis opera quse sub Imper. Byzant. facta memorantur, Commentat. Soc,
Gott. xi. p, 39. There are stiU preserved the obeUsk of Theodosius ; the
porphyry column in the ancient forum, 100 feet high, on which stood the
statue of Constantine, and afterwards that of Theodosius, renewed by
Man. Comnenus ; the marble pointed columns, 91 feet high, which Con-

180 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, V.
stantine Porphyrogenitus or his grandson caused to be covered with
gilded bronze ; the pedestal of the Theodosian column (§, 207) and some
other things of less importance. See Carbognano, Descr, topogr. deUo
state presente di -CpoU. 1794, Pertusier, Promen. Pittoresques dans
Constantinople, 1815. V. Hammer's ConstantinopoUs und der Bosporus,
2 bde 1822. Raczynski's Malerische Reise, s. 42 ff. Among the princi
pal buUdings were the aqueducts (such as that of Valens), and the cis
terns, large fabrics, but petty in detail, which also prevailed in other
parts of the Bast (for example at Alexandria, Descript. de I'Bgypte T. v.
pi. 36. 37), aud served as models for Arabic buildings. In Byzantium
there are eight, partly open, partly vaulted over with smaU domes ; only
one stUl used, that beside the hippodrome 190 X 166 feet large, in three
stories, each of which consists of 16 X 14 columns. The columns are
mostly Corinthian, but also with other quite abnormal capitals. Walsh's
Journey from Constantinople to England, ed. 2. 1828. Count Andreossy's
Constantinople et le Bosphore. P. 1828. L. iii. ch. 5. 8.
1 194. During this period was developed the Christian
church-architecture, not from the Grecian temple, but, con
formably to the wants of the new religion, from the basilica,
inasmuch as old basilicas were sometimes fitted up for that
purpose, and sometimes new ones built, but after Constantine
2 chiefly with plundered pieces of architecture. A portico (pro
naos, narthex), the interior entirely roofed, several aisles, the
central one higher, or all equally high ; behind in a circular
recess (concha, sanctuarium) the elevated tribune. By length
ening this and adding side-porticoes, the later form of Italy
3 arose. Besides these, there were at Rome as baptisteries par
ticular round buildings, whose form and disposition were de
rived from the bath-rooms of the Romans (§. 292, 1 ) ; but in
the East, even as early as Constantine, churches also were
4 built of a round form with wide-vaulted cupolas. This form
was on the whole very grandiose, although in the individual
parts developed in a paltry taste in the church of St. Sophia,
which was erected in the time of Justinian ; it afterwards be
came prevalent in the Eastern empire, and even the later
Greek churches, with their main and subordinate cupolas, pay
0 homage to this taste. The edifices of the Ostrogothic time,
especially from Amalasuntha downwards, did not probably
arise without the influence of Byzantine architects.
1. Church of Saint Anges founded by Constantia, the daughter of
Constantine, a basiUca with three aisles, and with two ranges of columns,
one above the other. A five-aisled basilica of S. Paul outside the waUs,
according to some, by Constantine, the columns of different kinds, as
also in St. John of the Lateran, the curious carpenter-work originally
overlaid with gold; recently burned down (Rossini's Vedute). N. M.
Nicolai DeUa BasiUca di San Paolo. R. 1816 foL The five-aisled basilica
of St. Peter on the Vatican (Bunsen, Beschreibung von Rom ii. s. 50 sq.)
connected by porticoes with the bridge across the Tiber as St. Paul's was
with the city. St. Clemens, a model of the ancient disposition of basilicas.

CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURAL WORKS. 181
Gutensohn and Knapp, Monumenti della Rel. Christiana R. begun 1822.
Besides, Agincourt, Hist, de I'Art par les monumens depuis sa decadence,
T. iv. pL 4 — 16.64. Platner, Beschreibung Roms, i. s. 417. The descrip
tion of the church buUt by Constantine at Jerusalem corresponded in
aU the main points with these Roman basilicas, Euseb. V. Const, iii, 25
— 10 ; the same remark applies to the Church of the Apostles built by
Constantine and Helena at Byzantium, Banduri, T. ii. p. 807. Par.
3. The so-caUed Baptistery of Constantine is a circular building of this
sort, Ciampini 0pp. T. ii. tb. 8. On the Baptistery in St. Peter's, Bunsen
ii. s. 83. The description by a rhetor (Walz Rhetores i. p. 638) of a Bap-
tisterion (^.s/xveiov Bx-jmurov) with rich mosaics in the cupola over the
baptismal font is particularly interesting. The oldest example of a round
church is the cathedral of Antioch, built also by Constantine, of octagonal
plan, similar in construction to the church of San Vitale (Rem. 5) with
very high and wide cupola, Euseb. iii. 50. Dronke and Lassaulx Mat
thias KapeUe bei Kobern, s. 51. a list of 61 round and polygonal
churches. 4. The church of Saint Sophia was rebuilt by Isidore of Miletus and
Anthemius of TraUes before 537. The dome {r^ou'KXog), resting on four
piUars, was restored after an earthquake in 564 by the younger Isidore.
It was now more durable, but not so imposing. Under the dome was
the ie^xriiov, in the gaUeries at the sides the places for men and women,
in front the narthex. Procop. I, 1, Agathias v, 9, Malalas p. 81. Ven.
Cedrenus p. 386. Anonym, in Banduri Imp. Or. i. p. 65. ch. ii, p. 744. —
Other architects and finxxvovoioi of the time : Chryses of Alexandria and
Joannes of Byzantium.
6. In Ravenna there is the church of San Vitale, which is quite peri-
pherically buUt, on an octagonal ground-plan, with rude forms in the capi
tals of the columns, a buUding of the last Gothic period ; Justinian caused
it to be adorned with mosaic work by Julianus Argentarius, and to be
provided with a narthex (Rumohr, Ital. Forschungen iii, s, 200), Agin
court iv, pi, 18. 23. Theodoric's Mausoleum (at least a work of the time),
now S. Maria Rotonda, is a buUding composed of very large blocks of
freestone, and of simple although heavy forms. Smirke, Archseologia
xxiu, p, 323. Comp. Schorn Reisen in Italien s. 398 f , and on Theodoric's
buildings in Rome, Ravenna, and Ticinum [on the height at Terracina],
see Manse's Gesch. des 0. Gothischen Reichs s. 124. 396 i. Rumohr s.
198 ff. speaks against the derivation of Italian structures from Byzan
tium. Aloisius, architect at Rome about 500 a. d. Cassiodor. Var. ii. 39.
— BeUermann Die seltesten christlichen BegrabnissteUen, im Besondern
die Katacomben zu Neapel mit den Wandgemalden, Hamb. 1839. 4to.
At Rome we have only further to mention the column of the emperor
Phocas (F. A. Visconti, Lett, sopra la col. deU' Imp, Foca, 1813) erected
about the year 600 ; it was plundered from another monument,
195. Througkthe new requirements of a new religion, and 1
the fresh spirit which the subversion of all relations breathed
at least here and there into a now decrepit race, architecture
received a new spark of life. The forms indeed continued

182 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. V.
rude in detail, nay they always became more and more clumsy
and disproportioned, but at the same time, however, the works
of the Justinian and Ostrogothic period manifested a freer and
more peculiar feeling, which conceived more clearly the signi
ficance of the building as a whole than was the case with
the latest Roman architects; and the vast spaces of the basili
cas, with their simple lines and surfaces undisturbed by mosaic
work, produced a more powerful impression than the over-rich
2 Palmyrenian architecture. This style of architecture (the
early Gothic, the Byzantine) quickened anew for new ends,
and in almost all individual forms still remaining allied to
the later Roman style, prevailed throughout Christian Europe
during the first half of the Middle Ages, fostered and perfected
by the architectural corporations which were kept up from
Roman antiquity, and perhaps always continued in connexion
3 with Greece. It prevailed until the Germanic spirit, out
flanking that of southern Europe, began thoroughly to alter
the Roman forms according to an entirely new system, and
in conformity with its own fundamental ideas and feelings.
4 The pointed gable and arch, and the least possible interrup
tion in the continuation of the vertical lines denote the ex
ternal, climatic, as well as the internal fundamental tendencies
rooted in the mind, of this style of architecture so directly
opposed to the ancient, but which never became altogether
naturalized in Italy, and was therefore very quickly expelled
in the fifteenth century by the revived architecture of the
times of the Roman emperors.
2, Passages where architectural works are characterized in the 10th
and 11th century by more Grmcorum, ad consuetudinem Groecorum, and
mention is also made of Grecian architects, in StiegUtz iiber die Go-
thische Baukunst, s. 67. General assembly of masons at York in 926 ?
3. The so-called Gothic architecture in Italy and England is described
as opus Teutonicum and the Uke, see FioriUo Gesch, der Kunst in Deutsch-
^nd ii. s. 269 ff, Vasari sometimes caUs it siilo Tedesco, sometimes
"otico.

3, THE PLASTIC ART.

196, Artists flocked more and more from the conquered
countries to Rome ; at the time of Sylla, Pompey, and Octa
vian, we find that nearly all the eminent toreutae, brass-casters,
and sculptors that then existed, were assembled at Rome.
Pasiteles distinguished himself as a very industrious and care
ful artist, who never worked but from accurately finished
models. The models of Arcesilaus were in themselves more
highly prized than the statues of other artists. Decius ven-

SCULPTURE AT THE CLOSE OF THE REPUBLIC, 183
tured to measure himself with Chares in brass-casting, and
everywhere was manifest the influence of the restoration of
art produced by the study of the best models, which took its
rise principally from Athens. Neither was there any lack of 3
workers in vessels, although none came up to those of earlier
times ; wherefore argentum vetus was used as synonymous with
finely-wrought. In coins the best age did not begin till the 4
year 700 ; we have denarii of that time which rival the coins
of Pyrrhus and Agathocles in delicacy of workmanship and
beauty of design, although indeed the spirit and grandeur of
earlier Greek coins are still found wanting in these,
2. Pasiteles from Magna Grecia, toreutes and brass-caster, Civis
Rom. 662 ; he executed perhaps sometime earlier the statue for MeteUus'
temple of Jupiter, Plin, xxxvi, 4, 10, 12, comp, however SiUig Amalth.
iu, 294. Colotes, a scholar of Pasiteles, toreutes about 670 (?), Stephanus,
a scholar of Pasiteles, sculptor (Thiersch, Epochen s. 296) about 670.
Tlepolemus, modeUer in wax, and Hiero, painter, brothers, of Cibyra, Ver
res' canes venatici, about 680, Arcesilaus, plastes, brass-caster, and
sculptor, 680 — 708, (Venus Genitrix for Csesar's Forum), Posis, plastes,
690, Coponius, brass-caster, 690, Menelaus, scholar of Stephanus,
sculptor, about 690 (§, 416), Decius, brass-caster, about 695, Praxi
teles [Pasiteles], Poseidonius, Leostratides, Zopyrus, toreutse and work
ers in vessels, about 695, (SUver mirrors came into fashion through
Praxiteles [Pasiteles], he made a figure of the young Roscius, Cic, de Div,
i, 36), Aulanius Euandrus of Athens, toreutes and plastes, 710 — 724,
Lysias, sculptor, about 724, Diooenes of Athens, sculptor, 727. Cephi-
sodorus, at Athens, about 730 (?), C, I, 364. Bumnestus, Sosicratides'
son, at Athens, about 730. C. I. 359. Add. Pytheas, Teucer, toreutse
about that time. Majcenas' freedman Junius Thaletio, fiMurarius sigilla-
rius, Gruter Thes. Inscr. 638, 6 (§, 306). Gold-workers of Livia, in the
inscriptions of the Columbarium. [BubuUdes and Eucheir at Athens,
alternately for three generations, C. I, n. 916. R, Rochette Suppl, au Ca
tal. des Artistes, p. 306.]
3. Zopyrus' trial of Orestes before the Areopagus, is thought to be
recognised on a cup found in the harbour of Antium, Winckelm. M. I. n.
151. Werke vii. tf 7. Subito ars base ita exolevit ut sola jam vetustate
censeatur, PUn. xxxiu, 56.
4. Thus, for example, on the denarius of L. ManUus, with SuUa on
the triumphal car, the reverse in particular is stiU very poorly handled.
The denarius of A. Plautius is much better, with the Jew Bacchius,
of the time of Pompey's Asiatic wars. That of Nerius with the head of
Jupiter is very exceUent, of 703. EquaUy fine is that of Cornuficius
with Jup. Amnon (I explain the reverse thus : Juno Sospita has sent a
favourable omen to Cornuficius when taking the auspices, hence she car
ries the crow on her shield, and now crowns him as conqueror). Like
wise that of Sextus Pompeius with the head of his father, and on the
reverse the brothers of Catana (comp. §. 157. Rem. 2), and Neptune as
ruler of the sea, although, this one shows a certain dryness of style.

184 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, V.
That of Lentulus Cossus (after 729), with the refined countenance of
Augustus and the honest face of Agrippa, is exceedingly beautiful.

1 197. In the time of the Cajsars the arts appear, from the
general opinion, to have been degraded into handmaids of the
luxury and caprice of princes. The effeminacy of the times,
says Pliny, has annihilated the arts, and because there are
no longer any souls to represent, the body also is neglected.
2 However, there were ingenious and excellent sculptors who
filled the palaces of the Cesars with eminently beautiful
3 groups; and in Nero's time arose Zenodorus, at first in Gaul,
and then at Rome, as a great brass-caster, who executed the
commission to represent the emperor as Helius in a colossus
4 of 110 feet in height. However near he may have approached
the earlier artists in dexterity of modelling and enchasing
(for he also imitated the cups of Calamis so as to deceive), he
could not, however, notwithstanding the greatest external ad
vantages, again restore the more refined technical processes of
metal casting, which were now lost.
1, Luxurise ministri, Seneca Epist. 88, — -Plin, xxxv, 2,
2. SimiUter Palatinas domos Csesarum replevere probatissimis signis
Craterus cum Pythodoro, Polydectes cum Hermolao, Pythodorus alius
cum Artemone; et singularis Aphrodisius TraUianus; PUn. xxxvi, 4, 11.
[These are earUer artists whose works fiUed the palace.] There is no
certain knowledge of any other sculptors of the time except a JuUus
Chimserus who executed statues for Germanicus, according to an inscrip
tion [Statuas et sediculam effecit, sedes marmoreas posuit, consecrated];
and Menodorus (under CaUgula ?) in Pausan. [A. Pantuleius of Ephesus
made at Athens the statue of Hadrian, C, I. u, 339. M. Cossutius Kerdon
worked for the viUa of Antoninus Pius at Lanuvium.] Nero himself
turned his attention to toreutics and painting. Demetrius, a goldsmith
at Ephesus, Acts of the Apostles. The names of artists in Virgil do not
appear to refer to real persons.
3. The Colossus should have been a Nero, but was dedicated as Sol,
75. A. D. It had seven rays around the head, as Nero also has rays en
circUng his in the bust in the Louvre (n. 334) and elsewhere. The co
lossus stood in front of the Golden House on the site afterwards occupied
by the temple of Venus and Roma, to make way for which it was taken
to another place by Decrianus, with the assistance of 24 elephants, Spar
tian Hadr, 19, comp, Eckhel D, N. vi. p. 336, It was afterwards trans
formed into Commodus, Herod, i, 15.
I 198. The most authentic sources of the history of art for
that time are, 1st, The sculptures on public monuments, of
which, however, there are none to be found till the time of
the Flavii, the earlier works of this kind having perished.
2 The reliefs on the triumphal arch of Titus, representing the
apotheosis of the emperor and the triumph over Judea, are

TIME OP THE JULII AND FLAVII. 185
good in point of invention, and tasteful in the disposition, but
carelessly worked out; and in those of the temple of Pallas
in the forum of Domitian, the design in general is more de
serving of praise than the execution, especially that of the
draperies. 2. BartoU and Bellori, Admiranda Romse tb. 1 — 9. Arcus i. Comp.
the coins with the Judaea capta, Pedrusi vi. tb. 12. H. Reland De spoliis
tempU Hierosolymitani in arcu Titiano. Traject. 1716.
3. We here see PaUas instructing women in domestic tasks, Bartoli
tb. 35^2 (63—70). Comp. the Ed. Winckelm. vi, ii. s. 334.
199. Secondly, The busts and statues of the emperors
which go back, at least in the original, to the time of their
reigns. They fall into different classes, which are also dis
tinguished, and with greatest certainty, by their costume: 1,
Such as reflect the individuality of the subjects without exal
tation, and therefore also preserve the costume of life, — either
the peaceful dress of the toga drawn over the head with re
ference to priesthood, or the accoutrements of war, in which
case the usual attitude is that of addressing armies (allo-
cutio); in both kinds there are good statues of the time,
[To this class likewise belong statues on horseback, or on tri
umphal cars, which at first actually denoted marching at the
head of an army, and triumphs or important conquests over
the enemy, but were soon raised on all occasions from adula
tion and vanity. 2. Such as were intended to exhibit the
individual in an exalted, heroic, or deified character, to which
belong the statues without drapery, and with a lance in the
hand, which became usual from the time of Augustus, and
which, according to Pliny, were called Achillean statues, as
well as those in a sitting posture, with the upper part of the
body naked, and a pallium around the loins, which commonly
suggest the idea of Jupiter ; altogether, the practice of blending
individuals with gods continued, and the art of elevating por
traits into an ideal character was then still exercised with as
much spirit as that of representing real characters in a simple
and life-like manner. The statues also of women belonging
to the reigning families fall into the two classes just laid down.
On the other hand it is to be observed, that the solemn repre
sentation of the Divus, the emperor consecrated by the senate,
requires no ideal costume, but a sedent figure in the toga
(which is often also drawn about the head), with the sceptre
in the hand, and the crown of rays. Statues of cities and
provinces were often now, as well as in the time of the Mace
donians, combined with monuments of the princes, and this
species of figures was generally treated by distinguished ar
tists, as to which the coins also bear testimony-

186 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. V.
2. Simulacrum aureum OaUgulse iconicum, Sueton, 22, Statuse civili
habitu (OreUi Insor. n, 1139. 3186) or togat*, for example the Tiberius
with beautiful toga, from Capri in the Louvre (111,) M, de BouiUon ii,
34. Augustus in priestly dress, from the basUica of Otriooli PioCl. ii, 46,
Head of Augustus of basalt, found in 1780 at Canopus, Specim. of Anc,
Sculpture ii, 46, Statue of Augustus in the Capitol, Race. 16, of Jul. Cse
sar, ibid. Race. 16. Drusus from Herculaneum, Ant. di Ere, vi, 79. M.
Borbon. vii, 43, [Seven excellent colossal statues excavated at Cervetri,
now restored by de Fabris, in the Lateran, Germanicus, Drusus, Tiberius,
CaUgula, Claudius, Agrippina and another female statue, together with
the head of Augustus, BuU. 1840. p, 6, Canina Etr, Marit, I. 2. Mon.
-oretto in Cere all' imper, Claudio dai dodici principaU popoli dell' Etruria,
There were also exceUent colossal statues found in ancient Privernum,
supposed to be from the Curia or the Augusteum of the city which Au
gustus, Tiberius and Claudius reared anew ; the head of Claudius, Mus,
Chiusamonti ii, tv. 32, In like manner colossal statues were raised by
Veil to Augustus and Tiberius, Ibid, not, 3, Ibid, tv, 31. Comp. Canina
Antich, di Veji, p, 83 sq. Colossal heads of Augustus and Tiberius were
found in 1824 with the colossal statues of Tiberius and Germanicus. Clau
dius from the BuspoU palace ; tv. 31, Titus with Julia found in 1828,]
3, Statuse pedestres habitu militari (Capitolin, Macrin. 6) or thofacatae,
for example, the colossal Augustus in the palace Grimani, see Thiersch,
Reisen i, s. 250 ff, [Tiberius Canina Tusculo, tv, 29, Pine bust of CaU
gula found at Colchester Archseol. L, xxxi. pi, 15, p. 446; similar Caylus
i, pi. 66, under the name of Claudius,] Drusus, son of Tiberius, in the
Louvre, Mongez, Iconogr. Romaine pi. 23, 1, Titus in the Louvre 29.
pi, 33, 1, 34, 1, 2, Bouill. ii, 41. Domitian and Marcus AureUus from the
Giustiniani palace. Race, 89. 90. [Domitian M. Chiar. ii, tv. 36.] Domi
tian from the Giustiniani palace, M. Chiar. ii. tv. 36.
4. The statua equestris of Augustus on the bridge over the Tiber (see
Dio liii, 22, and the denarii of L. Vinicius) at least pointed at warUke
plans. The colossal equestrian statue of Domitian in the Forum (Statius
S. i, 1. Fr. Schmieder, Programm 1820), represented him as the con
queror of Germany, with the Rhine under the horse's forefeet ; the left
carried a PaUas holding out a Gorgoneion, the right commanded peace
(comp. §. 335). Domitian with bust of Pallas on his shoulder, reUef in
Vaillant de Canopo, p. 11 ; supposed statua equestris of Augustus, Race.
52. [Equestrian statue of Theodoric before the palace of Charlemagne at
Aix-la-Chapelle, by Bock Jahrb. des Rhein. Alterth. Vereins v, s. 1,] Au
gustus appears in quadrigis on a triumphal arch, attended by two Par-
thians, after recovering the standards of Crassus, Eckhel. D, N. vi, p,
101, Statues in bigis were raised at first to magistrates on account of
the pompa, in the circus, but chariots with four horses (even six-horse
cars, which came in since the time of Augustus) without any regard to
triumphs and pomps, and equestrian statues were erected even in the
houses of advocates. Martial ix, 69. Tacit.de Orat, 8, 11. Juvenal vii, 126.
Appulei. Flor. p. 136 Bipont. To the Emperors, on the other hand, were
erected cars yoked with elephants, see PUn. xxxiv, 10, and the coins with
the image of Divus Vespasianus, comp. Capitol., Maximin 26,
5, Statuse Achillece, PUn. xxxiv, 10, To this class appears to belong

STATUES OF THE JULII AND FLAVII, 187
[the splendid Pompey in the Spada palace,] the colossal Agrippa (the
dolphin is restored) in the palace Grimani, said to be from the Parthenon.
Pococke Trav, ii. pi, 97. Visconti Icon, Roman, pL 8. Augustus in the
Casa Bondanini, Winckelm. vu, s. 217, Claudius, Ant, di Ere, vi, 78.
Domitian, Guattani M. I. 1786, p, xvi. Comp. the examples in Levezow's
Antinous, s. 61. There is often a paUium around the body, as in the
otherwise AchiUean Germanicus from the basiUca of Gabii in the Louvre
141. Mongez, pi. 24, 3. and the Nero, Louvre 32. Clarac, pi. 322.
6. Herod erected in Csesarea colossal statues of Augustus-Jupiter
and Roma. Joseph. B. I. i, 21. comp. §. 203. The sedent colossal statues
of Augustus and Claudius from Herculanum in regard to dress have
the costume of Jupiter, M. Borbon. iv. 36. 37. An Augustus of bronze
as a standing Jupiter with the thunderbolt. Ant. di Ere. vi, 77, The fine
bust of Augustus at Munich 227, and in the Louvre 278, Mongez, pi. 18,
has indeed the crown of oak-leaves, but otherwise it is quite a portrait.
The sitting statue of Tiberius from Piperno has the costume of Jupiter,
and his horrible countenance is rendered as noble as possible. Mongez,
pi. 22. Comp. the Veientine statue, Guattani Mem. Encicl, 1819. p, 74,
and the splendid head from Gabii, BouiU. ii, 75. CaUgula even wished
to convert the Zeus at Olympia into a statue of himself. The magnifi
cent colossal bust in Spain represents Claudius as a god, Admir. Romse,
80, Mongez, pi. 27, 3, 4, but even deified he retains a doltish look. A
grandly treated colossal head of VitelUus at Vienna. — Augustus as ApoUo,
§, 362, 2,
7. Portrait statues: Livia as priestess of Augustus from Pompeii,
M. Borbon, iu, 37, AveUino, Atti d. Acad, Ercol. ii, p, 1. The first
Agrippina in the capitol, splendid in the disposition of the entire figure,
less deserving of praise in the drapery, M, Cap, T, ui. t. 53, Mongez, pi.
24,'* 1, 2. SimUar in Florence, Wicar iii, 4. Farnesian statue of the
second (?) Agrippina grandly handled, Mongez, pi, 27, 6, 7, M, Borbon,
iii, 22, — Livia as Ceres (L, 622, Bouill, ii, 54. comp. R. Rochette, Ann. d.
Inst. i. p. 149. on this costume). Magna Mater (§. 200), Vesta (on coins
Bckhpl vi. p. 156). JuUa, daughter of Augustus, as Cora, L. 77. BouiU.
ii, 8&. Agrippina, DrusiUa, and JuUa, Caligula's sisters, on coins as Secu-
ritas, Pietas, and Portuna, Eckhel vi. p. 219. — [Two of JuUa, daughter of
Titus M. Chiaram. u, 34. 35.]— Among the most excellent of the portrait
statues are the matron and virgin (the latter also found in a copy) from
Herculanum at Dresden, n. 272 — 274. Bekker August. 19 — 24. comp.
Race. 91, reckoned by Hirt to be Caligula's mother and two sisters. Fa
mily of Marcus Nonius Balbus from Herculanum, two equestrian statues
(§. 434) from the basUica, and seven statues on foot from the theatre, viz.
Balbus with his father, mother, and four daughters. Neapel's Ant. s. 17 ff.
8. Thus, for example, Divus Julius on the Cameo, §, 200, 2. b., Divus
Augustus on coins of Tiberius, ifec, Nero was the first who assumed
while Uving (as Phoebus) the corona radiata, Eckhel vi. p. 269, Mongez,
pi, 30, 3. 4. BouUl. ii, 7^. §. 197, 3. Comp, Schopflin, De Apotheosi,
1730, 7
9, Coponius executed fourteen nations conquered by Pompey, for the
portico ad nationes in Pompey's theatre ; Augustus seems to have added
another series, Schneider ad Varr. de R, R, ii, p. 221, Thiersch Epochen,

188 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per, V.
s. 296. These were certainly statues : on the other hand eight figures of
cities in reUef stiU existing at Rome and Naples (Visconti M. PioCl. iu.
p. 61. M. Borbon. iii, 57. 58), are better assigned to the attic of the por
tico of Agrippa. On the great altar of Augustus at Lugdunum (known
from coins) there were figures of 60 GaUic tribes. Strab. iv. p. 192.— The
pedestal of the statue of Tiberius, which the urbes restitutss caused to
be erected to Augustus, is stiU preserved at PuteoU with the figures of
14 cities of Asia Minor, which are executed in a very characteristic man
ner. See L. Th. Gronov, Thes. Ant. Gr. vu. p. 432. BeUey, Mem. de I'Ac.
des Inscr. xxiv. p. 128. Eckhel D. N. vi. p, 193, Comp, §, 405,
I 200. Equally important materials for the history of art
are furnished by gems, Dioscorides, who engraved the head
of Augustus with which the emperor himself sealed, was the
2 most distinguished worker of the time in intaglios. But still
more important than the stones preserved under his name, is
a series of cameos which represent the Julian and Claudian
families at particular epochs, and besides the splendour of the
material and dexterity in using it, are also in many other re-
3 spects deserving of admiration. In all the principal works of
the kind the same system prevails of representing those
princes as divine beings presiding over the world with benig
nant sway, as present manifestations of the most exalted deities,
4 The design is careful and full of expression, although there is
no longer to be found in them the spirit in handling and no
bleness of forms which distinguish the gems of the Ptolemies
(§, 161) ; on the contrary, there is here as well as in the reliefs
of triumphal arches and many statues of the emperors, a pe
culiarly Roman form of body introduced, which is distin
guished considerably from the Grecian by a certain heaviness.
1. Seven gems of Dioscorides have been hitherto considered genuine,
two with the head of Augustus, a so-called Msecenas, a Demosthenes,
two Mercuries, and a palladium-theft (Stosch, Pierres Grav. pi. 25
sqq. Bracci, Mem, degli Incis, tb, 57, 58, Winckelm, W. vi, tf. 8, b,) :
but even as to these more accurate investigations are still to be looked
for, Augustus Impr. gemm. iv, 93. [Onyx-cameo, Augustus in the green
vault at Dresden.] Dioscorides' sons, Brophilus (Bd, Winck, vi, 2, s, 301),
Butyches (R, Rochette, Lettre h Mr. Schorn, p. 42). Contemporaries,
Agathangelus (head of Sextus Pompeius 1), Saturninus, and Pergamus, a
worker in gems, of Asia Minor, R. Rochette, p. 51. 47. comp. p. 48. Solon,
Gnseus, Aulus and Admon are also assigned to this period. jElius, under
Tiberius, Buodus, under Titus (JuUa, daughter of Titus, on a beryl at
Florence. Lippert. i, ii, 349).
2. Cameos. The three largest : a. That of Vienna, the Gemma Au-
gustea, of the most careful workmanship, 9X8 inches in size. Eckhel,
Pierres Grav. pi. 1. [Clarac pi. 1053.] Kohler iiber zwei Gemmen der
KK, Sammlung zu Wien, Tf 2, [Comp. Morgensterns Denkschr. on Kohler,
s. 16 sq.] MiUin G. M. 179, 677. Mongez, pi. If),* Arneth, Beitrage zur
Gesch. von Oesterreich ii. s. 1 18. Representation of the Augustan family

ENGRAVED STONES AND COINS. 189
in the year 12. Augustus (beside him his horoscope, comp. Eckhel D. N.
vi. p. 109), with the Utuus as a symbol of the auspices, sits enthroned as
Jupiter Victorious together with Roma; Terra, Oceanus, Abundantia
surround the throne, and are in the act of crowning him. Tiberius
triumphing over the Pannonians, descends from the car, which is guided
by a Victory, in order to prostrate himself before Augustus, Germani
cus at the same time receives honores triumphales. Below, a tropseon is
erected by Roman legionaries and auxiUaries (here the scorpion on a
shield perhaps refers to the horoscope of Tiberius), Sueton. Tib, 20.
Passow has last contributed to the explanation in Zimmermann's Zeit
schrift fiir Alterthumsw. 1834, N, 1, 2, [after Thiersch Epochen s, 306.]
b. The Parisian Cameo, by Baldwin the II. from Byzantium to
St. Louis ; de la Ste Chapelle (there called Joseph's dream), now in the
Cabinet du Roi. Le Roy, Achates Tiberianus. 1683, MiUin G. M, 181,
676, Mongez, pi, 26. [Clarac, pi, 1052,] The largest of aU, 13 X 11 in, ;
a sardonyx of five layers [which is usually thought to be a work of the
Augustan age, but is by some assigned to the third century]. The Au
gustan famUy some time after the death of Augustus, Above: Augustus
in heaven welcomed by .^neas, Divus Julius and Drusus. In the middle:
Tiberius as Jupiter jBgiochus beside Livia-Ceres, under whose auspices
Germanicus goes to the East in the year 17. Around them, the elder
Agrippina, Caligula (comitatus patrem et in Syriaca expeditione. Suet.
Calig. 10. comp. M. Borbon. v, 36), Drusus II, a prince of the Arsacidse (?),
CUo, and Polymnia. Below : The nations of Germany and the Bast con
quered. Explained in the same way by Eckhel, Visconti, Mongez, Icono-
graphie and Mem. de I'Inst. Roy. viu. p. 370 (Sacerdoce de la famille de
Tibfere pour le culte d'Auguste), particularly by Thiersch Epochen, s. 305.
On the contrary, Hirt, Analekten i, u. s. 322, explains it as. Nero's adop
tion into the JuUan famUy, at the same time with which there happened
to be an arrival of captives from the Bosporus. Fleck Wissensch. Reise
durch das siidUche Deutschland, ItaUen u. s. w. i, 1. s. 172. [The apo
theosis of Augustus in a reUef in the Sacristy of San VitaU at Ravenna,
with Roma, Claudius, Jul. Csesar, Livia as Juno, Augustus as Jupiter.]
c. That of the Netherlands (de Jonge, Notice sur le Cab. des Me-
daiUes du Roi des Pays-Bas, i Suppl. 1824, p. 14), [Clarac, pi. 1064, Clau
dius and his famUy, Germanicus and Agrippina, pi. 1065 — 1057.] a sar
donyx of three layers, 10 inches high, exceUent in design, but much in
ferior in execution to the others, Millin G, M. 177, 678. Mongez, pi. 29.
Claudius as Jupiter triumphant (after the Britannic victory), MessaUna,
Octavia and Britannicus in a chariot drawn by Centaurs as trophy-
bearers : Victory flying on before.
The representation of Germanicus and Agrippina traveUing over the
world as Triptolemus and Demeter Thesmophorus (with the scroU), on a
fine cameo at Paris, is designed in the same spirit of ingenious adulation.
Mem. de I'Ac. des Inscr. i. p. 276. MiUin G. M. 48, 220. Mongez, pi.
24'*, 3. — A silver goblet in the KK. Antiken-Cabinet, which was found
at Aquileia, exhibits a similar composition exceUently designed. On the
upper field, between Jupiter and Ceres, Proserpina and Hecate, Germani
cus, as it seems, is represented, in reUef (the drapery gilded) about to
sacrifice at an altar to these deities, in order afterwards to mount the

190 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V.
dragon-chariot as a new Triptolemus; the Earth-goddess lies beneath.
[Publ, by the author, Mon. d. I. iu. tv. 4. Ann. xi. p. 78.]
Other works of this time, which was very fertile in fine cameos, in Mon
gez, pi, 24* 5. 29, 3, and Eckhel, pi, 2, 5. 7 — 12. Augustus and Livia,
Impr, deU' Inst, ii, 79. Livia as Magna Mater holding a bust of Divus
Augustus, Kohler ibid. A head of Agrippa of exceeding beauty on a
Niccolo at Vienna, [The Carpegna stone, now in the Vatican, in Buona
rotti MadagUoni, p, 427, together with another,]
4, It is found almost universaUy that the body is long in proportion
to the legs ; it is remarked by Rumohr that this is a national pecuUarity
of the Roman form, Ital. Forschungen i. s. 78.
I 201. In the coins, especially the bronze medals struck by
the senate, of the emperors of the Julian and Flavian families,
art appears to have remained stationary at the same height;
2 the heads are always full of life, characteristic and nobly con
ceived, the reverses more rarely, but yet also sometimes of per-
3 feet execution, especially on bronzes of Nero. The mythico-
allegorical compositions of these coins, which were intended
to represent the situation of the empire and the imperial
house (§, 406), are full of spirit and ingenious invention, al
though the figures are handled in a traditional and hasty
manner, 1, The transcripts in Mediobarbus and Strada are not to be depended
on any more than the Ul-reputed ones of Golzius, neither are, according
to Bckhel's account, even the beautiful representations in Gori's M, Flo
rentinum. Those in the works on the coins of the emperors by Patinus,
Pedrusi, Banduri (from Decius downwards) and MoreUi are more trust
worthy. Bossifere, M6daiUons du Cab, du Roi. Lenormant Tresor de
Glyptique,

I 202. In the time of Trajan were executed the reliefs which
2 represent his victory over the Dacians. Powerful forms in
natural and appropriate attitudes, character and expression
in the countenances, ingenious motives to relieve the monoto
ny of military order, feeling and depth in the representation
of pathetic scenes, such as that of the women and children
praying for mercy, give to these works a high value, notwith
standing many faults in the handling both of the nude and
3 the_ draperies. — The statues of the emperors, as well as the
copies of them on coins and cameos, were during this time
scarcely inferior to those of the immediately preceding period;
4 it would, however, be rash to conclude from the excellence
of these that as much was achieved in other subjects.
2. See the Bd. of WinckeUn. vi, 2. s, 345, As to the historical events,
see, besides BeUori, Heyne de Col, Traj. in Engel's Commentatio de Ex
peditione Trajani. To these belong also the sculptures on the arch of

SCULPTURES OF TRAJAN'S AND HADRIAN'S TIME. 191
Constantine, where, besides Trajan, Hadrian also with Antinous appears.
Admir. Romse, tb. 10 — 27 ; the tropsea of the Parthian campaign from
the castellum aquoe Marcice, now in the Capitol ; and other reliefs with
warriors from a monument of Trajan, which Winckelm. describes vi, i. s.
283. Kindred representations on coins, for example rex Parlhorum vic-
tus, Pedrusi vi, 26, 7. rex Parthis datus, regna assignaia. [The exceUent
alto relievo of Trajan from the Aldobrandini palace, in the sale Borgia of
the Vatican is supposed to be from the forum of Trajan, as weU as many
other monuments of that house, perhaps also the highly animated wrest
lers (called Dares and Entellus) which are now also there. M. Chiaram.
u, 21. 22 ; where there are also tv, 49 — 51 splendid pieces of frieze from
the BasiUca and the BibUotheca Ulpia,]
3. Fine colossal statue of Nerva in the Vatican, PioCl. iii, 6. Mon
gez, pi, 36, 1. 2. A fine statua thoracata of Trajan in the Louvre 42 (Cla
rac, pi. 337), colossal head 14, Mongez, pi, 36, 3, 4, Large bronze bust
of Hadrian in the Mus, of the Capitol, Mongez, pi. 38. On others,
Winckelm. vi, i, s. 306. Statue Race. 104, Statues of Hadrian were
raised by all the Greek cities. C, I, 321 sqq. On the nimii cenei maximi
m/oduli, which began with Hadrian, the head of that emperor is very in
geniously and successfuUy handled ; the reverses too are fine. Hadrian
in warlike costume on cameos, Eckhel, Pierres Grav. pi. 8. Apotheosis,
Mongez, pi, 38, 7. Sabina, Race. 107. Impr. gemm, iv, 99.
4. Dio Chrysost. Or, 21, p, 273, declares the statues of the athletes at
Olympia to be the later the worse, and the x«i/u ivxXxiovg ^rxilxg to be the
best. 203. Through Hadrian's love of art, although in agreat
measure, affected, it was now enabled to take a higher flight,
whereas it had hitherto gradually become merely the repre
sentor of external reality. The countries which were then
flourishing anew, Greece and more especially anterior Asia
Minor, produced artists who understood how to reanimate art
in such a way as to gratify the wishes and inclinations of the
emperor. This is particularly seen in the statues of Antinous
which were executed at this period and in these countries.
The most surprising thing is the certainty with which this
character is, on the one hand, modified by the artists in dif
ferent gradations, as man, hero, and god, but on the other, is
nevertheless adhered to and carried out in its peculiar essence.
Besides, Hadrian's time was also that in which the Egyptian
style was most exercised, sometimes in more severe sometimes
in milder form, as is shown by the statues from the Villa
Tiburtina and a peculiar class of the representations of Anti
nous, They are chiefly of black stone, so-called basalt, for
at this time the taste for the splendour of coloured stones had
even invaded the plastic art to a great extent (comp. §. 309).
1. Hadrian was himself a Polyclitus or Euphranor according to Vic
tor. Artists of the time : Papias and Aristeas of Aphrodisias, who give
their names as authors of two centaurs of marmo bigio from the Tibur-

192 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V.
tine viUa (M. Cap. iv, 32) ; one of them resembles the famous Borghese
centaur (§. 389), Winck. vi, 1. s. 300. A Zeno also in several inscriptions,
Gruter, p. 1021, 1. Winckelm, vi, 1. s. 278. 2. s. 341. R. Rochette, Let
tre k M. Schorn, p. 91, and the AttiUanus (Atticion?) on the statue of a
muse at Florence, both also from that place, led Winckelmann to the as
sumption of an Aphrodisian school. An Bphesian dvl^ixvro'jroiog A. Pan
tuleius, C. I. 339. Xenophantes of Thasos, 336.
3. Antinous, who was from Claudiopolis in Bithynia, in pcedagogiis
Ccesaris, was drowned in the Nile near Besa (§. 191.), or feU the victim of
a gloomy superstition (an extremely enigmatical story) about the year
130 A. D. The Greeks apotheosised him to please Hadrian, Spart. 14 ;
his worship in Bithynia and Mantinea (because the Bithynians were my
thically derived from Mantinea, Paus. viii, 9). Numerous statues and
representations on reliefs and coins. See Levezow iiber den Antinous. B.
1808. Petit-Radel, M. Napol. ui. p. 91—113. Mongez T. iu. p. 52. An
tinous as Ganymede, Spec, of Anc. Sculpt, ii, 52. ? Eckhel D. N. vi. p. 528.
Recognised by his fine head of hair, his eye-brows, his full mouth, which
has something sombre about it, his broad high-arched chest, and so forth.
— Worshipped at Mantinea as another Dionysus (also on coins as Diony
sus, lacchus, and Pan with aU sorts of Bacchic insignia). Of this de
scription are the colossal statue from Palsestrina in the Braschi palace
[now in the Lateran], Levezow Tf 7. 8. (that at Dresden 401. August. 18.
similar) [a good statue of Antinous-Bacchus also in ViUa CasaU.] ; the
magnificent bust in ViUa Mondragone, now in the Louvre, formerly co
loured slightly [of marble of a Ught-reddish colour], the eyes of precious
stones, grapes and pine-cones of metal, the character earnestly and stern
ly conceived, BouiU. ii, 82." Levezow 10 (a repetition at BerUn 141) ; the
Cameo with the head of Antinous, to which a Silenus-mask serves as a
covering, Eckhel, Pierres Grav. 9. As Agathodsemon (the cornucopia
formed from an elephant's trunk) at Berlin 140. Bouill. u, 61. M. Roy. ii,
1. As Hermes on Alexandrine coins, head with wings at Berlin 142. As
Hercules in the Louvre 234. Clarac. pi. 267. Bouill. ii, 50. As Aristseus
in the Louvre 258. Bouill. ii, 48. As a new Pythius on coins. An An-
tinous-ApoUo of marble found at Lycopolis, in the Drovetti coUection. —
The Capitoline Antinous in heroic form (with short-curled hair and
powerful frame), M. Cap, iii. 56. BouiU, ii, 49, Levezow, 3. 4, Similar at
Berlin 134, ' Avnvoog ii^ug dyxiiog on coins. But even as a hero he is
sometimes also represented as Bacchian, sitting upon the panther, as on
coins of Ties. — More individual, among^ others in the bust, N. 49 in the
Louvre, Mongez, pi, 39, 3, PioCl, vi, 47, "Race, 12r,< Beautiful bust on
Bithynian coins, Mionnet, Suppl. v. pi. 1, 1. — The celebrated group of
Ildefonso is referred by Visconti (su due Musaici, p. 31), Mongez (T. iii.
p. 55. pi. 39), and others to Antinous on account of the resemblance of
the head of one of the figures, (which is however held by others to be
foreign to the figure) ; the other youth would then, most probably, be the
life-genius of Hadrian. Hypnos and Thanatos, according to Lessing, Ger
hard Venere Pros. p. 49, R. Rochette M, I. p. 176, 218. Welcker Akad.
Kunstmuseum S. 63,
6, On the Egyptian Antinous, Winckelm, vi, 1, s. 299 f 2, 357. vii
36. BouiU. u. 47 Le^ez. 11. 12. Comp. besides §. 408.

THE ANTONINES. 193
204. During the long reign of the Antonines the Roman I
world reposed from its exhaustion without being able to re
cover its ancient energies. As Asiatic bombast on the one
hand, and dull insipidity on the other, prevailed more and
more in the oratorical, so also both tendencies seem to have
been manifested in the plastic arts. Nay, even in the busts 2
of the emperors, which are often very carefully executed, both
may in some measure be seen at the same time, inasmuch as
the hair of the head and beard luxuriates in an exaggerated
profusion of curls, and a studied elegance is found in all the
other accessories, whilst the features of the countenance are
conceived and rendered with the most signal triviality. The 3
coins also degenerated in art, although those struck at Rome
were still much better, especially in the conception of the im
perial physiognomy, than the bronze medals which were then
struck in great numbers in the cities of Asia Minor and
Thrace, on which these cities, with the vanity of sophistic
rhetoricians, exhibited their images of gods, their temples,
their local mythi, and works of art, without however them
selves producing any thing worthy of notice. In the same 4
way must be limited the praise of artistic perfection in other
productions of this period. Pausanias considered the masters 5
who then lived scarce worth mentioning.
2. See especially the two colossal busts of Marcus Aurelius and Lu
cius Verus in the Louvre, 138, 140 (Villa Borgh. St. 5, 20. 21. BouiU. u,
8^J, from Acqua Traversa, near Rome, the latter of which in particular
(also in Mongez, pi. 43, 1. 2) is a master-piece of its kind. Pine Farne
sian statue of L. Verus in the M. Borbon. x, 27, Race. 106. Silver sta
tues were raised to M. Aurel. and Faustina in the temple of Venus, and
a golden one of her was brought to the theatre when she appeared, Dio
Cass, Ixxi, 31, On the busts of Socrates, M, Aurelius and others found
at Marathon (Herodes Atticus), see Dubois, Catal, d'Antiq, de Choiseul-
Gouff. p, 21. The M, AureUus in the Louvre 26 (Clarac, pi. 314) is a
work of little value notwithstanding the careful execution of the corslet,
— The hair on those busts is very laboriously worked out, and perforated
with the auger. The eyelids Ue close in a leathery manner, the mouth is
compressed, the wrinkles about the eyes and mouth strongly marked.
The marking of the eyeballs and eyebrows is also to be found in busts of
Antinous,— [The bust said to be that of Herodes Atticus from a tomb at
Marathon in the Cab, PourtalSs, pi, 37,] — In the busts of women of
rank (such as Plotina, Marciana and Matidia even in Trajan's time) the
sculptors took the greatest pains to represent faithfully the absurd head
dress, A puffiness in the treatment of the folds is observable in the
draperies, 3, Many of the large bronze coins of Antoninus Pius are almost equal
to the best of Hadrian, although the countenance is always handled in a
less spirited manner ; especiaUy those which contain on the reverse re
presentations from the early times of Rome, and the PaUantion which
was then revived in Arcadia (on which see Eckhel vii,^, 29 sq,). The one
N

194 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, V.
with the inscription around the bust of Antoninus, Antoninus Aug, Pius
P. P, Tr, P, Cos. iii,, is particularly fine ; on the reverse Hercules dis
covering his son Telephus suckled by the hind. The coins of Marcus
AureUus are universally inferior. On the city coins see below : locality
§. 255. — Race. 105, [The circular pedestal with Antonine who was from
Lanuvium, his two sons, Juno Lanuvina, Victoria, Roma, Mars, Venus,
in ViUa Pamfili was brought thither from the neighbourhood, where An
tonine had estates.]
4. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the square of the
Capitol (formerly before S. Giovanni in the Lateran), of gUded brass, is a
respectable work, but both horse and man stand at an immense distance
from a Lysippian production. Perrier, tb. 11. Sandrart ii, 1. Falconet
Sur la Statue de M. Aurfele, Amst, 1781, Race, 14, Cicognara Stor,
della Scultura iii, tv, 23, Mongez, pi, 41, 6, 7, Antique pedestal of the
equestrian statue, BuU, 1834. p. 112. Deification of Antoninus and the
elder Faustina on the base of the granite column, §. 191, a fine relief;
the decursio funebris on the sides shows a great inferiority. PioOl. v,
28 — 30. [The entire pedestal is now restored, de Fabris il Piedestallo
d. col. Antonina coUocato nel giardino della pigna, R. 1846. 4to.] The
reUefs also on the attic of Constantino's arch bear reference to Antonine.
The column of Marcus Aurelius is interesting on account of the scenes
from the war with the Marcomanni (with the representation of the tem
pest, Bellori, tb. 16, comp. Kastner's Agape, s. 463 — 490) ; the workman
ship is much poorer than on Trajan's column. Apotheosis of the younger
Faustina from the arch of Marcus Aurelius, M. Cap. iv, 12.
5. The expression of Pausanias : dyx7^pc,a.rx rexvng riig i0' iifiav vi, 21.
cannot possibly be one of praise. He praises the statue of gold and
ivory in the Athenian Olympieion " if we look to the impression of the
great whole," i, 18, 6. As to artists he only mentions altogether after the
120th Olympiad two or three certain names. Did Crito and Nicolaus,
who made the Caryatides [in Villa Albani, according to Winckelmann, of
the time of Cicero] found in the Via Appia near Rome, belong to this
period? Guattani M. I. 1788. p. Ixx. A skilful wood-carver, Saturninus
at Oila in Africa, Appulei de magia, p. 66. Bip. On works of art to which
Herod gave occasion, Winckelm. vi, 1. s. 319.
I 205, The more unsettled times of Commodus, his immediate
successors, Septimius Severus and his family, adhered in
art to the style which had been formed in the time of the
Antonines, with still more distinct symptoms however of de-
2 clension. The best works of the period are the busts of the
emperors which the slavish disposition of the senate greatly
promoted ; yet the most carefully wrought are precisely those
in which turgidity and manner are most apparent in the
3 treatment. Perukes, and drapery of coloured stones corre-
4 spend to the taste in which the whole is treated. To these
busts are closely allied those on bronze medals and cameos;
here also the blending of individual with ideal forms still con
tinued to produce many interesting works, although it ceased
5 to be so intimate a combination as in earlier times. In the

COMMODUS, SEPTIMIUS, OARACALLA, 195
time of CaracaUa there were sculptured many statues — espe
cially of Alexander the Macedonian ; Alexander Severus also
was particularly favourable to statues, in so far as he could
regard them as memorials of eminent men. The reliefs on 6
the triumphal arches of Septimius, especially the smaller one,
are executed in a mechanical style.
2, Commodus sometimes appears young (Uke a gladiator), sometimes
iu riper years. On bronze medals we see his bust in youthful form, with
athletic body, the crown of laurel and the segis, A fine head in the ca
pitol. Good bust of Pertinax in the Vatican from VeUetri, CardinaU
Mem. Romane iii. p. 83. Engraved stones, Lippert i, ii, 415. Crispina,
Maffei 108. Septimius Severus next to L. Verus most frequently in
busts. PioCl. vi, 53 (with Gorgoneion on the breast) ; from Gabii, in the
Louvre 99. Mon. Gab. n. 37. Mongez, pi. 47, 1. 2. The workmanship,
however, is stUl drier than in the Antonines. Bronze statue of Severus,
[in the Barbarini palace, now in the Sciarra] Maffei Race. 92, very care-
fuUy executed, especiaUy in the accessories. ExceUent busts of CaracaUa
with an affected expression of rage, at Naples (M. Borbon, iii, 25), in the
PioCl. (vi, 55), the Capitol and Louvre (68. Mongez, pi, 49, 1), See the
Ed, of Winck. vi. s. 383. Comp. the Gem, Lippert i, ii, 430, which is
executed with care, but in a spiritless manner. Youthful equestrian sta
tue in the Farnese palace at Rome, Race, 54, Some busts of Heliogaba
lus are valued on account of fine workmanship, at Munich 216, in the
Louvre 83. Mongez, pi. 61, 1, 2 ; PioCl. vi, 66. The short-cropped hair
and shaved beard again came in with Alexander Severus. — Of artists we
know Atticus in the time of Commodus, C. I. p. 399, and Xenas by a
bust of Clodius Albinus in the Capitol.
3. In the empresses the mode of wearing the hair became more and
more absurd; in Julia Domna, Sosemias, Mammsea and PlautiUa (the
wife of CaracaUa) it was evidently perukes, gcderi, galericula, sictilia,
textilia capiUamenta. A head of LucUla with hair of black marble that
could be taken off, Winck. v. s, 51, comp, on similar cases the Ed, s, 360.
after Visconti and Bottiger. Fr. Nicolai On the use of false hair and
perukes, s. 36, JuUa Mammsea in the Capitol, Race, 18.
4. Commodus, according to Lamprid. 9, received statues in the cos
tume of Hercules ; some of the kind are stiU extant. Epigram on this
subject in Dio Cass, in Mai's Nova CoU. u. p. 225. Head of Hercules-
Commodus on gems, Lippert i, ii, 410. A beautiful medal exhibits on the
one side the bust of Hercules-Commodus, and on the other how he as
Hercules founded Rome anew (as a colony of Commodus), according to
the Etruscan rite ; Here. Rom. Conditori P. M. Tr. P. xviii, Cos. vii, P, P,
Eckhel vii. p, 131, comp, p, 122, According to later chronographers Com
modus placed his head on the colossus of Rhodes, which had been re-
erected by Vespasian or Hadrian; AUatius ad Philon. p. 107. OrelU,
Septimius Severus with his two sons (?) as Jupiter, Hercules and Bac
chus, at Luna (Fanti scritti di Carrara), Gius. A, Guattani in the Dissert,
deU' Ace, Rom. di Arch. T, i, p, 321, GaUienus also loved to be repre
sented as Sol, and appeared at processions radiatus. TrebeU. 16, 18,
It wa's very common at this time to represent the empresses as Venus

196 HISTORY OP GREEK ART, [Per, V,
with scanty drapery. The insipid character of the portrait, often also
the mode of dressing the hair, then usually form a striking contrast with
the representation. Thus Marciana, Trajan's sister, St. di S. Marco u,
20. Winckelm. vi. 284, comp. v, 275 ; JuUa Sosemias (with moveable
hair), PioClement. ii, 51 ; SaUustia, the wife of Severus Alexander, Ve-
nerifelici sacrum, PioCl. ii, 52. The representation of the two Paustinae
as Ceres and Proserpine was nobler, R. Rochette Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 147.
5. CaracaUa's aping of Alexander caUed forth everywhere statues of
the Macedonian, also Janus figures of CaracaUa and Alexander, Herodian
iv, 8. Of this time was the tumulus of Pestus near lUon (yet it might
also be the tomb of Musonius under Valens, see Eunapius in Mai Vet.
Ser. nova coU. T. i. p. 171.), Choiseul Gouff. Voy, Pitt, T, ii, pi. 30. On
Severus Alexander, who collected artists from all quarters and erected
numerous statues, Lamprid, 25.
6. Victories of Septimius Severus over the Parthians, Arabians, and
Adiabenians. Arcus Sept, Sev, anaglypha cum explic, Suaresii, R, 1676.
fo. On the arch of the Argentarii figures of the emperor, Julia Domna,
Geta (destroyed) and CaracaUa, engaged in sacrifice.
1 206. However, even the century of the Antonines and
their successors was not without a productiveness of its own,
which added new links to the series of developments furnished
2 by the ancient world of art. The reliefs on sarcophagi, which
did not come into general use until this period, through the
influence of un-Grecian ideas, treated subjects derived from
the cycles of Demeter and Dionysus, and also from heroic
mythology, so as that the hope of a second birth and eman
cipation of the soul should be thereby expressed in a variety
3 of ways. The fable of Eros and Psyche also was often employ
ed for that purpose, being one which unquestionably repre
sents the pangs of the soul when separated from the heavenly
Eros: judging likewise from the literary notices of the mythus,
the ingeniously composed but indifferently executed groups of
Eros and Psyche will scarcely be assigned to an earlier age
4 than that of Hadrian. At the same time art endeavoured
more and more to embody the ideas which the invasion of
oriental culture introduced; and after it had in the second
century produced many works of distinguished merit in Egyp
tian figures of the gods modified by the Grecian spirit, it now
applied itself, already become more rude and incapable, to the
worship of Mithras, of the images belonging to which there is
nothing of any excellence remaining except perhaps two sta-
5 tues of Mithraic torch-bearers (§. 408, 7). In the representa
tion of the tri-form Hecate (§ 397, 4) and in the numerous
Panthea signa (§. 408, 8) there is manifested a want of satis
faction with the established forms of the ancient Hellenic
images of the gods, a longing for more comprehensive and
universal expressions, which must necessarily have strayed into
6 abnormal shapes. The eclectic superstition of the time em-

NEW SUBJECTS AND DECLINE OF ART. 197
ployed gems as magic amulets against diseases and dtemonic
influences (§. 433), placed favourable and benign constellations
on signet-rings and coins (§. 400, 3), and by blending to
gether Egyptian, Syrian and Grecian creeds, especially at
Alexandria, gave birth to the pantheistic figure of lao- Abraxas
with all the various kindred forms of the so-called Abraxas
gems (§. 408, 8).
2. On the introduction of sarcophagi, Visconti PioCl. iv. p. ix. On
the tendency of the mythi represented, Gerhard Beschr. Roms s. 320 f
below §. 368, 1. 397, 2. Ans. Feuerbach der Vatic. Apollo s. 317. "A
whole cornucopia of poetic flowers was on Roman sarcophagi poured out
on the resting-place of the dead, a truly inexhaustible riches of delicate
allusions. The many coloured series of mythical forms which here gain a
new and deeper significance from the very place which they served to
adorn, might be compared to stories with which an ingenious author be
guiles the hours of sadness." The reference to the buried person is per
fectly evident when, for example, the head of a Bacchian Bros, who is
carried away drunk from the banquet (the banquet of Ufe, of which he
has enjoyed enough), is left unexecuted, because it was to receive (either
by sculpture or painting) the features of him who was laid in the sarco
phagus. M. PioCl. V, 13. Gerhard in the Beschr. Roms u, 2. s. 146. —
Grecian steles in later style, Annali d. Inst. i. p. 143.
3. A coin of Nicomedia struck about 236, in Mionnet Suppl. v. pi. 1, 3,
shows Psyche prostrate and beseeching Amor. See besides §. 391, 8.
However, Erotes and Psychse wreathing fiowers are to be seen on a pic
ture from Pompeii. M. Borbon. iv, 47. Gerhard Ant. BUdw. iv, 62, 2.

207. The turgidity and luxuriance of art gradually passed 1
over into tameness and poverty. On coins, which are our 2
most certain guides, the heads are contracted in order that
more of the figure and the accessories may be introduced;
but at the end of the third century the busts lose all relief, 3
the design becomes inaccurate and school-boy like, the whole
representation flat, characterless, and so destitute of indivi
duality, that even the different persons are only distinguish
able by the legends, and that utterly lifeless style makes its
appearance, in which the Byzantine coins are executed. The 4
elements of art were lost in a remarkably rapid manner; such
of the reliefs on the arch of Constantine as were not stolen are
rude and clumsy ; those on the Theodosian column, as well as
on the pedestal of the obelisk which Theodosius erected in the
hippodrome at Byzantium, are hardly less so. In sarcophagi, 5
after the turgid works of the later Roman period, which were
crowded with figures in alto rilievo mostly in animated action,
we find in Christian monuments a monotonous arrangement
often influenced by architectonic conditions, and the driest
and poorest workmanship. The Christian world from the out- 6

198 ~ HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. V.
set made far less use of the plastic art than_ of painting ; how
ever, the erection of honorary statues survived art for a very-
long time in the different parts of the Roman empire, espe
cially at Byzantium ; nay, the distinction was eagerly coveted,
although indeed more regard was had to the due designation
of rank by situation and drapery than to the representation
of character and individuality; as all life at that period
must have been completely smothered under the mass of empty
forms. Ornamental vessels of precious metal and sculptured
stones — a luxury in which the highest point was attained in
the later times of the Romans, still continued to be executed
with a certain dexterity; there was also much labour ex
pended on ivory writing-tablets or diptycha — a kind of works
peculiar to Rome in its decline (§. 312, 3); and thus in vari
ous ways did technical and mechanical skill endure beyond
the life of art itself
2, Thus in the case of Gordianus Pius, GaUienus, Probus, Cams,
Numerianus, Carinus, Maximianus, This striving to give more of the
figure is shown also in the busts. Thus the Gordianus Pius from Gabii
in the Louvre 2,, in Mongez, pi, 54, 1. 2.
3, The coins of Constantine exemplify the style here described ; the
Byzantine manner begins with the successors of Theodosius (Du Cange,
Banduri), — The decline of art is also shown in the coins of consecration
(under GaUienus), as well as in the contorniati distributed at pubUc
games. — Statues of the time : Constantine in the Lateran, notwithstand
ing the' clumsy forms of the limbs, is praised on account of its natural
attitude. Winck. vi, 1. s. 339. 2. s. 394. Mongez, pi. 61, 1. 2. Constan-
tinus II. (?) on the Capitol, Mongez, pi. 62,' 1 — 3. JuUan in the Louvre
301. Mongez, pi, 63, 1 — 3, a very lifeless figure. Comp. Seroux d' Agin
court Hist, de I'Art, iv, ii. pi. 3. — -The workmanship of the hair was made
at this time more and more easy, inasmuch as holes were only bored here
and there in the thick masses of stones.
4, The arch of Constantine (the bands over the smaUer side-arches
refer to the conquest over Maxentius and the capture of Rome) in Bel
lori, comp. Agincourt, pi. 2. Hirt Mus. der Alterthumsw. i. s. 266. The
Theodosian column appears to have been erected by Arcadius in honour
of Theodosius (according to others by Theodosius the Second to Arca
dius); it was of marble, with a stair inside, an imitation of Trajan's;
there is nothing more now standing than the pedestal at Constantinople.
Col. Theod. quam vulgo historiatam vocant, ab Arcadio Imp. Constan-
tinopoU erecta in honorem Imp. Theodosii a Gent. BeUino deUneata nunc
primum sere sculpta (Text by Menetrius) P. 1702. Agincourt, pL 11,
ReUefs from the pedestal of the obeUsk, Montfaucon Ant, Expl, iii, 187,
Agincourt, pi, 10, Comp. PiorUlo Hist, of Art in Italy, p. 18. — A circu
lar stone figure turned round by two-winged Seasons is described by
Max. Planudes in Boissonade Anecd. Gr. u. p. 320.
5. See especially the sarcophagus with Christ, the apostles, evange
lists and EUas, in the Louvre 764. 76. 77, in BouiUon iii. pi. 65 (Clarac

iii

CONSTANTINE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 190
pi. 227), and comp. the plates immediately foUowing. Many from the
catacombs in Roman museums [especiaUy in the Ubrary of the Vatican,
also in the Lateran Museum, in Pisa and other places], in Aringhi and
Aginc. pi. 4 — 6. Gerhard Ant, Bildw, 76, 2, Comp, Sickler Almanach i.
s. 173, A sculptor named Daniel under Theodoric had a privUegium for
marble sarcophagi, Cassiodor. Var, iii, 19. Eutropus, an artist of the
same description, Fabretti Inscr. v, 102. Christian artists among the
martyrs (Baronius Ann. ad a. 303). A Christian artifex signarius Mura-
tori, p. 963, 4.
6. On the honour of statues in later Rome, see the Ed. Winck. (after
Fea) vi. s. 410 ff., under the Ostrogoths, Manso, Gesch. des Ostgoth.
Reichs, s. 403. As a reward to poets, in Merobaudes, see Niebuhr Merob.
p. vu. (1824) ; at Byzantium even female dancers had statues erected to
them. Anth. Planud. iv, 283 sqq. — The equestrian statue of Justinian
in the Augustseon (which, according to Malalas, had formerly represent
ed Arcadius) was in heroic costume, which at that time already seemed
strange, but held in his left hand the terrestrial globe with the cross,
according to Procop. de sedif. Just, i, 2. Rhetor, ed. Walz. i. p. 578.
Magnificent picture of the emperor with the globe in his hand, Basilius
in Vales, ad Ammian. xxv, 10, 2. A memoir by MarulU on the bronze
colossus at Barletta in ApuUa (Fea, Storia delle Arti ii. tv. 11) ; accord
ing to Visconti (Icon. Bom. iv. p. 166.) it is Heraclius, [Theodosius ac
cording to MarulU II colosso di bronzo esistente nella cittk di Barletta,
Nap. 1816. 8vo.] In the projected treaty between Justinian and Theo-
datus, in Procopius, it was formally arranged that the Gothic king should
have no statue without the emperor, and should always stand on the left.
— Even now the fierxy^dcpeiv was very common. Bd. Winck. vi. s. 406.
comp. §. 158. R. 4. P. Br. MiiUer gives a very accurate picture of the
spirit of the time De genio sevi Theodos. p. 161 sqq.
7, The use of gems, mostly indeed cameos, on vases (GaUienus him
self made some of the kind, TrebeU, 16), on the balteus, the fihulcs, ccdigm,
and socci (HeUogabalus wore gems by the first artists on his feet, Lam
prid, 23), was very much diffused at this later period of the emperors.
The conqueror of Zenobia dedicated in the temple of the Sun garments
joined together with gems, Vopisc, Aurel, 28; Claudian describes the
court dress of Honorius as sparkling with amethysts and hyacinths ; af
ter the emperor Leo (Codex xi, 11), certain works of the kind were only
aUowed to be made by the Palatini artifices, — Hence the careful work
manship on gems and cameos down to a late period. A sardonyx in
the Cabinet du Roi at Paris : Constantine on horseback smiting down
his adversary ; a sardonyx at St, Petersburg : Constantine and Fausta,
Mongez, pi. 61, 5 ; Constantinus II. on a large agate onyx, Lippert iii, ii,
460; a sapphire at Florence: a chase by the emperor Constantius at
Csesarea in Cappadocia, Prober, Sapphirus Constantii Imp. Banduri Nu
mism. Suppl. tb. 12. — are celebrated. At Byzantium cameos of blood
jasper in particular were carefuUy wrought; several of the kind with
Christian subjects in the cabinet of antiques at Vienna, — Hellas argen
tarius, died 406. Gruter, p. 1053, 4.
Heyne, Artes ex Constantinopoli nunquam prorsus exulantes. Com
mentat. Gott. iii. p. 3.

200 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per. V.

4. PAINTING.
1 208. Painting came forth at the time of Cffisar in a second
2 bloom which soon faded. Subjects of the highest tragic suf
fering, — the deeply mortified Ajax brooding over his wrath,
Medea before the murder of her children, full of fury, and
compassion at the same time in her weeping eyes, — then seem
ed to the most distinguished artists materials of especial excel-
3 lence. Portrait-painting was at the same time in request ; Lala
painted chiefly women, also her own likeness from a mirror.
1, Timomachus of Byzantium, about 660 (Zumpt ad Cic, Verr, iv,
60), Lala of Cyzicus — then one of the chief seats of painting — about
670 (et penicUlo pinxit et cestro in ebore), Sopolis, Dionysius, contem
poraries, AreUius, about 710, The dumb boy Pedius, about 720. The
Greek painter of the temple of Juno at Ardea Uved perhaps about 650
— 700. Comp. SiUig C, A, p, 246. and the author's Etrusker ii. s. 258.
2. Timomachus' Ajax and Medea, pictures much praised in epigrams,
purchased by Csesar for 80 talents (probably from the Cyzioans) Cic, ibid,
comp, PUn, xxxv, 9,), and dedicated in the temple of Venus Genetrix,
Bottiger, Vasengemalde ii, s, 188, Sillig C. A, p, 450, The Medea is re
cognised from the epigrams of the anthology in a figure from Hercula
neum (Ant, di Ercol. i, 13, M, Borbon. x, 21.) and a picture found in
Pompeii (M. Borbon. v, 33), and in gems (Lippert, Suppl. i, 93, &c.)
Panofka Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 243. On the Ajax, Welcker, Rhein. Mus. iii,
i. s. 82. Timomachus' Orestes and Iphigenia in Tauris (as we must in
fer from PUny xxxv, 40, 30) were also from tragedy. [A Diogenes Albi
nus pictor in Gaul is assigned to the end of the first century, from the
characters of the Latin inscription. Revue archaol. iii. p. 511. 583.]

209. At the time of the emperors we find easel painting
— which was alone held to be true art, at least its main branch
— neglected, and wall-painting practised in preference, as the
handmaid of luxury. Pliny in the time of Vespasian regards
painting as a perishing art ; he complains that with the most
splendid colours nothing worth speaking of was produced.
Scenography, which had taken a fantastic direction, especially
in Asia Minor, in which it scouted all the rules of architec
ture, was now transferred to the decoration of apartments,
where it was developed if possible in a still more arbitrary
manner; artists delighted in playing a transparent and airy
architecture over into vegetable and strangely compounded
forms. Landscape-painting was also conceived in a peculiar
manner by Ludius in the time of Augustus, and unfolded into
a new species. He painted as room-decorations villas and
porticoes, artificial gardens (topiaria opera), parks, streams,

i i i

PAINTING AT THE TIME OF THE FIRST C^SARR, 201
canals, sea-ports and marine views, enlivened with figures in
rural occupations and all sorts of comic situations — very
sprightly and pleasing pictures. The time also delighted in 5
tricks of all kinds ; in Nero's golden house a Pallas by Fabul-
lus was admired, which looked at every one who directed his
eyes towards her. The picture of Nero, 120 feet high, on
canvass, is justly reckoned by Pliny among the fooleries of
the age.
1. Painters of the time ; Ludius, about 730, Antistius Labeo [the
manuscripts Titedius, Titidius] vir prsetorius, about 40 a. d, TurpUius
Labeo Eq. Rom, about 50. Dorotheus, 60, FabuUus (AmuUus), the
painter of the golden house (the prison of his art), 60. Cornelius Pinus,
Accius Prisons, who painted the waUs of the Temple of Honour and
Virtue, 70. Artemidorus, 80. PubUus, animal painter, about 90. Mar
tial i, 110. Workers in mosaic at Pompeii: Dioscurides of Samos, M.
Borb. iv, 34. HeracUtus, HaU. ALZ. 1833. InteU. 57. comp. §. 210, 6.
2. See PUn. xxxv, 1. 2. 11. 37. Comp. the later testimony of Petro-
nius, c. 88. [Philostr. Imag. ed. Jacobs, p. lix sq.] On the external
luxury, PUn. xxxv, 32. and Vitruv. vii, 6. Quam subtilitas artificis ad-
jiciebat operibus auctoritatem, nunc dominicus sumptus efficit ne desi-
deretur. 3. See Vitruvius' (vu, 5) accounts of a scene which Apaturius of Ala-
banda fitted up and painted in a smaU theatre at Tralles. Lioinius a
mathematician occasioned the destruction of the Alabandian work ; Vi
truvius wishes that his time had one Uke it. Pinguntur tectorus mon
stra potius quam ex rebus finitis imagines certse. Pro columnis enim
statuuntur calami, pro fastigiis harpaginetuU striati cum crispis foUis et
volutis ; item candelabra sedicularum sustinentia figuras, etc.
4. PUn. xxxv, 37. — Vitruvius speaks altogether of the following
classes of waU-paintings : 1. Imitations of architectural mouldings, mar
ble-tablets in rooms and the like, as being the earUest decorations in
colours; 2. Architectural views on a large scale, in the scenographic
manner ; 3. Tragic, comic, and satyric scenes in large rooms (exedrae) ;
4. Landscape pictures (varietates topiorum) in the ambulationes ; 5. His
torical pictures (megalographia), figures of the gods, mythological scenes ;
also accompanied with landscapes (topia).
5. Plin. ib. Comp. Lucian De Dea Syr. 32.
210. With this character of art, which may be gathered 1
from the testimonies of ancient writers, correspond completely
the numerous monuments of wall-painting which extend from
the time of Augustus till that of the Antonines with nearly
an equal degree of merit: the paintings in the tomb of Ces- 2
tius (§. 190, 1), those in the chambers of Nero's house (§. 190,
2), which are decorated in a particularly brilliant and careful
manner ; the large and constantly increasing treasure of mural 3
paintings from Herculanum, Pompeii and Stabise; as well as
those in the tomb of the Nasones, and numerous others in 4

202 HISTORY OP GREEK ART. [Per. V.
ancient buildings found here and there, in all of which the
art exhibits, even in its degenerate state, inexhaustible inven-
i tion and productiveness. The spaces divided and disposed in
the most tasteful manner; arabesques of admirable richness
of fancy ; scenographies quite in that playful and light archi
tectural style; the roofs in the form of arbours hung with
garlands interspersed with fiuttering winged forms; landscapes
in the manner of Ludius, for the most part but slightly indi-
i cated; moreover figures of deities and mythological scenes,
many carefully, the greater number hastily designed, but often
possessing an inimitable charm (especially those floating
freely in the middle of larger compartments) ; all this and
more in lively colours and simple illumination, clearly and
agreeably arranged and executed, with much feeling for har
mony of colour and an architectonic general effect. Much of
this was certainly copied from earlier painters, nay the whole
study of many artists consisted in the accurate reproduction
of old pictures.
2. Histoire Critique de la Pyramide de C. Cestius par I'Abbe Rive
(with engravings from designs by M. Carloni). P. 1787. — Description des
Bains de Titus — sous la direction de Ponce. P. 1787. 3 Livraisons.
Terme di Tito, a large work with plates after drawings by Smugliewicz,
engraved by M. Carloni. Sickler's Almanach U. Tf 1 — 7. s. 1.
3. Antichitk di Brcolano, i — iv. vii. Pitture Antiche. N. 1757 sqq.
65, 79, GU ornati deUe pareti ed i pavimenti delle stanze dell' antica
PompeU inoisi in rame. N, 1808, 2 vols, fo. Zahn, Neuentdeckte Wand
gemalde in Pompeu in 40 Steinabdriicken, The same author, Die
Schonsten Ornamente und merkwiirdigsten Gemalde aus Pomp,, Here.
u, Stabia [1828 100 pi, 2d Series 1842, 1844, 100 pi. Real, Museo Borbon,
R. Rochette, Peintures de Pompee from 1844, 3 livr. Wandgem. aus Pom
peii u. Herculanum von W. Ternite, Berlin, Reimer 3 Lief and Reimarus
also 3 Lief up to this time. Text of the first part by K. 0. Miiller, of
the rest by Welcker.] Much in Mazois, GeU, Goro, R. Rochette (see §.
190, 4). [Pianta de' scavi deUa VUla GiuUa (?) fra Brcolano ed Oplonti
Nap. No. 24. 27.]
4. P, S, Bartoli: GU antichi Sepolcri, R. 1797. (Veterum sepulcra,
Thes. Antiqq. Gr. xii.). By the same: Le pitture ant. delle grotte di
Roma e del sepolcro dei Nasoni (of the time of the Antonines, discovered
in 1675). R. 1706. 1721. fo., with explanations by Bellori and Causeus
(also in Latin. B. 1738), [and in the Thes. Ant. Rom. Thes. T. xii.]. Bar
toli Recueil de Peintures Antiques T. i. ii. Sec ed. P. 1783. Collection
de Peintures Antiques qui ornaient les Palais, Thermes, &c. des Emp.
Tite, Trajan, Adrien et Constantin. R. 1781. [Ponce Bains de Titus. P.
1786. fol. Paintings from the baths of Titus Sickler Almanach aus Rom.
ii. Tf 1 — 7, Landon Choix des plus eel, peint, P. 1820, 4to.] Arabesques
Antiques des Bains de Livie et de la Ville Adrienne, engraved by Ponce
after Raphael. P. 1789. Pitture Antiche ritrov. nello scavo aperto 1780,
incise e pubbl. da G. M. Cassini. 1783. Cabott, Stucchi figurati essist. in

PAINTING AT THE TIME OP THE FIRST CESARS, 203
un antico sepolcro fuori delle mura di Roma, R. 1795, Parietinas Pic-
turas inter Esqu, et Viminalem CoUem super, anno detectas in ruderibus
privatsB domus, D. Antonini Pii sevo depictas (two pictures in the Pein
tures qui ornaient — no, 4. if it be the same picture, quite correspond
with the representation on the coin of Lucilla, Num. Mus, Pisani tb, 25,
3) in tabulis expressas ed, C, Buti Archit. Raph, Mengs del. CamparoUi
so. 1788. 7 very fine plates (Pitture antiche deUa viUa Negroni). [The
picture in the Vatican from Torre Marancia in the Mon. Amaranziani. R.
1843. Wall paintings of a dweUing house in Catania, Ann. d. Inst. ix. p.
60. 177. of another in Anaphe, Ross in the Abhdl, der Miinchner Akad. ii.
Tf 3 A. s. 449, of a tomb in Apulia, Archaol. Int. Bl. 1835. s. 11. comp.
1837. s. 49. Others in Cyrene, in Pacho. Comp. the passages of Aris
tides on Corinth, of Dio and Themistius in R. Rochette Peint. Ant. p.
198, Clem. Alex. Protr. p. 52 s. Pott. Sidonius ApolUnaris Epist. ii, 11.]
For general accounts comp. Winck. v. s. 166 ff.
6. Besides these floating forms of dancing nymphs, centaurs and
bacchantes, Pitt. Ere. i. 25 — 28, Winckelmann praises most the four pic
tures, iv, 41 — 44. Designs (retouched?) by Alexander of Athens on
marble, i, 1-^. [which H. Meyer on Winck. v. s. 473 appreciates better
than W. himself.] Among the historical pictures of Pompeii the carrying
away of Briseis by AchiUes is particularly noted (R. Rochette M. I, i, 19.
GeU New S. 39. 40. Zahn Wandgem. 7) [as well as the Chryseis and the
visit of Hera to Zeus on Ida from the same so-caUed Homeric house] ;
of others, the picture in R. Rochette M. I. i, 9. Gell 83, distinguished
by its treatment of the light (Hypnus and Pasithea according to Hirt,
Mars and lUa according to R, Rochette, Dionysus and Aura according to
Lenormant, D. and Ariadne according to Guarini, Zephyrus and Flora
according to JaneUi and others, see Bull. d. Inst. 1834, p. 186 sq,) ; also
the enigmatical picture, Gell, 48, Zahn 20, R. Rochette, Pomp&, pi. 15,
representing the birth of Leda, or a nest with Erotes (Hirt, Ann. d. Inst.
i, p. 251). [Certainly the former, with reference to the legend in the
Cypr,] Others in the 2d Part, On the pieces of rhyparography [rhopo
graphy] Welcker ad PhUostr. p. 397. The pictures consisting of mere
blurs of paint, and only intelUgible at a distance (GeU, p, 165), remind
us of the compend. via §. 163,
' 7, [These paintings form two classes, imitations of earlier works of
every kind, and new, Roman pictures : BuU, 1841, p, 107,] Quintil. x, 2.
ut describere tabulas mensuris ac Uneis sciant. Lucian Zeuxis 3. riig
tixovog rxiirtig xiiriy^xCPog iari viJv ' AStiiVYiai 'Tc^og xiir'riv ixeivriv dx^i/iei rri
ffTaS|£«jj fitrevnveyfiivri. [exemplar quod apographon vocant, Plin, xxxv,
40, 23. fiipin/ix Pausan. viii, 9, 4. cf SiebeUs.],

211. In the age of Hadrian painting also must have re
vived once more with the other arts. To it belonged ^tion,
whom Lucian ranks with the first masters, and whose charm
ing picture of Alexander and Roxane, with Erotes busied
about them and the king's armour, he cannot sufficiently
praise. On the whole, however, painting continued to sink

204 HISTORY OF GREEK ART, [Per, V,
gradually into a mere daubing of colours ; and it was com
monly an occupation of slaves to fill the walls with pictures
in the most expeditious manner, according to the pleasure
and caprice of their masters,
1. Mtion is elsewhere placed in the time of Alexander (even by Hirt
Gesch. der. BUd, Kunste, s, 265), but Lucian says distinctly that he did
not live in ancient times, but quite recently (rd reXevrxix rxirx Herod,
4), therefore probably in the age of Hadrian and the Antonines. Comp.
besides Imagg. 7. Hadrian himself was a rhyparographer [§. 163. R. 5.] ;
Apollodorus said to him : "Aveyi^e xxi rdg xo'hax-vviixg y^x<pe. Dio C. Ixix,
4. Suidas s. v. ' Ah^ixvog. Also Diognetus, about 140, Eumelus (painted
a Helena) about 190, Aristodemus from Caria, a scholar of Eumelus (?),
a guest of the elder Philostratus, also a writer on the history of art,
about 210, — Later, 370 A, D,, there was at Athens a painter called Hila-
rius from Bithynia,
2, In Trimalchio's house (Petron. 29) he was painted as Mercury, as
was also his whole career, then the Iliad and Odyssey and Lsenatis
gladiatorum. Pictures of gladiators (of the commencement of which
Pliny speaks xxxv, 33) and other games were now very much in request.
Capit. Gord. 3, Vopisc, Carin, 18, §. 424. Gladiators — Mosaic found at
Torrenuova in 1834, similar to Winck. M. Ined. tv. 197. 198, KeUermann
HaU. A. L. Z. 1834, Int. Bl. no, 69, [W, Henzen ExpUc, musivi in ViUa
Burghesia asservati quo certamina amphitheatri reprsesentata extant,
praemio donata, Rom, 1845, 4to, II musaico Antoniniano rappr, la scuola
degli atleti, trasferito al pal, Lateranese, Roma 1843, by J, P, Secchi,
Prof in the CoU, Rom,] In Juven, ix, 145. some one wishes that he had
among his domestics a curvus cselator et alter, qui multas facias pingat
cite. Painting slaves also occur in legal sources. See Pea's note in
Winckelmann W. v. s. 496.

212. The decline of art is afterwards so much the more
perceptible ; the earlier luxuriance of arabesques and archi
tectonic decorations disappears; clumsy simplicity takes its
place, as for instance in nearly all the pictures of the time of
Constantine. With these may be classed the oldest Chris
tian pictures in the catacombs, which still continue to retain
much of the manner of the earlier times of the Emperors;
as well as the miniature paintings of some heathen and
Christian manuscripts, the best of which are very instructive
as regards the understanding of the subjects in ancient art.
Although encaustic painting was still very much exercised
at Byzantium (§, 320), in the decoration of churches as well
as palaces, the employment of Mosaic however was preferred,
a branch of art which rose very much in estimation at this
period, and was very diligently exercised throughout the whole
of the Middle Ages at Byzantium, and also by Byzantines in
Italy,

EARLIEST CHRISTIAN ART, 205
1. The paintings from the Baths of Constantine [in the Rospigliosi
palace], Bartoli, pi. 42 sq. Agincourt T. v. pi. 4. As to whether the pic
ture of Roma in the Barberini palace really belongs to the time of Con
stantine, see Winckelm. W. v. s. 159. Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst U. s, 440.
Sickler and Reinhart's Almanach Bd, i, s. 1, Tf 1, Painting P, C, Miil
ler De genio sevi Theodos, p, 161,
2, On the catacombs: Bosio, Roma sotterranea, R, 1632, (Engrav
ings by Cherubino Alberti), Aringhi Roma Subterranea novissima, R,
1661. Bottari Sculture e Pitture sagre estratte dai Cimiterii di Roma.
1737—64. Artaud Voy. dans les Oatac. de Rome. P. 1810. 8vo. BartoU's
work, §. 210, 4to. Agincourt, pi. 6 — 12. Rostell. Beschr. Roms i. s. 410.
[The work begun by Pater Marchi after extensive investigations, three
parts of which have ah-eady appeared,]
3, The Ambrosian lUad (Mai, lUad, Fragm, Antiquiss. c, picturis
Med. 1819), the pictures of which come nearest to classic antiquity
[also Rome 1835, small fol. Homeri Iliados picturse ant. ex Cod. Mediol.
Ibid. 1835, VirgiUi picturse ant. ex Codd. Vaticanis]. The Vatican
Virgil (of the 4th or 6th century?). See Bartoli Figurse Antiquse e
Cod. Virg. Vatic. (embeUished). Agincourt 20—25. MUlin G. M. pi.
175 b. sqq. Beschr. Roms u, 2. s. 345. The Vatican Terence with scenes
from comedy, Berger De personis 1723. Beschr. Roms ibid. s. 346. The
Vatican manuscript of Cosmas Indopleustes. The oldest miniatures of
the books of the Bible, especiaUy those in the Vatican on Joshua, approach
the Homeric ones above referred to in costume and composition.
4. See Cassiodor. Var. i, 6. vii, 5. Symmachus Bp. vi, 49. viii, 42.
Justinian's Chalke contained large mosaic pictures of his warlike achieve
ments, Procop. De aed. Justin, i, 10. On a waU-painting of Theodoric in
mosaic, Procop. B. Goth, i, 24, Rumohr Ital. Forschungen i. s. 183, Manso
less accurate s. 403. Comp. MuUer De genio sevi Theod. p. 168. Accounts
of the mosaics in basUicas, which are never wanting there : Sartorius'
Regierung der Ostgothen s. 317. n. 21. — Specimens are furnished by A.
Ciampini among others. Opera. R. 1747. Furietti de Musivis. R. 1762.
Agincourt v. pi. 14 sqq. Gutensohn und Knapp (§. 194). Comp. §. 322.
Two pictures in the Bibl. Coisliniana, Nioephorus Botoniates with a monk
and emperor and empress, over whom Christ hovers touching both crowns.

213. Notwithstanding the disappearance of all living study
of nature, and the loss of all higher technical dexterities, the
practice of painting and sculpture which again degenerated
into mechanical drudgery, still adhered however to many of
the principles and forms of ancient art. The Christian reli
gion appropriated at first for the decoration of churches, tombs
and signet-rings, not merely many forms and even some sub ¦
jects of ancient art, but also created for itself a plastic and
pictorial cycle, partly from historical and partly from allego
rical materials ; only it repelled, by a purer and more severe
conception, all adoration of artistic shapes. Constant and

206 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V.
established forms therefore were adopted for sacred person
ages, the more so as it was thought that, by going back to the
oldest images which they possessed, the actual shape assumed
by these characters was retained. The countenances at the
same time were fashioned after an ideal, although at the same
time rudely treated fundamental form ; the costume was sub
stantially Greek, and the drapery was disposed in large masses
after the antique manner. Mediasval peculiarities in dress
and mien only penetrated by degrees into the world of anti
quity, and that more in newly acquired than in old tradi
tional figures. Everywhere at that period traces of an ancient
school, nowhere a peculiar living conception of nature, from
the renewed study of which emanated, in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, the fresh efliorescence of art, and eman
cipation from those typical and lifeless forms which* continue
to exist in the Greek church till the present day, as the last
remnant of a perished world of art.
1. Cod. Theod. xiii, 4. de excusationibus artificum.
2. The catacombs of the Christians show how even heathen subjects
(especiaUy Orpheus) were adopted into Christian aUegory. Vintage, Ger- .
hard, Beschr. Roms ii, 2. s. 234, The porphyry urn of Constantia is
adorned with Bacchian scenes, Winckelm, vi, 1 . s, 342 ; a river god on
the sarcophagus BouiU, iii, pi. 65. The first Christian emperors have on
coins personified representations of cities, and other subjects borrowed
from heathendom. Constantine wears the labarum and the phoenix (fe-
Uoium temporum reparatio), Constantius while holding the labarum is
crowned by a Victory. R. Walsh, Essay on Ancient Coins, Medals and
Gems as illustrating the progress of Christianity, p. 81 sqq, R, Rochette
Premier M6m, sur les antiq, chr6tiennes, Peintures des catacombes. P,
1836, Deux M6m, Pierres s6puicr. 1836, [Trois. M6m. objets d^pos^s
dans les tombeaux ant. qui se retrouvent en tout ou en partie dans les
cimetiferes chr6tiens. 1838.] But newly formed subjects also, such as the
good shepherd, appear to have been conceived at this time in an artistic
manner. Rumohr describes a meritorious statue of the good shepherd at
Rome, Ital. Forsoh, i. s, 168 ; a good figure of the kind as a sarcophagus
in the Louvre 772. Clarac, pi, 122, On the gemma pastoraUs see Thes,
gemm, astrif iii, p. 82, Constantine caused the good shepherd as weU as
many scenes from the Old and New Testament to be sculptured (Euseb,
V, Const, iv, 49), among the former Daniel, who, together with Jonah, was
the most favourite subject of typical representation. In the emblems of
the earUest Christians indeed (Munter, Sinnbilder und KunstvorsteUun-
gen der alten Christen, 1826) there is much pettiness and trifling (as
in the fish, IX0T2), partly from the frequently enjoined effort to avoid
everything Uke idols even in signet-rings ; yet there are others that are
happily conceived even on the score of art (the lamb, the thirsting hart,
the dove with the oUve branch). The sentiments of reflecting Christians
were from the first much divided, at Rome on the whole they were more
for art, in Africa more strict, TertulUan, Augustine, and Clemens of
Alexandria speak with severity against aU exercise of sculpture and

DESTRUCTION OF WORKS OF ART, 207
painting. The councils, among which that of IlUberis (about 300) was
the first to occupy itself with such matters, were on the whole more hostile
to plastic than painted images, Comp, Neander K. Gesch. u, s, 616.
Jacobs Acad. Reden i. s, 547 f. Griineisen iiber die Ursachen u. Granzen
des Kunsthasses in den drei ersten Jahrh. n, Chr., Kunstbl, 1831, N. 29.
In P. C. MiiUer De genio a3vi Theod, p, 267 sq. Passages from Chrysos-
tom and others on the state of art,
3. There were images of Christ pretty early, for Alexander Severus
had Christ in his Lararium; afterwards the Oarpocratians had such
images, with which even heathen superstition was carried on in Egypt,
(Reuvens Lettres a Mr, Letronne i, p, 25), On the other hand the Edessa
image was an invention, and the statue of Paneas, with the woman of
Samaria, probably a misunderstood antique group (Hadrian and Judsea,
according to Iken). The Christ-ideal was developed on the whole much
less by sculpture than by mosaics and paintings, A Christian painter
who tried to transform it into the Jupiter Ideal had his hand withered,
according to Cedrenus p, 348. Par. Theodoret Exc. hist, eocl, i, 15, [On
the origin of Christian art, and its reUgious ideals, from a consideration
of the earliest works of Christian sculpture, and later Greek painting in
Sicklers u. Reinhart's Almanach aus Rom, i. s. 153 — 196,] — Rumohr in
especial shows how Christian art long remained antique in technical
treatment and forms, having only taken another direction in its subjects,
Ital. Forschungen i. s. 157 ff. — What is here said is mostly borrowed
from Rumohr's exceUent book; and R. Rochette in agreement therewith
shows in his Discours sur I'origine, le d6veloppement et le caractfere des
types imitatifs qui constituent Part du Christianisme, P, 1834, how, after
the first indeterminate and characterless attempts, certain ideal types of
the Saviour, the Virgin, and the Apostles were formed at an early period
under the infiuence of ancient art ; but that the subjects which were
foreign to antiquity — the representations of sacred sufferings — the Cru
cifixion and the Martyrdoms, did not enter into this world of art until
the seventh and eighth centuries.

DESTRUCTION OF WORKS OF ART.
2 1 4. After all this, it is not to be denied that the removal ]
of the seat of empire to Byzantium was productive of baneful
influence on the arts in Italy; that to ancient art in general 2
Christianity was not less injurious, as well in consequence of
its internal tendency, as from the natural and necessary hos
tility of its external position; and that the invasions and 3
conquests of the Germanic tribes were also destructive, less
however from intentional demolition than from the natural
effects of incursions, sieges, and subjugations; for the Goths
especially, who were of an honourable nature and susceptible
of cultivation, can scarcely in any instance be charged with
wanton destruction of works of art and historical records.
The vast amount of distress arising from wars, famine, pesti- 4

208 HISTORY OF GREEK ART. [Per. V.
lence, and all kinds of calamities, to which Rome was sub
jected in the sixth and seventh centuries, is certainly to be
taken into consideration in the history of the decay of ancient
art; and intervals of prosperity were but the more dangerous
to old architectural edifices which were then turned to account
for the erection of new buildings. And yet it was not these
external events that principally brought about and are charge
able with the decline of art; it was the inward exhaustion
and enfeeblement of the human mind, the decay of all ancient
sentiment, the destruction — whose causes lay in internal laws
of life — of the entire spiritual world from which art itself had
emanated. Even without those external shocks the fabric of
ancient art must of itself have sunk in ruins.
1. See Heyne: Prisose artis opera quse Constantinopoli extitisse me
morantur, Commentat. Gott. xi. p. 3. De interitu operum tum antiquse
tum serioris artis quse Constantinopoli fuisse memorantur, ibid. xii. p.
273. Petersen, Einleitung s. 120.
Constantine brought works of art from Rome, Greece, and especiaUy
from Asia Minor, to Byzantium. On the statues of gods, heroes and his
torical personages in the Bath of Zeuxippus which Severus erected and
Constantine embellished, .Christodorus' Anthol. Palat. ii. Cedrenus p. 369.
The brazen statues with wliich Constantine adorned the principal streets
were melted for Anastasius' colossus in t\ie forum Tauri. Malalas xv. p.
42. Before the time of Justinian there stood 427 statues in the area at
the church of St. Sophia. We hear also of enormous colossal statues of
Hera and Hercules in the history of Prankish devastation (Nicetas). In
detail, however, Uttle can be said with certainty ; the Byzantines are
wont to call the images of the gods after the chief seat of their wor
ship (the Samian Hera, the Cnidian Aphrodite, the Olympian Zeus).
Rome was also plundered through the exarchate, particularly in 633
under Constans IL, even of the bronze tiles of the Pantheon.
At Byzantium there was destruction from fire, especiaUy in 404, 475
(the Lauseion), 532 (the bath of Zeuxippus), <fec., then came the Icono
clasts (from 728 downwards), and the crusaders (1203 and 1204), when
two vast confiagrations did by far the greatest damage. Venice at that
time acquired a great variety of works of art (below §. 261, 2). At the
same time Greece suffered much from the Franks and pirates. After
wards from the Turks ; now from the troops of the Great Powers.
2. On Constantino's later devastations of temples, the Bd. of Winck.
vi, 2. s. 403. Miiller De Genio sevi Theodos. p. 169 sq. The complaints
of Libanius are perhaps exaggerated. The Serapeion at Alexandria, the
first temple after the Capitol, was destroyed in 389, by the bishop The-
ophilus. Wyttenbach ad Eunap, p, 153, Direct commands to destroy
temples first began with the sons of Theodosius. MiiUer De Genio sevi
Theod, p. 172, Petersen, p, 122, At first were destroyed especially the
seats of obscene, or mystic worship, Mithras caverns, and the Uke, then
also other temple-images. It was a matter of rejoicing to show the peo
ple the dusty inside of the chryselephantine colossi, Euseb. V. Const, iu,
54, Eunapius accuses the monks of having led Alaric's army to the de-

THE EGYPTIANS. 209
struotion of the temple of Eleusis. But, on the other hand, there were
always new endeavours to preserve the monuments of antiquity. For
the protection of works of art there was at Rome a centurio, then a tri-
bunus, comes, rerum nitentium. Vales, ad Ammian, xvi, 6. Artists are
honoured in the Cod, Theodos. xiii, t. 4. The earlier Popes Ukewise had
sometimes a sense of the splendour which the remains of antiquity im
parted to their city, especiaUy Gregory the Great, who has been justified
by Fea.
3. Greece was laid waste very early ; it was overrun several times by
the so-called Scythians under GaUienus, they plundered also the Bphe
sian temple ; in Attica they were defeated by Dexippus at the sack
of the city, Trebellius GalUen. 6. 13 (Comp. C. L n, 380). Alaric threat
ened Athens in 395 : however, Athena Promachus, according to Zosimus,
averted the destruction (and it was precisely at Athens that antiquity
subsisted longest uninjured in its monuments, religion, and customs).
Rome was besieged by Alaric in 408, and many statues of precious metal
were melted in order to appease him ; in 410 he took and pillaged it.
The sack by Genseric the Vandal, in 465, was more terrible. The trea
sures of art in the Capitol were taken to Africa, Theodoric, who was
educated at Byzantium, carefuUy protected antiquity and art. Resto
ration of Pompey's theatre. Theodoricus rex Roma felix inscribed on
bricks from the baths of CaracaUa. Comp, the defence of the Goths in
Sartorius, p. 191 sq. Wittig besieged Rome in 537 ; the Greeks defended
Hadrian's Mausoleum with statues. TotUa's plan of devastation in 546.
Wars of the Longobards and Greeks. Comp. for a general account. Gib
bon, ch. 71. Winck. vi, 1. s. 349 ff. together with the notes, Fea SuUe
Rovine di Roma in the Ital. translation of Winckelmann, Hobhouse's
notes to Byron's Childe Harold, Petersen, Einleitung s. 124 ff., Niebuhr's
Kl. Sohrifteni, s. 423 ff. Circumstances which lead to the conclusion that
there was a sudden stagnation in artistic enterprise, are adduced by
Winck. vi, 1. s. 337, and also by the Ed. s. 390.

APPENDIX.
THE NATIONS NOT OF GREEK RACE

Chinese, Judsean and Egyptian antiquities are at the best but curiosi
ties ; it is very well to make one's self and the world acquainted with
them; but they are of sUght avaU for moral or aesthetic culture. —
Gothe Werke xxui. s. 278. I. EGYPTIANS.
1. GENERAL REMARKS.
215. The Egyptians were quite a peculiar branch of the 1
Caucasian race, in the wider sense of that word. Their form 2
of body was elegant and slender, more calculated for perse-
0

210 EGYPTIAN ART.
vering labour and steadfast endurance than for a heroic dis-
3 play of strength. Their language, which can be recognised in
the Coptic, was closely allied to the Semitic tongues in its struc
ture, but depended still more on external agglutination, and
was therefore so much the more removed from the internal
4 organic richness of the Greek. This people was found from
the earliest times throughout the whole extent of the valley
of the Nile ; the Ethiopians of the kingdom of Meroe, though
indeed seldom politically united with the Egyptians, were, how
ever, connected with them by their corresponding customs, re-
5 ligion, art, and nationality in general. As this river-country,
on account of its sharply-defined boundaries and great annual
inundation, had, especially in Egypt, a very fixed and distinct
character — something settled and uniform; so we find that,
from the earliest ages, all life was extremely formal, and, as it
6 were, benumbed. The religion, which was a nature-worship,
was cultivated and unfolded by priestly science into a tedious
ceremonial ; a complicated system of hierarchy and castes
wound itself through all branches of public activity, as well
as art and industry; every business had its followers assigned
it by inheritance.
1. The Egyptians were not negroes, although the nearest to them
of aU the Caucasians. The Ups larger, the nose more turned up than
among the Greeks. Comp. the heads of Copts with the ancient statuary,
Denon, Voy. T. i. p, 136, 8, Gau's Antiq. de la Nubie, pi. 16.
2. Plerique subfusculi sunt et atrati (there were differences denoted
by fiihxyxeag and fj^skix^ag, as in Pamonthes' instrument of sale), magisque
mcestiores, gracilenti et aridi, Ammian xxii, 16, 23. An imhelle et inutile
vulgus, according to Juvenal xv, 126, but not to be subdued on the rack,
Ammian and jElian V. H. vii, 18. See Herod, iii, 10. 11. 77. on the
skulls at Pelusium.
3. Bunsen. Egypt's Place in the History of the World. Sect. 4. 5.
4. The sculptures of Upper Nubia present the same forms and colour
of body as the Egyptian. — There was only a poUtical union under Se-
sostris (1500 before Christ) and Sabacon (800). — Comp. Heeren Ideen ii,
2 (1826) Abschn. i. Ansicht des Landes und Volkes.
1 216. This people, by its quiet and earnest nature, not only
carried many branches of industry and the mechanical arts at
an early period to a surprising height, but we also find that a
system of writing was cultivated and exte.nsively employed here
2 from a very remote era. Indeed we have to distinguish three
sorts : — first, the hieroglyphics as a peculiar monumental char
acter which, setting out from direct delineation and tropical
designation, approaches in particular parts to an alphabetical
3 character, as in the cartouches for names especially ; 2dly, the
hieratic character, which seems to have arisen in the trans
ference of hieroglyphics, particularly the phonetic portion of

EGYPTIAN CHARACTERS. 211
them, to papyrus, by the abbreviation and simplification of
signs ; lastly, the demotic — which is in its turn connected with 4
the latter — is more alphabetical in its nature, and most sim
plified in the form of the signs.
2. The discovery of the phonetic hieroglyphics rested at first on the
comparison of the name of ftolemy on the Rosetta stone (§. 217, 4), with
that of Cleopatra on the obelisk at PhUae. First set on foot by Young :
Encyclopsedia Britannica. Supplement, Article Bgypt, 1819. Account
of some recent discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature and Egyptian
Antiquities. 1823. More fuUy carried out by ChampoUion le Jeune. Lettre
k M. Daoier relative k I'alphabet des hieroglyphes phonetiques. 1822. Pre
cis du systfeme hieroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens. 1824. Confirmed
by H. Salt's Essay on Dr. Young's and M. ChampoUion's Phonetic sys
tem of Hieroglyphics. A correct judgment on what ChampoUion has
done, by Rosengarten in the Berl. Jahrb. 1831 n. 94 ff. An opposite system,
now abandoned, in Seyffarth's Rudimenta Hieroglyphices. 1826. Lepsius
sur Palphabet hi6rogl. Annali d. Inst, ix, p, 1 tav. d'agg. A, B,
3. ' \e^xrtxvi y^xf4.fcxruv pcibr^og tj ;^^6Ji'T«; oi ie^oy^xfifixrsig in Clemens,
On roUs of papyrus, which seem to belong to a kind of Uturgy, and to
contain hymns. The same species of writing is found in fragments of
folded papyrus (comp. Herod, ii, 100), with the names of the kings and
the years of their reigns, in the Turin collection. See Quintino Lezioni
intorno a diversi argomenti d'Archeologia. 1825. Mai's Catalogo de'
papiri Bgiziani deUa bibl. Vaticana chiefly contains hieratic documents.
1826. 4to.
4. ^ E,'7riaro7^oy^x<pixyi fii^o^og in Clemens, Zrifionxd, ^'/ipcahy] yQ. in Herod.
and Diod. {iyxa^ix is more general). Used ou papyrus for deeds, letters,
and aU sorts of secular registries. Records and deeds of a family of Chol-
chytes, or mummy-dressers at Thebes, partly demotic, partly Greek, some
times corresponding to each other. Individual matters published by
Bockh (Brklarung einer JBgypt, Urkunde, B, 1821) and Buttmann (Erk-
larung der Griech. Beischrift. 1824), by Petrettini (Papiri Greco-Egizu.
1826), by Peyron (Papyri Graeci R, Taurinensis Musei .^Egyptii, especially
the pleadings of 117 bef. Christ), in Young's Account and Hieroglyphics,
in Mai ibid, and Rosegarten De prisca .Sgyptiorum litteratura, Comm. i.
1828. These documents and the Rosetta stone have led to the deter
mination of a number of letters which appear in Greek names, the signs
of the numbers and other cyphers, principaUy through Young, Champol-
Uon, and Rosegarten. On Spohn's work (De Lingua et Literis veterum
.^gyptiorum, ed. et absolvit G, Seyffarth), comp, among others Gott. G,
A. 1825, St, 123.
The best materials of these researches are given in the Hieroglyphics
coUected by the Egyptian Society, arranged by Thos, Young, 2 vols. C.
Yorke and M. Leake, Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, i,
i, p. 203. Bunsen Obss. generales sur P6tat actuel de nos connaissances
relativement k Page des mon, de I'Bg, Annali d. Inst, vi, p, 87.
217. By the recently acquired knowledge of these kinds of I
writing, particularly the first, and a greater attention to Mane-
tho occasioned thereby, we have at the same time been enabled

212 EGYPTIAN ART,
to determine the age of many monuments, which, considering
what Plato says as to the immutability of art in Egypt for
thousands of years, could hardly be discovered immediately
from the style of the monuments. We distinguish, then:
2 I. The period before the Syro-Arabian conquest of the
Hycsos or Shepherd kings (sixteen dynasties in Manetho) in
which This and Memphis especially flourished. At the end
of it nothing escaped destruction except the pyramids of
Memphis, works of the fourth dynasty. But even fragments
of temples of the earlier time are found here and there built
into later works; — they show precisely the same kind of art
as the latter. The prodigious devastations of these Hycsos
which wound up this period, have rendered it impossible to
follow this national style of art step by step, and trace its de
velopment.
3 II, The race of native princes, which was not extinguished
even under the Hycsos, but had retired into the most remote
regions, issuing again from the southern boundaries of Egypt,
gradually reconquered the empire (the eighteenth. Thebaic
dynasty in Manetho) and raised it to new splendour, which
reached its zenith under Rhamses the Great (Sethos in Man
etho) otherwise called Sesostris (the first of the princes of
the nineteenth dynasty, 1473 years before the Christian era).
His name, and those of several other Rhamses, Amenophis,
Thutmosis, stand on numberless temples and other monu
ments, even in Lower Nubia, Thebes was the central point
of Egypt, and rose to a most flourishing condition. The suc
ceeding dynasties likewise, even the Ethiopian conquerors,
who were of the same kindred with the Egyptians, have left
behind monuments of their name in a similar style; and, un
der the Philhellenic rulers of Sais, there is still nothing of
Greek influence observable in art.
4 III. Egypt was under foreign dominion, first Persian, then
Greek, and afterwards Roman, without, however, any altera
tion being thereby produced on life in the interior of the
country. The ancient division into castes, the hierarchy in its
relative position to the nation, continued to subsist; all the
occupations of life and branches of art were carried on in the old
system. The kings and queens -were treated by the priesthood
of the different districts, in titles and mode of representation,
entirely after the manner of the ancient Pharaohs. Chris
tianity first annihilated by external destruction this mummy
like, dried up, and therefore incorruptible Egyptian world.
1. Manetho (260 before Christ), leaving out of consideration the cor
ruptions of the text, deserves as much more credit than the purely his
torical accounts of Herodotus, as authentic records, made use of by an

PERIODS OF EGYPTIAN ART, 213
intelligent native, ought to have in preference to oral communications
by equivocal intermediate persons to a stranger. Among such records
of which Manetho might avail himself, the genealogy of Ramses the
Great, given in the tablet of Abydos (most correct in Hierogl. 47) is
worthy of notice. At least the order of succession here, Thutmosis,
Amenophis, Horus, coincides with Manetho, [Bockh Manetho u, die
Hundsternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Pharaonen, B, 1845,]
2, The Builders of the Pyramids, Suphis I, (Cheops, Herod,), a de-
spiser of the gods, Suphis II. (Chephren), Mencheres (Mykerinos), kings
of the fourth dynasty, were thrust down by the priests whom Herodotus
heard, from theocratic reasons, into the time of the decline, Comp,
Heeren, Ideen 2. s, 198. with ChampoUion, Lettres k M, le Duo de Bla-
cas, u. ; and the latter on the fragments of earUer buildings which are
found in the temple and palace of Ammon at Carnac iu the ruins of
Thebes. 3, The xviu, dynasty according to ChampoUion: Amnoftep, Thoyt-
mus, Amnmai, Thoytmus II,, Amnof, Thoytmus IIL, Amnof II, (Pha-
menophis or Memnon), Horus, Ramses I,, Ousirei, Manduei, Ramses II,
III, IV. (Mei-Amn) V. The xix. : Amn-mai Ramses VI., Ramses VII.,
Amnoftep IL, Ramses VIII. IX., Amen-me, Ramses X. ChampolUon's
assumptions are opposed in several points to Burton Excerpta Hierogl.
Qahira 1828-30 and WUkinson, Materia Hieroglyphica. Malta 1828
(comp. BuU. d. Inst. 1832. p. 221) ; RoseUini, Monumenti deU' Bgitto e
della Nubia dis. dalla Spedizione Scientifico-letteraria Toscana in Bgitto
P. I. Mon. Storici 1832. 33. (comp. G. Gel. Anz. 1833. St. 200.) arranges the
succession as foUows : xviii. : Amenof I., Thutmes I. II. IIL, the Queen
Amense, Thutmes IV., Amenof IL, Thutmes V., Amenof III. (Memnon),
Horus, Tmauhmot, Ramses I., Menephtah I., Ramses II. III. (Amn-mai
Ramses or Sesostris), Manephtah II. Ill,, Uerri, The xix, begins : Ram
ses Mai-Amn (also Sethos or jEgyptus — a very uncritical combination).
The foUowing are thought to be found on monuments: Manduftep
(Smendes XXI,), Schesohon, Osorchon, Takelothe (XXII,) ; Sabaco and
Tirraka (XXV, these by Salt), Psemteg (Psammetichus XXXI,), Nai-
phroue, Hakr, (Nephereus and Acoris, of the xxix, dynasty in the time of
the Persians).
4. The chief supports of this view which has been gained but recently
are 1. The Rosetta stone, an address in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek
characters, by the priests assembled at Memphis, to Ptolemy V., (who had
caused himself to be inaugurated after the manner of the Pharaohs,)
thanking him especiaUy for freeing the priesthood from many burdens.
Last explained by Drumann, 1823, Such decrees of praise and thanks
were frequent ; even the virtues of Nero were extolled in hieroglyphics
by the inhabitants of Busiris. 2. The Greek inscriptions on the waUs of
temples, mostly to this effect, that the Ptolemies and Imperators, or the
inhabitants of the country, for the welfare of these rulers {iiri^ xiraiv),
dedicate temples or new portions of them to their native gods; they
come down as far as the time of the Antonines. Letronne, Recherches
pour servir k I'histoire de I'Egypte pendant la domination des Grecs et
des Remains. 1823. 3. The hieroglyphic inscriptions with names of
Ptolemies and Roman emperors accompanying representations which

214 EGYPTIAN ART.
both in import and form are purely Egyptian; according to RoseUini
they come as far down as CaracaUa. 4. The archives of the Cholchytes
lead us stUl deeper into private life, §. 216, 4. Comp. Gott. G. A. 1827.
St. 154—156. We see from them that the entire sacred laws of the
Egyptians, and what here did not belong to them, continued still nearly
unimpaired in the later times of the Ptolemies.
I 218. The monuments of the Egyptian style of art are
divided according to locality as follows :
I. The Upper Nubian. Here lay the kingdom of Meroe
which was in a flourishing state at least before the time of
Herodotus; in it the sway of the priesthood down till Erga-
menes (about 270 years before Christ) was still more stern,
and priestly knowledge stiU more generally diffiised. On this
so-called island there are still found considerable groups of
ruins, which however for the most part exhibit the Egyptian
style only in a later state of degeneracy. At the northern
end of it, indeed beyond the island, there are found similar
remains of Napata, the seat of the queens Candace ; there are
also to be seen edifices of a kindred description in several
places in Abyssinia.
2 II. The Lower Nubian, separated by a great space from the
former, and approaching closer to Upper Egypt. The reason
that they mostly wear the form of cavern-structures lies perhaps
partly in the smaller extension of the valley of the Nile, which
did not furnish a sufficient surface for other constructions;
according to the hieroglyphic inscriptions those that lie higher
up belong to the flourishing era of Thebes, those in the border
country to later periods. The unfinished state of the greater
number proves that the circumstances which gave occasion to
them were transient.
3 III. The Upper Egyptian, partly above Thebes partly in
Thebes itself, partly below as far as Hermopolis. The monu
ments of Thebes, by far the most colossal of all, mostly owe
their origin to one and the same time, the eighteenth and
nineteenth dynasty, and exhibit therefore one and the same
massive and grandiose style.
4 IV. The Central Egyptian, and V. the Lower Egyptian,
originally not less numerous, but in great part utterly de
stroyed by the more frequent migrations and devastations in
these districts, as well as by the rise of new cities in the neigh
bourhood. VI, Oases.
1. The KiNQDOM OF Mbroe is nearly an island formed by the NUe and
the Astaboras, — the land of Cush compassed by the river 'Gihon, Ruins
on the Nile around Shendy, 17 north latitude. Here Ue Gurcab where
there are 43 pyramids, and Assur where there are 80. Southward from
Shendy, and farther from the Nile, is Megaurah, where there is a temple

LOCALITIES OF EGYPTIAN ART. 215
(the temple of the oracle according to Heeren) of labyrinthine design,
and Naga, where there is a temple of Ammon with alleys of sphinxes.
Below the confluence of the rivers are the ruins on Mount Barkal and
near Merawe, formerly Napata. These structures were partly erected
by Egyptian rulers (the oldest name is Amenophis IL), partly much
later, therefore not in the severe style of Egyptian art in architecture
and sculpture ; the queens, who sometimes appear with a king and
sometimes alone, in warUke or sacerdotal transactions, are probably of
the Candaces who reigned here from the Macedonian period down to the
4th century of the Christian era, and besides Napata also possessed Me
roe (PUn. vi, 35). See Burckhardt's Travels in Nubia. G. A. Hoskin's
Travels in Ethiopia, 1835. 4to (Gott. G. A. 1836. St. 166. 167. CaiUiaud's
Voyage k Mero§ etc. 2 vols, plates, 3 vols. text. Accounts by Riippel,
Lord Prudhoe and Major PeUx (Bull. d. Inst. 1829. p. 100). Map by
Bitter in the second part of the Charten und Plane.
Axum in Habesh (founded, according to Mannert, through the emigra
tion of the Egyptian warlike castes), a powerful kingdom about 500
years after Christ. Obelisks of an anomalous description, without hiero
glyphics. Accounts by Bruce and Salt, Lord Valentia, Travels T, iii.
SimUar ones in the port of Azab, and perhaps also in Adule,
2. The monuments of Lower Nubia, beginning from Sesce, are sepa
rated from Meroe by an empty space of 30 miles. Temple of Soleb
(ReUefs of Amenophis IL) ; Aamara; Semne; Wady-Halfa; Ibsambul
[Kerkis], two rock-temples with colossi, the larger is a monument in
honour of Ramses the Great; Derri; Hasseya; Amada; Wady-Sebua,
temple and rows of sphinxes; Moharraka [Hierosykaminon] ; Korti
[Corte]; Dakke [Pselkis]; Temple of Hermes Pautnuphis; Gyrshe
[Tulzis], with a very large temple-grotto, colossi as pUlars, particularly
old ; Dondur ; Kalabshe [Talmis] with a temple and a monument in the
rocks; Tafa [Taphis]; Kardassy [Tzitzi]; Debod with the island Be-
rembre [Parembole], The monuments of the Ptolemies and Romans
reach as far as Sykaminon (thus far extended the awo^ix of the empire
before Diocletian) ; then begin older works, Berenice on the Red Sea
has a small temple. Chief sources. The Travels of Burckhardt and Ligth,
for Ibsambul Belzoni : Narrative of the operations and recent discover
ies within the pyramids, temples, tombs and excavations in Egypt and
Nubia, Sec, Bd. 1821, especially Gau's Antiquites de la Nubie. 13 Livr.
plates with text. P. 1822, also Leljegreen from the Swedish in Schorn's
Kunstblatt 1827. N. 13 ff. and the map by A. v, Prokesch from measure
ments in 1827.
3. In Upper Egypt, on the borders, the island of Isis Philse with a
large temple (much built by Ptol. Buerg, the Second ; the temple still
existed at the time of Narses), Parthey De Philis ins. ejusque monum.
B. 1830 ; Elephantine (Monuments of Amenophis IL) ; Syene [now As-
suan] ; Omboi [Koum Ombo] ; SilsiUs ; Great ApolIinopoUs [Bdfu] with
a magnificent temple, together with Typhonion, of the time of the Pto
lemies ; Eilethyia [Bl Kab] with many fine catacombs ; Latopolis [Esneh]
with a large strong-buUt, and a smaU, late, and iU-built temple ; Aphrodi-
topoUs [Bddeir] ; Hermonthis [Erment].
Then Thebes, whose ruins altogether are five geogr, miles in circuit.

216 EGYPTIAN ART.
1, The city properly so caUed on the east side. Temple and palace at Luxor
(Amenophis II.), connected with the temple (of Amenophis I, and other
kings) and palace (of Ramses the Great) at Carnac by an aUey of sphinxes
more than 6,000 feet long, SmaU hippodrome, 2, The Memnoneia, that
is, the city of the Mausoleums, especiaUy in the neighbourhood of Kurnah.
Here stood, where the field of the colossi is now, the Memnoneion (in
Strabo), the Amenophion (in papyrus-writings), probably the same which
Diodorus describes as the Osmandyeion, See Gott, G. A. 1833, St. 36,
[Letronne opposed to this view, in the Journ, des Sav, 1836, p, 239,] Fur
ther the Ramesseion (the Osmandyeion of the Descript,) with the aUey
of sphinxes, the Menephtheion (palace at Kurnah) and other monuments
as late as Ptolemy the First's time. Grottoes and syrinxes all around.
Above the Memnoneion (according to Strabo) there were about 40 splen
did sepulchres of kings hewn out of the rocks, 16 of which have been
discovered in the rocky valley Biban-el-Maluk. Southward, near Medi-
net-Abu, a palace (of Ramses Meiamun) and paviUon (according to the
authors of the Description) in two stories beside the great Hippodrome
(6,000 X 2,000) feet, Denon's Voy, dans la Haute et Basse Egypte pen
dant les camp, du Gen, Bonaparte, 1802. Description de I'Bgypte, An
tiquites T. i. ii. iii. Hamilton, Remarks on several parts of Turkey, i.
jEgyptiaca. Wilkinson Topogr. of Thebes and General View of Bgypt. L.
1835. Quarterly Rev. 1835. CV. p. 103. Journ. des Sav. 1836. p. 271.
WUkinson, p. 80 an arch of 154 a. C. Grotto of Brei-Hassan, simUar to
Doric architecture. Vault ancient. Horkier Voy. en Ethiopie, p. 362.
353. Wooden plugs. Reise zum Tempel des Jupiter Ammon in der
Libyschen Wiiste und nach Ober-iEgypten von H. Freiherm v. MinutoU,
herausg. von Tolken. 1824. MinutoU's Nachtrag. 1827. ChampoUion,
Lettres ecrites d'Egypte et de Nubie. P. 1833.
Further down : Little ApolUnopolis [Kous] ; Koptos [Kuft] ; Tentyra
with a beautiful temple which, according to the cartouches, was begun by
Cleopatra and Ptolemseus Cassar, and carried on by the Emperors ; Little
DiospoUs ; Abydos [El-Arabat] ; This [near Girgeh] ; Chemmis [Eckhmin] ;
Antseopolis [Kan-el-Kebir] ; Lycopolis [Es Syut].
4. In Central BoTPT : Hermopolis [Benisour]; Kynopolis (?) [Nesle
Sheik Hassan] ; AphroditopoUs [Doulab el Halfeh] ; beside it the district
of Lake Moeris [Fayoum] with the labyrinth and pyramids, also a tem
ple conjectured to be one of Ammon, in the neighbourhood, and the city
CrocodilopoUs (Arsinoe), Description T, iv, pi. 69 sqq, Memphis ; the
yieuxov rtixog which doubtless contained the royal citadel, stood high,
and was probably connected behind with the pyramids of Saccarah as a
Necropolis, The pyramids of Ghizeh, the highest, stand 40 stadia north
ward from the city ; those of Dashour to the south. The ground full of
syrinxes (tombs of Beni-Hassan), No vestige of the temple of Phthas
with the xiik'/i of Apis, Descr. T v.
In Lower Bsypt : Busiris (Ruins near el Bahbeyt) ; Heliopolis or On
[near Matarieh], only an obelisk stiU extant ; Tanis (San), a dromos of
granite columns ; Sais [Sa el Haggar], considerable ruins, particularly of
the Necropolis ; Taposiris [AbusirJ, Descr, T, v.
Oases. Ammonian Oasis [Siwah], Ruins of the Temple of Ammon
(at Omm-Beydah), the royal citadel, catacombs. Reise von MinutoU :
Voy. k rOase de Syouah, redige par Jomard d'apres les materiaux recu-

TEMPLES, 217
eillis par Drovetti et Oailliaud. Northern Oasis of Egypt [El-Wah or
El-Kassar] with extensive ruins visited by Belzoni, Southern Oasis [E!
Khargeh and El-Dakel] with Egyptian temple and later buildings, mi
nutely described by CaiUiaud. Cailliaud Voy, k I'Oasis de Thebes et dans
les Deserts situ6s k I'Orient et h, I'Occideut de la Th6baide, redig6 par
Jomard. — Egypto-Grecian buildings in the Emerald Mountains at Sek-
ket, CailUaud, pi. 5 sqq. — Hieroglyphic stones also in Arabia Petraea. —
Monuments of Sesostris at Berytos (Cassas ii. pi. 78), see Journ. des
Sav, 1834. p. 527. BuU. 1834. p. 20. 151. 1835. p. 20. 1837. p. 134. 145.
[Lepsius Monum. de Beirut M. d. I. ii, 51. Annali x. p. 12 — 19. Differ
ence between Herodotus' description of the monuments of Sesostris
and these, BuU. 1842. p. 184.

2. ARCHITECTONICS.

219. The architecture of Egypt did not, like that of Greece, I
receive its forms in an evident manner from timber building;
on the contrary, the want of wood obliged the Egyptians at an
early period to employ their abundant rock -materials; and a
troglodytic burrowing in these was carried on. from the most
primitive ages, at least jointly with the piling up masses of
stone upon the earth. Just as little could these forms be de- 2
termined by provision for carrying away rain (hence there
are nowhere gable-roofs) ; the endeavour to obtain shade and
a cool current of air can alone be laid down as the climatic
conditions, with which sacerdotal principles and the particu
lar feeling of the nation for art united in order to produce
this peculiar and simply grandiose style of architecture.
QuatremSre de Quincy's and Gius. del Rosso's works on Egyptian archi
tecture are now of Uttle use. On the contrary Hirt, Gesch. der Bau
kunst i. s. 1 — 112 valuable.
220. The sacred structures did not possess in their design 1
the internal unity of the Greek ; they were rather aggregates
which could be increased indefinitely, as we are even taught
by the history, for instance, of the temple of Phthas at Mem
phis in Herodotus. Alleys of colossal rams or sphinxes form 2
the approach or dromos ; sometimes we find before these small
temples of co-ordinate deities (especially Typhonia). Before
the main body of the edifice usually stand two obelisks com
memorative of the dedication. The direction of the whole
design does not necessarily follow the same straight line. The 3
principal structures begin with a pylon, that is, pyramidal
double towers or wings (Strabo's ptera) which flank the gate
way, and the destination of which is still very much in the
dark (they might have served as bulwarks to the entrance,
and also for astronomical observations). Then follows usually 4
a court surrounded by colonnades, subordinate temples, and
houses for the priests (a propylon or propylsBon, and at the

218 EGYPTIAN ART,
5 same time a peristylon), A second pylon (the number may
even be increased) now leads into the anterior and most con
siderable portion of the temple properly so-called, a portico
enclosed with, walls, which only receives light through small
windows in the entablature or openings in the roof (the pro-
6 naos, a hypostyle apartment). Adjoining to it is the cella of
the temple (the naos or secos), without columns, low, generally
enclosed by several walls, often divided into various small
chambers or crypts, with monolith receptacles for idols or
mummies of animals, in appearance the most inconsiderable
portion of the whole.
1. Menes built this temple, Sesostris made an addition to it of enor
mous stones and placed six statues of his family within. Rhampsinit
built propylsea on the west with two statues, Asychis placed propylsea on
the east, Psammetichus on the south and an «uX^ for Apis opposite,
Amasis erected a colossus in front of it.
2. See Strabo xvii. p. 805. c. Plutarch de Is. 20. and comp. with the
expressions Diod. i, 47. 48. - As to particular temples, see especiaUy that
of Ammon at Carnac, Descr. iu., that of Philse, Descr. i., that of Soleb,
CailUaud ii. pi. 13, of Mount Barkal i. pi. 64.
3. The latter destination of the pylon is supported by Olympiodorus'
statement that Claudius Ptolemy dwelt 40 years in the vre^oig roij Kxvafiov,
observing the stars, tttej* xxi l^o/aoi vvxiSi^ioi of the temples, on the other
hand x^v?rrx with subterranean aroXiarrii^ix, Plut. de Is. 20. See Butt
mann in the Museum der Alterthumsw. ii. s. 489 ff. The separate wings
either describe a square (at Bdfu of 96, in Philse of 64 feet), or they are
higher than broad, which appears to be the later style of building. The
inner side-Unes of these wings, prolonged to the ground, faU on the outer
most points of the gateway. On adorning the reliefs on festivals with
masts and flags, Descr. iii. pi. 67, 3. Cailliaud Voy. h, Mero6 ii. pi. 74.
1 221. This design can be contracted as well as extended,
and also so modified as that the main portion of the temple
2 may be enclosed with columns. But at the same time the rule
universally prevails, that columns may stand inside of walls,
but not outside around the walls; when they are placed ex
ternally, they are united with stone parapets {plutei), and
thus supply the place of a wall; hence even at the corners
walls usually come instead of columns. The door-jambs are
then also built against the shafts of the central columns, in
3 the same way as on other occasions against pylons. In other
words, the Egyptians have no such thing as a peripteral
temple. The colonnade is not to them as to the Greeks a
free expansion of the temple, it is merely the wall with aper
tures. 2. See for instance the temple of Tentyra which, although late, shows
the Egyptian temple in great perfection. (The sculpture is bad.) The
portico round the cell of the temple in the ruin at Megaurah is accord
ingly a proof of later origin, CaiUiaud i. pi. 29. comp. 13.

ARCHITECTURE, WALLS, COLUMNS. 219
222. The walls, which are composed of square blocks, 1
chiefly of sandstone, are only perpendicular on the inside, and
bevelled externally, whereby the thickness at the bottom some
times amounts to 24 feet, and the buildings on the whole as
sume a pyramidal form — the fundamental form of Egyptian
architecture. The plane surface of the walls on the outside 2
is in all sorts of edifices bounded framelike by a torus. Above 3
this moulding rises the cornice with a flat corona having an
inconsiderable projection, and a cavetto beneath, which over
the entrance is always ornamented with the winged globe. 4
The corona is also often found double ; the surface between
the upper and the lower is then generally hewn out into the
form of small serpents {jSasiXlaxoi, uraei). The cornice forms 5
at the same time a parapet to the flat roof, which very simply
consists of stone beams laid across, and slabs (often of enor
mous size) fitted in between.
1. The waUs are isodomous or pseudisodomous, often also with oblique
joints. That the blocks for the most part were not dressed and polished
on the outside untU they were put in their place can be seen in the
unfinished portions. The same remark appUes to the capitals of the
columns. 223. The columns are in general somewhat more slender 1
than the elder Doric ; they are placed close, and are provided
with bases of circular plinths, the edges of which are often
cut away obliquely, the shaft either diminished in a right line
or pulvinated, frequently ornamented with perpendicular and
oblique furrows, but strictly speaking not fluted. The capi- 2
tals fall into two principal orders. 1. Those of the bell-form,
ornamented with all kinds of foliage, and having a narrow
but often very high abacus; 2. Those bulging out below and
contracted above with low but projecting abacus. — There is a 3
strange collateral form — a composition of four masks (the
temple of Athor at Tentyra), with facades of temples above
them, which serves as an ornament both to the abacus and
the entire capital. These fundamental forms of the capitals 4
receive a great variety of modifications, even in one and the
same portico of a temple, by a lavish richness of sculptured
decorations which are almost always borrowed from the vege
tation of the country, especially the plants of the Nile. Besides 5
columns, pillars also are common, against which figures often
stand leaning, but which are seldom real supporters of a por
tion of the entablature. On the columns is superimposed the 6
architrave with the torus, by which members unity with the
walls is restored and everything is placed in uniform subordi
nation to the cornice, which is invariably the same.
1. The height of the columns in the temple at Luxor and the so-
caUed Osmandyeion is, according to the Description, 5^ times the greatest

220 EGYPTIAN ART.
diameter. Lepsius in the Annali d. Inst, ix, 2. p. 65. 99. tav. d'agg. (be
fore the Hyksos ?), Mon. ii. 45., on the original similarity of the Doric
and the Egyptian columns, with little knowledge of architecture [a chan
nelled pillar also in Indian architecture, §. 249].
2. Athenseus v. p. 206 (comp. §. 150, 2) describes the first sort very
accurately : 0/ ydp yeyovlmg xOro^i xioveg dvijyovro ar^oyyi/Xoi, S/aXXar-
rovreg roig aTrov^vKotg (cylinders), rov fAev fiiXxvog rov Se Xeuxov, "Trx^dXXriXx
ri^efievoiv. EiVi 5' xi/rav xxi xi xeCpxTixi ra irx>lf<'«'ri we^itpepig, av ij fiiv
oXyi 'jre^iy^xipvi Trx^xTrT^riaix pohotg iirl fAix^ov dvx'TreTrrxpcivotg iirriv. Tre^i oe
rov ¦jT^otrxyo^evoff.evov xx'hx^ov oiix ehixsg, xx^xTre^ iTri rav 'E.T^'Knvixav, xxi
(pi/Khx r^xxex Tre^ixeirxi, "Karav Sg Trorx/xiav xd'Kvxeg xxi (poivixuv d^ifiXda-
rav xxprog' earl S' ot-£ xxi TrXeiovau xKKav xv^eav yiyXvKrxi yivrj. ro 0
VTTo rviv pi^xv, 0 8^ ra avvx-Trrovri -Trqag r^v xe<pxXvjv iirixeirxt anzovhvha, xi(ha-
qiav dvBefft xxi (pvXKotg arjxvei xxrx'TreTtrXeyf/.ivoig ofioixv eixe rviv "^ix^eniv. — ¦
The capital of the second kind is, according to Ritter, Erdkunde i. s. 715.
an imitation of the lotus-fruit.
3. The Egyptian elevation of such a capital designed through squares
is interesting, Descr. iv. pi. 62.
5. See such Atlantes, which however carry nothing, Descr. iii. pi. 29.
Belzoni, pi. 43. Diodorus describes them, not accurately, by : vTrn^eia^xi
S' xvrl rav xiovav ^a^ix 'jrvixav exxxitexx ftovohi^x, i, 47. There are found
once only, near Mount Barkal, figures of dwarfs which actuaUy support
a portion of the piUar, CaiUiaud i. pi. 67 sq.
I 224. Obelisks must be regarded as accessories of sacred
architecture: they are four-sided pillars on a low base, which
2 diminish upwards and end in a pyramidion, usually of
granite, the pyrrhopoecilus or Syenite of the ancients, with
3 beautifully sculptured figures and hieroglyphics. The use of
the obelisk as a gnomon, and the erection of it on a high base
in the centre of an open space, were only introduced on the
4 removal of single obelisks to Rome; in Egypt they belonged
to the class of steles (commemorative pillars), and contained
a record stating the honours and titles which the king who
erected, enlarged, or gave rich presents to a temple, had re
ceived in return from the priesthood, and setting forth for
instance that Ramesses was honoured like Aroeris whom Re
5 and all the gods love. The most famous obelisks were in
Heliopolis and Thebes; from thence also are the most consid
erable of those we find at Rome,
1, The diminution usually amounts to \ ; the proportion of the breadth
below to the height 1 : 9 to 12,
2, The process of raising obelisks is still distinctly to be seen in the
quarries of Syene, Rozifere, Descr, i. App. i. Hittorff, Precis sur les py-
ramidions en bronze dore, employes par les anc. Eg, comme couronne-
ment de quelques uns de leurs obelisques, P, 1836,
4, The interpretation of an obelisk by Hermapion in Ammian xvii.

OBELISKS, 221
4 (one of the most valuable fragments of aU Egyptian antiquity), which
has unhappily suffered much from the excerpting hand of Ammian, must
perhaps be arranged nearly as foUows :
' Ajx^* a""" ''¦'''' voriov hie^finvsv/.c.ivx exei urixog v^arog rxie' Aiyii "HAiog
{•jr^arogT) ^otaiKei ' 'Pxfciarvj' Sg^fu^ij^gda (rot 'ttxijxv oixovfiivriv /xerd x^^xg
(ixttiKsveiv, ov °HX(Of (pihei. This stood at the top of the three columns
which begin with the hawks or falcons by which Aroeris is denoted on
many obelisks, above each row.
' AvoXkuv x^xre^og ((liKx'hii^rig viog" H^avog, ^loyevvnrog xA-wr^g riig oixov-
fiivng, ov °HX<Of w^oixqivev dT^xifiog " A^eag ^xai'kevg 'Vxjxiarng, a ¦kxux
VTorirxKrxt ii yri fcerd dXxiig xxi ^x^aovg' ^xatXevg Px/xearrig HXiov 'Trxig
aiavo^iog. 'S.rixog "hsvre^og. 'Atto'XXiuv xgarggoV o iarug i^r d'hri^eixg "^eoTirorng "hixhyi-
fLxrog, rviv AtyvTrrov "ho^xaxg xexrrifAevog, dyXxo'Trotijaxg HTi/ou nroKtv, xxi
xriuxg rViV T^oitt^v otxov(xevriv, TToXvrif^yiaxg rovg iv Hxiov 'JToXei ^soi/g dvi^^v-
poivovg, ov'''^Xiog <piKei.
'^rixog T^/rof. 'AwoXAsiw x^xre^og Hx/oy 'Trxig Trx^<^iyyvig, ov "'H.'Kiog
•jr^oix^ivsv, xxi "A^vig xkxift,og fiBwgjjffawo, ov rd xyxBd iv TTxvri "hixfAevet xxiqa'
[/Bfltff^Xguf] ov " ApLpLav dyx'jiro^ \^ PxpiiarrigJ 'Tr'Kri^aaxg rov veav roiv ^oivixog
xya^av [^xaiXeijg ' Vxpiiarng^ a oi Stoi ifm^f x?"'"" eia^^uxvro. The sym
metric disposition of aU obeUsks requires the additions within brackets.
["E^' ^Ti/ou hvafiav.]
[Sti'^o? ¦TTjirof.] The superscription of aU the three columns: "H'Kiog
&sdf pteyxg ^eff'Trorrig oij^xvov \_(ixai7^ei' PatjCtetrTsj]. '^e^a^vipixi troi ^tov dir^oaxo^ov.
It now stands in the wrong place.
' A-jToKXav x^x/Ti^og \jpi'hx'hvihrtg^vi6g"'ii.^avog, (ixaiheijg oixovfiivi^g''Pxpiea-
mg, og iepiiXx^ev AtyvTrrov rovg xT^T^oe^veig vixvioxg, ov"'il'Kiog (pi'Kei. ^ iroAyw
XQOvov ^a^g i^a^Tiaxvro ^eoi, ^eaworrig oixov/xivrig Pxpcearrig xlav6(iiog.
^rixog "heine^og. ^ AisoK'Kav x^xre^og xif^iog ^txh^pixrog xveixxtrrog, [_og rav
&g]6>tf dv^Ptxvrxg dve^rixsv iv rrt^e rri ^xaiXeiof., ^ea'^orrig Aiyv-jrroVj xxi ixotr-
firKTSv Hxiov voKiv opiolag xxi xvroi/ "HT^iov ^eaxornv ov^ccvoij' avvereXevrmev
spyov dyx^oV 'HT^iov 'jrxig ^xat>^evg xiav6(iiog.
[Irixog TgiVof.] Wanting. [To lio^eiov.]
I'Srixog ¦'r^arog.'l General superscription. "H?i;of 'Setrirorng ov^xvov ' Px-
fiiarfi jixaiTiii' isia^rifixi aoi to xjarof xxi r^v xxrd xxvrav i^ovaixv. The
first column is wanting.
[^rixog hvre^og.] Wanting.
'Srrixag r^irog. ' A-aiiKKav \_x^«/ze^og\ (pA«X^9ns teaitorrig xiovav, [&] xxi
"IK^xiarog 6 rav deav xxr^^ ir^oex^ivev 'iid rov" A^ex' /ixoriXeiig ^Vxpiiarrig']
TTXyx^S^l ' axiov vxig xxi viro' 'H'kIov CpiXovpitvog' [^xaiXevg 'Fxfiiimig .
. . . .] ' A(pyiXiarng.
"Srrixos ¦^^arog. Superscription : ' 0 «(p' ' Hx/ou iroKeug pt,iyxg iiedg ivov^x-
viog [' Vxpcearri jixaiheV leia^nfixl not  ]

222 EGYPTIAN ART.
' A'TToXXuv x^xreqog [?)i?v«?i^&i7j] "H^mjof viog, ov"H7iiog iiyaynaev, ov oi ^eol
iripiriffxv, 6 TTxang yvig /ixaiT^evav, ov"iiXtog "Tr^oix^ivev' 6 xJ^xi/xog S/« rov
" A^sx fixaiXevg, ov" Aptpt^av (piKei \_V xpt.etirrig\ xxi 6 'Trapt^iyyrig ovyx^tvxg
xiaviov (ixaiXex . . . .
{^ixog Seutsjo?.] Wanting.
[Sr/pco; Tf iVof,] Wanting.
The dedicatory inscription of an obeUsk which Sesonchosis consecrated
to Serapis is more briefiy quoted by Jul, Valerius De r. g. Alex, i, 31,
Comp, besides Zoega De Ob, p, 593, Heeren Ideen u, 2, s, 415. Cham
poUion, Precis, p, 146 sqq,
5, Many of the obeUsks at Rome were executed later and in a rude
and counterfeit style, such as the PanfiU, the Barberini, and the SaUus-
tian according to Zoega. Among the old and genuine Egyptian obeUsks
the foUowing are of especial importance :
a. That dedicated by Thutmosis, brought from Thebes to Alex
andria, and taken to Rome by Constantius II. and erected in the Circus,
the largest of all there (formerly 148, now 144 palmi), erected in front
of the Lateran by Fontana in 1687 under Sixtus V, Engraved in Kir-
cher. b. The one erected at Heliopolis by Semenpserteus (according to
Pliny, but here we must assume that this one is confounded with the
next), that is, Psammetichus, whose name we can still read upon it;
raised by Augustus in the Campus as a gnomon, 72 or 76 feet high ac
cording to the ancients, 94J palmi according to modern authorities,
again erected by Pius VI, on Monte Citorio, (This one has only 2, not
3 columns,) Engraved in Zoega, Bandini, Comm. De obelisco Augusti.
1750. fo.
c. That dedicated by Sesostris or Ramesses the Great (on the sup
position of a confounding) at Heliopolis, erected by Augustus in the Circus,
and by Fontana in 1589 at the Porta del Popolo (hence the Flaminian),
according to the ancients 85, 87 or 88 feet, now 107 (formerly 1 10) palmi.
In Kircher. According to Ammian this could only be the one explained
by Hermapion ; and accordingly Ramesses' name is always correctly
found in the first and third column ; but in the second invariably an
other, Manduei according to ChampolUon, who on this account maintains
that there is a complete difference between the two. (May not this
cartouche be merely the designation of HeUopolis ?)
d. The obeUsk at Constantinople §. 193, 4, the erection of which
is represented on its base.
e. f. The two finest in Egypt were the Thebaic obeUsks at Luxor,
110 palmi high, the hieroglyphics of which are arranged in the same
manner as in Hermapion. Descr. iii. pi. 2. MinutoU, Tf 16 — 19. One
of them has lately been brought to Paris. Others at Thebes, also at
HeliopoUs. ObeUsk at Luxor, AnnaU d. I. v. p. 299.
g. That at Alexandria, the so-caUed needle of Cleopatra. — Tho an
cients speak of stiU larger ones than those extant ; Diodorus mentions
one of Sesostris 120 Egyptian cubits in height.

PALACES, MONUMENTS, PYRAMIDS. 223
Mich, Mercati, Degli Obelisci di Roma. R, 1689, 4to. Athan. Kircher,
(Edipus Bgyptiacus. R. 1652—64. 3 vols. fo. ObeUscus PamphUius by
the same. 1650. Obelisci jEgyptiaci prssterito anno inter rudera tempU
Minervse effossi interpretatio. 1666. Zoega, De origine et usu Obelisco-
rum. R. 1797. Cipriani, Sui dodici Ob. Eg. che adornano la cittk di
Roma, R. 1823. Rondelet, L'art de Bath- T. i. pi. 1. [UngareUi Inter
pretatio obeUscorum urbis ad Gregorium XVI. R. 1842. fol. comp. BuUett.
1834, p. 159.]

225. The palaces of the kings in Egypt are decided imi
tations of the temples, as the statues of the kings are of the
images of the gods, and the main difference as regards the
architecture is only this, that the rooms, especially the hypo
style apartments, are still larger (as in the colossal palace of
Carnac), and the really habitable chambers behind are more
spacious and in greater number. Neither is the design of the
mausolea essentially different, according to Diodorus' descrip
tion of the Osmandyeion. Adjoining the courts and porticoes,
there are here dining apartments and a library ; as a termina
tion to the whole rises the tomb, which is placed in the high
est part, and which the prince erected to himself during his
lifetime. 1. In the palace of Carnac four pylons succeed one another ; a hypo
style apartment of 318 X 169 feet, with 134 columns, the highest 70 feet
high. Descr. iii.
The Labyrinth was a coUective palace of many rulers (built, according
to Herodotus, by the Dodecarchi, in the opinion of Strabo, by Ismandes,
according to Manetho by Lachares (Laboris, Sesostris' successor, of the
twelfth dynasty), according to Diodorus, by Mendes) ; the pyramid as a
finish occupied the place of the ra(pog in the Osmandyeion. On the de
sign of the whole comp, Letronne on the G^ogr, de Strabon T, v, p, 407,,
and in Maltebrun's N, Annales des Voy. T. vi, p, 133,
2. The ruins (Descr. ii. pi, 27 sqq.) which JoUois and Devilliers took
for the Osmandyeion described by Hecatseus of Abdera, are not nearly
so grand as it was, but show, however, great correspondence in the gen
eral plan of both mausolea. Letronne, M6m, sur le Mon, d'Osymandyas,
doubts the existence of the Osym, of Hecatseus ; Gail Philologue xiii. and
M6m. de I'Inst. Boy. viii, p. 131, defends the opinion of the authors of the
Descr. Osymandyas or Ismandes was not an historical name of a king,
it was only a surname probably of buUders of great monuments ; accord
ing to Strabo, Amenophis-Memnon was especially so caUed (xvii. p. 813,
comp, 811. Comp. §. 218. R. 3.

226. The rest of the sepulchral monuments fall into two i
classes. 1. The pyramids, — quadrangular and rectangular
tumuli (a form of barrows, which is also found elsewhere in
the East) were structures of enormous extent. The largest 2

224 EGYPTIAN ART.
stand on plateaux among the Libyan ridge of hills round about
Memphis, in several partly symmetrical groups surrounded
by artificial roads, embankments, tombs, and hypogea. The
foundation, which is a square, faces the four cardinal points.
They were first piled up in large terraces of limestone (only
the smaller pyramids are of brick), and then the terraces
were filled up; they were reveted with stones which received
polish, and were also adorned with sculptures; the facing is
now mostly taken away. The entrance to the interior, which
was closed by a single stone capable of being removed, is dif
ficult to find; through it you pass first into narrower and
broader galleries which at length lead to one or more cham
bers; the largest contains the sarcophagus of the king. There
is nowhere to be found a trace of vaulting. Perpendicular
pits (such a one has been discovered in the pyramid of Cheops)
probably led to the Nile-canal, spoken of by Herodotus, which
was cut in the foundation rock.
2. [Zoega de Obel., p. 379 — 414.] The pyramid of Cheops, the great
est of all, at Ghizeh, is, according to Grobert (Descript. des Pyr. de
Ghize), 728 Par. feet long on each side, according to Jomard (Descr. T.
ii. ch. 18, and the Memoires connected therewith, T. ii. p. 163) 699, and
according to CouteUe (M6m. ii. p. 39.) 716| ; the vertical height 448, or
422, or 428J feet. The breadth of the second, that of Chephrenes, is
reckoned by Belzoni (who opened it) at 663 English feet, and its height
at 437|. According to Herodotus, 100,000 men worked at the former for
forty years ; there are counted 203 courses of stones, each from 19 inches
to 4 feet 4 inches high.
The Nubian pyramids are much smaller, of more slender form, with a
projecting torus at each angle, and mostly of brick. Not unfrequently
they have porticoes with pylons, and sculptures and hieroglyphics upon
them. CaiUiaud i. pi. 40 sqq.
3. See as to the erection, PUn. xxxvi, 17. Herod, ii, 125. Meister,
De Pyramidum .iEgypt. Fabrica et Fine, N. Comtr. Soc. Gott. V. cl. phys.
p. 192,, particularly Hirt Von den Pyramiden. B. 1815. Building with
bricks was otherwise very common in Bgypt ; private buildings probably
consisted of them for the most part. Comp. Aristoph. Birds 1133. comp.
RoseUini II, ii. ReUefs on the brick preparation by the Jews. Herodotus
mentions sculptures on pyramids ii, 148 ; they are lost with the facing.
In the interior no hieroglyphics have been found except on a door in
the one recently opened at Saccarah. MinutoU, Tf 28, 4. a.
4. Sometimes long slabs of stone laid across form the roof of the pas
sages; the waUs of the broader gaUeries also converge upwards; and
sometimes the stones lean against one another in the form of a gable ; in
the principal apartment of the pyramid of Cheops there is a double pla
fond. This chamber is 18 feet high, 32 long, and 16 broad, surrounded
by square blocks of granite without any ornament whatever. Caviglia, in
particular, has lately penetrated far into the interior of this pyramid.
Among the earlier writers on pyramids, de Sacy in Abdallatif, Langles

HYPOGEA. 225
on Nordens Voy. T. iii.. Beck, Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Weltgesch.
i. s. 705 ff., are instructive. Sylv. de Sacy sur les noms des pyramides
in the Mag. enoycl. a. vi. N. vi. p. 419. [J. J. Ampere Voyage et re
cherches en Eg. et en Nubie, ui. Pyramides, in the Revue des deux
blondes T. xvi, p, 660—89.]
227. II. Subterranean structures hewn out of the rocks, 1
HYPOGEA, These lie along the Nile throughout the Libyan
ridge of hills, and under the contiguous plains of sand. The 2
largest have an open court in front, an arched entrance
(arches constructed of cuneiform stones doubtless belong
altogether to the Grecian period) ; then follow galleries, 3
chambers, halls, side galleries with shafts or pits, in which lie
mummies; as a finish to the whole, there are often alcoves
with niches, in which sit images of the gods in alto relievo.
The size of the galleries and apartments varies very much
(the mummies often scarcely left space enough to pass), the
disposition extremely labyrinthine. The Greeks called them
Syringes, holed passages. The tombs of the kings in the val- 4
ley above the necropolis of Thebes are on a larger scale; the
galleries, which usually incline downwards, are broader; the
apartments larger, and provided with pillars, which support
the roof In the tomb discovered by Belzoni, the chief apart
ment is hewn out in the form of a vault, very large, and de
corated with great magnificence; in it stood a very thin-
wrought sarcophagus of alabaster, which, doubtless, was en
closed in one still more colossal, and again itself contained
many others, like so many pill-boxes.
1. JoUois and Jomard on the hypogea, Descr. T. i. ch. 9, 5. 10.
Among the ancients especiaUy HeUodorus iEth. ii, 27. Ammian xxii, 15.
2. What is said holds good of the arch, of which there is a drawing
in Belzoni pi. 44 n. 2. (the other given there is not one, properly speak
ing). Comp. CaiUiaud Voy. k M6ro6 ii. pi. 33.
4. See Costaz, Descr. T. i. ch. 9, 5. 11. Belzoni, pi, 39. 40. Belzoni
even exhibited a model of this tomb at London and Paris, Description
of the Eg, Tomb discovered by G. Belzoni. L. 1822. It certainly belonged
te a Thebaic king, Ousirei-Akencheres I., of the eighteenth dynasty, ac
cording to ChampoUion, to Menephthah I. father of Rhamses-Sesostris
according to the Beschr. Roms ii, 2. s. 439. The third grotto on the west
side of the valley was called, according to Greek inscriptions, the Mem-
nonian Syrinx, Trans, of the Roy. Society of Literature I, i. p. 227. II, i.
p. 70.
The Lower Nubian monuments, the destination of which is, for the
most part, very uncertain, might in some instances have been merely
honorary monuments, cenotaphs, of Egyptian kings. The earUer ones in
the valley towards the west. Thus the great grotto of Ibsamboul is
evidently a monument of Ramses the Great, of whom the colossi at the
entrance are likenesses, and whose reception among the gods is repre-
P

226 EGYPTIAN ART.
sented in the group of statues in the innermost niche. The smaUer grotto
close by is a monument of his pious devotion to the gods, especially Athor.

3. PLASTIC ARTS AND PAINTING.
A. TECHNICS AND TREATMENT 01? FORMS.
228. The Egyptians were particularly great in stone-sculp
ture. Among them the plastic art bore in materials and form
an architectonic character. Their statues, often hewn with
masterly precision out of the hardest stone, granite, syenite,
porphyry, or basanite, for the most part a fine-grained sand
stone, and on a smaller scale, hsematite, serpentine, and alabas
ter, were generally destined to lean against pillars, walls, and
pylons, and to decorate architectural surfaces. In sitting
figures, therefore, there reigns the most perfect composure
and regularity of posture ; those that are standing stride out
in a stiff' manner; the arms lie close to the body. The size
is often very colossal, and the transport of these colossi was
an extremely difficult problem. The treatment of forms passes
constantly into generalities, it has a certain regularity therein,
and produces a great impression by the simple sweep of the
main lines ; but the forms are more geometrical than organic,
and life and warmth are altogether wanting in the conception
of the details. The individual parts of the body are fashioned
after a national fundamental type ; the Egyptian artists fol
lowed likewise an established system of proportions. How
ever, in the proportions and forms there are also observable
deviations, which depend on difference of district and time.
The forms of the sexes are well distinguished; but, on the
other hand, nothing certain has hitherto been discovered as
to the characteristic portraitures of different individuals by
modification of form, or a clear distinction in the formation
of gods and kings. Egyptian art distinguishes persons by col
our, by dress, which is treated carefully but stiffly, more espe
cially by the great varieties of head-dress, and, lastly, by the
adjuncts of animals' heads, wings, and other members. The
animal form was conceived with more depth and liveliness
than that of man ; from the first the Egyptians were impelled
to an admiring observation of the former, by a natural ten
dency, as their religion proves ; their combinations too of va
rious animal figures are often very happy, but often indeed
also in the highest degree fantastical and bizarre.
3. The colossus of the Ramesseion (the so-caUed Osymandyeion) is
reckoned from the fragments to have been 63 Par. feet 10 in. high ; the
Osymandyas of Diodorus was about 60 feet high. The Thebaic reUef in
MinutoU, pi. 13. shows the mode of transportation.

SCULPTURE, 227
5, According to Diodorus i, 98. the Egyptian artists divided the hu
man body, that is to say, its length, into 21|- parts ; wherein the length
of the nose probably formed the unit. The breast generaUy broad;
the body narrower below; the neck short; the feet, particularly the
toes, long; the knees sharply marked, and often treated with especial
care and precision. The nose broad and round ; the eyes (which were
sometimes inserted) prominent ; the arch of the forehead without sharp
ness ; the corners of the eyes and mouth somewhat turned up, the mouth
broad and the Ups thick ; the chin mostly rather small ; the ears long
and placed high. The last is a peculiarity of the race, according to Du-
reau de la JMalle, Ann. des Sciences Natur. 1832, AvrU, The beard ap
pears to have been an artificial one fixed on, and the ties securing it can
often be distinctly perceived along the cheeks. With regard to the hair
of the head, we see a lock hanging out only in Phthas, Vid. especially
the colossal granite head of the Great Ramses from the Ramesseion, now
in the British Museum, Descr. ii. pi. 32. better in Nohden, Amalthea ii.
s. 127. Specimens U, 1. Hieroglyph, pi. 10.
6. The principal deviations seem to be : 1. The softer forms, approach
ing more to the Grecian Ideals, of many, especiaUy smaUer figures of later
times, 2, The clumsier proportions and forms which are found particu
larly in Upper Nubia, Women with large bellies and hanging breasts
(CaiUiaud i, pi. 20. comp. Juvenal xiii, 163). In other cases more severe
design and more sharp and laborious workmanship are in general indica
tions of higher antiquity ; the sculptures of the later times of the Pto
lemies and Romans are recognisable by their carelessness and want of
character. Rosselini II. ii. but the greatest industry under the suc
ceeding kings. Under the Ptolemies the figures weU rounded aud the
muscles developed. MinutoU Einige Worte ueber die verschiedenheit des
Styls in den Aeg. Kunstdenkm. so wie ueber ihre Aehnlichkeit und
scheinbare Stammverwandtschaft mit denen andrer Volkerschaften B.
1835. Heidelb. Jahrb. 1835. S. 37 fg.
7. Portrait, Amasis, Herod, ii, 182.
8. The principal dress of the Egyptians was woollen chitons {livaaivxi
xx'Kxaiiiieg) ; in men often nothing more than a piece of cloth thrown
around the loins {aivtoveg girded under the breast, Diod. i, 72). Although
very thin and soft, when starched however they form rectilinear and
prominent folds. The stripes of the stuff are indicated by sculpture,
often also by colours. Breast-plates were a principal ornament. A close
fitting cap, the general national costume, is heightened and adorned in a
variety of ways so as to denote priestly dignity. Connected herewith
are the lixaiheixi (comp. Diodor. i. 47.) with da-Ttileg and tpvXxxrii^ix in
the inscription from Rosetta, among these the Trax^vr, as to the form of
which Young and ChampoUion differ. Denon pi. 115 gives 30 coeffures

9. Rams (but mostly with Uon's claws and tail), lions, wild dogs or
jackals, aU sorts of apes (xwoxicfixXoi), ibises, (fee. are most frequent. Ex
cellent drawings of nearly aU Egyptian birds and quadrupeds are col
lected in Rosellini's Monum. dell' Eg, Atlas i. Granite lion, Specim. ii, 2.
— Sphinxes or androsphinxes are lions with human heads. The enor
mous one at Ghizeh, which CavigUa has laid open, is hewn out of the

228 EGYPTIAN ART,
rock, with the exception of the fore-paws, between which stood a small
temple. Hieroglyph, pi, 80, Other combinations ; lion-hawks, Uon-
ursei with wings, serpent-vultures, serpents with human legs, and the
like. While the Greeks for the most part retained the human head in
such compositions, the Egyptians sacrificed it first,
1 229. The transference of the optical image of the human
body to a surface, the representation of it in relief, was a pro
blem in which the Egyptians were not nearly so successful as
2 in the round statue. The striving, natural to art in its in
fancy, to represent every portion of the body in a form as dis
tinct and intelligible as possible, here operates universally so
3 as to fetter and impede. For subjects drawn from religion
there was formed an almost typical manner of representing
the body and its movements; more nature prevails in the
conception of domestic scenes; but when art tries to depict
warlike events of great compass, the defects of the artist are
rendered most manifest from the striving after multiplicity of
actions and gestures; such subjects also are more negligently
4 handled. The reliefs of the Egyptians are more rarely bas-
reliefs properly so-called, such as are found on stone tablets
and steles, with very slight elevation from the surface; more
commonly they are so-called koilanaglypha, bas-reliefs en creux,
5 in which the forms rise from a depressed surface. The dimly
handled relief then separates itself agreeably from the polished
surface around it, without unpleasantly interrupting the archi-
6 tectonic impression. The sharpness and precision in the
workmanship of the figures, which are often sculptured toler
ably deep, are worthy of admiration. However, they have
often also been satisfied with engraving mere outlines, espe
cially on external walls.
2. Hence the breast in front view, hips and legs in profile, also the
head (the front view of heads is often found in hieroglyphics, also some
times in freer representations, such as battle-pieces, but extremely seldom
in reUgious representations, see the picture in MinutoU, pi. 21, 3), and
the eyes notwithstanding in front view ; the shoulders and arms very
angular ; the hands also are very often both right or left.
1 230. There was excellent workmanship shown also in
articles of terracotta, partly vessels, among which are to be
reckoned the so-called canobi, partly small figures of deities,
coloured blue and green in enamel, for the most part very
2 powerfully designed, and manufactured in thousands. Even
the scarabsei are oftener of burnt earth than stone (amethyst,
jasper, agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, and various others),
although the glyptic art also was early domiciled even in
3 Ethiopia. Works of art in metal were much more rare, and
here the Egyptians left the chief inventions to the Greeks,
4 whilst they preceded them in stone sculpture. Painting on

TERRACOTTAS, etc. 229
metal was an Egyptian art, at least in later Alexandrian
times ; and the fabrication of variegated glass-ware flourished
in Alexandria, and probably even among the ancient Egyp
tians. Carving on wood was indeed restricted in Egypt by
the scarcity of material, yet there were wooden images of gods
and men in great numbers, of which we can form some idea
from the covers of mummies.
1. Egyptian pots, Descr. ii. pi. 87 sqq. v. pi. 75. Canobus is properly
the actual appeUation of a deity (§."220, 3.), the Agathodsemon Knuph who
was represented as a pitcher for the filtering of the Nile-water (Suidas
«. V.) with a human head. Hence all simUar pots — very different in
size and materials — are caUed canobi. The canobi, with four heads (§.
232, 3), along with the mummies, are often fiUed with figures in enamel,
often also soUd. There are many such terracotta figures, Descr, v. pi. 67
sqq. Chinese vases in ancient Egyptian tombs, J. F. Davis in the An
naU d. Inst. ix. p. 321. [An American, who Uved long in China, assert
ed that he immediately recognised to be Chinese, certain vases of this de
scription which he saw in the house of the BngUsh consul-general in
Egypt. There are several also in the Egyptian coUection at Florence.
WUkinson also thinks he has found Chinese smeUing-bottles in Egyptian
tombs. Lepsius, according to report, declares this to be a mistake.]
2. The Egyptians used many signet rings. Even sacrifices were
sealed by the sphragistes. On the ir(p^xyiieg of the Ethiopians, which
they engraved with a sharp stone, Herod, vii, 69. The scarabsei are
found along with mummies, on strings on the breast, but more commonly
loose between the bandages ; sometimes large, evidently amulets, sometimes
smaUer for stringing on threads, in immense number, often with kings'
names. Of 1,700 at Turin, there are 172 with the name of Thutmosis.
S. Quintino's theory (Lezioni int. a div. argom. d'archeol. vi.) that these
latter are smaU coins, is in some measure confirmed by the Ps. Plat.
Bryxias, p. 400. Engravings in Descr. v. pi. 79 sqq. Steinbiiohel, Scara-
bees Egypt, figures du Musee des Ant. de S. M. I'Bmpereur, Vienna, 1824.
BeUermann iiber die Scarabaeen-Gemmen. B. 1820. 21. — Necklaces also,
and other ornaments in enamel, are found not unfrequently in mummies.
There is an immense quantity of them in public and private coUections
in France [Italy, Germany, Holland,] and England. Vases, bottles of gold,
silver, glass and other materials, Edinb. New PhUos. Journ. 1838. Apr.
Jul. p. 101, from Wilkinson. [WUkinson, Manners and Customs of the
anc. Eg. vol. 2. ch. 7, p. 342 sq. 2. ed. On art and works of art generaUy,
vol. 3. ch. 10, p. 264 sq.]
3. There appear to be no accounts of brazen statues in Bgypt ; Hero
dotus (ii, 172) mentions a golden one. The sacred gifts of gold and sU
ver in Diodorus prove nothing as to statues. In coUections from Egypt
there are often found smaU bronze figures of gods and sacred animals,
wrought with sharpness and precision. The enigmatical figure of Horus t,
standing on crocodiles, and crushing together scorpions and wild animals
with his hands, is also often to be found in bronzes as weU as in stone
and terracotta ; but it always bears the look of being of late origin. Small
golden plates with the eye, the urseus, served as amulets.

230 EGYPTIAN ART.
4. As to painting on silver among the Egyptians, Plin. xxxiii. 46.
The pitcher which was found in Hungary, in October 1831, near the vil
lage of Egyed in the comitat of CEdenburg, corresponds accurately with
the vases mentioned by PUny (tingit et .Sgyptus argentum, ut in vasis
Anubem suum spectet, etc.). It consists of copper, entirely overlaid
with sUver, on which are soldered figures of Egyptian deities and cor
responding ornaments of gold thread and smaU plates of silver, while the
rest of the ground is entirely coated with a brown red lacker, probably
the same which Pliny teaches how to prepare. An imperfect communi
cation on the subject by RoseUini, Ann. d, Inst, v, p. 179. M. I. tv, 56; a
more accurate one by Jankowich Mikl6st61, v, 'A Magyar Tudos Tac-
sas&g Evkonyvei, T. i. p. 354, and the three engravings by which it is
accompanied, for the communication of which with accurate imitation of
the colours I am indebted to M. Petrowich from Hungary. Hofr. Haus-
mann communicated to me the foUowing observations. "The natural
combination of silver, copper and sulphur, has quite different proportions
to what PUny lays down for the mixture. Herein perhaps lies the differ
ence of colour, which in the former, indeed, borders somewhat on the red
dish or violet, but is not however brown red. But the method of prepar
ing nieUo laid down in Prechtl's Technolog. Bncycl. Bd. 5 corresponds
for the most part with Pliny's account, only he does not mention lead.
The work on the Isis tablet at Turin does not, from what I observed, entire
ly agree with that in the vase of Egyed. The Isis table consists of copper
with inlaid sUver work. We distinctly see that the copper is hollowed
out and the silver let in. Three rows of figures round about. The out
lines given in silver often very fine. I have seen nothing of a lacker."
[On Egyptian niello see now Hausmann in the Gott. Anz. 1848. s. 146 —
160 of the Nachrichten. Many of the elegant antique bronze figures in
Naples and elsewhere, are finely inlaid with silver.] Of a kindred descrip
tion is the tabula Bembina, found at Rome, now at Turin, — an enamel
painting on bronze, the outlines inlaid with silver, probably destined for
the Roman worship of Isis. In Montfaucon, Caylus Rec. T. vu, Pignori
Mensa Isiaca, R. 1605. Lessing's Fragments on the Isiac table. Verm.
Gesch, X, 327 ff', Bottiger Archseol, der, Mahlerei s, 36, Oberlin Orbis
Ant, p, 267, On works in glass, Boudet sur l'art de la Verrerie ne en
Egypte, Mem, T. u. p. 17. Comp. MinutoU, pi. 21.
5. See Herodotus ii, 130 on the concubines of Mycerinus, c. 143. on
the 345 high-priests at Thebes in wooden colossi, also c. 182. Wooden
flgures in the Osymandeion, representing a judgment according to Diod.
The mummy coffins are formed in imitation of the images of Osiris and
Isis, often with the faces gilt. Painted figures, also reUefs, in wood, are
not rare in museums. AU of sycamore, the high price of which is proved
by the careful gluing together of many mummy-cases out of small chips.
On works in ivory, Diod. i, 46.

I 231. Painting arose from the colouring of statues and re
liefs, which practice again was closely connected in Ethiopia
2 with the colouring of living bodies. It does not change its
character by transference to a flat surface, whether on walls of
hypogea, or upon and in the mummy cases, or immediately on

PAINTING. 231
the byssus coverings of the mummies, or in the rolls of papy
rus. The colours were bound with glue or wax, and laid on at 3
once upon the stone, the coating of stucco or, in mummy cases,
on a thin layer of gypsum, without regard to light or shadow,
without mixing or shading. The same simple colouring ma- 4
terials, with some slight regard to the local colours of nature,
are invariably applied in the same manner; occasionally a
symbolic significance seems at the same time to be aimed at.
But everywhere prevails — even when mere pencil-outlines 5
take the place of painting — the precise sharply expressed sys
tem of Eygptian design.
1. According to PUn. xxxiii, 36, the nobles and the gods were among
the Ethiopians painted with minium ; according to Herodotus vii, 69,
the Ethiopian warriors were painted half with gypsum and half with
minium. 2. The walls of the hypogea are adorned with pictures enclosed in a
frame-like manner; as to their style and subjects, see §. 233, 4. The
wooden sheaths or chests of the mummies are painted and written with
religious subjects, and contain a ritual for the dead, like the rolls of
papyrus on other occasions. (Hence where there are wooden cases on
mummies there are no papyri.) The most complete representation is
given by Guigniaut Rel. de PAnt. pi. 45. MinutoU, tf 36. 37. Inside the
case there is often found beneath the mummy a figure as large as Ufe,
which in later mummies of the Roman period looks very lik« a Byzantine
picture. CaiUiaud ii. pi. 66 sqq. Mummy of Pet-Mant-Ich-Mes in the
Jersey Museum, Pettegrew Archseol. Brit, xxvii, p. 263. — Minute descrip
tions of the painted mummy covers and cases at Munich are given by
Wagen, Denkschriften der Miinchner Acad. 1820. The latest style of
painting on mummy-covers is shown on the Dresden mummies which are
interesting on that account (Bekker August. T. i). Encaustic painting
of the Egyptians according to RoseUini II, ii. Painted mummy-rolls
particularly in Denon, pi. 136 sqq., Descr. v. pi. 44 sqq. Mai Catal. (§.
216, 3), Cadet Copie figuree d'un rouleau de papyrus tr. k Thfebes dans
les tomb, des Rois 1806.
4. Men reddish (a peculiar flesh-colour), women yeUowish; quad
rupeds generally red, birds for the most part green or blue, in like man
ner water, hence also Ammon. Blue was obtained by copper- and brown
by iron-oxide. Costaz sur la Peinture des Egyptiens, Mem. T. iii. p. 134.
Bottiger Archseol. der Mahl. s. 25 — 100. Creuzer Commentationes
Herodotese, p. 385. John, BeUagen zu MinutoU's Reisen 3. 4. 5. Minu
toU's Abhandlungen verm. Inhalts, zweiter Cyclus, i. s. 49. Baillif and
Merimfe in Passalacqua's Catalogue, p. 242. 258.

B. SUBJECTS.

232. The fundamental idea clearly resulting from the new ]
discoveries as to the significance of Egyptian works of art,
and which mu,st henceforward be adhered to as the basis, is

232 EGYPTIAN ART.
this: the Egyptians were completely without the Greek repre
sentative impulse which constrains to represent what inwardly
fills and agitates the soul, because it is beautiful and exalting.
[§. 233, 6.] Their representation is invariably guided by ex
ternal aims ; it seeks to authenticate particular events, actions,
services ; it is altogether of an historical, monumental nature,
as it were, an embodied inscription. Writing and image are
here, so to speak, still unsevered and concrete ; hence also the
work of art is almost always accompanied by hieroglyphic
characters, the import of which is only carried out and pre
sented bodily to the view on a larger scale. The gods are not
exhibited by themselves, but only in relation to their festival ;
hence there are no purely mythological scenes; the design is
always to declare the acts of homage which the deity received
r in a certain modification or situation. All religious scenes of
Egyptian art are definite acts of homage by particular indi
viduals, commemorative monuments of the services performed
to the deity. Here countless varieties of ofl'erings and modes
¦ of testifying piety are scrupulously distinguished. In like
manner life in the infernal world is constantly represented as
the destiny of a particular person, as the judgment upon him
i by the- tribunal of the dead. In fine, the presumed purely
scientific representation of the heavens degenerated in later
times into horoscopes of individuals.
3. On representations from Egyptian religion and worship, Hirt iiber
die Bildung der .ffigyptischen Gottheiten 1821 (from Grecian accounts).
ChampoUion's Pantheon Egyptien (from hieroglyphic and other inscrip
tions). Plates to Creuzer's Symbolik, especiaUy to Guigniaut's edition
of it (ReUgions de I'Antiquite, Planches, i. cab.). [K. Schwenk, die
Mythol. der .iEgypter mit 13 lithogr. Tafeln 1846, discussed with pene
trating acumen and great mythological insight.] The coins of the Nomi,
which extend from Trajan down to M. Aurelius as Caesar, are an impor
tant source of Egyptian symbolism, and are also interesting on account
of pecuUar combinations. See Zoega Numi Mg. Imper. R. 1786. Tochon
d'Annecy Rech, sur les Med. des Nomes de I'Bgypte. P. 1822. 4. Descr. v.
pi. 58.
The foUowing seem to be undoubted personages of Egyptian artistic
mythology : A. AMOKQ THE GODS.
I. Phthas, the inscription in phonetic hieroplyphs Ptah, in close-
fltting dress, with the feet joined together, leaning on the platform con
sisting of four steps (which is caUed rd rirrx^x ^spiiXix, and perhaps de
notes the four elements, Reuvens Lettres h, Mr. Letronne, i. p. 28 sq.).
Also dwarfish and ithyphallic as in the temple at Memphis, comp. Tolken
in MinutoU s. 426. Likewise with a scarabseus as a head, inscription
Ptah-Tore {<^a^ei, Reuvens, ibid. p. 14). Cynocephalus, the ape, his sym
bol. II. Ammon, inscription Amn, with a ram's or a human head, and a
double variegated feather upon it, artificial beard and the sceptre. Mo-

SUBJECTS. 233
difications 1. IthyphaUic, brandishing the scourge, with close feet, the in
scription Amn, is held to be the Pan-Mbndes of Chemmis, who has not
yet been discovered in his goat form mentioned by Herodotus. 2. As Am-
mon-Chnubis or Knuphis (comp. T61ken in MinutoU s. 374). Inscription
Nef, Nuf (with gutteral n, therefore in Greek Kvov(pig, but in composition
liersvvov(pig), with goat's homs. Also in form of a serpent, called by the
Greeks Agathodsemon. As a Nile-pitcher in Canobus §, 230, 1, 3, United
with the sun as Amonra, Amonrasonter, III. The Sttn-god called Re,
Phre, with the head of a hawk {ie^xxoft,o^(pog HorapoUo) with the sun's
disc, upon it an urseus, Mandu seems to be a kindred deity, — MxviovXig
on an inscription at Talmis; — his image is often scratched out, IV,
Thoyt, the ibis-headed, represented as grammateus among the gods. Also
hawk-headed according to ChampoUion, as Hermes-Trismegistus, his em
blem the winged discus (Tat), V, Soohus or Suchus, Souk, with croco-
dUe head ; also denoted by a crocodile with taU curled round, on coins of
the nomos of Omboi. Zoega 10. Tochon d'Ann. p. 130. VI, The moon-
god. Pooh or Pioh (p is the article) with close feet, one lock of hair, the
crescent moon. Also as a hermaphrodite, impregnating the air. VII.
OsiBis, Ousri, in human shape with crook and scourge (see Macrob. Sat.
i. 23) recognizable especiaUy by his high hat. The eye a chief symbol.
VIII. Aroeris, Horus, Harpocrates, Arori, often as a boy, with a single
lock of hair, suckled by Isis, sitting on a lotus. Also hawk-headed.
The hawk as a suckUng of Isis is seen on a basalt torso in the Borgia
coUection, fuU of interesting, but in the highest degree fantastic and
monstrous conceptions. IX. Anubis, Anbo, with the head of the wild
dog (jackaU). X. Bebon, Babys or Seth (commonly Typhon), with the
body of a hippopotamus, the head of a crocodile, and a sword in his hands.
As the constellation of the Great Bear in the zodiac of Tentyra.
B. GODDESSES.
I. Neith, denoted by the vulture. With human head or that of a
vulture or Uon (then with the inscription Tafnet). Also as a herma
phrodite according to HorapoUo. Comp. W. von Humboldt in the
Schriften der Berl. Acad. 1826. s. 145. II. Athor (A^^olim), the goddess
of Tentyra, also at Philse, with the head of a cow, but also as human with
a vulture as head ornament. Her hieroglyphic name, a hawk in a square.
III. Isis, human, with cow horns and a discus between them, often diffi
cult to distinguish from Athor. The figure with the feather, which
ChampoUion formerly caUed Hera-Sate, is now considered by him as weU
as Tolken to be Aletheia or Truth (at Egyptian judgments on the dead).
— The four genii of Amenthes, the human-, the jackal-, the ape-, and the
hawk-headed often stand together in mummy-like forms, or as canobi.
4. The foUowing are frequent scenes from the worship: Sacrifices,
the animal dismembered ; legs of animals, fowls with fruits and flowers
laid upon the sacrificial table ; censers held out in artificial hands ; en
tire trains of animals brought by the king as sacrifice to the gods. Hi
erogl. pi. 61. Adorations of gods and sacred animals (for example, a
sacred cow, MinutoU, Tf 30, 2). Consecrations of Pharaohs by sprinkling
with sacred water, by placing sacred hats upon them. Processions (such
as Appuleius Met. xi. describes them), in which the god is also carried
about (vehitur ferculo, Macrob, Sat, i, 23), in a small tempio (Trxarog, vaog

234 EGYPTIAN ART.
X^vaoiig), such as were even brought in late times from Philae to Nubia
(Letronne, Christ, en Egypte, p. 77). EspeciaUy the great procession or
xapi.xi!ix with the ship of Ammon across to the Memnonia on the Libyan
side (Peyron, Mem. di Torino xxxi. p. 48). See the relief of Carnac,
Descr. iu. pi. 32. 33, comp. that of Philse, i. pi. 11. MinutoU, Tf 20, <fec.
— There are often represented very numerous assemblies of the gods, as
Hierogl. pi. 66. 67. — Now in these scenes the adoring and sacrificing
individuals are conventional portraits, and denote particular historical
personages. Hence, for example, in a temple at Little DiospoUs, dedi
cated by Cleopatra as guardian of Ptolemy V., who was a minor, in these
reUefs the queen constantly goes before the king (Salt, Essay, p. 7),
These oblations do not always relate to the consecration of the temple,
but are mostly mere acts of homage (¦Tr^oirxvviipixrx in numerous Egyp
tian and Nubian inscriptions, see Niebuhr and Letronne in the appendix
to Gau's Antiq, de la Nubie), at which for sacrifices and gifts sacerdotal
titles are received (see particularly the inscription of Gartasse, Niebuhr,
p, 13), which are doubtless denoted in the representations by the head-
ornaments of those offering. See Heeren Ideen ii, 1, s, 388,
The celebrated relief of Carnac appears to be a mythological scene
(Descr, iii, pi, 64, Hirt, Tf 8, 61, Guigniaut, pi, 32), where the member
torn from Osiris by Typhon is brought back to him by Ammon, and Ty
phon is at the same time punished by Horus for the act ; but even here
there is a Pharaoh present with offerings, Comp, the representation
from Philse, Hierogl, 68, In like manner, when Isis is introduced suck
ling Horus, when Horus or his hawk is represented on the lotus flower
between the hostile Typhon and the protecting Kneph, this certainly
always is because Isis is the object of an adoration and offering as mo
ther, and Horus as being attacked and defended,
5, To the destiny op the dead belong : The embalming by Anubis,
The conveying of the mummy to the necropoUs on the opposite bank of
the Nile, in a ship (wooden models of such ships in the tomb opened by
Passalacqua, now in Berlin), Various consecrations of mummies, some
times difficult to explain. The judgment on the dead, and the weighing
of their souls ; Aroeris and Anubis weigh the good deeds, Thoyt marks
a number on the year-sceptre (according to Guigniaut), perhaps that of
the years during which the souls wander; a propitiatory sacrifice is
offered to Osiris as the ruler of the lower world (Petempamentes iu the
inscr, of Philse) ; there are present 42 or 43 judges of the dead, who sit
armless, as in the Thebaic statues of judges (Plut, de Is, 10), as an em
blem of truth. These scenes are on steles (the most interesting are those
at Carpentras with the Phoenician or Aramseic inscription beneath), on
the walls of sepulchral monuments, Descr, ii, pi, 35 and very frequent
especiaUy on mummy wrappers, Descr, ii, pi, 60, 64, 67, 72 ; Hierogl, pi,
5 ; Pundgruben des Orients v, s, 273 ; Mai Catalogo, Death ritual of Ne-
simandu). Sacrifices to the dead; a sacerdotal family brings oblations
to their dead father Ptahmes, on a stele at Florence, RoseUini Di un
basso-rilievo Bgiz, F, 1826, The reliefs of the king's tomb in Belzoni in
particular, pi, 5. 18 sqq, represent how the king at his apotheosis is re
ceived by the gods, embraces them, and receives gifts. We see in the
Ramesseion how the gods write the name of Ramses the Great on the
leaves of the Persea, CaUliaud ii, pi, 72, MinutoU, Tf 22, 2,

SUBJECTS. 235
6. The so-called astronomical representations, according to the au
thors of the Descr. — JoUois, DevUliers, Jomard, Fourier : the planisphere
of Tentyra, now at Paris (probably of the time of Nero), the zodiac of
Tentyra (of the time of Tiberius), two at Esneh, one at Hermonthis, one
at Thebes. Nowhere does the zodiac here form a circle, always either a
spiral or parallels; so that one sign always leads the series. In the
mummy of Petemenon from the hypogeum of a HeUenizing famUy, at
Kurnah (see S. Quintino Lezioni v. and Mem. d. Ace. di Torino xxix. p.
256), engraved in Cailliaud ii. pi. 69, Capricorn under which Petemenon
was born (2d June, 116 a. d.), steps quite out from the row. See Le
tronne, Observations critiques et arch^ologiques sur I'objet des repre
sentations Zodiacales. 1824. This explanation, however, cannot be
appUed to another mummy of the same family. Reuvens, Lettres a
M. Letr. ii, 2. It is evident that the zodiacal figures were origin-
aUy foreign to Egyptian mythology and science; they are quite dis
tinct and different in kind from the other really native tracings of con-
steUations. 233. A heroic mythology, that great lever of Greek art, 1
was, according to Herodotus, altogether wanting in Egypt;
there gods and human princes meet at the same boundary.
Kings and priests were from the earliest times honoured with 2
statues which are scarcely to be distinguished from those of
the gods by a general .attribute; and the pylons and walls of 3
the palaces, the royal tombs and monuments, perpetuate on
countless sculptures and pictures the principal actions of the
public, military and sacerdotal life of the sovereigns. In like 4
manner the walls of the sepulchres of the people everywhere
give evidence of the particular business and special calling of
those who occupy them. Considering this close relation of 5
art to reality, it is not to be wondered at that the Egyptian
artists, even from a very early period, endeavoured to com
municate to the representations of the 'kings a kind of por
trait-resemblance. In this art the design of preserving the 6
memory of particular events and circumstances everywhere
prevails, so much so that even the most minute details, the
number of enemies slain, of birds and fishes caught, are ad
mitted into the artistic representation, and it therefore supplies
the place of a register on such matters. — And thus, as in all 7
Egyptian life, so there was also formed in the plastic art, —
on the basis of a marvellous intuition of nature and the world,
which was expressed in the religion, — a cold and insipid in
tellectuality which employed those strange symbols, generated
by the fancy of earlier ages, as given formulae, in order there
with to denote the numerous distinctions of an artificially
cultivated civil condition and a sacerdotal science; it ob
tained indeed thereby a great abundance of figured repre
sentations, but at the same time remained far as the poles
from that warmth and liveliness of contemplation to which
the real significance of natural forms is revealed, from that

236 EGYPTIAN ART.
healthy medium between the intellectual and the sensible
from which alone true art can spring.
2. Statues of the kings, particularly colossal ones, are more numerous
than those of the gods. The so-called Memnon, about 50 feet high, hewn
out of a breccia resembling granite (it was, as it appears, merely caUed
by the Greeks after the son of Aurora, on account of the accidental ring
ing at sunrise), Descr. ii. pi. 22. Hierogl. 13. is Amenophis the Second ; it
is the statue which became early a ruin, and was still half broken away
in Hadrian's time (Juven. xv, 5), and was not restored till afterwards,
whereby the ringing of the stone probably ceased ; beside it stands the
more complete colossus of Ramses the Great. Comp. Jacobs on the
Memnonia, Leben und Kunst der Alters, iii, 1, and on the history of the
statue, especiaUy Letronne, La Statue vooale de Memnon. P. 1833. The
ringing stone which Wilkinson found in it was only inserted after the
natural ringing ceased. Letronne in the Archiv. f. die PhUol. Leipz. 1834.
iii. s. 264—57. sur les moyens artificiels employes pour produire la voix
de Memnon selon Mr. Wilkinson. L. supposes that the sounding stone is
a restored part. Wilkinson in the Transactions of the Soc. of Literature,
ii, 2. p. 451. See on the numerous statues of Amenophis, Thutmosis, and
Ramses in the Turin Museum ChampoUion Lettres k Blacas, Cost. Gaz-
zera Desor. dei Monumenti Egizii del R. Museo Bgizio. Tor. 1824. with
12 lithographed plates. [The Ramses the finest work of Egyptian art.]
On the very antique colossus of Ptah men Manduei (according to Cham
poUion Figeac 2272 before Christ ?) also S. Quintino Lezioni iii. Mem. d.
Ace. di Torino xxix. p. 230. Lepsius on the statues of the mother of
Ramses-Sesostris and those of Amasis. Mon. d. I. ii, 40. AnnaU ix. p. 167.
Besides, in later times Egypt erected such statues not only in honour of
foreign kings, but also of their distinguished men, for instance CaUima
chus in the time of Cleopatra, according to the decree of the Thebaic
priests of Amonrasonter, at Turin.
3. We now find the actions of the kings on the monuments such as
they were explained to Germanicus, according to Tacitus, Ann. ii, 60:
Manebant structis molibus litterae ..lEgyptise, priorem opulentiam com-
plexse: jussusque e senioribus sacerdotum, patrium sermonem interpre-
tari, referebat: habitasse quondam DCG miUa setate militari, atque eo
cum exercitu regem Rhamsen Libya, iEthiopia, Medisque et Persis et
Bactriano ac Scytha potitum etc. Legebantur et indicta gentibus tri-
buta, pondus argenti et auri, numerus armorum equorumque, et dona
templis, ebur atque odores, quasque copias frumenti et omnium utensi-
liura quseque natio penderet. Col. Mure Sopra i popoli stranieri intro-
dotti neUe rappr. storiche dei mon. egiz. Annali d. I. viii. p. 333. Land-
battles of Ramses Meiamun on the palaces at Medinet-Abou ; of Ram
ses the Great at Carnac, Denon pi. 133 ; also in the Ramesseion (Descr.
ii. pi. 32) ; of Amenophis II. and Ramses the Great at Luxor. The tak
ing of a fortress by Ramses the Great, on the Ramesseion, Descr. ii. pi.
31. Hamilton, pi. 9. CaiUiaud ii. pi. 73. Comp. Dureau de la MaUe,
Poliorc6tique des Anciens avec un Atlas de 7 planches. Combat of the
GENERALS, the Egyptian with the Hycsos % Descr. iii. pi 38. Hamilton,
pi. 8. On the use of war-chariots, MinutoU Abhandl. zw. Cyklus i. s. 128.
Sea-battlbs, and generally battles on land at the same time, probably

SUBJECTS. 237
fought on the coast of the Red Sea, at Carnac and Medinet-Abou, Descr.
ii. pi. 10. Hamilton, pi. 9. The opinion that the opponents of the
Egyptians in these naval engagements were the Ethiopians of Meroe is
favoured by the head-dress, consisting apparently of feathers standing
upright, in which I think I recognise what Lucian, De salt. 18, states
regarding the Ethiopians, viz. that they employ their head as a quiver,
inasmuch as they bind their arrows around it in the forms of rays. See,
however, RoseUini. Triumph of the conqueror changing into a sacred
procession of Ammon-Mendes, in which the king also appears as first
husbandman, in the interior of the palace of Medinet-Abou, Descr. ii. pi. 1 1 .
The heaping up of the severed hands before the triumphal car of the king,
in order to count the dead, Descr. ii. pi. 12. HamUton, pi. 8. Processions
of prisoners before the triumphal cars of the king, in the palace at Me
dinet-Abou in the Ramesseion, Descr. ii. pi. 12. Hierogl. 16. The present
ing of the Ethiopian spoUs before the throne of Ramses the Great in the
monument in the rooks at Talmis, Gau, tf 14. 15. Embassies of the sub
jugated nations (Negroes, Libyans, Syrians 1) to the king in very charac
teristic representation, in the royal tomb of Akencheres, Belzoni, pi. 6. 7.
8. MinutoU Nachtr. Tf 3. Executions or sacrifices (?) of black men in
the royal sepulchres, Descr. ii. pi. 86. The king seizing by the hair-tuft
and putting to death (sacrificing, executing T) many persons, sometimes
evidently not Egyptians, occasionally also women, in numerous sculp
tures. In Uke manner the queen in Meroe, CaiUiaud i. pi. 46. Mon. dell'
Bgitto e deUe Nubie disegnati daUa spedizione scientifico letter. Tosca-
nica, distrib. in ordine di materie, interpretati ed iUustr. dai Dott. Ippol.
RoseUini P. u. mon. civili T. i. 1834.
4. Private life is principally represented in the catacombs, especially
at Eleithyia (Costaz, Mem. T. i. p. 49) ; scenes of husbandry, ploughing,
reaping corn, reaping a nelumbo field, gathering and pressing the grapes,
pressing oUves, beating hemp, Descr. i. pi. 68 — 71. u. pi. 90. v. pi. 17.
18. HamUton, pi. 23. comp. Mongez Sur les Instrumens d'agric. chez
les anciens, Mem. de I'Inst. Roy. T. ii. p. 616. iu. p. 1. A shepherd
counting his cattle, in the catacombs of Memphis, Cailliaud ii. pi. 73.
Weaving (MinutoU, pi. 24. 2). Navigation (Descr. i. pi. 68 sqq. Hamilt.
23). Trade and commerce, weighing goods and the Uke. Weapon and
wrestling exercises (Descr. iv. pi. 66. uncertain of what time). Banquets
dancing and music (splendidly decorated instruments in the so-oaUed
grotto of the harp (Descr, ii. pi. 91). The most interesting representa
tion is that of the king's recreations in the chase, duck-catching (hawk
ing 1), and fishing, from the hypogsea at Kurnah. Here also everything
kiUed is immediately registered. CaiUiaud ii, 74. 75. Lion-chase of the
king, Descr. u. pi, 9. HamUton, pi. 8. [WUkinson §. 230. R, 3,]
5, An iconography of the kings of Bgypt from the time of Ameno
phis I, in RoseUini's Monum, dell' Eg,, Atlas i. Some doubt, however, is
raised by the circumstance that these portraits cease precisely at the
time when they could be verified by comparison. For in the Ptolemies
there is scarcely any resemblance to the Greek coins observable, in the
emperors none whatever, even according to RoseUini. Comp. RoseU. i. p.
461 sqq. The Sesostris especially tv. vi. i. 22 does not resemble the
young Memnon of the British Museum, In opposition to RoseUini's

238 ART AMONG THE SYRIAN RACES.
Iconogr. See R. Rochette Journ. des. Sav. 1834, p, 457, 521, RoseUini
P, I, T, 1, 2, Mon, Storici 1832, 33, Investigations on Chronology and
History, Heads of Amenophis I,, the first of the 18th dynasty down to
the Ptolemies,

II, THE SYRIAN RACES,
234, The Syrian or so-called Semitic nations, who in
habited the whole of Anterior Asia, between the Halys and
the Tigris, Armenia and the Red Sea, and who, in like man
ner with the Egyptians, exhibited certain fundamental fea
tures of the national character in their religion, constitution,
and customs, produced, particularly in two races, works of art
of a peculiar description, of which we still possess some accu
rate knowledge, — in Babylon and in Phoenicia. On them Asia
Minor appears to have been dependent ; for, inhabited in one
half of its extent by Semites, it also in the other, through the
immemorial sovereignty of Assyria over Lydia, adopted the
early developed civilization of that race.

L. BABYLONIANS.
1. AKOHITEOTONICS.

1 235. The Babylonians, like other nations of this region,
collected together by an internal impulse into large masses, —
a circumstance wherewith is connected the development of a
stern monarchy, — and compelled at the same time, by the
situation of their flat river-country, to adopt architectural de-
2 fences, undertook great works even in the earliest ages; on
these little wood (almost only palm-trees) and stone (which
must be brought all the way from Armenia) could be employed
3 as materials ; on the contrary, bricks of a most excellent qua
lity were manufactured from the finer clay of the soil. These
were dried in the sun for the interior portions of the build
ings, and burnt for the exterior; they were then united by
asphalt (which was brought from Is (now Hit) on the Eu
phrates) and gypsum, with intervening layers of reeds, into
4 a firmly cohering mass. But, alas ! this very choice of mate
rials, — particularly as new cities of great size, especially the
stupendous Seleucia which was founded for the destruction of
Babylon, here sought wherewith to build, — has produced this
effect that it has hitherto been quite impossible to recognise
the precise forms of Babylonian architecture amid the con
fused heaps of ruins.

BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURAL WORKS. 239
1. Canals of the Euphrates; embankments along the river; lakes for
relieving the river enclosed with stone walls ; sluices on the canal Palla-
copas. 2. Only the large bridge over the Euphrates at Babylon consisted of
square blocks of stone (according to Herod, i, 186. Diodor. ii, 8. Curtius
V, 4), which were bound together with iron cramps and lead, and formed
piUars with acute angles against the stream. Over these were laid beams
of palm-tree, cedar and cypress, which could be speedily removed, — The
fabulous tunnel indeed is described by Diodorus as a vault composed of
bricks with a great quantity of asphalt ; but according to Rich and Por
ter there is no trace of vaulting among the ruins,
3. Kxl eyeviro xvrotg i/i •ir'Kiv^og eig T^i^ov' xxi xacpxXrog 7]v xuroig 6 icr(Kog,
Genesis ii, 3. More minute details Herod, i, 179, Ctesias in Diod, ii, 7,
10, Berosus in Josephus against Apion i, 19, comp, also Phlegon De
muUeribus, Gottinger Bibl. St. vi. Ined. p. 10. Schol. Aristoph. Birds,
552. The ruins of Nineveh of the same kind of bricks as those of Baby
lon, A. J. Rich, Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan and of the site of
Ancient Nineveh, ii. vol. 1836. 8vo.
236. The Babylonian architectural works are divided into I
two classes. First, The earlier structures, those of the first
dynasties. To these belonged the buildings on the west side, "2
where old Babylon was spread out into streets of immense
length crossing each other at right angles, where the elder
palace of the kings can still be recognised in a mound of
bricks, and where also stood the great temple of Baal, — the
tower at Babel, — which we can recognise with certainty in Birs
Nimrod by its magnitude and terraced construction. Secondly, 3
The works of the Chaldean princes (beginning from 627 years
before Christ) especially of Nebuchadnezzar, who added to
the ancient city, on the west of the Euphrates, a new one
on the east of the stream for the defence of this side, sur
rounded both with several lines of fortification, and adorned 4
the new city especially with magnificent works, of which an
imitation of a Persian pleasure-ground {paradeisos) is best 5
known to us.
2. Birs Nimrod, about seven English miles from the Euphrates, and
yet according to Herodotus and Diodorus in the middle of the city.
Below, an immense ie^ov, 1,200 feet square, but which however is not to
be considered as a connected buUding; in the ftiiddle of it the temple
of Baal with the golden statue, enclosed by a round tower which was
600 feet in diameter at the base, and arose in eight terraces. In the
uppermost story the most sacred temple, without image, only with a
golden table and a couch for the god. Herod, i, 181 sqq. The tower was
600 feet high according to Strabo.
3. We decidedly prefer the accounts of Berosus preserved by Josephus
of the origin of these structures, as they were derived from archives
(Berosi quse superSunt, ed, Richter p, 65), and can even perhaps be re-

240 ART AMONG THE SYRIAN RACES,
concUed with Herodotus, to the fables in Ctesias and Diodorus, which
partly rest on the popular appeUation of " Semiramis' Works" given to aU
great structures in the Bast. Heeren has shown how perfectly Berosus'
statements agree with the existing remains. Ideen i, 2. s. 172 ff.
4. On the waUs of Babylon, the builders, size and so forth, see the
commentators to Diod. ii, 7., especiaUy Tzetzes Chil. ix, 668.
6. According to Berosus, Nebuchadnezzar built this artificial para
deisos for his Median spouse Amuhia (Nitocris 1 comp. Niebuhr Kleine
Schriften, s. 208 f ). A very accurate plan may be made of it from Diod.
ii, 10 ; Strabo xvi. p. 738, who speaks of vaults, is not so exact. The
entire building measured 400 feet square, and consisted of parallel brick
walls 22 feet thick and separated by passages (o-v^iyyeg) of 10 feet. (In
Curtius V, 5. read : quippe xx. pedes lati parietes sustinent, xi, pedum
intervallo distantes ; for there could be only 13 walls and 12 syringes,)
Across these lay stone beams 16 feet long (for 2 X 16 = 22 -|- 10) ; then
4 layers, viz, reeds in asphalt, bricks in gypsum, lead, and garden earth ;
the lower of which were designed to prevent the water from getting
through and the waUs from being burst by the force of the vegetation.
The highest terrace, 50 feet in height, was nearest to the Euphrates ; in
the first syrinx there was a. pumping apparatus. We still see in the
heaps of ruins called el Khasr parallel waUs and passages between them,
with blocks of sandstone laid across.
Ruins of Babylon, Sources ; Niebuhr Beisebeschreibung nach Ara-
bien ii, s, 290, Maurice Rich, Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon, in Von
Hammer's Pundgruben Bd, iii, and afterwards separately at L, 8vo, By
the same: Observations on the Ruins of Babylon, L, 18i6, and On the
Topography of ancient Babylon in the Archseol. Brit, xvui, 243, Capt,
Keppel's Travels from India to England, see Kunstblatt 1827, N, 43,
Sir Robert Ker Porter's Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia V, ii. pi.
69 — 76, Treatises: Rennel's Geogr. System of Herodotus. Ste Croix
Sur les Ruines de Bab., Mem. de I'Acc. des Inscr, xlviii, p, 1, Beauchamp,
M6m, sur les Antiquites Babyloniennes, Journal des Sav, 1790, p, 797 sqq,
Heeren Ideen i, 2, s, 157 ff, with a plan.

the plastic art.

237. The plastic art displayed itself partly in reliefs which
were impressed on the still unburnt bricks, and covered with
a coat of coloured varnish; partly in statues of the gods and
colossi, which consisted of a kernel of wood which was over
laid with beaten metal, either gold or silver (comp. §. 71. 84),
and to which were attached, in order to heighten their splen
dour, attributes composed of precious stones; costly draperies
also, in the manufacture and dyeing of which the Babylonians
were particularly distinguished, served these statues as a de
coration which dazzled the eye, and by the wonderful figures
upon them gave employment to the fancy.

BABYLONIAN IDOLS. 241
1. Of the reliefs on the innermost and second wall of the western
palace of the kings, which represented aU manner of animals and royal
chases, Diodorus says: 'E* aptxig sri rxig TrXivBojg ^nrerv-iruro ^ri^ix itxv-
ro^X'Tzd rri Twi/ x?"!*"*'"''"' 9i'>^orex'"'f 'r'!'' dXti^eixv dTropiipcovptevx. Comp.
Hezekiel 4, 1. also the painted Chaldeans with particoloured coats and
hats, Hezekiel 13, 14, were works of this sort. We stiU find at Babylon
bricks with cuneiform characters on the under, and figures of animals
stamped on the fore-side.
2, See Herodot, i, 183, on the image of Belus, with table, throne and
footstool of gold (800 talents), and another golden statue 12 cubits high,
but which the historian did not see, Diodorus (ii, 9) is more fabulous
on the golden, embossed images of Zeus, Hera and Rhea ; therewith a
sceptre composed of precious stones, axiivr^ov T^i^oxoTAmrov. (Thus MUto
dedicated in Asia, besides a golden Venus-Mylitta, a •TceXiidg T^i^oxo'KXrrrog,
jEUan V, H. xu, 1.) On the making of images, particularly the Epistle
of Jeremias i, 7 : y'huoax yd^ xvrav 'eurl xxre%vaptivr\ vtto rexrovog (Berosus'
lingua inaurata at Athens, PUn. vu, 37), xird Se ire^ix^vox xxi we^ix^yv^x
— xxi atj'Tre^ irx^^iva i^ihoxoafxa 'Kxpt.^xvovreg p^^yo-Zof xxrxaxevx^ovat ure-
(Pavovg £7ri rdg xe<pxXdg rav ^eav xvrav, and SO forth, especiaUy v. 64. 56.
67. Comp. Daniel 3. Sajap^ij^a, according to Berosus in Hesyohius, the
xoaptifT^ix of the Babylonian Hera. On brazen statues of ancient kings
at Babylon, Diodorus ii, 8. Stone images are only to be found in Daniel
6, 4. 23. Comp. Miinter, Rel. der Babylonier, s. 69 ff.
3. On Babylonian stuffs and tapestries embroidered with fantastic
animals {t^ax reqxruhn PhUostr. Imagg. ii, 32. comp. ii, 5). Bottiger Va
sengemalde I, iii. s. 106 sqq. Heeren i, 2. s. 205. Munter, s. 64. Those
of Media and Persia were certainly nothing more than imitations ;
Athen. v. p. 197 b. praises them for beautiful and correct design in the
figures. Such fix^jixQav v(f)xi!p!,xrx brought to Greece r^xyeXx(povg and
iTT'TTx'hex.r^vovxg (Aristoph.) and pi.ii,iSin^xg cparxg (Burip. Ion 1176), and
had influence especiaUy on Etruscan art (§. 178, 3). These imaginary
animals were certainly in part imitations of those represented in the
temple of Baal, described by Berosus, p. 49.
238. We have not yet more than a few remains of stone
sculptures to give us a notion of the style of art among the
Babylonians, but we have in greater number their engraved
stones (every Babylonian, according to Herodotus, had a signet),
especially the cylinders mostly found in the neighbourhood of
Babylon (chiefly at Borsippa where a famous Chaldean school
existed even to a late period), and consisting of hard and
precious stones (chalcedony, haematite, agate); although the
use of these was transplanted from the Chaldeans to the
Magi, from the religion of Baal to the worship of Ormuzd,
yet they might chiefly be deduced and explained from Baby-
Ionian customs and usages. We can even yet recognise con-
jecturally some of the chief deities of the Babylonian creed,
which is however too little known to us in its internal con
nexion, to attempt detailed explanations. The workmanship
of these cylinders is of very various merit, often consisting
Q

242 ART AMONG THE SYRIAN RACES.
almost entirely of round cavities, sometimes very careful and
elegant; the style of design on the whole agrees very much
with the monuments of Persepolis.
1. See Miinter, ibid. s. 63, on a granite lion from the ruins of Babylon,
The block of gray granite communicated by Rich, Pundgruben ui, s. 199,
Tf ii, 1, and the marble block 1^ foot long (in the Parisian cabinet)
which was found at Tak-khesra on the Tigris, with figures of animals,
altars and stars, perhaps from Chaldean astrology, are of especial impor
tance. MiUin M, I, i, p, 58, pi, 8, 9, Hager lUustrazione di uno zodiaco
orientale. Mil, 1811, Miinter, S. 102, Tf 3,
2, Engravings and descriptions of cylinders and Babylonian signet-
stones in Caylus' Recueil ; in Herder's Vorwelt, Sammtliche Werke, pub,
by Cotta i, S, 346 ; in Tassie Catal. de Pierres grav. pi. 9 — 11 ; in the Pund
gruben iu. S. 199. Tf 2. iv. S. 86 Tf S. 156 Tf ; in "Ousely's Travels i. pi.
21. iii. pi. 59 ; Porter, ibid. pi. 79. 80 ; Dubois Pierres Grav. Bgypt. et Per-
sannes; Dorow's Morgenl. Alterthiimer H. 1. T. 1 ; J. Landseer's Sabse-
an Researches. L. 1823 ; Guigniaut, pi, 21 — 24, For the explanation,
besides Grotefend (§, 248, 4), Miinter, S. 95. 135. On cylinders of terra
cotta with cuneiform characters, the Same, S. 94.
3. If the cylinders are amulets, a theory which is supported by their
universal perforation, they are certainly connected with the beUef in the
wonderful virtues of stones which PUny xxxvi, 34. xxxvii, 14 sqq. attri
butes to the Magi (comp. the Orphean Ai^ixd 691), quoting at the same
time writings of Zoroaster, but also of the Babylonian Zachalias on the
subject. Even the names of the stones; Belus-eye (Pliny xxxvii, 55),
Belus-stone (also Bumithres, superstitionibus grata, ibid, 58), Adadun-
ephros (ejusdem oculus ac digitus dei: et hie coUtur a Syris, ibid, 71 ;
the deity Adad, Macrob. i, 23) lead to the conclusion that this beUef was
especially established in Assyria. Inscriptions and images on stones
were also in request among the Magi, Pliny xxxvii, 40, who ascribes this
use of amulets to the whole Bast, xxxvii, 37.
4. Baal with the tiara or kidaris (comp. as to this head-dress, Hoeck
Vet. Mediae Mon. p. 42) and a crown of rays, a garland in his hand,
on a throne with a footstool. Munter, Tf 1, 3. Mylitta (Astarte) with
her feet on a lion (Macrob. Sat. i, 23), dogs on the throne, weapons rising
above her shoulders, Munter 1, 5. Atergatis beseeching Baal to spare
her fishes (?), on the cyUnder in Miinter 1, 8. comp, Lucian Dea Syria 47,
Sandon (Hercules) standing on a horned lion (as on coins of Tarshish on
which this Assyrian god is represented on bis rogus, see Niebuhr's Rhein.
Mus, Bd, ui, s, 22, comp, Visconti PioCl, ii, p, 107) on a cylinder in Her
der, Tf 1. Monsters such as Berosus describes, Miinter 2, 15. 18. 19.
and elsewhere. We recognise, for instance, the four-winged men on the
Dorow cyUnder.

PHOiNICIAN ARCHITECTURE, 243
B. PHCENICIAN AND NEIGHBOURING TRIBES.
1, ARCHITECTONICS,
239, The active and industrious people of Phoenicia evi- 1
dently cared less for colossal magnitude and indestructibility
in their architectural undertakings than for splendid decora
tion. Their temples appear to have been small, for instance 2
that of Astarte at Paphos in Cyprus. Their peculiar con- 3
struction can perhaps be best judged from the temple of Je
hovah at Jerusalem, on which Phoenician art evidently exer
cised greater influence than the Egyptian, which was more re
mote. Everywhere — on the ark of the covenant, the old ta- 4
bernacle, and in the temple of Solomon — we find the practice,
which was characteristic of these people, of covering wooden-
walls, or wainscot on stone-walls, with gold-sheeting. It was 5
also customary among the Syrian races to use ivory for de
corating architectural mouldings as well as thrones and other
articles: this luxury early diffused itself over Asia Minor
towards the west (§, 47, 56,).
2. Principal Phoenician temples : those of Melkarth at Tyre and Gades,
and of Astarte on the acropoUs of Carthage. The first, together with
those of Zeus Olympius (Bel-Samen) and Astarte were said to have been
buUt by king Hiram, who hewed down the cedars of Lebanon for that
purpose ; he is also said to have placed golden columns in them. Dius
and Menandrus in Josephus against Apion, i, 17. 18. However we have
no exact knowledge of any of them ; on the other hand, the temple at
Paphos is in some measure known from ruins (described by Ali-Bey and
Von Hammer) and impressions on coins and gems. See Gemmse astri-
teise, i, 16. 77. 78, also the representation of Paphos, Pitt, di Ercol. iii,
52. Lenz Die Gottin von Paphos. 1808. Munter Der Tempel der himm-
Uschen Grottin von Paphos ; second supplement to the Rel. der Kartha-
ger. The court of the temple was 150 X 100 paces ; divided into two
halves, in one of which the smaU temple was placed. Two piUars or obe
Usks stood in front of it, connected by a chain. A semi-circular balus
trade surrounded a fore-court (a dove-preserve). The central portion
rose considerably higher than the side-porticoes. In the adytum stood
the goddess as a pointed column surrounded by candelabra. On a very
ancient temple of Apollo buUt of cedar at Utica, Plin. xvi. 79. Temple
of Byblos with meta therein, colossal. Mionnet Suppl. vui. pi. 17, 2.
Meta of Byblos, R. Rochette Mon. ined. p. 410 Vign. Temple on Mount
Garitzin Mionnet ^uppl. viii. pi. 18, 2.
3. The temple on Moriah occupied the place of the old pastoral tem
ple, constructed of moveable board -walls with a canopy of tapestry,
which enclosed the ark of the covenant with its cherubim. — Huge sub
structions fiUed up a valley to the depth of 600 feet. The temple proper
was 60 cubits in length (20 of this for the choir), 20 broad without the

244 ART AMONG THE SYRIAN RACES.
chambers, 30 high. The stone waUs were thinner towards the top as in
Egypt, next to them were rows of small chambers in three stories with
windows, for various purposes. Before the entrance there was a tower-
Uke building (Ulam) in Uke manner as at Paphos, 20 cubits broad, 10
thick, 120 (1) high, and in front of them two strong columns of brass 40
cubits high (Jachin and Boaz) with finely ornamented capitals which
had nothing to support. These were wrought by Hiram Abif of Tyre.
The roof and the inner waUs of the temple and choir (Dabir) were of
cedar with carved cherubim, palms and garlands, the workmanship of
which was seen through the thin coating of gold. [Jos. Ant, Jud. vu,
3, 1, R, Rochette Peint. Ined. p. 92, 133.] A double court in front for
the priests and the people, to which Herod first added (§. 190, 1, ii) the
outer, third court for the GentUes.' There is nothing said of porticoes in
the strict sense, in the old temple ; however, there were in Solomon's
palace three porticoes, each with 15 columns. — See the literature in Fa-
bricius' Bibliogr. Ant. p. 388. and in Beck's Grundriss, s. 30. Ugolini
Thes. Antiq. Hebr. ix— xi. Hirt Der Tempel Salomons. B. 1809. De Wette
Hebr. Jiidische Archaiologie, §. 224. 225. Kunstblatt 1831. St. 74 ff. On
the 2d temple of Jerusalem, Stieglitz Beitr. s. 63. especiaUy after Meyer
and Griineisen. Temple of Samaria, Mionnet Suppl. viii. pi. 18, 2. [W.
Kraft Topographie von Jerusalem. 1846. S. 62 ff. 98 ff.]
5. See Kings i, 22, 39 on Ahab's ivory house (comp. Amos 3, 15).
Ibid. 10, 18 on Solomon's ^^ovog x?'"'iXe(pxvrivog with Uons at both arms
(as in Bgypt) and on the sides of the six steps. Of Tyre Hezekiel (27,
6) says, according to the Septuagint ; rd I'ega nov iiroinuxv ii, 'e'hicpxvrog.

2. the plastic art.

1 240. The same taste pervaded the plastic art. If we do
not take into account the ancient Bsetylian images of the
simplest idol-worship, stone images were evidently extremely
2 rare. On the contrary, the Phoenicians and Canaanites, like
the kindred Babylonians, had usually images of wood on which
was fastened an iron sheeting of metal, for which species of
work there appears to have been cultivated a very regular and
3 careful system of technics. On the other hand, cast statues
cannot with certainty be pointed out, although the process of
giving a determinate form to masses of metal in earthen
moulds was not altogether unknown to the Phoenicians.
4 Vases also of elegant, often colossal, form were here manufac-
5 tured in great numbers. With working in precious metals
was also united in the same individuals the art of engraving
and enchasing precious stones, as well as weaving garments
6 and curtains (which were often also adorned with designs in a
variety of colours). Their native glass likewise was employ
ed in adorning walls and roofs with variegated splendour.
Everywhere a love of ornament and magnificence, which,
however, often rather obstructed a genuine taste for art than
opened the way for it. [Wall-paintings occur in Ezekiel.]

PHCENICIAN SCULPTURES. 245
1. To this class belong Beth-El in the history of Jacob, and the god
Bsetylus in Sanchuniathon. Black-stones (meteor-stones) at Heliopolis,
Emesa, and in the Phrygian Pessinus. On the pointed column at Pa
phos, §. 239. The Syrian Zeus Casius appears on coins as a rude heap
of stones (however, there was here also a Zeus, similar to Apollo, with the
pomegranate in his hand, AohU. Tat. iii, 6). Comp. Falconet M6m. de
I'Acc. des Inscr. vi. p. 513. Miinter Antiq. Abhandl. s. 257. Von Dalberg
iiber Meteorcultus im Alterthum. 1811. De Wette Archaol. §. 192.
2. See Deuteron. 7, 25. especiaUy Jerem. 10, 3. ^iiXov iarlv ix rav l^v-
ptoii ixxexo/xfcivov, eqyov rexrovog, xxi x^vevpt.x, d^yv^iu xxi x^vuia xexx'h'Ku-
•TriafAivx iv atpit^xig xxi ^Xoig iare^iaaxv xvrx x. r. ?v. Isaiah 40, 19. pt.'ri
eixovx iTTOinas rixrav >j {xxi ?) P(;gU(70;^oof ^aveiitrxg ;(;^vo-/oi/ Te^tex^vaairsv xvrov
— ^vXov yd^ xaYiTrov ixXiyerxi rixrav x. r. 7i., also 44, 13 sqq. where the
work of the tIxtwk is described by a Une and a compass, with which he
produces " a beautiful figure of a man." The golden calf Ukewise (ac
cording to MichaeUs) and the cherubim of the holy of holies were of
wood, overlaid with plates of gold. — A gilt ApoUo in a chapel of' beaten
gold at Carthage, Appian Pun. 127. A taste for the composition of
metals may be gathered especiaUy from Daniel 2, 31. Comp. Sickler,
Mythus des jUsculapius. 1819. Zweiter Anhang.
3. The brazen columns of the temple and the vessels were, according
to the first book of Kings 7, 46, cast in thick earth ; that is, perhaps,
in thick earthen moulds. Comp. De Wette Archseol. §. 106.
4. A great variety of vessels in the temple at Jerusalem, especiaUy
the molten sea borne by twelve oxen. We may here mention by the way
the gigantic oval vessel of stone, 30 feet in circumference, with four han
dles and an ox as ornament, which lies near Amathus (Lemisso) in Cyprus.
J. Landseer, Sabsean Researches, p. 81. Punic shields of gold and silver
with figures, Liv. xxv, 24. Plin. xxxv, 4. Comp. above §. 58. 1.
5. Hiram, Kings 1st Book, 7, merely an artist in brass, knew, accord
ing to ParaUp. u, 2, 14, how to work iv x^'"''"i' ""' '^^ x^'^'^V "¦"¦' '" ai^ii^a
xxi iv T^i^oig xxi ^v'Koig x.xl v<paiveiv iv rri ¦7roq(pvqx xxi iv rri vxxiv^u xxi iv
rri fiiiaaa xxi iv sa xoxxjvu xxi yXw\/xi y'h.vCfixg. Rich compositions of
precious stones at Tyre, Ezekiel 28, 13, and elsewhere. Obelisk of
emerald, probably Plasma di smeraldo, in the Temple of Melcarth in that
city. Theophrastus De lapid. 25. Works in amber Od. xv, 459. Comp.
Eichhorn De gemmis scalptis Hebr., Comment. Soc. Gott. rec. T. ii. p. 18.
Hartmann Hebraerin am Putztisch Th. iii. s. 84. — Sidonian garments are
mentioned in Homer. Hiram's curtain before the Holy of Holies, with
cherubim therein. Similar curtains were wrought by Cyprians for Greek
temples, §. 113, R. i.
7. On Glass among the Phoenicians and Hebrews, Hamberger and
Michaelis, Commentar. Soc. Gott. T. iv. Heeren Ideen i, 2. s. 94. [Bzech.
23, 14. K«( Xiiv xvi^xg i^ay^xcpnpievovg i'Trl rov roixov, eixovxg XxXixiav,
i^ay^x(pnpievovg iv y^xipiii. cf 16. Hieron. ad Ezech. 8, 20 : sed et omnes
templi parietes diversis idolorum imaginibus pingebantur, ut nulla esset
bestia, quam non parietis pictura monstraret : quoted by Winckelmann.]
241. How far the images of the gods among these tribes 1

246 ART AMONG THE SYRIAN RACES.
gave evidence by characteristic and significant formation of a
native feeling for art is difficult to say, from the want of
monuments of the kind: this much is certain, from the ac
counts of the ancients, that they had numerous combinations
of the human figure with animals, sometimes half-animal
forms, sometimes forms sitting or standing on animals; on
their engraved stones likewise figures combined with mon
sters played a great part, and were early introduced into the
West by means of these works. The Phoenicians had also the
practice of indicating the wonderful nature of their deities by
misshapen and dwarfish, or formless and strangely enveloped
figures ; and in conformity with the character of their wild
and lascivious nature-worship, the designation of sex, and
even duplicity of sex, plays a prominent part in their works
of art. If the people of God, generally speaking, remained
strangers to such abominations, their imagination, however,
was early captivated by strange compositions of animals; but
in the creations of poetical fancy, their bards show more incli
nation to a wonderful combination of significant and imposing
shapes, than plastic form and regard to representability.
2. Dagon (Odacon) of Ashdod, Atergatis at Ascalon, Cannes at Baby
lon, were all half fish half human. On imperial coins of Ascalon Ater
gatis (according to others Semiramis) appears as a woman standing on
a Triton, or ship, or dragon, holding a dove in her right hand, and a flow
ering vineshoot in the left, also with the tower-crown or a half-moon on
the head. See Norisius Ann. Syromaced. p. 503 sq. In Lucian's' time
(Dea Syria 31, comp. 14) the Syrian goddess was a female figure sitting
on Uons (Uke Juno-Cselestis on the coins of Carthage), with many attri
butes — a sort of pantheum. Comp. Creuzer Symb. ii. s. 67. She sits
thus enthroned with two lions, Boissard iv, 95. Zeus (Baal) sat on buUs,
as the Jupiter Dolichenus of Commagene stands on a bull. Marini Atti
dei Prat. Arv. u. p. 639, Bottiger Kunstmyth, i, s, 308, 313, 330, tf 4,
Coins of HierapoUs (Neumann Numi Vet, ii, tb, 3, 2,) exhibit both, the
god sitting on a bull, the goddess on a pair of lions ; a cornelian in the
Vienna cabinet gives the same group with remarkable accessories. On
a Syrian Apollo with beard, a breastplate, a calathos on the head, at
HierapoUs, Lucian 35 and Macrob, i, 17. Macrobius also describes (i, 23)
the Egyptising image of the god of Heliopolis, The Atergatis of Aphaca,
according to Macrob, i, 21, capito obnupto, specie tristi,
3, The figure supporting Uons on its tail on the (Etruscan?) gem,
Impronti d, Inst, i, 16, is very similar on a coin with Phoenician charac
ters, Dutens Med. Grecques et Ph6nic. pi, 2, 10, as R, Rochette re
marks Journ, des Sav, 1834, p, 282, The fore parts of animals joined to
gether at the middle on early Greek coins, especially of Samos, may stand
in relation to Persepolitan works of art (§, 244, R, 6), through those of
Anterior Asia, Donaldson, Antiq, of Athens, Supplem, p, 26,
4, On the Phoenician Pataikoi, Herod, iii, 37, Adonis, according to
Hesyohius, was in Cyprus YlvypLxiav. On an antique figure of Aphrodite

ARCHITECTURAL WORKS OP ASIA MINOR. 247
from Cyprus (01. 23), a span in length, Athen. xv. p. 675. — Astarte as
goddess of Sidon on imperial coins, a veiled half figure in a temple on a
chariot {vaog (vyo(po^ovfievog), Norisius p. 417. M. S. Clement, tv. 11, 108.
109. 37, 34. [Lenz die G8ttin von Paphos. Gotha 1808, 4to,] Hirt re
cognised a Carthaginian idol in a female figure at Palermo, which was
enveloped Uke a mummy (Berliner Kunstblatt ii. s, 75), — The double-
sexed Aphroditus at Amathus. Baal- Peer in Moab was probably priapic.
In the fore-court at HierapoUs there were two phalli 180 feet high (Lucian
16. 28) ; and there were such in other Syrian and Babylonian temples.
The IsiDE in Serradifalco seems to be a Carthaginian idol, Cenni sugli
avanzi d, ant. Solunto, Palermo 1831. tv. 6. Sopra alcune monete Fenicie
deUe isole Baleari, by DeUa Marmora, Welcker in the Rhein. Mus. iii. s.
504. Coins of MeUte, Torremuzza tv. 92. Four-winged Crisis from
Gaulos tv. 93, helmed head, a half-moon beneath, from Kossura tv. 96,
with Phoenician, with Latin inscription, idols with serpents, Neumann
T. u. tb. iv, 10—14. Sardic idols. Archaol. InteU. Bl. 1834. n, 34. [In
DeUa Marmora Voy, de la Sardaigne pi, 34, in whose possession also at
Turin is the coUection in casts, Fr, Miinter, Sendschreiben iiber einige
Sardische Idole. Kopenh, 1822. 4to,]
5. The cherubim in Genesis 3, 24, and in the Dabir, appear to have
been human figures merely with wings ; in other passages there appear
more grotesque representations, F, J, ZiilUg Der Cherubim Wagen 1832,
and Griineisen in the Kunstblatt 1834, St, i. f

C, ASIA MINOR,

241,* Of the architectural works of the nations of Asia I
Minor, before Grecian taste determined their forms, as in the
temple of Cybele at Sardis (§, 80), nothing further has come
to our knowledge than sepulchral monuments. Those of the 2
Lydian kings, of which the tomb of Halyattes was the most
colossal, were very high tumuli on substructions of large
stones. In Phrygia we find on the sepulchre of king Midas 3
the form, so widespread in the East, of a facade hewn out of
a perpendicular wall of rock. Besides, subterranean dwell- 4
ings and sanctuaries of the worship of Attis were in use
among this tribe (§. 48. R. 2). In working in metals, in 5
weaving and dyeing, the Lydians may have early appropriated
the inventions and improvements of the Semitic races, and in
this way many technical refinements may have come to the
Greeks (comp. 71, 1. 73, 3).
2. See Herod, i, 93, with Creuzer's excursus in Bahr's edition. Thiersch
Munchner Abhdl. PhUol. Cl. i. s. 395. Comparison with Porsena's monu
ment, of Lydian origin, Lydians and Tyrrhenians to be separated (certain
ly not). On the remains Leake, Asia Minor, p. 265. Prokesch Reisen iii.
s. 162. The obUque height of the visible part of the tumulus amounts
to 648 feet ; a colossal phallus stood on the top, [It is lying, and is not an
entire phaUus, but only the head of one. It is 12 feet in diameter below,

248 ART OF THE ARIAN RACE.
and the length measured over the glans is only about 9 feet. The aper
ture is stretched open nearly 7 feet. This from the writer's own obser
vation and measurement,] comp. §. 170. — Phrygian tumuli, §, 50. R. 2, —
An enormous triangular pyramid among the Sacss is described by Cte
sias, Pers. 27. p, 117, Lion,
3, The tomb of Midas in the valley of Doganlu, near the ancient Na-
coleia in Northern Phrygia, hewn out of red sandstone ; the fajade about
80 feet high, 60 broad ; above, a kind of pediment ornamented with large
volutes. Leake in Walpole's Travels, p, 207, Asia Minor, p. 26, HamUton,
Egypt, p, 418, On the inscription (MIAAI. .FAKAKTEI) Osann Midas
1830. Grotefend, Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. iii. P.
ii. p. 317. In the neighbourhood, according to Leake, may be seen fa-
yades consisting of a prostyle of two columns, with architrave, dentels
and corona — the form which presents itself so often in the necropolis of
Telmissus, and bears there more the forms of the Ionic order. Choi-
seul-GouflF. i. p. 118. pi. 67, 68, [According to J. R, Steuart Descr. of
some anc, mon, with inscriptions stiU existing in Lydia and Phrygia,
several of which are supposed to be tombs of the early kings, L. 1842. the
inscription is more complete ATE2 APKIAEFAI2 'AKENANOrAFOS
(the name of the father in the genitive) MIAAI AAFAPTAEI {xxip-fi,
like Tixxyog, Axyog, Axxxrng) FANAKTEI EAAE2 (probably e'^nxe),
comp. BuU, 1843. p, 64. Seven sepulchral monuments in the vaUey of
Doganlu with the same characters are engraved with various other remark
able monuments. Brazen virgin on the tomb of Midas, Hom. Bpigr, 3,]
5. [Sculpture on a wall of rock at Sipylos §. 64, R, 2, On the tumulus
of Alyattes, which is by far the largest (Herod, i, 93) of aU the hundreds
in the Sardian necropolis, beyond the Hermus, scattered singly and in
groups over a wide and elevated space, there lies the head of a phallus,
40 feet in circumference, 12 feet in diameter, of very good workmanship.
Lycia §, 90, 128.*]

III. THE NATIONS OF THE ARIAN RACE.
242. Although the Arian (or Iranian) tribe, which, com
mencing from Ariana, comprehended the ancient inhabitants
of Bactria, Media, and Persia, was essentially diff'erent in lan
guage, national customs, and religion, from the Syrian race,
yet the style of art among the former people bore a consider
able affinity to that with which we have become acquainted
at Babylon; and we are compelled to regard the art which
fiourished in the great Persian empire as only a further de
velopment of the ancient Assyrian. The cause lies partly in
this, that the great empire of Assyria, such as it existed —
comprehending also Babylon — before 750, extended over the
greatest part of Iran, even including Bactria, and when the
Median throne was afterwards established, the court manners
and luxury of the earlier dynasties in Assyria and Babylon
were very naturally engrafted on it, in the same way as in

ARCHITECTURE OF THE MEDES AND PERSIANS. 249
later times again Susa and Persepolis were imitations of Ec-
batana ; and partly in this circumstance that the national re
ligion of the Arians — a dualistic worship of light — did not
contain in itself any impulse to the figured representation
of the gods, but rather alienated the mind therefrom: hence,
when court parade and luxury made the necessity of art after
wards felt, it must have been introduced from without, and
from where else than from the Syrian tribes which were civil
ized from a very early period?
1. Arians as a general national name in Herod, vii, 52. Strab. xv, p,,
724. Budemus in Damascius De princ, p, 384. Kopp, in Sassanid in
scriptions. 2. The very widely difiiised worship of the female goddess of nature,
Venus among the planets (Mitra in Persia, Anahid in Media, Elymais in
Armenia), is certainly connected with this ancient Assyrian sovereignty ;
it was the expeditions of Semiramis-Derceto that extended in this sense
from Asia Minor to Bactria,
3, Their gods were not in human form {dv^^a-yrocpvitg, Herodot, i,
131), but animal symbols are not thereby denied.

1. ARCHITECTONICS.

243. Accordingly we already find the citadel of Ecbatana 1
(715 years before Christ) constructed in terraces on an emi
nence, in the Syro-Babylonian taste ; the battlements of the
walls rising above one another, and brilliantly painted with
seven leading colours (doubtless of variegated bricks;) on the
summit, the palace, and temple of Anahid, the columns,
beams and lacunaria of cedar and cypress overlaid with plates
of silver and gold. As to the temple and palace of the royal 2
Persian citadel at Susa, which the Greeks called Memnonia,
we know from distinct accounts of the ancients with which
the ruins correspond, that the style of architecture was the
Babylonian. 1. [Nineveh §. 245, Eugen Flandin L'architecture Assyrienne in the
Rev. des deux mondes 1845. T, x, 6 Uvr.] See Herod, i, 98 (the lowest
wall of the acropoUs was equal to the ring- wall of Athens, that is about
60 stadia; the city, which was much larger, was open), Polyb, x, 27.
Diod. xvii, 110, The overlaid beams, <fec,, were stripped, l^eff/oSu, by
Antigonus and Seleucus Nicator. Now Hamadan ; ruins of great sub
structions, canal of Semiramis, causeway. In detail, we can recognise,
especially in the base of a column, the style of Persepolis. Olivier, Voy.
dans I'empire Ottoman ui, p, 30, Morier, Second Journey through Per
sia, p, 264 sqq. Porter u, p. 90 sqq.
2. On the wonderful works of the supposed Memnon (what can have
been the native name ?), citadel, royal road and tomb of Susa, Jacobs in
the Denkschriften der Munchner Acad. 1810. 11. Vermischte Schr. Th.

250 ART OP THE ARIAN RACE.
iv. s. 4. To Ss T£r;^;os ^xoiofinro T^f woheag xxi le^d xxi fixaiXeix vaqxTcXn-
a'lag an'i.e^ rd reiiv Bx^vXaviav e| oVt^j ttX/j/Sou xxi da<px>irov, Strab. XV. p.
728. In Schus, probably Susa, there is also nothing found at the present
day but heaps of bricks sometimes painted. Kinneir, Geogr. Memoir of
the Persian Empire, p. 100 sq. Porter ii. p. 410. Hoeck, Vet. Medise
et Persise Monum.
1 244. The ancient hereditary seat of the Persian sovereigns
was in Pasargadse, a river plain in central Persis, — which
even received its name according to Herodotus from the first
2 and regal tribe of the people. This district, thereby rendered
sacred, the metropolis as it were, from which proceeded the
wide-ruling kingly race, received in the flourishing period of
the Persian empire a long series of edifices, and among these
an older royal seat (agj^a/a jSaaiXna), with the tomb of Cyrus,
and a newer residence which the Greeks called Persepolis,
whilst to the former they gave by way of eminence the name
3 of Pasargadffl. This newer king's palace is recognised with
4 certainty in the ruins of Chilminar or Tacht Djemshid. The
material — ^the hard dark grey marble of the hill of Rachmed,
on the slope of which this royal citadel was erected by the
aid of powerful substructions — has here prevented the de
struction of the architectural forms ; although, indeed, only
the walls and pillars were of stone, all the beams and roof-
work having doubtless been of overlaid cedar, a circumstance
which accounts for the extraordinary slenderness of the
5 columns. The structure rises in the form of terraces; strong
gates, large courts with side buildings and magnificent porti
coes, led to the innermost chambers of the palace which were
6 placed highest. The details of the architecture manifest a
style of art furnished with an abundant store of decorative
forms, but not particularly skilful in managing them. We
recognise the members and ornaments of the Ionic order,
which was probably diff'used in Asia at an early period (§.
54), but they are deprived of their charms by overloading
and odd combinations,
2, See the writers on Alexander, who were the first to notice Perse
polis, especially Arrian vi, 29 sqq, Strab, xv, 729, Diod, xvii, 71, Cur
tius V, 7, Pasargada3 probably comprehended the buildings at Murghab
and Nakshi-Rustan, §. 245,
3, See the engravings in the Travels of Chardin (repubUshed with
additions by Langles, P, 1812), Kampfer, and Cornells de Bruyn ; more
accurate in C, Niebuhr's Reise nach Arabien ii, s, 121, Morier's Journey
through Persia i. p. 129—137. Second Journey, p. 76. Ousely, Travels
in various Countries of the Bast ii. pi. 40 sqq. Porter i. p. 580 sqq.
Edward Alexander, Travels to India, pi. 10. Buckingham's Travels in
Assyria, Media and Persia, ch. 17. Caylus, Hist, de I'Ac. d. I. xxix. p.
118. Herder: PersepoUs eine Muthmassung. PersepoUtanische Briefe.
Heeren Ideen i. s. 194. Mongez, Mem. de I'Inst. nation. Litt. iii. p. 212.

ARCHITECTURE OF THE MBDES AND PERSIANS. 251
Hirt in the Abhandl. der BerUner Acad. 1820. s, 40, [Voy. en Perse de
M, Flandin, peintre, et de M. Coste, architecte. P, 1845, The drawings
are after Steuart, who lived many years in Persia, remarkably true in
character,] 5. A broad double stair led to three gates adjoining one another ;
these to the double pUlars with the colossal haut-reliefs of imaginary ani
mals. A second flight was then ascended to the palace strictly so-called.
Three porticoes surrounded a larger one without separation by walls;
it is probable they were only divided by tapestries (Esther i, 6) which
were suspended along the columns, as in Alexander's state-tent (Jilian
V. H. ix, 3) and the Dionysian tent of Ptolemy the Second (§, 150, 2),
The inner rooms and chambers now Ue apart from these, on the highest
terrace; here also columns in the chief apartment. These chambers,
however, certainly formed at one time a connected buUding with those
porticoes. Lower subordinate erections, among them one tolerably ex
tensive. Extent of the whole 1400 X 900 feet. The impression which the
entire edifice must have made is best conveyed in the admirable descrip
tion of a Persian residence in Appuleius De Mundo, p. 270. Bip, (Ps.
Aristot. De Mundo, o. 6) ; especially the foUowing portion : (Rex) cir-
cumseptus admirabUi regia, cujus tecta fulgerent eboris nive, argenti
(§. 243) luce, flammea auri vel electri claritate : Umina vero alia prse
aUis erant, interiores fores, exteriores januse muniebant portseque ferratse
et muri adamantina firmitate.
6. The columns (see particularly Porter, pi. 45) of the grand portico
55 feet high, about 4 feet thick'at the bottom, with Ionic fiutings and high
bases of a pecuUar form ; the capitals sometimes composed of the fore
parts of unicorns, sometimes of a great variety of oddly combined ingre
dients (an inverted crater, another placed upright upon it, and on that
again a high abacus with two rows of scroUs at the four sides). Be
sides, ornaments of foUage, roses, volutes, and astragals. On the king's
sepidchre also appear the dentels, a sort of ovolo with serpent-tongues
and the architrave with three fascise. The cornices over the doors bear
some resemblance to those of Egyptian architecture (§, 222), The square
blocks and the portions of the columns are wrought and fitted together
in a manner that excites admiration. There are traces of water-conduits
through the porticoes and apartments. Chardin and Morier mention
enigmatical subterranean passages.
245. The sepulchral monuments also of the Achjemenidse 1
were in this ancient seat of the race. These were rarely 2
buildings standing apart like that of Cyrus ; more commonly 3
they consisted of fa§ades hewn out of the rocks, with secret
and inaccessible chambers behind, such as are to be found
partly on the wall of rock above the palace of Persepolis
already described, and partly northward from it at Nakshi-
Rustan. The architecture presents the same forms as at Per- 4
sepolis; the prevailing representation is that of a stage upon
which the king appears, engaged in some religious rite, above
a frieze and architrave which are supported by columns with
unicorn capitals.

252 ART OF THE ARIAN RACE.
2. The tomb of Cyrus in the paradeisos of Pasargadas, Arrian, vi, 29.
Strabo xv, 730. [m^yog oii pciyxg, »«tm piiv are^eog, xva le areynv exav xxi
unxov arivriv rt\eag ep,;oi/Ta rriv e'iaolov.'] A Ttv^yog ; beneath, a basement of
square blocks, on it a building of one or more stories, above, a anx6g with
a very narrow door; within, a golden coffin with the corpse, a sopha with
¦xileg x^vaoi ffipu^^xaTo;, on it a cover of Babylonian tapestry, garments,
ornaments, and weapons. Whether the monument is at Murghab'!
Ousely u. pi. 53. Porter i. pi. 14. p. 498. Heeren, s. 276. [Lassen has
proved in his Zeitschr. St. vi. that the tomb at Murghab belonged to the
younger Cyrus.]
3. One of the tombs on Mount Rachmed (400 feet from the palace
properly so caUed) must be that of Darius, according to Diodorus xvii,
71 (comp. Ctesias Pers. 15), with which Grotefend's deciphering of the
cuneiform inscriptions of Persepolis perfectly agrees. Chardin, pi, 67,
68,— Nakshi-Rustan, ibid, pi, 74. Ousely u, pi, 41, Porter, pi, 17, Se
pulchres corresponding pretty weU with those of Persepolis have been
found in Media, at Bisutun and Hamadan,

2, PLASTIC ART.

[245.* Assyrian art will be known in future through
the discoveries at Nineveh by Botta, the French consul at
Mossul, The principal figure in most of the reliefs is a king
or hero, in richly bordered tunic with upper garment and a
tiara, who is either fighting, or driving his enemies before
him, or receiving captives and suppliants, or sitting at a ban
quet, or in festal procession guiding a chariot with four horses
yoked abreast. Near him a beardless man, probably a eu
nuch, frequently with a club, Ainong the numerous figures
of combatants, there is repeatedly seen a shield-bearer, under
whose protection another bends his bow, or hurls his javelin.
A figure, probably that of a god, holds in his right hand a
crooked serpent-formed weapon, and with the left draws a
lion towards himself There are no female figures except one
holding aloft a child in her arms. Six bulls 1 6 feet high, with
human countenances, were at first discovered, and afterwards
120 more, all in alto rilievo. One sculpture represents four
nobles, sitting on chairs, and eunuchs pouring out to them;
these draw out of a vase with a rhyton having a lion's head :
several represent sieges. The prevailing principle is faithful
imitation of nature and life, with a moderate use of symbolic,
especially winged figures. The merit of the design in the
bodies, especially of the lion and bull, as well as in the fea
tures of the human countenance, and in the execution of the
hair, is much praised.
The excavations were not made in the circuit of the old city, or as is
now supposed, of the ofiicial residence of the kings near Mossul beyond

SCULPTURES OP NINEVEH AND PERSEPOLIS. 253
the Tigris, but five caravan leagues distant therefrom (of which length
therefore was the city), where stands the small village of Khorsabad on a
hill 100 feet high, about 300 metres in length and 150 in breadth. There
were 15 large haUs opened in this hill, one of them 120 feet long, almost
everywhere covered, as were also the four fajades, with reUefs and cunei
form characters, in a " kind of transparent marble," partly on " slabs of
alabaster," or " in an easily softened plaster." Lettres de M. Botta sur
ses decouvertes k Khorsabad prfes de Ninive publiees par M. J. Mohl. P.
1845, printed from Journal Asiat. from May 1843 till Febr. 1846, with
55 engravings, 33 of them containing sculptures. Among these, plate 22
shows portions ornamented with colours, the hair of the head and beard
brown, and the tiara and fillet red ; in plate 30 also there are red sandal-
ties; it is said that blue occurs frequently. PI. 17 a biga, the king
therein, over whom a parasol is held, behind him a horseman with lance
and quiver, like pi. 19. PI. 26 a siege ; pi. 21 a helmeted head, very na
tural and full of expression. The (pxXxQx of the horses are overloaded,
clumsy. PI. 38 and 50 a male winged figure with eagle's head, the hand
clutching. A certain agreement with the statues of .lEgina is explained
from the principle itself, especially as regards attitude, the crisped hair,
and the close-fitting drapery, for example, the archer pi. 2, where also
the shield covering the archer recals by its five surrounding circles of or
naments, the Homeric and Hesiodic shield compositions which are so na
tural in the arrangement. We may also compare the architrave reliefs of
Assos, §. 256. R. 2. the old sepulchral monument of Xanthos, §. 90.* and
above aU the sculptures of Persepolis. It will gradually be ascertained
more clearly in how far Greek art received impulses, and took occasions
in Asia Minor directly from Assyria and Media, and how freely and inde
pendently at the same time her internal, the truly artistic, development
resulted. Great masses of monuments from Nineveh have already been
brought to Paris. The pubUcation of a work containing 405 plates and
100 sheets of letterpress, in 90 monthly parts, was commenced in Nov.
1846 ; the designs by the painter Eugene Flandin, who has been long in
Persia. The copies of the cuneiform inscriptions occupy a length of 2,500
metres. Kiepert in Schmidt's Jahrb, f. Gesch, 1844, i, s. 95, seems to
think that these sculptures do not belong to early Assyrian art, but may
be derived from a later Persian era, as Xenophon mentions jixci'kiix at
Nineveh, although the ancient city lay in ruins since the Median con
quest, Leo supposes that the Assyrian kingdom did not terminate with
the death of Sardanapalus (890), after Babylon had now become the seat
of government, but continued to exist under kings of its own, Lehrb, der
Universalgesch, i. s. 118, The inscriptions wUl come to our help,]
246, These ruins of Persepolis exhibit abundance of sculp- I
ture combined with architecture. Fantastic animals, of a 2
symbolical nature, stand at the entrance in mezzo rilievo,
as the royal arms; and such are also often employed for
architectonic purposes. Groups, in which a mythological hero 3
transfixes a monster of this description, are placed in relief
on the gates of the side-building. We see, on different walls 4
and pillars, the king with his attendants in procession ; his
throne, which is covered by a canopy, borne by the represen-

254 ART OF THE ARIAN RACE,
tatives of the chief tribes of the empire; and the prince who
' is seated thereon as a judge. The body-guard of the prince,
his courtiers in two diflferent regularly alternating costumes,
— the Median stole and the candys, — and, the most interest
ing representation of all, the provinces bringing the annual
presents {bSioa) adorn the grand staircase which leads up to
the great portico.
2. The unicorn with or without wings, the enigmatical animal with
human head adorned as a king's (Martichoras' 1 Kaiomort's ?) the griffin
and the lion are the principal figures, [Pel. Lajard Rech, sur le culte,
les symboles, les attributs et les mon, fig, de Venus en Orient et en Occi
dent 1, 2 Uvr, P. 1837 fol, interrupted.]
3. It is in favour of the theory which regards this hero as Achsemenes
(Djemshid?) the ancestral hero of the race estabUshed here, that, accord
ing to .^Uan H. A. xii, 21, Achsemenes was actuaUy a wonderful legen
dary personage, the nursUng of an eagle, in like manner as in Firdusi
the bird Simurg rears young heroes.
6. This double costume is easily distinguished throughout. The more
splendid one, which the king himself wears, is the Median garb, to which
the Magian stola bore a resemblance (see Lucian, Nekuom. 8). To the
other dress belongs the upper coat with empty sleeves or xoqxi (Colchian,
Amazonian, Hungarian costume, see Amalthea i. s. 169. ii. s. xii), this is
the Persian Kandys {x'rdv ov ipi.'Troqivovvrxi, (fibuUs annectunt, oi nrqxna-
rxi, Hesych. PoUux vii. 68). On the Persian costumes, comp. Voss Myth.
Briefe iii. s. 367. Mongez sur les Costumes des Perses, M6m. de I'Inst.
nat, Litt. iv, p. 22 sq, Xenoph. Cyrop, 1. 3, 2, says : rxvrx icxvrx (wigs
and rouge,) M.-/^ixx ian, xxi oi 'jcaofiv^oi xiraveg xxi oi xxviveg xxi oi (rr^e'irroi
•jtre^i rri Sijjj xxi rx ipi'KXix 'ireqi rxiv x^^oiv iv Yiiqaxig Ss roig oi'xoi xxi vvv
en ¦no'kii xxi ia^iireg cpxvXore^xi xxi ilxirxi etjriTiiare^xi. The tiara with
the side ribbons {-Trx^xyvxiiiieg, Strabo xv. p. 734, fila tiarse Ammian xxx,
8), the Kidaris and Kyrbasia are difiScult to distinguish from one another,
comp. NiccoUni M. Borb. viii. p. 17 sqq., also Demetr. De elocutione 161.
The whip or scourge, which is plainly to be seen in many figures of war
riors hanging on the back behind the quiver, indicates the Persian mas-
tigophori. — For the statistic explanation of the provinces I refer entirely
to Heeren, Ideen ii, 1. s. 213 ff.
247. Nowhere does the formative art appear restricted in
its subjects to so narrow a circle as here. The deity, the pure
Ormuzd, originally unrepresentable, is only indicated as an ob
ject of the king's adoration by a half figure floating aloft, and
terminating below in wings; besides this nothing belongs to
mythology except the symbolic animals; all else pertains to
the historical present. Strict propriety, stiff" ceremoniousness
demand throughout careful draping and solemn movement;
even a battle with monsters does not disturb either ; the entire
absence of women has the same cause. In the over minutely
executed hair-dress {xo/mi T^od^eroi), the regular folds, the
traces of gold chains and ornaments having been fixed on the

SCULPTURES OP PERSIA AND MEDIA, 255
wrists, the neck, and the tiara of the king, — in everything we
recognise the influence of courtly pomp, and the force of an
external law. Art, however, nowhere presents itself as a rude 4
attempt ; the design on the contrary has a fixed, precise style ;
the forms of the countenance together with the stamp of na
tionality bear the impress of dignity ; in the representation of
the provinces there is a delicate perception of character, in
that of the courtiers agreeable alternations in attitude and
gesture ; the animal figures are designed with peculiar power
and grandeur; the workmanship also in the hard stone is 5
extremely neat, the treatment of the reliefs peculiar; so that 6
even although Egyptian as well as Grecian artists wrought
for the great king, yet we must recognise in these works a
native style of art Avhich ripened through a long course of
years, and which doubtless had come to the Persians from
Ecbatana in Media, and to the Medes, as we imagine, in the
main from Babylon.
3, 'O fiiyxg (ixuiXevg — xopAx. Aristoph, Plut, 171, \_x6pixi -Tr^oa^eroi,
false hair, perukes, which the Greeks of the strictly aristocratic times
probably borrowed from thence,] The Persians preferred the eagle nose,
because Cyrus wa| y^vmg. Plut, reip, ger, prsec. 28.
6. The relief rises graduaUy in a delicate Une from the ground, quite .
differently from the Greek and Egyptian reUefs. Fragments in the
British Museum (R, vi, no. 100 — 103) and in the possession of Sir Gore
Ousely; accurate drawings in Morier's Second Journey, pi. 1. Ousely ii.
pi. 43 — 46, and Ker Porter. [One of the most minute drawings, Archseol.
Britann. xiv. p. 283, head of a bUnd man with a fillet round the head,
and beard curled, as in the so-caUed Indian Bacchus — Ammian Marc. xxiv.
6. the Persians had faUen somewhat behind in the formative arts because
they only made battle pieces.]
6. Diodorus (i, 46) speaks of the Persian artists who wrought for the
Persian kings. On Telephanes' (§. 112, 1) works for the Persians, Plin.
xxxiv, 19, 9.
248. The great extent also over which this style is found, 1
not only in Persia, but in Media, agrees with this supposition.
The reliefs of Bisutun (Bagistanon), between Ecbatana and 2
the Tigris, which among other subjects represent a king as vic
torious over his enemies, exhibit this style perhaps at an ear
lier date than those of Persepolis; the ancients seem to have
seen here works of Semiramis. It is probable that the con- 3
siderable ruins of the Armenian city Van will likewise yield
not merely inscriptions but architectural forms similar in kind
to the Persepolitan. Moreover, the Babylono-Median cylin- 4
ders approximate to this style of art, although often carelessly
and badly wrought ; a portion of them have been rightly and
with certainty interpreted from the Persian rites and creed ;
many also belong to a combination of Magian and Chaldean 5

266 ART OF THE ARIAN RACE,
6 faith. We have still to mention the dariks in which the re
presentation — the king himself as an archer — as well as the
design closely correspond with the monuments of Persepolis.
7 In the times of the Arsacidse a Greek taste inherited from the
Macedonian conquerors prevailed at the court ; with the ex
ception of coins, however, nothing certain has been preserved ;
8 the Sassanidse, in many respects restorers of ancestral customs
and religion, exhibit in their works of art a turgid and taste
less style, derived from later Roman art and applied to orien
tal costume,
1, Ruins in the Persepolitan style on the Persian gulph, Morier i. p,
51. On Ecbatana, above §. 243. On Bisutun, especially Porter ii. p,
154, pi, 60, Comp, Hist, de I'Ac, des Inscr, xxvii, p, 159. Hoeck, p, 22,
29, 73 sqq.
2, The identity of Bagistanon, in Diodorus ii, 13, and Baptana in
Isidore, with Bisutun, I consider with Hoeck, p, 116, Mannert v, 2, s. 165.
and others to be evident. The representation of Semiramis with 100 sa
traps reminds one very much of Persepolitan art. The Syrian letters in
Diodorus are probably Assyrian ; but these' Aaov^ix y^xfiptxrx, the Royal
Persian characters especiaUy for monuments, may have been merely
cuneiform characters. [The monument at Behistun, on the road to Bag
dad and Hamadan, has become better known by the drawings and ex
planations of Major RawUnson, Journ, of the R, Asiatic Society, vol, x,
P. 1, L, 1846, It represents in a style Uke the PersepoUtan, Darius
Hystaspis, opposite to whom stand the different rebels who revolted
throughout Upper Asia during the first years of his reign, and is ex
plained by numerous cuneiform characters, in agreement with an allu.-
sion of Herodotus, Further on works of the Sassanid period,]
3, Van is called Schamiramakert, Semiramocerta, in Armenian au
thors, who speak of columns, statues, and grottoes there, St, Martin,
Notice sur le Voy, Litt, en Orient de M, Schulz, Journ, des Sav. 1828,
p, 451, Grotefend in Seebode's Krit, Bibliothek 1829. Bd. i. no. 30,
Kunstblatt 1829, N. 32. The cuneiform inscriptions give the name of
Xerxes according to Grotefend's method of decyphering adopted by St.
Martin; notwithstanding this, however, the Persian kings may have
also found here ancient Semiramidan works (that is works of the Assy
rian dynasties generaUy). Burnouf finds ahura mazda, Ormuzd, extrait
d'un mem, sur deux inscr, cun6iformes trouvfies prfes d'Hamadan, Journ,
des Sav. 1836. p, 283, 321.
4. See especially Grotefend's explanations, Amalthea i, s, 93, ii, s, 65,
5. Magians appeared early at Babylon and Chaldeans in Persia ; and
even in Berosus Chaldseism and Magism appear so mixed up together
that the Babylonian Kronos (El) is put for Zeruane and caUed the father
of Aramazdes. Probably the Babylonian cylinder in Porter ii, pi. 80. n.
1. which represents Ormuzd on high, and beneath him three figures, of
which two are evidently of divine nature, is also Perso-Chaldsean ; one of
them carries a hatchet (like Zeus Labrandeus in Caria, and Sandon in
Lydia), and stands upon a unicorn ; it has a moon above it, and the one

REMAINS OF PERSIAN AND MEDIAN ART. 257
opposite bas a star. — The combination of Persian and Egyptian symbols,
[like that of the Roman and Gallic,] which is seen in tho cylinder treated
of in Amalth. i. s. 93, is also observable on the stone found at Susa, which
contains a sort of Persian hieroglyphics (Walpole, Trav. p. 420, &c.), and
the four-winged man with Egyptian head-dress at Murghab, Porter i. pi.
13, Rhodogune with streaming hair according to a beautiful legend, the
Persian imperial seal, Polysen. vui, 27. Persepolitan fragments in Bgypt,
Descr. de I'Eg. v. pi. 29.
6. On the Dariks, Eckhel D. N. i, ui. 551 sqq. Good impressions in
Landon, Numism. i, 2. Mionnet, Descr. pi. 36, 1. Suppl. viii, pi, 19, very
interesting. [Mr. Lajard possesses the richest collection of Persian en
graved stones that has ever been made in Europe, Journ. des Sav, 1819,
p, 424,]
7, The Arsacid^, although according to Lucian De Dome 5, ov (pihit-
xx\oi, Ustened, as we know, to Greek poems at their court ; and as to
their coins the earUer ones in particular approach closely to those of Ma
cedonia. It appears to me also that Eckhel i, iu, p, 549, is not right in
denying to the Arsacidse the tetradrachmse with Greek allegorical
figures. There is very little known of sculptures, Hoeck, p. 141. On a
gem with the image of Pacorus, Plin. Ep. x. 16. Gems of this kind still
exist, Tassie, pi. 12, 673—677.
8. The same clumsy and turgid character prevails in the coins of
the Sassanidse and the sculptures of Nakshi-Rustan (Sapor I.), Shapur
(Valerian's conquest) and Takt-Bostan (Sapor IL, IIL). See on these
Hoeck, p. 47. 126 sq., and the exceUent engravings in Porter, pi. 19 sq.
62 sqq. Fine helmet in A. d'Olenine sur le costume et les armes des
gladiateurs, Petersb. 1835. pi. 15. ibid. pi. 14, an enchased silver goblet,
which the author supposes to be Sassanidan, a horseman shooting a lion
backwards ; the style indicates a higher antiquity. [Large silver goblet of
the Duo de Luynes with a chase, M. d. I. iii, 51. Ann. xv. p. 98. A, de
Longperier.] Here the allegorical figures are often quite the same as
those of later Roman art ; in other respects there is most labour bestowed
on the costumes and ornaments. The balls on the heads of the kings are
globes with the zodiac, which is often distinctly to be seen on coins, and
represent them as governors of the world. On the coins of the Arsacidse
Tychsen in the Commentat. Soc. Gott. rec. V. i. ; on those of the Sas
sanidse V, ii,^ — Mani, a heretic who arose out of the revival of magism
and presented his doctrine in a sensible form (under Shapur I, and
Hormisdas I,) by means of an iUuminated evangelium.

IV, THE INDIANS.

249. The Indian nation, the most eastern member of the
Caucasian race, which seems here very much blended, were a
people of great intellectual endowments, which they displayed
in a refined cultivation of language, a very ancient speculative
theology and a fanciful style of poetry; but nevertheless they
were ill-adapted for the cultivation of the formative arts in
R

268 INDIAN ART.
2 an original manner. The calm contemplativeness of earlier
and the glowing riotous fancy of later times found in the
domain of natural forms no expression, in the systematic de-
3 velopment of which they could rest satisfied; and although
the hierarchical system, and the great endurance of Indian
workmen achieved much that is worthy of admiration, in the
excavation of grotto temples and the hewing out_ of entire
mountains, yet we miss altogether the directing mind which
could, without a model, have employed and controlled this
industry and expenditure of force for architectonic purposes.
4 On the contrary, we here see art roaming about with incon
stancy amid an abundance of forms, and if it almost by acci
dent lights on the simple and grand, is incapable of using
and carrying it out as an established and recurring form of
5 art; so that it is difficult to get rid of the idea that the
architectonic and plastic sense in India was only awakened
by impulses and communications of various kinds from with
out (probably from the Greeks or Javanas), and that a nou
rishment was presented to it, which however it could not
rightly digest; for the contrast between the classic elegance
of individual decorative members, and the barbarous want of
taste in the combination of these with architectonic wholes,
can only perhaps be thereby explained in a satisfactory man
ner. 3, Cavern temples of Siwah in Elephanta not far from Bombay.
Several in Salsette, the largest at Kenneri. Grotto at Carli. The enor
mous pantheon at BUora in the Ghaut mountains, destined at the same
time for the reception of a hundred thousand pilgrims. Buddhistic grot
toes at Berar, near Adshunta and Bang, of simple but heavy forms of
architecture, without ornaments, but with paintings on stucco. Cavern-
temples of Radshasthan, which are said to be nearer the Greek style.
Mahamalaipur (MahabaUpur in the Mahabarata, Maliarpha in Ptolemy),
a rocky mountain on the coast of Ooromandel converted into a labyrinth
of monuments. Pyramidal pagodas at Deogur (Tagara, a leading fair at
the time of the Peripl. Mar. Ind,), and Ramiseram. A rock temple in
Ceylon. On the rock chambers of Bamian (Alexandria at the foot of
Mount Caucasus, according to Ritter) Hoeck Monum. Vet. Med. p, 176
sqq. 4, The grotto of CarU and the temple of Visvakurma at BUora for
example, 'where the roofs are hewn out into circular vaults, produce a
grand effect. As regards the detaUs, the foUowing form of piUar is of
most frequent occurrence and most regularly formed : a base of several
plinths and cymas, on these a short piUar with Ionic flutings, then an
inverted acanthus capital, contracted above, on this contracted neck a
large torus, and above that the abacus with prolongations in the direc
tion of the main-beam over them, which supports the roof Inverted
antefixa or corner-ornaments of ancient sarcophagi are frequently to be
found as decorations of piUars, The thickness of these supports (in the
form of which, however, there is no trace of refiection on static laws

CAVERN TEMPLES, 259
observable) is only the work of necessity; Indian architecture also
employs very slender columns as ornaments for the exterior of rock-
built temples.
5. There is here, alas! no chronology, but according to the estab
Ushed points which we possess it does not seem necessary to carry this
flourishing period of Indian art (if we may use the expression) further
back than the bloom of dramatic poetry in India (under Rajah Vicra-
maditya who, according to the ordinary acceptation, died 56 years before
the Christian era). Both of course presuppose epic poetry, and foUow it
up. Buddhism also already existed at the time' of these architectural
works (even Salsette, CarU and tbe temple of Visvakurma are Buddhis
tic) ; now that reUgion dates from about 500 years before Christ. The
oldest evidence for the existence of such architectural works is Barde-
sanes' (200 years after Christ) description of an Indian cavern temple of
an androgynous deity. Porphyr. in Stobseus, Bcl. Phys. i. p. 144, Hee
ren. The revolting Ucentiousness of the representations in Elephanta
(specimens of this description have passed from the Townley CoUection
to the British Museum), also points to the times of internal decay. 0.
Frank on the figure of Visvakarman, the architect of the world, in the
Miinch. Abhdl. Philol, Cl. i, s. 765.
Demetrius, son of Buthydemus, and other Bactrian princes founded
Greek empires in the territory west of the Indus about 200 years before
Christ ; and these were preserved in various forms tiU the invasion of
the Mogolian Scythians or Sacse (136 before Christ), from whom Vicra-
maditya deUvered India, Comp, Lassen De Pentapotamia, p, 42 sqq.
In the series of coins found in India, and presented in one view by J.
Todd in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society i. p. 313. pi. 12,
the Indo-Scythian coins (especiaUy those of the lixaiKeiig jixaihiav (Edobi-
gris) aarri^ p^eyxg, with Siwa on his buU as reverse) exhibit an interesting
combination of Greek and Indian elements ; and even the more carefuUy
executed Indian coins betray somewhat of the influence of the Greek style.
Comp. Schlegel, Journ. Asiat. u. p. 321. St. Martin ix. p 280. The Indian
gem with the figure of Hercules, communicated by Todd iii, i. p. 139 (D. A.
K. Tf 53), is evidently an imitation of the coins of the Indian king De
metrius (Tychsen, Comm. Soc. Gott. rec. vi. p. 3, Kohler, Mem. Romane
iv. p, 82). At Barygaza (Baroandsh) there were in circulation coins of
the Bactro-Indian kings, according to the Peripl. Mar, Ind. [Chr. Lassen
Zur Geschichte der Griech. und der Indoskythischen Konige in Baktrien,
Kabul and Indien durch Entzifferung der AltkabuUschen Legenden auf
ihren Miinzen. Bonn. 1838.]
250. In the sculptures of India, the haut- and bas-reliefs
which decorate the walls of these rock-built temples, and
which, besides the beings belonging to the religious creed, also
represent scenes from the great Indian epopees, we in like
manner miss throughout that settled system which invariably
characterizes art when it has sprung up from its own roots,
and been fostered for many successive generations. On this
very account indeed Indian sculpture ranks before Egyptian
in the naturalness of its formations, and in variety of attitude
and gesture; but it wants completely severity of design, and

260 INDIAN ART,
regularity in the disposition of the figures. Moreover, in
sculpture as well as architecture the conditions of site and
3 material operated detrimentally. As to characteristic differ
ences of portraiture in different persons there does not yet
seem to have been much discovered; here also the significance
is communicated by attributes, dress, colour, monstrous ap-
4 pondages and the action itself However, in accumulation of
attributes, combination of many-limbed shapes, constrained
attitudes and striving after ornament, the old Indian style of
art in the temple-grottoes appears quite moderate and reason
able compared with the monstrosity of many idols and paint
ings of modern India.
1. Epic scenes, for example the combat between Rama and Ravuna
from the Ramajana, at BUora. Ardshuna receiving the celestial armour
from Siwa and the guardians of the world, at Mahamalaipur. Vishnu
as Crishna among the Gopis, at the same place. Both from the Maha
barata, 4, Only that the images of the Buddhists and Jainas are kept simple
intentionally. The latter are of black stone brightly polished, with curly
hair and a sort of negro physiognomy.
Indian idols in the East India House, Japanese stone images at Ley-
den, described by Reuvens.
Litekatitre. Niebuhr's Reise u. s. 31 ff. Tf 6 ff. W. Hodge's Select
Views of Antiq. in India, N. 1 — 12. Sumptuous works by the brothers
Daniell, The Excavations of BUora and others, in all 64 pi. They form
the basis of LanglSs' Monumens anciens et modernes de I'Hindostan en
150 planches. P. 1812. Macneil in the Archseol. Brit. vol. viii. p. 251.
Malet in the Asiatic Researches vi. p. 382. Lord Valentia's Travels, ii.
p. 161 sqq. pi. 8 sq. Maria Graham, Journal, p. 122 sqq. Raflles's His
tory of Java. Davy on the Interior of Ceylon. J. Todd's Annals and
Antiquities of Rajast'han, p. 671. Seely's Wonders of Blora (comp.
Classical Journal T. xxx). Treatises in the Transactions of the Bom
bay Society (Erskine on Elephanta i. p. 198. Salt on Salsette i. p. 41,,
Sykes on BUora ui. p, 265, pi. 1—13, Dangerfield on the Buddhistic
grottoes of Baug ii. p. 194. Crawfurd on Boro-Budor in Java ii, p. 164,
comp. Erskine iu. p. 494), and the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic
Society (Grindlay and Todd on BUora ii. p. 326. 487, with eight very
faint engravings, Babington on Mahamalaipur ii. p. 258. pi. 1 — 12. 16.,
Edward Alexander on Adshunta, u. p. 362. pi. 1). Herder's Denkmahler
der Vorwelt. Heeren Ideen Th. i. Abth. 3. s. 11 ff (1824). Creuzer
SymboUk i. s. 562 ff. Bohlen, Indien and .^gypten n. s. 76. [0. Frank
iiber Indische Denkmaler zur genaueren Kenntniss Indischer Kunst
werke, Miinchner Gel. Anz. 1836 no. 126 ff. in opposition to the chronology
and HeUenism of the author. Comp. Jen. A. L. Z. 1836. Inn. s. 368,]

SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT OF ANCIENT AKT,
PRELIMINARY DIVISION.
GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS OF ART,
1. GENERAL REMARKS.
251. As the history of ancient art in general teaches us I
the time when ancient works of art came into existence, so
information is also required as to the places where they ori
ginally stood, where they were again discovered, and where
they are now to be found; and guidance to these forms a
necessary introduction to the archaeological study. As regards 2
architecture, which is rooted to the soil, if the monuments
are still in existence, the three kinds of locality coincide ; as
to the moveable products of sculpture and painting, on the
other hand, the subject naturally separates itself into: 1. The
artistic topography of antiquity (the i^iiyrimg or irie^iriyrisig of
art, §. 35, 3), 2. Instruction as to the places of discovery, 3. 3
Information as to Museums. Now although this entire geo
graphical division is in itself destitute of scientific connexion,
because without a knowledge of political history as well as
that of civilization, the changes of place which occurred to
works of art must appear as something accidental, an acquain
tance with museums however is of the greatest importance to
the student, and the topography of art, together with instruc
tion regarding the localities of discovery, are of not less con
sequence to the inquirer as a principal means of criticism and
interpretation (§, 39). The first as well as the third discipline 4
becomes more complicated from the numerous removals which
works of art experienced in antiquity (§ 165. 214), and not
less in later times. Then the movement was from Greece to 5
Rome, and afterwards partly to Byzantium, from the republics
to seats of royalty, from the courts of temples to public porti
coes and theatres, then to palaces, villas and baths; for mu
seums of art, properly so called, that is, buildings destined

262 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
merely for the exhibition of art, remained almost utterly
unknown to antiquity, in which art was intimately bound up
with the rest of life. Now every step leads from Greece and
Italy to the rest of civilized Europe, but in the latter country,
however, — and it is to be hoped this will soon be the case also
in the former, — the exportation is constantly exceeded by new
accessions from within ; and the universal striving of the pre
sent time is to form collections in royal and national museums.
6. Signa translata ex abditis locis in celebritatem thermarum occur
in later inscriptions ; comp. Gerhard, Beachr. Boms, s. 320 i. Agrippa
wished aU statues and pictures to be exposed to pubUc view, Plin. xxxv,
9. The foUowing were approximations to museums in antiquity: 1. The
corners of temples and spelunci, in which decayed images of the gods
were preserved. See particularly Ovid Met. x, 691. There was a col
lection of this kind in the Argive Herseon. In Italy the favissce were
used for keeping old temple-furniture. 2, The great coUections of works
of art which were formed of themselves in the courts and vestibules of
sanctuaries, as in the Bphesian temple, the Samian Herseon, the MUe-
sian Didymseon, and at places where there were oracles and agones, such
as Olympia. There were here also in the Herseon many chryselephan
tine statues brought together with design. Similar collections of statues
afterwards at Rome, in the porticoes of Octavia, §. 180. R. 2. 190, R. 1.
i, a, 3. CoUections of the busts of learned men in pubUc museums, §.
420, 4, 4, Picture galleries, such as the PoecUe at Athens (§, 101, R. 2),
the portico near the Propylasa (§, 109. R, i, 3,) the Lesche of the Cnidians
(§, 134, R, 3), also a Poecile at Olympia and another at Sparta (Pausan
ias), However, even here the destination was originaUy different ; the
Poecile of Athens and the Lesche were more immediately intended to be
conversation-haUs, In Strabo's time (xiv, p, 637) the great temple at
Samos had become a pinacotheca, and there were others in the neigh
bourhood ; and in the Roman period pinacothecse specially constructed
for that purpose were certainly not uncommon (Varro, Pliny, particularly
Vitruvius vi, 6), for instance those at Naples described by Petronius and
Philostratus. Comp. Jacobs, Verm, Schriften ui, 469. 1808, 8vo. 5, Dac-
tyUothecsB, such as that of Mithridates (§. 165, R. 2), the one founded
by Scaurus the step-son of SyUa, and that consecrated by Julius Csesar
in the temple of Venus Genetrix. [On the removal of works of art to
Cple, Bottiger Archaol. der Malerei s. 231.]
In the topography of art Jer. Jac. Oberlin, Orbis antiqui monumentis
suis iUustrati primse Unese, 1776 and 1790, is a useful work, only it is
now quite obsolete. The section Mon. Vet. popul. in Reuss Repertor.
Comment, vui. p. 27 renders important services towards completing the
Uterature. On museums Bottiger iiber Museen und Antikensammlun-
gen 1808. 4to. The catalogue in Meusel, Neue Misc. artist. Inh. St. 9. s.
3 ff. Beck's Grundriss, s. 3 ff. Index to Winckelmann's W. vU. s. 321.

1

2. GREECE.
252. It is impossible to form an adequate notion of the

COLLECTIONS, 263
abundance of works of art in Greece, A periegesis of the 2
country must pause at every small town ; the chief places as 3
to which, above all others, the archaeologist must possess ac
curate topographical information, are Athens, Corinth with
the Isthmus, Olympia and Delphi. There also most may be
expected from local investigations.
1. Jacobs Ueber den Reichthum der Griechen an plastischen Kunst-
werken. Verm. Schriften iii. s, 415. The smaU island of Bacchion near
Phocsea, which is Uttle known, but was richly adorned with temples and
statues, affords a remarkable instance, Liv. xxxvii, 21,
2. Good beginnings of a periegesis in Jacobs ibid. 424 ff., and Meyer
Geschichte der Kunst s. 209 ff., but much stUl remains to be added.
3. Athens may be divided into the acropoUs, the old town on the
south with the extensive Dionysian precincts (theatre, odeion, propylsea
of Dionysus), and other ancient temples ; and into the northern quarters
on the earUer site of the demi Cerameicus, Colonus, Melite and CoUytus,
with fewer old temples. Hadrian's city was rebuilt on the south, and
separated by a gate and remains of ancient waUs (§. 191). See espe
ciaUy Meursius Compilationen. FaneUi Atene Attiche 1704. Stuart's
Antiquities with the Supplement by Cockerell, Kinnaird, Donaldson,
Jenkins and RaUton. L. 1830. Barbie du Booage's Plan in Barthelemy's
Anacharsis. Wilkins, Atheniensia. L. 1804. [1816.] Hawkins in Wal
pole's Memoirs, p. 480. Ersch's Bncyclopsedie, Art. Attika. Leake's To
pography of Athens. L. 1821 ; in German with additions, at Halle, 1829.
[sec. Ed. L. 1841. 2 vols.] Kruse's HeUas ii, 1. s. 70, Comp. also Hirt's
Plan of the Athenian market-place, Geschichte der Baukunst, Tf 23,
where, however, the distinction [much disputed by others,] between
the old and new agora is not duly observed. Views of Thiirmer, Hubsch.
Heger. [Ulrich's Topogr. of the Harbours of Athens, Abhdl. der Miinch
ner Akad. iii, 3. s. 645. A plan of the city drawn by Schaubert, super-
intendant of buildings at Athens, years ago, has not yet been made
pubUc] Corinth can only as the Colonia Julia which Hadrian embellished, ad
mit of accurate topographical investigation. The restoration is aided
by coins, for instance those of Hadrian and the Antonines representing
the Acro-Corinthus (MiUingen, M6d, Ined, pi, 2, 20 and 21. Mionnet
Suppl. iv. pL 3. 6, 4), with the temple of Aphrodite, Pegasus at the foun -
tain Peirene, and other sanctuaries (comp. the vase of Bernay, Journ.
des Savants 1830. p. 460) ; and those representing in an interesting
manner the harbour Cenchrsea (MiUingen 2, 19) with the ship-houses,
the temple of Aphrodite at the one corner, that of Esculapius at the
other, and the colossal Poseidon with trident and dolphin on a mole
(xapix) in the middle of the harbour, exactly as it is described by Pau
sanias (ii, 2, 3), Triumphal arch of Hadrian on coins. Comp. what is
adduced in the Dorians ii. 433 (TufneU and Lewis) on the site of the
Isthmian sanctuary ; and on the temples in detail, the inscription C. I.
1104 with Pausanias. The Isthmus is very interestingly represented on
the gem, Eckhel, Pierres Grav. 14 : Poseidon in the centre, over him on
the left a sea-deity bearing Palasmon, and Aphrodite Euploea on the

264 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
right, at the top Eros on a column with the horses of Poseidon coming to
the Agon. The Palsemonion (Paus, ii, 2, 1, and the Inscr.) is to be seen
on coins as a tholus, supported by light Ionic columns, with dolphins as
acroteria ; within it in the middle a boy reclining on a dolphin as reU
gious idol, and a pine-tree behind. Under the tholus stands the lower
temple {dlurov in Pans., 'evxyiarii^iov in the Insor.) with its gate {xxiioiog
viroyeoig Pans., ie^d ti'aolog in the Inscr.), to which a sacrificial procession
is just approaching with the ram. — We also become acquainted with
temples at Trcezen and Patrse by means of coins.
Olympia's sacred enclosure, Altis, contain**! several temples, the high
altar, a theatre, buleuterion, prytaneion, stadion, gymnasion, numerous
thesauri, several porticoes, and numberless xyxT^pcxrx, dvi^ixvreg, and
dva^iijxxrx ; the hippodrome was outside. On the locaUty : J. Spencer
Stanhope, Olympia or Topogr, illustrative of the actual state of the Plain
of Olympia, L. 1824. Leake, Morea V, I. ch. 1. Expedition Sclent, de
la Moree, Archit. Livr. 10 — 13. Pindari Carm. iUustr. L. Dissenius,
Sect. u. p. 630. Bncyclopsedie, Art. Olympia. [Le Bas Mon. de I'antiq.
fig. recueilUs en Grfece par la commission de Moree 1 cah. Basrel. de
Phigalie, 2 cah. ArgoUde et Laconic. P. 1835. 37. 8vo.]
Delphi was in the form of a theatre ; on the highest terrace Pytho,
the temenos with the temple (on reliefs and coins, Millingen M6d. In6d.
pi. 2, 12), high altar, sanctuary of the Earth, buleuterion, several porti
coes and the thesauri. Below these the middle and the lower town.
The place of the agones was beneath the city towards the plain and Cir-
rha. Pindari Carm. p. 628. (On the treasures of art, comp. Sainte
Croix, Gouvern. Federatifs, p. 274.) [Ground plan by Ulrichs in his Rei
sen in Griechenland 1840. By the same Topographie von Theben. Abhdl.
der Miinch. Akad. iii, 2. S. 413. J. Spencer Stanhope, Topographical
Sketches of Megalopolis, Tanagra, AuUs and Bretria. L. 1831 fo. Carthsea
in Brondsted, Travels Th. 1. Argos in GeU.]
253. Although the ruins of temples and other architec
tural works scattered over the districts of Greece are even
now very considerable in amount, it is to be hoped, however,
that under favourable circumstances, excavations undertaken
with care and circumspection will bring to light the plan and
architectonic details of a much greater number. The search
for sculptures also, notwithstanding the Venetian and more
modern acquisitions, will still find in many a region an almost
virgin soil ; and we may look forward to a time when native
museums will surpass all out of Greece in genuine remains of
Greek art.
1. Architectpral remains mentioned in the historical portion of the
work: at Tiryns §, 46, Mycenae 45, 49, Argos 45, Epidaurus 106.
Corinth 53, Nemea 109, Phigalia 109, Tegea 109. Mantinea 111.
Lycosura 45, Olympia 109, Messene 111. near Amyclse 48. in jEgina
80. at Athens 80. 101. 109. 153. 190. 191. in Attica 53. 109. in Delos 109.
comp. 279. in Buboea 53. in Orchomenus 48. Delphi 80. in Ithaca 47,
Ephyra and other Cyclopean waUs in Epirus 46, A Doric temple of

GREECE, 265
peculiar construction at Cardaochio in Corfu, Railton, Antiq, of Athens
Suppl, Ruins of Theatres, §. 289,
2, Sculptures found and coUected in Greece : Venetian acquisitions
from the Peloponnesus and Corfu, collected chiefly by Antonio and Paolo
Nani (about 1700) and later members of the same family (§. 261, 2).
Paciaudi, Mon. Peloponnesiaca 1761. Many things came to Venice
from Athens through Morosini (1687), for instance the two lions in front
of the arsenal (with Runic characters) §. 434. The Elgin collection,
from Athens, and other places also, in the British Museum ; the Phiga-
Uan marbles (§. 119, 3) also there; the .Slginetan statues at Munich (§.
90, 3). Excavations in Ceos, Brondsted, Voyages et Recherches dans la
Grfece. Livr. i. 1826. Many objects at Cambridge, through Clarke
(Clarke, Greek Marbles, comp. §. 357), in the M. Worsleyanum, in the
M. Royal at Paris (through Choiseul Gouffier and Forbin), especially the
Venus obtained from the neighbourhood of the theatre of Milo, and more
recently the fragments from Olympia, §. 119, and the Messenian basre-
Uef (Leake, Morea i. p. 379. Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 131. iv. p. 184). Exca
vations by VeU-Pasha near Argos, Magazin Bncycl. 1811. ii. p. 142.
Numerous fragments of sculpture at Lucu (Thyrea). Leake ii. p. 488.
Ann. i. p. 133. Gerhard sur les monumens figures existant actueUement
en Grfece,Annali dell'Inst. ix,2.p. 103 — 150, statues, bas-reliefs, terracottas,
painted vases, bronzes, mirrors, scarabsEi. On vases and reliefs while the
museum was stUl in Mgina, Biblot. Ital. xii. p. 105. (1838). Basrelief
A Bacchian sarcophagus from Mistra, Descr. de la Moree. pi. 43. fig. 1.
2. 3.
3. A collection of Athenian remains of art [formerly] in Fauvel's
Consulate ; another founded since by Psyllas an Athenian (according to
Stanhope's Letters), probably dispersed again. A National Museum in
jEgina, mostly consisting of vases, bronze works and inscriptions, under
Mustoxydi. [Removed to Athens where the museum has been hitherto
distributed in the Theseion, Hadrian's Stoa, the Propylsea and other
places on the AcropoUs. Athenian coUection of antiquities in A. SchoU's
Archaol. MittheUungen aus Griechenland nach K. 0. MuUer's hinterlas-
senen Papieren. Frankf 1843, not a few are engraved in Pittaki's
''Ecpnpis^lg «^p[;«;oAoy/;t?J x(px^aax rdg ivrog rrig 'EXA. dvevf^iux. xf>x^io^rirxg,
' A%vri(ii 1837 — 41. 2 vols. 4to. P. de Saulcy Musfe d'Athfenes in the
Revue Archeol. ii. p. 257 — 77.] In Corfu, the museum of Signor Pros-
salendi. Important desokiptivb travels for the archseology of art, after Cyri
acus of Ancona (§. 46), especially Spon and Wheler, Chandler, Choiseul
Gouflier, Voy. Pittor. de la Grfece, DodweU's Classical and Topographical
Tour, with which Pomardi's Viaggio nella Grecia may be here and there
compared, Gell's Itinerary of Greece (1818, in 4to., merely i. Argolis), Itin.
of the Morea 1817, 8vo [Peloponnesiaca, a Suppl. to Trav, in the Morea.
L. 1846.], Itin. of Greece 1819, 8vo, Narrative of a Journey in the Mo
rea 1823, 8vo ; the articles collected in Walpole's Memoirs and Travels,
Hobhouse, HoUand, Hughes, Bartholdy, Pouqueville. Leake, Travels in
the Morea, 3 vols. L. 1830. Scharnhorst on jEgina, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 201.
[Brondsted's Reise i Griikenland i Aarene 1810 — 13. 1. 2 Deel. Kiobenh.
1844. 1st part. Magna Grecia, Epirus. 2nd part Boeotia, Thessaly, Asia

266 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
Minor, .ffigina, Ceos, Peloponnesus, lectures under fresh impressions not
hastily written down. Christ. Wordsworth Residence at Athens and Attica
L. 1836 (many passages in authors, ingeniously explained by the locali
ties) and Greece pictorial, descriptive and historical, 1839. 2nd ed. 1844.
Klenze Aphorist. Bem. B. 1838 fol. Aldenhoven ItinSraire descriptif de
I'Attique et du Peloponnese avec cartes et plans topogr. Athfenes 1841.
Col. W, Mure of CaldweU, Journal of a Tour in Greece and the Ionian
Islands, 2 vols. Edinb. and L, 1842. fuU of knowledge and sagacity. Ul
richs Reisen in Griechenland 1 Th. Travels from Delphi to Thebes. Bremen
1840. From the papers of the same by Henzen Viaggi ed investigazione
neUa Grecia, Annali xviii. p. 1. and on Buboea in the Rhein. Mus, Bd. 5.
L, Ross Reisen durch Griechenland 1 Th. Peloponn, B. 1841. and Reisen
auf den Griech. Inseln 1. 2. 3. Bd. 1841^3. Rob. Pashley Trav. in
Crete, 2 v. Cambr. and L. 1837. very learned and accurate. Henzen on
the present state of antiquities in Greece, AUegem. Zeit. 1843 N. 28 ff.
B. Curtius The more recent excavations in Greece, Preuss. Staatszeit.
1843. 9 Jan.] Architectural Works, Le Roy's (of Uttle use), Stuart
(copied in Le Grand's Mon. de la Grfece P. 1808), the DUettanti Society's.
(Careful engravings after these English works, with German text, Darm
stadt, Leske.) Exped. de la Moree, §. 252. La Grfece ; Vues pittor. et
topogr. dess, par 0. M. Bar. de Stackelberg, P, 1832,
I 254. Macedonia, Thrace, and Illyria seem to be very poor
in architectural ruins and mines of Greek art ; there are only
found in these countries remains of the later Roman period.
2 On the other hand, the ruins of cities along the northern coast
of the Black Sea are very important monuments of Grecian
civilization, regarding which we must look forward earnestly
for more connected communications.
1. Portico (of the Circus ?) at Thessalonica, §, 192, E, 6. Byzantium,
193, R, 8. There are drawings of the Col, istor., the GugUa girogUfica,
(fee, in the Cabinet d'Estampes at Paris. Constantine the Great's marble
column on the promontory of the Bosphorus. A so-caUed Pompey's
pillar on the Black Sea, Voy, Pitt, de Constantinople et des Rives du
Bosphore d'aprfes les dessins de Mr, MelUng, P. 1807. fo, Choiseul, Voy.
T, ii, P, iv. Remains at Salona 1 93, R, 6, (even of amphitheatres and
baths) ; Jadera (a gate or arch) ; Pola, §, 190 (T, Augustus' amphitheatre,
arch of the Sergii), Stuart's Ant, iv, 1 — 3. AUason, Pictur. Views of the
Antiq, of Pola, L. 1819, fo. DeU' amfiteatro di Pola — e di alcuni epigrafi
e figuUne inedite deU' Istria con vii, tav, Saggio del Can, P. Stamowich,
Venezia 1802. 8vo. Gianrinaldo Carli Antichita di Capodistria in the
Archeografo triestino, vol, ni, Trieste 1831. Cassas, Voy, Pitt, de PIstrie
et de la Dalmatie P. 1797 sqq, Rubbi, Antichitk Rom. deU' Istria, 4to.
2, Most of the treatises on the subject (by Kohler, R, Rochette and
Stempowsky, P, v. Koppen, v, Blaremberg, comp. C. I. u. p. 80,) refer to
inscriptions and coins. Waxel, Recueil de quelques antiquites trouv^es
sur les bords de la Mer-Noire. B. 1803. 4to. Travels of Pallas, Clarke and
others. CoUections. Museum at Odessa, in which there are fine sculptures
from Kertsch (Panticapseon), Cabinet of Blaremberg and Stempowsky also

ASIA AND AFRICA. 267
there ; others at Nicolaef, Kertsch and Theodosia. Notice sur un tombeau
d6couvert aux environs de Kertsch, I'anc. Panticapfie (1830), in the Journ.
des Sav. 1836. p. 333. [Discoveries at Kertsch, BuU. 1830. p. 265. 1841.
p. 109. 1842. p. 164. 1844. p. 82. Annali xii. p. 5—22. Voyage au Cau-
case — et en Crimfie par Fr. Dubois de Montp6roux iv. Sect. P, et Neu-
chatel 1843.]

3. ASIA AND AFRICA.

255. Asia Minor abounded as much as Greece itself in I
works of Greek art, on the western coasts from ancient times,
and in particular tracts stretching far inland, from the Mace
donian period ; and is even now perhaps richer in ruins, at 2
least in several kinds (for instance, we find the theatres
in Greece more ruinous and difficult to make out than in
Asia Minor and Sicily).
1. On the richness of the coast of Asia Minor, especiaUy Ionia, in
works of art, Jacobs, s. 424. Meyer, s. 209 ff. On works of art at Ephesus
some detaUs in the context, Tzez. Chil. viii, 198 ; Aspendus also was full of
exceUent sculptures, Cic. Verr. ii, 1, 20. On Cilician works of art, from
coins, Tolken Kunstbl. i. H. 6. We become acquainted with many sacred
structures through coins of the emperors, from which BeUey especiaUy
treats of the monuments of Pergamon, Ancyra, Tarsus, and Csesarea in
Cappadocia, M6m. de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxvu — xl.
2. Abohitectueal Remains mentioned above, at Sipylus §. 42. Sardis
80. 241.* Teos 109. Ephesus 192. Magnesia on the Mseander 109.
Samos 80. Priene 109. MUetus 109. Labranda 192. HaUcarnassus
111. 151, 153, Cyzicus 153. Mylasa 192. Telmissus 245. Nacoleia 245.
Many theatres (§. 289), also aqueducts and baths of the Roman period.
Many remains likewise at New lUon, Alexandria Troas (many ruins
constructed with arches), Assos (where the entire city can still be re
cognised, and remarkable metope-reUefs have been found in the early
Greek style, with sphinxes, wild animals and centaurs, [in Paris since 1838,
M, d. I. iu, 34. AnnaU xiii. p. 317: besides the pieces there engraved
Prokesch gives also Wiener Jahrb. 1832. u. S. 69 des Anzeigers a sitting
Amor with his hand resting on the bow : they are of granite. Terier Voy.
en Asie Mineure pi. 112. Clarac pi. 116, A. B.] and beautiful sarcophagi).
Cyme, Smyrna, Heraclea on the Latmian lake (ruins of many buildings
situated in an interesting manner among the rocks), (theatre in Hera
clea, Beda ap. PhUon. Orellii p, 149) Myndos, Myus, Cnidos (where are
very considerable ruins especiaUy of Doric architecture ; investigated by
a mission of DUettanti), Xanthus, Phaselis, Perge, ClaudiopoUs, Celenderis,
and in other cities of the south coast ; in the interior, ruins especially of
the towns in the valley of the Mseander and Laodicea Catacecaumene ;
in Cyprus ruins of Cition.
Travels of P. Lucas, Tournefort, Pococke, DaUaway, Chandler, Choiseul
Gouffier, Kinneir, for the south coast Beaufort's Caramania, for some
northern regions Von Hammer's Umblick auf einer Reise von Bpel nach
Brussa, Pesth 1818, and for the whole W, M. Leake, Journal of a Tour

268 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
in Asia Minor with comparative remarks on the ancient and modern
geography of that country, L. 1824., 8vo. with a map which gives an
excellent survey of former travels. A. v. Prokesch, Erinnerungen aus
.aigypten und Kleinasien iii. s. 271 fo. Comp. Wiener Jahrb. Iviii. lix.
Anz. The " Antiquities of Ionia" are enriched in the new edition with
exceUent plans (of Priene, the vaUey of the Masander, the neighbourhood
of the Didymseon, and the city of Samos) and architectural drawings.
There are also exceUent designs by Huyot in the portfoUo. Discoveries
by Terier in Asia Minor, Azani (Tschafder), large Grecian temple, thea
tre, basreUefs, (BuU. 1834, p. 238.) Pessinus, Synnada, Phrygian nekro-
polis with Greek and Phrygian inscriptions, between Synnada and Ancyra.
Amasia, 10 leagues from the Halys, on the borders of Galatia, a Cyclopian
city, full of splendid works, a gate with lion-heads. Tavia 1 relief on the
rocks, of the Persian and Paphlagonian kings. Phrygian discoveries,
Archseol. InteU. Bl, 1835, n, 20, Journ, des Sav, 1836, p, 365, Travels of
the English in Asia Minor and Syria, Berghaus Annalen 1835, n, 123, S,
245, Prokesch on ancient Smyrna, Wiener Jahrb, 1834, iv, s, 55 of the
Anzeigen, and on a necropoUs not far from Thyatira, and the earliest mines
of Ida, Ann, d, I, vi, p. 192. Phrygian monuments in Steuart §. 341*, R.
3. partly drawn for the first time, 17 pi, [Sir Ch, FeUows, A Journal writ
ten during an excursion in Asia Minor L, 1839, and an account of Discov,
in Lycia during a 2nd excursion L, 1841, Comp, Journ, des Sav, 1842,
p, 366, 385, W, Hamilton Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Arme
nia L. 1842, 2 vols. Spratt and Forbes Trav, in Lycia, Milyas and the
Cibyrate L, 1846, 2 vols. Col, Rottier's descr, des Mon, de Rhodes 1828,
4to,] 256. In monuments of Greek art Syria and Arabia seem
only to possess architectural works of the florid Roman style,
! or a mixed Greco-Oriental, Monuments of this later period
also extend through Egypt, the kingdom of Meroe and the
i Oases. In the rest of Africa the towns of Cyrenaica have
more recently become pretty well known, and the plan of
Cyrene especially lies distinctly before our view ; but at the
same time very little has been brought to light in detail of
[ the early genuine Hellenic period. In western Africa there
are extant numerous and considerable remains of Roman
structures. 1. Existing monuments of Antioch, § 149. 192. (Justinian's walls ;
triumphal arch on the road to Aleppo, Cassas i, 16), Sidon (tomb in the
rocks, Cassas ii, 82), Tyre (aqueduct, ibid. 85), [aqueduct at Beirout,
Revue Archeol. iii. pi. 57. p. 489.] between Tyre and Ptolemais (Ionic
temple, ibid. 87), at Jerusalem §. 192, Emesa (Cenotaph of C. Ca3sar, Cas
sas i, 21), HeliopoUs, Palmyra, Gerasa, Gadara (the cities of the basalt
country Trachonitis, in which many structures were built after the time
of Solomon, Ritter, Erdk. ii. s. 362), and Petra §. 192. At Seleucia on
the Tigris (or Ctesiphon) ruins of a palace of the Roman period, accord
ing to deUa Vall6. Cassas, Voy. Pitt, de la Syrie, de la Phoenicie, de
la Palsestine et de la Basse Mgyptc, P. an. vii (incomplete), EarUer
Travels by Belon, Maundrell, della Valle, Pococke, Burckhardt, Travels
in Syria and the Holy Land, L. 1822, Trav, in Arabia, L, 1829, Buck-

SYRIA, AFRICA, ITALY. 269
ingham, Trav. among the Arabian Tribes. L. 1825. 0. Fr. v. Richter
WaUfahrten im Morgenlande. B. 1822. Count Bertou, Voy. dans les
plaines du Haouran en Syrie in the BuU. ii. 1837. p. 161 — 171. Monu
ments of Beirout, Mon. d. I. ii. tv. 51. Ann. x. p. 12.
2. Alexandria §. 149. 193. 224. Antinoe §, 191, Roman towers and
waUs near Taposiris, at Babylon near Cairo, at Syene, Greco-.Sigyptian
structures in Meroe §, 192, on the oasis of Amnion near Zeytun (Cail
liaud, pi. 3. 5. 6). Romo-Christian buildings in Lower Nubia, on the
northern and southern oases of Bgypt (in the latter there are often
sepulchral monuments with arches on columns, CaiUiaud, pi. 21. comp.
§. 218). Cosmas Indopleustes describes the marble throne of Ares near
Adule, with the inscription of an Ethiopian King (Zoscales according to
Niebuhi-), in late Roman style, resting on a spiral column.
3. Considerable Remains at Ptolemais (an amphitheatre, two thea
tres) ; at Cyrene (an amphitheatre, two theatres ; scanty ruins of two
temples, numberless tombs on the streets, sometimes in the rocks and
sometimes built up, with frontispieces, partly painted) ; some remains
at Naustathmus, ApoUonia, and different places further east. DeUa
CeUa, Viaggio da TripoU aUe frontieri occidentali dell' Bgitto. Gen. 1819.
F. W. and H. W. Beechy, Proceedings of the Expedition to explore the
North coast of Africa from Tripoli eastward in 1821 and 1822. 1828. 4to.
Pacho, Relation d'un Voyage dans la Marmarique, la Cyrenaique, et les
Oases d'Audelah, et de Macadeh. 1827. 1828. 4to and fo. Comp. on the
plan of Cyrene Gott. G. A. 1829. St. 42.
4. Amphitheatre at TripoUs (now Zavia), marble triumphal arch of
M. Aurelius and L. Verus at Garapha (now Tripoli). Count Castiglioni,
Mem. Geograph. sur la Partie Orientale de la Barbaric. Milan 1826.
Large amphitheatre 429 X 368 ft. Arena 238 X 182, height 96, at Tys-
derad el Deshemm. Sir HarvUle Temple's Travels into the Beylik of Tunis,
Ausland 1835. no. 102. Ruins of Leptis Myra by Delaporte, Journ. Asiat.
iii. S. T. I. no. 4. p. 315. Cisterns of Carthage, excellent composite vaults.
SemUasso's Africa ui. S. 214. [Falbe, Rech. sur I'emplacement de Car
thage, see Letronne. J. des Sav. 1837. p. 641.] Excavations by Grenville
Temple and Falbe Zeitschr. A. W. 1839. S. 7 f Aqueduct near Tunis,
amphitheatre at Tisdra (el Jemme), Ruins of Cirta or Constantina (Ves
tiges d'un anc. Tombeau dans le Royaume d'Algier auprfes de Constantine,
dess. par BelUcard), of Lambesa, Sufetula, (fee. Shaw, Travels in Barbary
and the Levant. Hebenstreit, De Antiq. Rom. per Africam repertis.
1733. 4to.

¦ 4. ITALY.
257. Italy unites in itself in the most interesting manner 1
districts of the most diff'erent kinds for the topography of art.
I. The district of a Grecian artistic world which had been 2
naturalized in Italy by means of colonies. The shores of
Lower Italy and Sicily belong to it, as well as many portions
of the interior of these countries. The splendour of art in 3
these lands is exhibited in their peculiar architectural works.

270 GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT ART.
4 There are comparatively few. sculptures in marble and metal,
yet many objects have been found of distinguished excellence,
5 and in the purest and finest Greek style ; on the other hand, the
necropolises of the Greek and semi-Greek cities of this region
are the principal mines of the different sorts of Greek vases,
from whose more or less tasteful form and elegant painting
we can, with tolerable certainty, estimate the degree to which
Grecian civilization had penetrated even among the rural in
habitants of Campania, Lucania, and Apulia (§. 163, 7), and
at the same time learn of many places which were Hellenized
and devoted to art, although this would not have otherwise
been expected. II. The circle of inland nations who by their
6 own activity naturalized Greek art among themselves. To
• this division belongs especially the country of the Etrus
cans from Pisae to Ctere, together with Felsina and Adria;
the Volscian Velitrte and the Latin Prseneste, as well as a part
of Umbria, are connected therewith by means of individual
monuments or classes of them (terracotta reliefs, mirrors).
7 The places where vase paintings have been found are limited
to the southernmost portion of Etruria, particularly the tract
of coast opened to Grecian commerce, and Adria, the great
8 emporium on the upper sea (comp. §. 99. 143. 177). The
riches of this region in native monuments have found an
abiding place in numerous collections in the country.
1. General helps to the artistic topography of Italy : Bern. Montfau
con, Diarium Italicum. P. 1702. 4to. Travels especially of Don Juan
Andres, de la Lande and Volkman, Keyssler, Petit-Radel, Eustace and
Colt Hoare, Fr. v. der Recke (edited by Bottiger), Morgenstern, Kepha-
lides, V. d. Hagen, Thiersch and Schorn, K. Fr. SchoUer (Bandelet de
Dairval, De I'UtUite des Voyages). Neigebauer's Handbuch fiir Beisende
in ItaUen. Hase, Nachweisungen fiir Beisende in ItaUen. Lpz. 1821. Fr.
Blume Iter ItaUcum. Bd. i — iii. 1824-1830, also gives by the way valu
able notices of museums. Chr. Kopp ItaUen. 1837.
3. Remains of architectural works in Magna Gbecia : Poseidonia,
§. 80. Scanty ruins of Blea (Munter's VeUa. 1818). Doric ruins of a
hexastyle temple, and beautiful terracotta fragments at Metapontum,
Due de Luynes, Metapontum. 1833. There is hardly any thing remain
ing of aU the Greek structures at Tarentum, Thurii, Crotona (Paw, M6m.
concernant le temple de Junon Lacinienne, M6m. de la Soc. de Cassel, p.
67). On some ruins at Locri, Luynes, Ann, d, Inst, ii, p, 3. [VeUa, Idem
AnnaU i. p. 381—86.] Ughelli, Italia Sacra ix. gives some information
as to the ruins of these cities. • On ruins of the towns in BasiUcata Lom-
bardi, BuU. d. Inst. 1830. p. 17. D. A. Lombardi suUa topogr. e sugU
avanzi deUe ant. cittk Italo-greehe, Lucane, Daune, e Peucezie deU' odierna
BasiUcata Memorie deU' Inst. Archeol. iii. p. 195. Ruins of temples in
Sicily : Syracuse §. 80 (two columns of the Olympieion remained stand
ing to a recent period). Acragas and SeUnus, 80. 109. Egesta 109. [Gela,
a large column of a temple extant, Pizolanti Mem. Istor. deU' ant. cittk

ITALY. 271
di Gela, in Palermo 1753, 4to. Romano Antiohitlb Jermitane (Himera),
Palermo 1838. 8vo.] Catana, ruins of a temple, two theatres, an amphi
theatre, and a circus. At Solus, near Panormus, interesting fragments
of architecture, and sculptures. Duke of Serradifalco, Cenni su gU avanzi
deU' Antico Solunto. Pal. 1831. comp. Bull. d. Inst. 1830. p. 229. 1831.
p. 171. Ruins of theatres, §. 289. Vito Capialbi suUe mura d'Hipponio,
Mem. d. Inst. Archeol. u, 159. tav. 4. 6. [Ground plan of Selinus by
GflttUng in the Hermes xxxvii, 2, and the chief cities of the island in
Serradifalco.] Cyclopean structures of Cefalu, §. 166. R. 3. Catacombs
of Syracuse. — Of Sardinia (also tombs in the rocks) and Gozzo, §. 166.
R. 3. [Onor. Bros Malta iUustr. co' monum. 1817.]
4. The baptismal vase at Gaeta (now at Naples) from Salpion, Welcker
Zeitschr. s. 500. The splendid shoulder-plates of a suit of armour with
Amazonian battles from Locri, in Brondsted's possession, [now in the Brit.,
Mus. The place of discovery is a fiction, as the seUer at Naples himself
confesses. P. 0. Brondsted Die Bronzen von Siris Kopenh. 1837. 4to.]
The beautiful sarcophagus in the cathedral of Agrigentum (Pigonati, tb.
47. Houel iv. pi. 238. St. Non iv. p. 82. A stucco cast in the British
Museum). Several in Sicilian churches, Hirt Berl. Kunstblatt ii. s. 73.
LandoUna has excavated many excellent articles at Syracuse.
6. Jorio's Metodo per invenire e frugare i sepolcri degli antichi, N.
1824, extracts in the Kunstblatt 1826. N. 46-53. It is observed that the
necropoleis of the Greek cities always lie facing the north. Places in
Magna Grecia, where vases have been pound (see especiaUy Gerhard's
Cenni topogr. BuUet. 1829. p. 161). In Campania, Nola (beautiful vases
in varnish and design; also antique vases of the Ught yeUow sort),
Cumse (stiU too Uttle investigated), AveUa (vases of a pale colour), Capua
(duU varnish; antique also), Nocera (Nolan), Eboli (more in the Lu-
cano-ApuUan manner ; comp. Ann. iii. p. 406. iv. p. 295) ; in Samnium,
particularly Agata de Goti in the Beneventine (careless in design, red
and white colour) ; in Lucania, Psestum (beautiful vases of the best kind).
Tombs of Psestum, Bull. 1834. p. 60., CasteUuccio, Anzi [Antia, not a few
vases of a pecuUarly grandiose style, and exquisite myths, the great majo
rity usuaUy Bacchian or so-called toUette vases, in 1842 a collection at
the place, caUed the Fattibaldi, consisting of 400 articles,] and Armento in
the interior of the BasiUcata (places where were found the ornamental
vases of slender form, and richly ornamented with mythological scenes,
bad in varnish and colours, the design mannered) ; busts, vases, brazen
accoutrements, Galateo, lapygia, p. 97 ed. Basil. ; in Apulia, Bari, Ruvo,
CegUa, Canosa (where, together with the language of the country, a cor
rupt Greek was spoken, Horace S. i, 10, 30. §. 163, 7) ; Ruvo, BuU. 1834.
p. 36. 164. 228. [Giov. Jatta suU' ant. cittb, di Ruvo, in Nap. 1844. 4to.
p. 56 sqq., his great excavations and coUection of vases ; AveUino's
Rubustinorum numorum catal. appended. Tombs of Ruvo, Bull. 1836.
p. 69. 113. 1837. p. 81. 97.] ; in Bruttii, Locri (vases of antique descrip
tion, others of exquisite beauty). In Sicily especially Agrigentum
(antique vases of the red yeUow kind, but others also, very grandly and
beautifuUy designed, of the more perfect style of technics; Panettieri
Collection ; Memoirs by Raff. PoUti) ; in the interior Acrse, now Palaz-
zuola, rich in tombs, vases, and terracottas. Le antich. di Acre scoperte.

272 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART,
descritte ed, illustr, dai Bar, G, Judica, Messina, 1819, fo. Comp, Ger
hard and Panofka Hyperb, Rom, Stud, s, 155 ff, (Kunstb. 1825. 26) and
the preface to Neapel's Antiken, [also Bibl. Ital. 1820. Febr, s. 222 sqq,]
Tombs at Palermo, BuU, 1834, p, 209,
MartoreUi, Antichitk Neapolitane. Travels of Riedesel, Swinburne,
and others, De St, Non, Voy, Pittoresque de Naples et de Sicile, Munter,
Nachrichten von Neapel u, Sicilien, 1790, Bartel's Briefe iiber Calabrien
u, Sicilien, 1791-93,— FazeUus, De rebus SicuUs, 1658, fo, Andr. Pigonati,
State presente degli Ant. Monumenti SiciUani, a. 1767. Viaggio per
tutte le Antich. deUa SiciUa descr. da Ign. Paterno Pr. di Biscari, N,
1781, 4to, Houel, Voy, Pitt, des, lies de Sicile, de Malthe et de Lipari.
P, 1782, 4 vols, fo, Bern. OUvieri, Vedute degU Avanzi dei Mon. Antich.
delle due SiciUe. R. 1795. Pancrazi, d'Orville, Wilkins, Hittorff (see §.
80, 109), Raf PoUti II viaggiatore di Girgenti e il Cicerone di piazza
ovvere guida agU avanzi di Agrigento, Girgenti 1826, [1842 by the Same,
Antichita e mon, per servire aU' opera intit, il viagg, 40 tav. 8vo.]
6, On Etrurian monuments of art in general, §. 168 — 178, Volaterrse,
§, 168, 70, 71, 74, 76, Pyrgos, Cyclopean foundations of the temple of
Bileithyia, J, MelUngen Archaol, InteU, Bl, 1836, No, 11, [Canina An
nali d, Inst, xii. p. 34. ant. Castello di Pirgi.] Fsesulse 168. 70. Arre
tium 170. 71. 72. Vetulonium 168. Inghirami Memor. d. Inst. ii. p. 95.
Ambrosch p. 137. RuseUre 168. Populonia 168. 76. Cosa 168. Tela
mon 176. Cortona 168. 70. Perusia 168. 73. 74. 75. Saturnia 168. Volci
169. 70. 73. 74. 75. 77. BuUett. 1835, p, 177, Clusium 170. 71, 73, 74.
75. 76, 77, 78, Faleru 168, 70. Tarquinu 170. 72. 73. 74. 77. Axia 170.
Orchia 170. Bomarzo 169. 70. Viterbo 170. Tuscania 170. Veil 168.
Adria on the Po 170. 77. Pr^neste 173. Alba Longa 1 68. 70. Velitraj
171. Umbria 176. Ameria 168. Spoletium 168.
7. Places where vases have been found in Etruria : Necropolis of
Volci on the river Arminia (Flora) near Ponte della Badia ; excavations
since 1828, on the estates of Prince Lucian of Canino, the Candelori and
Feoli. The Dorow-Magnus CoUection in the Royal Museum at Berlin.
On the kinds of vases §. 99, 2. 143, 2. On the localities, Westphal, To
pogr. dei cont. di Tarquinii e Vulci, Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 12. tv. agg. a. b.
Lenoir, Ann. iv. p. 254. M. I. 40. Works of Pr. Lucian: Museum
Btrusque de L. Bonaparte. 1829. Catalogo di scelte antichita, (Bstratto,
Ann. i. p. 188). Vases Etrusques de L. Bonaparte Livr. i. ii. (Bullet.
1830, p, 143, 222), Candelori vases : BuU, d, Inst, 1829, p, 75 ff. The
splendid collection described by Second. Campanari Rome 1837. Idem
Intorno i vasi fitt. rinvenuti ne 'sep. d'Etruria R. 1836. 4to. Brondsted.
A brief descr. of 32 anc. Gr. vases lately found by M. Campanari, L. 1832.
C. Pea Storia de' vasi dipinti che da quattre anni si trovano R. 1832. Ne
cropolis of Tarquinii, chiefly vases of the archaic sorts, v. Gerhard, Hy
perb. Rom. Studien. s. 134. Csere, a very promising mine. BuU. 1834. p. 49.
97. 1836. p. 169. Bomarzo, fine vases and bronzes. Clusium, numerous
antique vases Bull. 1837. p. 192. [A great number of black vases only
to be met with here and in the neighbourhood, of various forms and with
ornaments and figures in relief] Adria on the Po, fragments of vases
found in the burying-place on the Tartaro, strikingly simUar to those of
Volci in forms, paintings, and inscriptions, also terracottas, mosaics,
marble fragments, and intaglios collected in the Bocchi Museum. See

ITALY. 273
Filiasi, Giorni. deU' Ital. Letter. Padova. T. xiv. p. 263. [Kramer Ueber
den Styl u. die Herkunft der bemalten Griech. Thongefasse s. 198 — 206,]
A manuscript work in the Vienna cabinet of antiquities. Steinbiiohel
Wiener Jahrb. 1830, ii, s, 182, &c. inloco. Welcker in the BuU, 1834.p, 134,
(comp. HaU A. L. Z. 1834. Inn.) R. Rochette Annali vi. p, 292, I find the
painter Buthymides twice in the inscriptions on these potsherds, as well as
at Volci, The great traffic of antiquity in earthenware certainly compre
hended likewise painted vases, and hence we may account for the appear
ance of closely corresponding works in regions far apart ; for instance
the slaying of the minotaur on an Attic vase, in the possession of Burgon,
London, [now in the Brit. Mus.] is designed precisely in the same way as
on the famous SicUian vase of Taleides in Hope's CoUection.
The first vases found in the country of the Sabines at SommaviUa,
BuU. 1837. p. 65. 70. (Hiero painter) 207. [The vase with the rising and
setting sun, Mon. d. Inst. ii. 55. Annali x. p. 266. xiv. p. 210. Another from
the same place has been pubUshed by L. Grifi as II ratto del Palladio,
Roma 1845, an enigmatical representation, one in Berlin, Gerhard Neuer-
worbene Denkmaler, N. 1789.]
8. Etruscan museums : The Guarnacci, afterwards foundation of the
public one, at Volterra : [in 7 rooms about 500 Etruscan urns] at the same
place that of the Franceschini, of the Cinci. Antiquities in the Campo
Santo at Pisa, placed there since 1810 (Lasinio Sculture del Campo Santo).
[Roman not Etruscan]. BibUoteca pubUca [the Mus. since 1814, a work by
D. Ant. Fabroni.] and Mus. Bacci at Arezzo. Aocademia Etrusca and
Mus. Venuti at Cortona (M. Cortonense §. 178) ; the Corazzi collection
of bronzes has been sold and taken to HoUand. Ansidei, Oddi, and other
coUections at Perugia (see Lanzi's Catal., comp. Blume ii. s. 210),
public cabinet there. [Indie, antiqu. per U gabinetto archeol. di pro
priety del magistrate di Perugia 1830. 8vo. by VermiglioU, partly from
Oddi house.] BuccelU at Montepulciano. Casuccini, Paolozzi at Chiusi,
U Circo also there. Etrusco Mus. Chiusino dai suoi possessori pubbl, con
brevi espos. del cav. Inghirami P. i. ii. PoUgrafia Fiesolana 1834. Rug-
gieri at Viterbo. SmaU coUection, the CervelU, at Orvieto, and various
others. Besides the general books of travels for Etruria the valuable work of
Targ. Tozzetti : Relazioni d'alcuni viaggi fatti in Toscana.
258. But by far the most extensive and productive is III, 1
the domain of Greek art which became subservient to the
Romans, and was employed in the embellishment of Roman
edifices. Rome is even in the great number of its existing 2
architectural remains, with which are sometimes connected
very productive mines of statues, the capital of the ancient
world of art, and the inost icciportant spot on earth to the
archaeologist, although it produced so few artists in ancient
times; the topography of Rome forms a considerable branch 3
of the study. The monuments and ruins still extant are 4
chiefly crowded round the oldest and, in a political sense, the
most important part of ancient Rome — the Forum Romanum
and the Via Sacra; doubtless also for this reason, that in the
S

274 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
middle ages the population early withdrew from that neigh
bourhood and left it to the past, while the Campus Martius,
a city of magnificent structures in the time of the Emperors,
because the new life in an especial manner settled there, ex
hibits few monuments, and for the most part only such as
could be made to suit the wants and aims of that period.
5 The extensive gardens which occupy the east and west of
Rome, therefore, abound in mines, and have filled entire mu
seums; with the history of the latter is closely connected that
of their possessors.
2. There are few connected accounts of early excavations, such as
Flam. Vacca, Notizie Antiquario. a. 1594 (in Fea, MisceU. filolog. T. i.) ;
of the results of more modern investigations Guattani (§. 38. R, 2) gave
early an account, then Fea in numerous memoirs (Prodrome di nuove
osservaz. e scoperte fatte nolle ant, di R, 1816), together with the arti
cles by Gerhard in the Kunstb, 1823-26 (now Hyp, Rom. Studien, s, 87
ff.), " Romische Ausgrabungen." Memorie Romane di Antichitk e di
Belle Arti, from 1824 downwards. 1827. T. 4, Discoveries since 1823,
Atti d, Accadem, Rom. di Archeol. u. 639. Instituto di Corr. arch, from
1829, especiaUy the Rivista Generale del BuUet. Chronological survey
of the explorations in the Forum since 1802 by Bunsen, BuUet. d. Inst.
1829. p, 32, then AnnaU vi, p, 13, vu, p, 53, BuU, 1834, p. 226. 1835, p,
33, 65,
3, The fragments of the ancient plan, from the temple of Romulus
and Remus, have been published by Bellori (Thes. Ant. Rom. iv.) Ama
duzzi and Piranesi (Antich. Rom. i.) Topooraphers : Flav. Biondo
1449, of more importance Andr, Fulvio 1527, Barthol, MarUani, Topogra-
phia EomsB. R. 1544 and 1588, Panvini 1658. Boissard, §.. 37. R. 3.
The inquiry not materiaUy forwarded by Donati, Roma Vetus et Recens
1638, and Nardini, Roma Antica 1666 (Thes. Ant, Rom, iv.), fourth edi
tion 1818 by Nibby. Fr. Ficoroni, Vestigi e Raritk di Roma Ant. R.
1744 (in Fea T. i.). Adler's Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Guattani,
Roma Antica 1793, new ed. 1805. Venuti, Descr. Topogr, deUe antichita
di Roma, 2d ed. R. 1803, new ed, by Stef. PiaU. R, 1824, Fea, N. Des
crizione di R, antica e moderna, R, 1821, 3 vols. 8vo. The same author
suUe Rovine di Roma (Storia dell' Arti T, iii,). Edw. Burton, Descr. of
the Antiquities and other Curiosities of R. L. 1821. C. Sachse, Gesch.
und Beschr. der Alten Stadt R. 2 vols. 1824, and (after the author's death)
1828. Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. von E. Platner, C. Bunsen, B. Ger
hard and W. RosteU i. (general part) 1830. u, (Vatican) i. 1832. [2. 1834.
ui, 1. 2. 3. 1837. 38. 42. Extract therefrom by Platner and Ulrichs, L,
Canina Indicaz, Topografica di Roma ant. 3. ed. 1841, with a large plan.
By the same, Espos. Stor. e topogr. del foro Rom. e sue adjacenze ed. 2. R.
1845, with 14 pi. The same Sul CUvo, suUa posizione e suU' architettura
del tempio di Giove Capit. in the Mem. d. Ac. Rom. di Archeol. T. vi, Stef.
PiaU Sopra alcuni monum, di Roma Dissertazioni R. 2, T, 1833, 34. 4to,]
W, GeU Topogr, of Rome, Plan by NolU 1748 ; an extract in Monaldini
1818, a more complete one in Bunsen, Vasi's Itinerario, modernized by
Nibby, — The most important works with engravings are referred to §.
37 R 3. and §. 190. The principal works of Piranesi are DeUa magnific.

REMAINS OF THE ROMAN PERIOD IN ROME. 275
ed architett. de' Rom. R. 1761. and Antichith, Rom. R. 1748-56. 4 vols. fo.
Views by Piranesi, Domen. Pronti, Clerisseau and Cunego, and Rossini.
Views of aU the seven hiUs in Cassas and Bence's Grandes Vues.
4. The foUowing is a summary of the architectural remains men
tioned in §. 179. 180. 190-95 (with some additions), in the direction of
the Augustan district, and within the Aurelian walls. 1, Porta Capena,
Tomb of the Scipios, 2, CseUmontana. S. Stefano Rotondo (the so-
caUed Temple of the Faun, an edifice of later antiquity). S, Giovanni in
Laterano, obelisk, baptistery of Constantine, 3, Isis and Serapis (the
southern part of the EsquiUne). CoUseum. Baths of Titus. Palace of
Titus (Sette Scale). Nero's House in part (Camere EsquiUne). Basil
ica S. Clemente, 4, Via Sacra (Nibby, del Foro R,, deUa via sacra,
deU' anfiteatro Flavio e de' luoghi adjacenti. R, 1819), The arch of
Titus (near the high road of the Via Sacra. Bullet, d. Inst. 1829. p.
56). Meta Sudans. Templum Urbis. Temple of Peace, Temple of
Antonine and Faustina (San. Lorenzo in Miranda). 5. The EsquiUne.
Agger of Tarquin. Prsetorian camp. Amphitheatrum Castrense. Nym-
phsBum of Alex. Severus. Temple of Minerva -Medica. The arch of
GaUienus. Painted house (of LucUla?) §, 210, R, 4, 6, Alta Semita
(Quirinal and Viminal). Baths of Diocletian and Constantine, Monte-
CavaUo. 7, Via lata (westward from the Quirinal). 8, Forum Romanum
(on the situation and extent of the Forum, Sachse i, s. 698. and the plan
by Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst, Tf 23). [Bunsen les forums de Rome
Mon. d. I. u, 33. 34. Annal. vui. p. 207—281. ix, p. 12—60. By the same
Restoration of the Rom, For, and of the magnificent fora of Csesar and
the emperors, Beschr. Roms ui, 2. s. 1 — 188.] Temple of Jupiter To
nans (i), of Saturn according to Niebuhr, confirmed by Bunsen. The
so-caUed temple of Concord, and remains of the real temple of Concord,
which probably Septimius Severus and his sons restituerunt. Arch of
Septimius, Column of Phocas. So-called temple of Jupiter Stator,
BasiUca JuUa. [Gerhard deUa Bas. Giulia ed alcuni siti del foro Rom.
estratt. daUe Effemer, Letter. R, 1823, 8vo. His view confirmed by an
inscription, BuU. 1836. p. 33.] So-caUed temple of Castor (three columns
before Maria Liber.). Career Mamertinus (robur TulUanum, Leon. Adami's
Bicerche. R, 1804. 4to, Capitolium (Zoega, Abhandl, 331) and Arx (the
southern summit of the hUl, comp. Dureau de la MaUe in MiUin's Ann,
encycL ix. p. 17). Arco di Giano. SmaU arch of Severus, So-caUed
temple of Vesta (S. Stefano on the Tiber, a peripteral tholus). So-called
temple of Portuna ViriUs, Mouth of the Cloaca Maxima, Forum of
Augustus (according to Hirt, Niebuhr and others ; Sachse caUs this erro
neously the Forum of Nerva ; Temple of Mars Ultor (Sachse assumes only
one temple of the name). Forum of Nerva; temple of PaUas, Forum of
Trajan ; Column ; BasUica Ulpia. 9, Circus Plaminius (the greatest part of
the Campus Martius). The Saepta rightly conceived (in connexion with the
disagreement of so many centuries at the same time) by Peter and Ztschr,
f. A W. 1839. S. 137. Theatre of MarceUus, near which stood formerly
(Ant. Labacco, Alcune notabili antiqu, di Roma, V, 1584) a Doric perip
teral temple. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Pompey. Baths of Agrip
pa; Pantheon. Arch of Claudius, Column and temple of M. Aurelius.
ObeUsk on Mount Citorio. Mausoleum of Augustus, ObeUsk in the
Piazza del Popolo, 10, Palatium, Palatine palaces of the Emperors

276 GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT ART,
(Scavo RanourelUano, Guattani M, I, 1786, Genu, Ott.), Septizonium.
Arch of Constantine. 11. Circus Maximus. Circus (Bianchini, Circi
Max. iconographia. R, 1728, fo.). 12. Piscina PubUca (continuation of
the Aventine). Thermse Antoniniano. 13. Aventinus. Pyramid of
Cestius (Falconieri, Thes. Ant. Rom. iv. p. 1461). [Piranesi Mon, de' Sci
pioni, 1785, f m.] 14, Transtiberina (Janiculum), Beyond the fourteen
districts: Campus Vaticanus, Hadrian's Mausoleum. BasiUca of St.
Peter. On the Via Ostiensis : BasiUca of St. Paul. On the Via Appia
(Labruzzi, Via Appia iUustr.) : Monument of Cascilia MeteUa. Tomb of
Claudia Semne (Uhden in Wolf and Buttmann's Museum i. B. 534) and
many others, [Di due Sep, Bom, del secolo di Augusto scov. presso la
tomba de' Scipioni dai Cav, G. P. Campana R, 1840, fol, Grifi Sepolcro
nella vigna Lozano R, 1840, 4to,] Columbarium of the freedmen of Livia
(works of Bianchini, Gori, de Bossi). Catacombs of the Christians. Cir
cus of CaracaUa (Bianconi, Desor. dei Circi. R. 1789. fo.). Fountain of
Bgeria (Wagner, De fonte et specu Bgerise. 4to.). On the Via Nomen
tana : BasiUca of St. Agnes. Tombs of Constantia and Helena. On the
Via Plaminia : Tomb of the Nasones §. 210. R. 4. On the Via AureUa:
Painted sepulchral monuments of the Villa Corsini (in BartoU), [of the
ViUa PamfiU, from which drawings were taken for publication and copies
in colours at Munich in the United CoUections, P. Secchi Mon. Ined. di un
Sepolcro di famiglia Greca scop, in Roma sulla via Latina. R. 1843. fol.
The paintings in Cav. Campana.]
5. Worthy of especial notice : ViUa Mattel on the Cselian HiU ; Villa
Giustiniani, now Massimi, eastward from Mount CseUus; V. Negroni
and Altieri behind the EsquiUne; V. Barberini behind the Quirinal;
V. Ludovisi on the Pincian Hill, colUs hortulorum (here lay the large
SaUustian gardens, Gerhard's Abhandlung in Gerlach's edition of Sal-
lust) ; V. Farnese and Spada on Mount Palatine ; V. Corsini between
the Janiculum and Vatican; V. Albani before the Porta Nomentana;
V. Borghese before the P. Plaminia and Pinciana.
259. In the countries surrounding Rome, in Latium, the
places which were selected by the emperors as country-resi
dences, such as the splendid Antium, Tibur, also Lavinium
(but not Alba Longa as we might have expected from Domi-
tian's love of magnificence), are especially productive sources
„of works of art, without being so exclusively.
Latium. Kircher's Latium, fo. 1761. Vet. Latii antiqua vestigia. R-
1761, enlarged : Vet. Latii antiquitatum ampUss. coUectio. R. 1771, not
of much use. Bonstetten, Voy. sur la sofene des dix dem. livres de 1'
Bneide. P. 1805. Sickler, Plan Topogr. de la Oampagne de R. with text
in 8vo. Weimar 1811. R. 1818. Nibby, Viaggio antiq. ne' contorni di
R. R. 1819. 2 vols. 8vo. Sickler and Reinhardt's Almanach aus Rom. ii.
8. 182. Tf 13 ff. J. H. Westphal, Die Rom. Kampagne. B. 1829. 4to.,
with two maps. W. Gell, Essai Topogr. des environs de R. (v. Ann. d.
Inst. u. p. 113.)
In detail: Gabii, Forum §. 295. [Temple of Gabus and Aricia, Annali
xu. tv. D. p. 23. Vbii, Canina Descr. deU' ant. cittk di Veil R. 1847, opera
edita in pochi esemplari da distribuirsi in done fol. p. 83 sqq. A list of the
(175) works of sculpture and fragments found there in 1824 and purchased
by the government.] Statues in V, Borghese §, 261. Alba Longa (Pira-

ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS IN LOWER ITALY, 277
nesi's Antich, di Alb. e di Cast, Gandolfo), Emissary §, 168, R, 3, Tomb
§, 170. R, 3. Singular urns (Tambroni and Aless, Visconti in the Atti
deir Ace. Arch. Rom. ii. p. 257. 317). Lanuvium §. 191. Prjeneste,
Suaresi, Prseneste antiqua. R. 1665, Temple of Portuna, II tempio
della Portuna Prenestina ristaur. da Const. Then, desor. da A. Nibby,
R, 1825. 8vo. Tibur, so-caUed temple of Vesta (Desgodetz, ch, 5), of the
Sibyl, deUa Tosse, Supposed ViUa of Msecenas. Ant. del R6, DeU' anti-
chitk Tiburtina. R. 1611. Stef. Cabral and Fausto del R6, Delle viUe e
monumenti ant. deUa cittk e del territorio di Tivoli. R. 1779. ViUa of
Hadrian, §. 191. Horace's Sabine country-house. Capmartin de Chaupy,
Decouverte de la Maison de Campagne d'Horace. 3 vols. 8vo. Nibby,
Viaggio antiqu. aUa villa di Orazio, a Subiaco e Trevi, Mem. Rom. iv. p.
3 — 81. Le Antichitk di Alba Fucense negli Equi, misurate e descritte
daU' archit. Carlo Promis. Roma 1836, 8vo. BuUett. 1836. p. 76 (Road to
Rome, the fortification, kinds of stone, temples, Tuscan basiUca). Tusculum,
catacombs, tomb of the Furia famUy. Considerable new excavations by
Lucien Bonaparte. Comp. Kunstb. 1826. n. 3. [Canina Descr. del Antico
Tusculo, 1841 fob] Cora, Doric temple of Hercules. G. AntoUni, Opere
T. i, 1. Piranesi, Antichitb. di Cora. R. 1761. fo. Ostia, LucateUi, Diss.
Corton. vi. Harbours, §. 190. R. 2. Fea, Relazione di un viaggio ad Ostia.
The same, Alcune Osserv. sopra gU ant. porti d'Ostia. Sickler's Almanach
i. s. 284. u. B. 231. 244. Excavations BuU. 1834, p. 129. Archaol, InteU,
Bl, 1834. No. 61. Antium, greatly embeUished under Caligula and other
Csesars of the house of Augustus ; Theatre and other remains. A mine
of exceUent statues, v. especiaUy Winckelm. W. vi, 1. s. 259. and Pea
ibid. 2. s. 320. PhU. a Turre Mon. vet. Antu. R. 1700. Fea, Bull. d.
Inst. 1832. p. 145. Aphrodisium in the neighbourhood; where 23 sta
tues were found in 1794. Terracina, Ruins on the heights. — Cyclopean
waUs, §. 166. G. A. Guattani, Mon. Sabini V. I. R. 1827. 8vo.
260. In Lower Italy the district skirting the gulf of Pute-
oli gives evidence not merely of the earlier Hellenic culture,
but also of the magnificence and luxury of the Romans. As
the Romans themselves sought at Neapolis the enjoyment of
a free and comfortable HeUenic life, and willingly allowed
the remains of it to continue, so also both worlds of art come
here in contact in the ruins and tombs. But the most dis
tinct view of ancient artistic culture, in the first century of
the Christian era, is furnished by the cities which were buried
by Vesuvius. Although here many a deviation may be de
duced from earlier Hellenic influences and still subsisting
Oscan nationality, we find, nevertheless, in the main, every
thing analogous to the taste of the Roman capital, and if we
mark out and fill up the features which Rome presents on a
large scale, but more faintly' in accordance with the detailed
aspect of Pompeii, we can form to ourselves a very accurate
and animated picture of life at that time. — Northern Italy
furnished a host of scattered ruins and mines of statues; the
greatest number is to be found at Verona.
1. Rehfues Gemahlde von Neapel und seinen Umgebungen, 3 Th.
1808. Mormile, Descr. della cittk di Nap. et dell' antichitk di Pozzuoli

278 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART,
con le figure degli edificj e con gU epitafj che vi sono, N. 1670. Pozzu
oli (Dicsearchia, PuteoU) rich in antiquities. Franc, ViUamena, Ager
Puteolanus s, prospectus ejusdem insigniores, R, 1620, 4to, P. Ant.
PaoU Avanzi delle antich. esist. in PozzuoU, Cuma e Baise. N. 1768. fo.
Le antich. di Pozz., Baise e Cuma inc. in rami da P. Morghen. N. 1769. fo.
Jorio, Guida di Pozzuoli. Serapeum, a monopteral temple with medicinal
springs and numerous ceUs for incubation, probably built after the pattern
of the Canobian temple (in Memphis also the Serapeum was at the same
time a sanatory institution, Beuvens, Lettres k Mr. Letr. iii, p. 83, in the
same way as at St. Oannart in the south of France), according to Andr.
Jorio's work on the temple of Serapis, Kunstbl. 1824, n. 19. An older
plan by Brdmannsdorf Amphitheatre, aqueduct, piscina, tombs. The
so-caUed temples of Venus and Diana (probably bath-haUs), the piscina
admirabilis, and other objects at Bai.si. [In the street of tombs at Pu
teoU which is but Uttle known, there have been many laid open of late
years, with fine wall paintings, and others remarkable for their construc
tion and design.] A theatre at Misbnum. Circus or amphitheatre of
CuMiE. Tomb with the supposed skeletons (§. 432). On the grotto of
the sibyl at Cumse especially Jorio, Viaggio di Enea aU' Inferno, [Gen
eral opinion, as it seems, places it wrongly ; it is close by the acropoUs of
the oldest Cumas, spacious, with a high stair hoUowed out in the side
wall, and leading up to a narrow seat ; the temple of ApoUo probably
stood on a pinnacle of rock in the neighbourEood.] Galleries in Posilip-
po, §, 190, R, 1. ii. Rob, PaoUni, Mem. sui monumenti di antich. e di
beUe arti ch'esist, in Miseno, in Baoli, in Baja, in Cuma, in Capua ant,,
in Brcolano, in Pompeji ed in Pesto, N. 1812, 4to, Capua, amphitheatre.
[Rucca Capua Vetere o sia descr, di tutti i mon, di C. ant, e particol, del
suo amfit. Nap. 1828,]
On the discoveries in Capri, Hadrava, Ragguagli di vari scavi e sco
perte de antich, fatte neU' isola di Capri, N, 1793. 8vo. [1794. 4to.]
Gori's Symbolse Utter. Decad. Rom. V. iii. p. 1. (Flor. 1748. vol. 1.) Ruins
of a temple (?) in Pandataria.
2. The first discoveries which pointed to the buried cities were : the
finding of the famous female statues (§. 199. R. 7) on the property of
prince Blbeuf Emanuel of Lorraine, in the area of the theatre of Her
culanum, about 1711 ; the discovery of the so-called house of Arrius
Diomedes on the street of sepulchres at Pompeii when sinking a well,
1721 ; then the more fruitful discoveries at Herculanum, at the erection
of a cheateau for Charles IIL, 1736. Herculanum, which is buried to a
great depth, and whose forum lies under Resina, can only be explored
like a mine, by means of shafts ; Pompeii, on the other hand, which was
but sUghtly covered, can be laid quite open. However, it was, for this
very reason, especiaUy after it was covered the first time with ashes, mostly
despoUed of the more valuable objects by the excavations of the earUer
inhabitants themselves. In the time of the French, the zeal which had
almost become dormant received new life, and the excavation of the forum
was undertaken. The more recent investigations began, after the forum
was laid open, at the arch near the temple of Jupiter in the forum, and
foUow the streets leading northward from thence (Temple of Portuna,
Baths, FuUonia, House of the Tragic poet. House of the Faun).

ARCHITECTURAL RBIMAINS IN UPPER ITALY. 279
More recent works §, 190, R, 4, 210, R, 3, Besides these, on Herou-
l.\.num : Venuti, Descr. deUe prime scopSrte deU' ant. citt&, di Brcolano.
1748. Works containing accounts, by Cochin and BelUcard, de Correvon,
Ant. Fr. Gori, Winckelmann, Cramer. (Rosini) Dissertat. Isagog. ad
Ilercul. Velum, explanationem. Bayardi, Prodrome deUe antich. d'Erc.
N. 1752. Le antich. di Brcolano. N. 1757—92. i— iv. vii. Pitture, v.
vi. Bronzi, vui. Lucerne etc. (Extract in German by Murr with outlines
by KiUan.) Antiquites d'Herculanum, grav. par Th. Piroli et publ. par
F. et P. Piranesi. P. 1804 — 6. 6 vols. 4to. On Pompeii : an interesting
List by Weber, 1757. Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 42. M. I. 16. Martini Das
gleichsam wieder aufiebende Pompeii, Leipz. 1779. 8vo. Gaetano, Pros-
petto dei Scavi di Pompeii, 8vo. Millin, Descr. des Tombeaux, qui ont
6te deoouv. k Pomp. Pa. 1812. RomaneUi, Viaggio da Pomp, a Pesto. N.
1817. 2 vols. 8vo. Choulant, De locis Pompei. ad rem medicam facient.
Lips. 1823. Cockburn, Pomp. L. 1818. Sumptuous work by Coldicutt. L.
1825. Bonucci, Pompei decrite. N. 1828. Later information in Nico-
lini's M. Borbon, in Jorio, SugU Scavi di Brcolano. N. 1827, and in the
accounts in Schorn's Kunstblatt, 1826. N. 36. 1827. N. 26. [in the yearly
RagguagU de' lavori deUa r. Accad. Ercol. by AvelUno since 1833.] Jorio
Plan de Pomp, et Remarques sur les edif N. 1828. Large map by Bibent.
Guarini, on some monuments at Pompeu. Catalogue of works on Here.
and Pomp, in the M. Borbon. i. p. 1. [Excavations Bull. 1834. p. 145.
from 1835 — 38 by H. W. Schulz AnnaU d. Inst. x. p. 145, continued in
the BuU. 1841-42. B. Rochette Lettre k Mr. Salvandy P. 1841.]
Bbneventum, Triumphal arch, §. 191, R, 1, Vita, Thes, Antiqu. Ben-
eventanarum, B, 1754. T, i, (Roman antiquities,)
3, In Umbria: Ocriculum, very considerable ruins; bridge, theatre,
amphitheatre, several temples. Excavations in 1777, Guattani M, I.
1784. p. 1 sqq. Nabnia, a beautiful bridge, of the Augustan period.
A sisiuM, ancient temple, Maria deUa Minerva, Corinthian, of elegant de
sign. G, AntoUni, Opere T. i. 2, Guattani 1786, p, xx. Gothe Werke
xxvu. s, 186. Theatre, amphitheatre, circular temple. Supposed temple
of Clitumnus, Schorn's Travels, s, 462, R, Venuti, Osserv, sopra il fiume
Clitumno etc, R. 1753, 4to, Fbrbnto, in the district of Viterbo, a gate
of the same description as the axxixi, Annali d, Inst, ix, 2. p, 62. Tuder,
so-caUed temple of Mars. Memoirs by Agretti and others, Giom, Arcad,
1819. ui. p. 3. FuLGiNiuM, Pontano, Disc, sopra I'antichitk della cittk di
Foligno. Per. 1618. 4to. Fanum, Triumphal arch of Augustus, and an
other of Constantine. Ariminum, §. 190. R. 1. i. Fine bridge. Thorn.
Temanza, Antichitk di Rimini. V. 1740. fo. In Bthuria, Uttle of conse
quence belonging to the Roman period. Amphitheatre at Abretium
(Lor. Guazzesi in the Diss, dell' Ace. di Cort. T. ii. p. 93) and at other
places. In Picenum : Ancona, §. 191. R. 1. Peruzzi, Diss. Anconitane.
Bol. 1818. 4to, Amphitheatre of Faleria, Giom. Arcad. Iv. p, 160,
Theatre of Fallerone in the March of Fermo BuU. 1836, p, 131,
In Upper Italy : Ravenna, §, 194. R, 5. Patavium, Ruins of a Co
rinthian temple (Ant, Noale, DeU' antichissimo t. scoperto in Pad, negli
anni 1812 e 1819, Pad. 1827), Verona, the immense amphitheatre,
Maffei, DegU Amfiteatri, Desgodetz, Les 6dif, ch, 22, On new excava
tions, Giulari, Relazione degU escavamenti etc, V, 1818, 8vo, Arcus

280 GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT ART,
Gavu et Gavias. Many other Roman buildings, §, 193, R, 7, Excavation,
BuU, 1837. p, 173. A temple ofMinerva etc. in the neighbourhood, ibid.
p. 137. [Modena and neighbourhood. Bull. 1846. p. 23. 1842. p. 145.
1843. p. 151. 1844. p. 178.] Brixia. Ottavio Bossi, Le Memorie Bres-
ciane. Br. 1693. 4to. New discovery of a temple and large bronze
figures. Dr. Labus, Antologia 1824. n. 43. [Labus intorno vari ant. mon.
scop, in Brescia, Relaz. del prof R. Vantini, Brescia 1823. 4to. Fort.
Benigni Lettera sui scavi falti nel circondario dell' antica Treja. Mace-
rata 1812. 4to. 12 tav. In the court-house at Macerata 2 rows of sta
tues, togati, one at FoUgno, called .Esculapius, and in most towns some
remnant of antiquity. Vari mon. dell' Italia (Milan, Brescia, Verona,
Vicenza), Annali xi. p. 181.] Monti Escav. Bresciane. Velleja, a
Forum. AntoUni, Le rovine di VeUeja misurate e disegn. Mil. 1819. fo.
Amalthea i. s. 331. The monuments have for the most part been taken
to Parma. [Excavations, BuU. 1842. p. 175. 1843. p. 161.] Mediolanum,
P. Gratidius, De prseclaris Mediolani sedificiis quse Aenobarbi cladem
(1162) antecesserunt. Med. 1735. 4to. On the 16 columns near S. Loren
zo, a treatise by GrUlon 1812. Amati, Les antiq. de la viUe de Milan.
Mil. 1821. and Succinte Mem. intorno le sedici ant. col. Mil. 1831. fol.
[From a bath-haU, Archaol. Zeit. 1846, §, 389.] Aosta, §. 190. R. l.'u.
Susa, ibid. Millin's Voy. en Savoie, en Piemont, k Nice et k Gfenes. P.
1816. His Voyage dans le Milanois, Plaisance, Parme etc. P. 1817.
Aquileja. Bertoli, Le antich. d'AquUeja profane e sagre. Ven. 1739. fo.
The three last vols, with the drawings lie unprinted in the possession of
a private gent, at Venice ; among them is the complete set of sUver
plate of the family of the Busebii in the time of Constantine.] Forum
Julii, Museum of native objects. [Excavations, Bullett. 1836. p. 213.
Antiquities of Pola, amphitheatre, temple of Roma and Augustus, arch
of the Sergu in the Antiq. of Athens vol, iv. Stancovich DeUa anfiteatro
di Pola. Venez. 1822. 8vo. Alason, Pictures and Views of the Antiq.
of Pola 1819 fol.]
261. It is proper that the information regarding museums
with which we shall follow up the topographical details, should
begin with Rome. With the prodigious riches of her soil Rome
has acquired, especially through the wise regulation which
prohibits works of ancient art from being carried away with
out the sanction of the government, public museums with
which it will be long ere any others can vie in abundance of
excellent and well-preserved objects, however rich Munich
and the British Museum may be in rare and valuable works
from Rome — an abundance compared with which all descrip
tion must remain imperfect, and which must often cause the
most interesting specimens to run the risk of being overlooked.
On the other hand, the best days of private collections are over,
the most distinguished have become ornaments partly of Italian
and partly of foreign capitals. In Northern Italy Florence
has been enriched by the Villa Medicis and Etruria, and Ve
nice principally by acquisitions from Greece, but also from
the neighbourhood and from Rome ; all other collections have
been deprived of such sources. But Naples [in addition to

MUSEUMS IN ROME, 281
the Farnesian] has superabundant native treasures, which are
naturally concentrated there, and secure to that capital, next
to Rome, an independent importance, and an interest lor
which no other collection can furnish an equivalent.
1, 60,000 statues or antiquities at Rome have been spoken of, nay,
Lanzi goes as far as 170,000. OberUn, p, 127. Jacobs in loco. s. 616. —
The general works on antiquities at Rome by Cavalieriis and others, v.
§. 37. Less important : Borioni, CoUectanea Antiq. Rom. with explana
tions by Rod. Venuti 1735, mostly bronzes. Antiquitatis Monumenta
Rom. coUecta et iUustr. a Conyers Middleton. L. 1745, — Ramdohr Ueber
Mahlerei u. BUdhauerarbeit in Rom, 1787, 3. Thle 8vo. Lumisden, Re
marks on the Antiq. of Rome, 1797. 4to, Gerhard, Roms antike Bild
werke, in the Beschreibung Roms, i. s, 277 — 356.
Statues in pubUc places at Rome : before the Capitol M, Aurelius, the
two basalt Uons, the dioscuri (not exceUent) ; the horse-tamers on Monte
CavaUo ; Pasquino and Marforio (a river-god, and Ajax with Patroclus.
Notizie di due famose statue di un fiume e di Patroclo. R, 1789.) [Bo-
nada Anthol, Diss, i. 1, simulacrorum in urbe antiquitas.]
Collections.
I. Public
a. In the Capitol ;
Museum CapitoUnum ; founded by Clement XII., enlarged by Benedict
XIV. and other popes. Chief work §. 38. Rich in hermse of philosophers
and the Uke. Palace of the Conservatori. [Platner in the Beschr. Roms
iii, 1. s. 107 ff. The Capit. M. S. 137—268. Perd. Mori ScuRure del M.
Capitol. 2 T. R. 1806. 7. 4to.]
b. In the Vatican :
M. Pio-Clementinum ; opened by Clement XIV. by means of his trea
surer Braschi, who as Pius VI. greatly enlarged it. Principal work, §. 38.
Comp. Zoega's remarks in Welcker's Zeitschr. i. s. 310. 373 ff. M. Chiara
monti added by Pius VII. §. 38. The Nuovo braccio constitutes a fur
ther enlargement, comp. Kunstbl. 1825. N. 32. (One of the newest
acquisitions is the coUection of the duchess of Chablais, with Bacchian
sculptures from Tor Marancia on the Via Appia, Gerhard, Hyperb. Rom.
Studien. s. 101). [L. Biondi I, Mon, Amaranziani 1843. fol, 50 tav. 142
s, — Additions, see Gerhard in the Kunstbl, 1825. s. 127 f ] The magazines
also of the Vatican contain important objects [which have been now for
the most part transferred to the new Lateran Museum. This museum
was intrusted to father Secchi to pubUsh]. Fea, Nuova descr. de' mon.
ant. ed oggetti d'arte nel Vaticano e nel Campidoglio. R. 1819. 12mo.
Gerhard and Platner, The Vat. Mus. in the Beschr. Boms ii, 2. s. 1-283.
Musei Etrusci quod Gregor. XVI. in Aed. Vat. constituit mon, P, 1, 2.
R. 1842 f. m, Comp, H, Brunn, in the Kunstbl, 1844, N, 75 ff. It con
tains the coUection of General Galeassi, one of the richest collections of
gold ornaments, bronzes, clay figures, especiaUy painted vases. The
D'Agincourt coUection of terracottas and a great number of Roman
sculptures are in the casino in the gardens.

282 GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT ART,
c. In the Colleoium Romanum :
M. Kircherianum, pubUshed by Bonnani, R, 1709, fol. M, Kirch. ^Erea
iUustr. notis Contucci. R. 1763-65, 2 vols, fol, [Increased by Pater
Marchi with rare bronze articles, and especiaUy in the now very complete
coUection of oes grave.}
II. Private Collections (comp, Vasi and the List in Winckel
mann, Werke, Bd. vii.).
Albani, Palace and viUa (§. 258. R, 6), which were fiUed with trea
sures of art by the Cardinal Alex, Albani, and of which Winckelmann
(M. I.) and Zoega (Bassir,) especially have made use. There is a cata
logue. Memoirs by Raffei ; Marini's Inscr. ViUse Alban. Many things
are now gone to Paris and Munich, but stiU much remains, [StiU one
of the richest museums in the world and the finest of aU, Indicazione
antiquaria per la V, Albani ed. 2. in Rome 1803, by Fea. Beschr. Roms
iii, 2. s. 455—566.]
BoRSHESE, Palace and villa. The treasures of the viUa were purchased
by Napoleon, and therefore remained at Paris : new ones however are
now collecting there again. Sculture del palazzo deUa viUa Borghese
detta Pinciana, R. 1796. 2 vols. 8vo. Mon, Gabini deUa viUa Pinciana
descr. da Visconti. R. 1797. in 8vo. Visconti's lUustrazioni di Mon.
Scelti Borghesiani, edited by Cher, de Rossi and Stef Piale. 1821. 2 vols.
large fo. [Beschr. Roms iii, 3. s. 230 — 57. (Canina) Indicaz. deUe opere
aut. di scolt. esist. nella v. Borghese. R. 1840. Beschr. Roms iii, 3. 1842.
s. 230 — 57., the recently united and enlarged coUection. A. Nibby Mon.
Scelti di V. Borghese. R. 1832. 8vo. maj.]
Barberini, Palace. Much has gone to England, the greatest part to
Munich. Tetii MAea Barberinse. R. 1647. fo. A portion now in the
Sciarri palace [in cellars]. Gerhard Prodromus, s. xv. Some things still
remain. Mattbi, Palace and villa. Mon. Mattheiani UI. a Rud. Venuti cur. I.
Cph. Amadutio. R. 1776-79. 3 vols. fo. The best of it in the Vatican
[several statues, busts, and bas reliefs which had come to Cardinal Pieschi,
together with the two friezes from the palace of S. Croce, and two mar
ble chairs from the palace DeUa Valle were sold by auction at Paris in
June 1816].
Giustiniani, Palace, the antiquities are mostly dispersed. Galeria
Giustiniana. R, 1631. 2 vols, fo, [The first collection at Rome, a part
of which was disposed of by public auction,]
Farnese, Palace ; viUa on the Palatine, Farnesina in Trastevere. All
the antiquities now at Naples. [A good number still remain in the palace,
and some of these of considerable value.]
Ludovisi, the exceUent sculptures of this villa seem to be stiU there
[aU stiU. Beschr. Boms iii, 2. s. 677-91. Capranesi Description des Sculpt.
aric. de la V. Ludovisi, Rome 1842. AU the mon. have been extremely
well designed by Riepenhausen for B. Braun].
Medicis, Villa. The most valuable objects taken to Florence about
1770.

MUSEUMS IN ROME, 283
[CoLONNA, Beschr, Roms iii, 3, s, 170 ff,]
Negroni, ViUa. The antiquities bought up by Jenkins, the famous
dealer in works of art ; the best in the Vatican.
Aldobrandini, VUla, now MioUis. [Indice de sculture e della galleria
— MioUis 1814. 4to.] Work by A. Visconti,
[Corsini, Beschr. Roms iii, 3. s, 604 ff. Rospigliosi.]
Panfili, ViUa; statues and busts. Villa PamphUia ejusque palatium,
R, fo. There are still [very] many things in it ; also in the Casino Pan
fiU, [Torlonia. P, Vitale Marmi acolp. esist, nel pal. di Giov. Torlonia
Duca di Braociano 3 T. Rom. 8vo. Beschr. Roms iu, 3. s. 155 f.]
Villas Altieri, Casali, Strozzi [Massimo], and many others. Palaces
Braschi, Rondanini, RuspoU (many things from these in Munich). Col
lections of Thorwaldsen, Kestner, BoUard, and others. Magazines of
VescovaU, and others. [The Rondanini ooU. was distributed among the
heirs, every thing good in the Braschi was sold, part now in the Lateran
Mus., some good works in the pal. Massimi aUe Colonne, Chigi, Spada,
the 8 basr. in B. Braun's Zwolf Basr. E. 1845 fol. The newest coll. of any
importance is that of Cav. Campana, the richest of aU in gold articles and
terracottas, rich also in curious vases, bronzes, <fec. Marble works in the
garden-house near the Lateran.]
In the environs of Rome : ViUa Mondragone in Frascati (probably
does not now contain much). Colonna palace near Palestrina [nothing
now]. Cardinal Borgia's Museum at VeUetri (Heeren in the Amalthea
i. s. 311. Et. Borson, Lettre, R. 1796. [Vitse synopsis Steph. Borgise
oura P. Paol. a St. Bartolomseo. Rom. 1805. 4to. c, 5, 7.] Borgiana (on
separate engravings in the Gott. and Bonn Libraries) has mostly been
transferred to Naples. [Cardinal Pacca has formed a Museum Ostiense
from the more recent excavations in Rome,]
2. Florence, Grand Ducal GaUery, rich in statues (from the Villa
Medicis), vases, engraved stones, bronzes, Etruscan antiquities. Gori,
§. 37. [Lanzi in the Giorn. de' letter. Pisa 1782. T. 47. p. 1—212., also
separately as n. gall, di Fir.] Reale GaUeria di Fir. inc. a contorni sotto
la dir. del S. Pietro Benvenuti, ed iUustr. dai SS. Zannoni, Montalvi, Bar-
gigU e Ciampi F. 1812. 8vo. Comp. H. Meyer, Amalthea i. s. 271. ii. s.
191. iii. s. 200. The Pitti palace. Tableaux, statues, <fec. de la Gal. de Flor.
et du palais Pitti dessines par Wicar (with explanations by Mongez). P.
1789. fo. BoboU garden. Ricciardi palace. [Some things in the Corsini,
Rinuccini, Nicolini palaces and in the Guicciardini and Orlandini
houses.] [LucoA, Osservazioni sopra alcuni ant. mon, di b, arte nello state
Lucchese. Lucca 1815, 8vo. Pisa, P. Lusinio Race, di sarcofagi urne e
altri mon. di scoltura del campo s. di Pisa, Pisa, 1824. 4to, A Ust also in
(Giov, Rosini) Descr, deUe pitture del xiampo s. Pisa 1810, 4to, 1837, 8vo,
Fermo, Mus. de Minicis, see Giorn, sclent, di Perugia, 1840. iu, 175.
1842. iv, 347 ; in Asooli, by Msgr. Odoardi since the end of the 18th cen
tury,]

284 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
Pesaro, Marmora Pisaurensia iUustr. ab Ant. OUverio. Pis. 1738, Lu-
cernse fictUes M, Passerii cum prolegg. et notis. Pis. 1739-51. 3 vols, ib,
[Antiquities in the town-house at Onesimo,]
' Ravenna, Museo Lapidario in the archiepiscopal palace, bronzes in the
pubUc Library. There are many things scattered about in churches.
[Archaol. InteL Bl. 1833. s. 101.]
Bologna, Antiquarium in the Library (Malvasia, Marmora Felsinea),
enlarged by the confusedly mixed Museo Cospiano (Descrizione di Lo
renzo Legati. Bol. 1677.) and more recent discoveries. Some things in
the Zambeccari palace. Thiersch, s. 366. [(Schiassi) Guida al Mus.
delle antich. d. reg. Univ. di Bol. 1814.]
Ferrara, Studio publico, some antiquities. Bemnants of the M.
Estense, in the collection of which Pirro Ligorio was employed. [C.
Paucaldi La statua ed altri mon. ant. scavati a Macaretolo tra Ferrara
e Bologna. Bologna 1839, 8vo.]
The palace of Catajo, CoUection of Marquis Obizzi. Thiersch, Reise
s. 302— 11. Descr. del Catajo fatta da Betussi. Ferr. 1669. 4to. [Cel. Cave
doni Indie, dei principaU mon. ant. del. r. Museo Estense del Catajo,
Modena 1842. 8vo. C. Malmusi Mus. Lapidario Modenense Mod. 18,30.
4to.] The Quirini Collection in villa Altiochiero near Padua. Altic-
chiero per Mad. I. W. C. D. R(oseuberg). Pad. 1787. 4to. Kunstbl.
1829. N. 61 f.
Venice, public coUection in the vestibule of the library of St. Mark. v.
§. 37. Bull. 1835. p. 159. Mus. Nani (the bronzes of which were pur
chased by Count Portalfes-Gorgier) above §. 253. B. 2. Mon. Gr. ex M.
Jac. Nanii iU. a Clem. Biagio. R. 1786. 4to. By the same, Mon. Gr. et
Lat. ex M. Nanii. R. 1787. 4to. CoUezione di tutte le antichittk — nel M.
Naniano V. 1815. fo. Mus. Grimani, founded by Cardinal Domen. Gri
mani, 1497, containing many things found at Adria, now for the most
part transferred to the public Museum (MUUn's Orest6ide). [The reUefs
with Iphigenia now at Weimar.] The Contarini Collection has also be
come public. On the [Nani] collections in Casa Tiepolo (the coins ot
which have passed into the cabinet of antiquities at Vienna), Giustiniani
aUa Zechere, and in Weber's possession, see Thiersch Reisen in ItaUen i.
s. 261 ff. On the Venetian coUections generally, especiaUy the Grimani
and Weber, Rink, Kunstbl. 1829. N. 41-44. 60 f [CoUez. di tutte le an
tich. del Mus. Naniano 1815 fol. 46 pi. only in 50 copies. Ant. statue che
in Ven. si trovano Ven. 1740. 8vo.] The Case Trevisani, Morosini, and
others, shone at an earlier period. FioriUo, Hist, of Painting in Italy, ii.
p. 62 sqq. New CoUections from the remains of the old, BuUet. d. Inst.
1832. p. 205. In Venice the inquirer everywhere meets Greek objects.
The four brazen horses of St. Mark are said to have been brought from
the hippodrome of Bpel in 1204. On these, Mustoxidi sui quattro ca-
valU deUa basil, di S. Marco in Ven. 1816. 8vo. Treatises by Cicognara,
Dandolo and A. W. Schlegel ; Petersen Einl. 146. 325.
Verona. Public coUection founded by So. Maffei, in which antiquities
of all sorts, Grecian from Venice, likewise Etruscan, stand side by side.
Maffei, M. Veronense s. antiq, inscript, et anagl, coUectio, Ver, 1749,

MUSEUMS IN UPPER AND LOWER ITALY, 285
CoUection of Mai'q, MuseUi, Antiquit, reliquise a March, Zac, Musellio
CoUectse, Ver. 1756. fo. Museum Bevilaqua, busts and reUefs (partly at
Munich), [Cavaceppi Race, ii, prefaz.] Former Museum of Count Mos-
cardo, a medley of every thing (Note overo memorie del M, etc. Ver.
1672). So. Maffei. Verona iUustrata. Ver. 1731. Count Orti di Manara
GU Mon. Grseci e Rom. — de' Conti Giusti, Verona 1835. 4to. BuU. 1835.
p. 206.
Mantua, Bottani M. della R. Accad. di Mantova. Mant. 1790. 8vo. The
Museum of Mantua, which was laid waste in 1631, and restored in 1773,
contains many works in marble, — statues, busts, reUefs. D. G. Labus, M.
deUa R, Accad, di Mantova, Mant, 1830-33, T, i, ii, comp, BuU. d, Inst.
1833, p, 117. [T, iu, 1837,] Journ, des Sav. 1835, p, 396,
Modena, public collection of bronzes, coins, inscriptions. [Sarcophagi.
A couple of statues also at Reggie,]
Cremona, Isidor Bianchi, Marmi Cremonesi, Mil. 1792. 8vo.
Brescia, MazzucheUianum M. a Com. Gaetano ed. atque iUustr. V.
1761-63. 2 vols. fo. A coUection in the area of the temple, §. 260. B. 3.
is in the work. [Museo Bresciano Ulustrato. Brescia 1838 fol. (by La
bus).] Parma, the former Farnesian treasures of art have gone to Naples
since 1736 ; new ducal collection chiefly from VeUeja. Berliner Kunstbl.
ii. s. 14. [AntoUni De rovine di Velleja P. 1. tav. 9., eight large sta
tues. The museum has been of late continually increasing with fine
vases, bronzes, gold articles, and coins. Bronzes, M, d, I, iii, 15. 16. An
naU xii, p, 106, De Lama Guida al ducal M, di Parma,]
Milan, Royal cabinet of coins (the Sanclementinian collection in it),
CoUections of antiquities by Pelagic Pelagi and Nizzoli, BuU. d. Inst.
1832, p, 202.
Pavia, CoUection of the University (a few statues, antiquities, coins).
Equestrian statue of Marcus AureUus (Regisole). [P. V. Aldini SuUe
ant. lapidi Ticinesi. Pavia 1831. 8vo. and GU ant. marmi Comensi figurati
e letterati. Pavia 1834. 8vo.]
Tortona, M. del S. Manfr. Settale. Tort. 1666. 4to.
Turin, M. Taurinense, made use of in the M. Veron. of Maffei (who
was instrumental in founding it). (Ant. RivauteUae et lo. PauUi Ricolvi)
Marmora Taurinensia. 1743. 47. 2 vols. 4to. On the present state of the
Royal Sardinian coUection, see Schorn, Amalthea ui. s. 457. [MiUin,
Voy. en Savoie, en Piemont 1816. i. p. 263 sqq. The large Egyptian coU.
of the consul Drovetti purchased in 1822.]
In Illykia : Triest, public museum [formed in 1834]. CoUection of
the late C. Ott. Pontana, coins and ApuUan vases.
Fiume, CoUection of sculptures (chiefly from Minturnse) in General
Nugent's possession. BuU. d. Inst. 1831. p. 65.
3. Naples. Beal Museo Borbonico negli Studj, contains the Farnesian
treasures increased by additions from the buried cities, PuteoU and the

286 GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT ART.
Magna Grecian domain of art, and also by the Museums Borgia, Viven-
zio, (fee. Fine works in marble, but especiaUy pictures, vases, bronzes,
glass-wares, precious and engraved stones. The very comprehensive B.
M. Borbonico by NiccoUni, Finati, and others, from 1824 to [45, already
14 vols. 4to.] Gargiulo, Raccolta de' mon. piu interessanti di R. M. Borb.
Neapel's Antike BUdwerke, beschrieben von E. Gerhard, and Th. Panof
ka. Th. i, 1828. Catalogue by Jorio for the vases and old paintings.
Finati II R, Mus, Borbon, 1817—23, 3 T, [2 Bd, 1842. Bgypt. Mon. brass
and marble works, and Galerie des petits bronzes 1843. The erotic
and the obscene objects in the private cabinet were pubUshed at Paris in
1836, 4to,, and by H. Boux and Barrfi in 1840, 8vo. In Cuma entdeckte
Statuen, A, Ferri in the Thes, Gronov, Burmann Antiq. Sicil, ix, vol, 4.]
Museum at Portici, the first reservoir into which the treasures of art from
the buried towns found their way. CoUection of Prince Giorgio Spinelli
at Naples (especially terracottas from Greek tombs, Gerhard, Prodr, p, xiv.
[The BngUsh minister Temple's collection of vases, together with numer
ous bronzes, (fee, from Pompeu and Nocera ; the Santangelo collection, one
of the most considerable, that of the advocate Torrusio, principaUy from
Nola,] and others. Magazines of vases (Gargiulo, de Crescenzis, PacUeo,
especiaUy Barone). ReUefs at Sorrento [on numerous sarcophagi in the
episcopal palace].
In Sicily : Palermo, Mus. of Prince Castello di Torremuzza. Another
in the former college of the Jesuits (?). Ciccio Carelli's coUection of
vases. Hirt, Berlin. Kunstbl. ii. s. 71. 1829. Catania, Prince Biscari's
museum (vases, marbles, coins). Hirt, s. 67. Sestini Descr. del M. del
Pr. di Biscari. F. 1776 and 1787. [Munter Neapel u. SicUien, s. 421 ff.
Mus. of the Benedictines, s. 410.] CoUection of Can. Spoto. Hirt, s. 59
(also on other SiciUan collections). Palazzuola, §. 267. R. 5. [Syracuse,
Bartell's Reise iii. s. 275. 617. Hughes Trav. in Sicily, Greece i. p. 48
sqq. Vases, terracottas, coins, (fee, are found in many places in Sicily col
lected by some one or another, as at Lentini, Castelvetrano, Girgenti,
Contorbi, Sciacca. At Palermo the museum of the Jesuits certainly ex
ists still, containing bronze vessels, vases, terracottas, and Roman sculp
tures, and there is a similar one in the monastery of the Benedictines in
the neighbourhood. The public mus. is particularly distinguished for
the metopes of SeUnunte and a small number of important vases, and is
increasing. Vases in the possession of Prince Trabia, the duke of Ser
radifalco. The CareUi and Torremuzza collections can scarcely be stiU ex
tant.]

6. the west of EUROPE.

262. Of the other countries in Europe, France still pos
sesses the greatest number of native works of ancient art.
For, not taking into account the monuments of the Celts, which
even evince a certain spirit of enterprise and a putting forth
of great energies for architectural objects, the south of France
in particular is rich in remains of Roman civilization and love
of art, to which belong very excellent works in architecture,

FRANCE, LOCAL ANTIQUITLES, MUSEUMS. 287
and also many good sculptures; ruder works, bronzes, terra
cottas, mosaics, vases, such as every corner of the Roman em
pire produced, are also of course to be found throughout
France. While the antiquities found there form museums in ;
the provincial towns, the capital of the kingdom can alone
boast of a collection brought together from the chief lands of
art, and which, after restoration of the plundered objects, is
still a very splendid one in rightful possession. With regard ¦
to Spain, neither its native ruins and remains, nor the trea
sures of art acquired from abroad, are so well known as they
seem to deserve.
1. The Druidical grottoes, altars (dolmens), tumuli, obelisks (peulvans),
pierres branlantes, stone-coffins, stone-circles (chromlechs). The most
prevaiUng monuments are the stone-circles, and the alleys at Carnac near
Quiberon in Bretagne. Bretagne and the neighbouring islands, as the
last seats of Celtic reUgious worship, are the richest in these. See espe
ciaUy Cambry, Mon. Celtiques ou recherches sur le culte des pierres,
Caylus in the RecueU, especially T. v., and the fabulous book, Antiquites
de V6sone cit6 Gauloise par M. le Cte Wlgrin de TaUlefer. 1821.
The same monuments recur in England, especiaUy Wales (cairns, men
hirs, rocking-stones and kistvaens, similar to the German Hiinenbetten),
where Stonehenge produces a really imposing effect.
2. See especially MUlin's Voy. dans les d^partemens du Midi de la
France. P. 1807. 3 vols. 8vo. [PiorUlo Kl. Schr. u. s. 242 ff.] ; also Mont
faucon, Mon. de la Monarchie Pranjoise. P. 1729. 5 vols. Maffei, Gallise
antiqu. qusedam selectse. P. 1733. 4to. The same, De amphith. et thea-
tris GaUise, Caylus, RecueU, PownaU, Notices and descriptions of antiqu.
of the Provincia Romana of Gaul, L, 1788. De la Bauvagfere, Grivaud de
la VinceUe. Lenoir, Mus6e des Mon. Fran9ais. I Partie. Denkmaler der
Romer im mittagl. Frankreich von C. L. Ring. Carlsr. 1812. 4to. Me
moires de la Soc. des Antiquaires de Normandie, and similar coUections.
There is more recent information given in Ferussao's BuUetin, Sect. vii.
1824 — 1833. [and of the Greeks, Ann. d. Inst. vol. x. p. 88. Autun, Lyon,
Orange, Vienne, Carpentras, Rimes, Aries, and St. Remy. The Mon. du
Midi de la France par Grangent, Duraud et Durant P. 1819. royal fol. 44
pi. a valuable work.]
Massiglia, Grosson, RecueU des Antiqq. et Monumens Marseillois.
Mars. 1773. [Notice des mon. ant. conserves dans le M. de Mars. 1803.
28 B. Again coUected after the Revolution, Notice 1840, 8vo.] Notice
des Tableaux et Monumens antiques qui composent la coUection du M.
de MarseiUe, 1825. Nemausus (Nismes), above §. 190. R. 1. ii. Maison
Carree, amphitheatre, fountains, so-caUed temple of Diana, mosaic pave
ment. Besides Clerisseau [and several older writers], Menard Hist, des
Antiquites de la viUe de Nismes et de ses environs. Nismes 1825. New
ed. by Perrot, 1829, (with a plan of the newly discovered portico around
the maison carree), [1840, Notice du Mus, de Nimes 1841,] Annali d, I,
vii. p. 195. Grenoble, ChampoUion-Figeac, Antiq. de Grenoble 1807.
ToLOSA, Mem. de PAc. de Toul. T. i. [Du Mege Descr. du Mus. des An
tiquites de Toulouse, Toul, 1835. 8vo,] Arelas, ruins of a temple, am-

288 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
phitheatre, Aeguin, Antiq, d' Aries. 1687, (Venus d' Aries), Uckert,
Geogr. ii, 2. B. 434. [H. Clair Les mon. d' Aries ant. mod. 1837. 8vo. A
theatre discovered a few years since, remarkable. Bull. 1835. p. 135.
Veran, Notice des anc. mon. d' Aries. P. text. 4 pL fol. Estrangin L'am-
phitheatre k Aries, Marseille 1836, 8vo,] Arausio (Orange), triumphal
arch, theatre, amphitheatre, aqueducts, Gasparin, Hist, de la v, d'Orange.
Or. 1815. and others, Vienna, Notice du M. d'Antiq. de la ViUe de
Vienne par le Sieur Schneyder, fondateur et conservateur, Lugdunum,
Spon, Recherches des Antiq. de Lyon. L, 1676. 8vo. P. Artaud (Anti-
quaire de la VUle (Description des Antiq. e des Tableaux dans le M. de
Lyon, [Cab. des Antiques du M. de Lyon 1816, not complete] and other
works. Ara Augusti, §. 199, R. 9. Bibracte (Autun), Thomas Bibracte
s. Augustoduni mon. Lugd. 1650. Antiquities of Santones (Saintes),
edited by Chaudruc de Crazannes. Antiqq. Divionbnses by Jo. Richard.
P. 1585. Vesunna (in Petrocoriis), R. 1. Nebac, AnnaU d. I. v. p.
327. Bordeaux, Lacour, Antiqu. Bordelaises. Bord. 1806 (sarcophagi).
Paris, Roman bath. Strombeck, Berl. Monatschr. xiv. s. 81. Baths of
Julian, Berl. Mus. 1837. n. 41 f according to Q. de Quincy. Catacombs.
The Relief with the Celtic (Esus and Cernunnos). and Grecian deities was
discovered here in 1710. Bandelet, Descr. des basr. trouves depuis pen
dans I'egUse cathedr. de Paris. P. 1711, and Hist, de PAcad, des Inscr.
iu. p. 242. Montfaucon, Mem. de PAc, xvii, p, 249, (fee, Augusta Sues-
soNUM (Soissons) has recently become remarkable by the discovery of in
teresting statues, §, 126. R. 6. Bull. d. Inst. 1833. p. 106. Juliobona
(LiUebonne), theatre, recently laid open, statues found, Kunstbl. 1824. N.
36. BuU. des Scienc. Hist. 1828. Mars, p. 245, Nov. p. 370. 1829. Sept. p,
54. Ann. d' Inst. u. p. 61. tv. agg. c. Bernay (Department of Eure), sil
ver vessels of a temple of Mercury, §. 311. Bethouville in Normandy,
vessels of clay with reUefs from Homer, lately discovered and pubUshed
by Le Prevost.
Alsatia. Schopflin, Alsatia iUustrata, 1751. 2 vols. fo. The Schopflin
Museum (Oberlin, Schoepfl. M. 1773. 4to.) now belongs to the city.
[Schweighauser fils Mem. sur les antiq. Rom. de la ville de Strasb. 8vo. and
Enumeration des Mon. les plus remarquables du Bas Rhin. et des contrees
adjointes, Stras. 1842. 8vo. Golbery and Schweigh. Antiquites de I'Al-
sace 1828. fol.] Brocomagus (Brumzt, Rom. baths), Niderbronn, Bersch
(a pagan waU), Ell, and IttenswiUer are places where altars, vases and
the like have been found.
3. The chief periods of this coUection are; — 1st. The time before the
revolution, which dispersed the treasures of art in Paris and VersaiUes,
[Francis I, bought in 1531, 120 antiques, Vasari vi, p. 406, Various works
of art described by Montfaucon were destroyed in 1795 by the conflagra
tion of the Abbey.] Claude Mellan and Etienne Baudet, RecueU des
Statues et des Bustes du Cabinet du Roi, P. 2 vols, fo, (also many things
that are not now in the Louvre), Separate Cabinets de St, Denis, de St.
Genevieve (Felibien, Mon. Antiques, P, 1690. 4to,), — 2d. The time when
the finest statues from all parts of Italy were united in the Louvre. Be
sides the works mentioned, §, 38 : Lenoir, Descr, histor, e chronol, des
mon. anciens de sculpture deposes au M. de Paris, 4 vols, 8vo, Le Grand,
GaUeries des Antiques, P, 1803, 8vo, Landon, Annales du Musee, 1800
—1809, 17 vols, 8vo, Seconde Collection, 1810—21, 4 vols, [Filhol

PRANCE, SPAIN. 289
Galerie du M. Nap. redigee par. Jos. Lavaliee 1804 — 15. 10 vols, small 4to.
120 numbers each with 6 paintings and 1 work of sculpture.] Especially
useful : Mon. Ant. du M. NapoMon dessines par Piroli, publ. par Piranesi
(with explanations by Schweighauser the Younger, [under the superin-
tendance of Visconti] then by Petit-Radel). P. 1804. 4 vols, 4to.— 3d, The
period since the restitution. The old coUection ; the Borghese articles ;
many from the Albani collection ; those of Choiseul-Gouffier [of which
there is a Catal, by Dubois 1818.] ; many from Greece, §, 253, R. 2,
Recently opened Egyptian Museum containing the second Drovetti col
lection, Descr. des Antiques du M, Royal, commencee par — Visconti,
continuee par M, le Cte Clarac, P. 1820, new ed, 1830. Clarac's Musee
de Sculpture antique et moderne, will, besides those in the Louvre, con
tain a very comprehensive coUection of statues and busts. [The statues
of the Museums of Europe from pi. 395 in the 3rd to 991 in the 5th vol.
of plates, wbere the Iconography of Bgypt, Greece, and Rome begins. As
to the text there has only appeared to the half of the 3rd vol. Waagen
Kunstw. u. Kiinstler in Paris. B. 1839. The sculptures of the Louvre
criticised in chronological succession. The vases in the mus. of Charles
X,] Besides the Louvre the Cabinet des MedaiUes, together with the
splendid treasure of coins, likewise contains gems, cameos, bronzes and
other antiques, — objects partly described by Caylus and MilUn, Notice
des mon. exposes dans le Cab. des MedaiUes et antiques de la Bibliotheque
du Roi. Nouv. ed. accomp. d'un recueU de planches. P. 1822. 8vo.
Among the private collections, those of the Duke of Blacas (the
gems from the Earth collection, Panofka's M. Blacas. Vases Points.
Cah. 1 — 4. fo.), of Count Pourtaies (§. 261, R, 2), Panofka Antiques du
Cabinet du C. Pourtalfes-Gorgier P. 1834. 41 pi. BuU. 1836, p, 97, [Col
lections de Mr. le Comte Pourtalfes, G. Antiquites P, 1844. 8vo,] of Du
rand (vases and bronzes ; the earUer coUection is incorporated with the
royal), of Baron Beugnot (vases, bronzes), of Revil (bronzes, coins and
gems,) are the most important, [Catals, by de Witte, Cab, Durand 1836,
for sale. Vases peints et bronzes (of the Pr. di Canino) P. 1837, (for sale),
—Ukewise of Mr. de M(agnoncourt) P. 1839 (also sold 1841), and of M.
le Vic. Beugnot P. 1840,] The very miscellaneous coUection of Denon
[pubUshed in a large and sumptuous work] is now scattered. Dumersan,
Description des MedaUles ant. du cab. de feu M. AlUer de Hauteroche,
1829. 4to.
4. Spain. Travels of Pluer, Swinburne, Dillon. Bourgoing's Tableau
de PEspagne. Plorez, Bsp; Sagra. Laborde, Voy. pittor. et histor. de
PBspagne. P. 1806 and 12. 2 vols. fo. Comp. the literary notices in
Westendorp and Beuvens, Antiquiteiten u, ii. s. 274. [At Madrid ApoUo
and the nine Muses Descripzion y breve expl. de las estatuas — de los r.
jardines de S. Ildefonso 1803. p. 41, in Laborde i. Taf 11. Barcellona
iii. pi. 59. Tarragona, three torsi at Valencia, Mosaique d'ltaUca pi. 22.
Noticia Historico-Artistica de los Museos del em. Cardenal Despuig
existentes en Mallorca por D. J. M. Bover, Palma 1844 (54 inscriptions
chiefly Roman, about 140 statues, busts, reUefs, for the -most part deriv
ed from the excavations near Aricia in 1791. P. 128 — riquezas arqueo-
logicas que hasta ahora han sido casi del todo desconocidas.]
T

290 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
Ruins of Barcino (so-oaUed temple of Hercules) ; Tarraoo (a kind of
Cyclopean waUs, amphitheatre, aqueduct, palace) ; Calagurris, (Llor-
ente, Mon. Romano descubierto en Calahorra. Madr. 1789); Saguntum,
(Theatre, circus, a work on them by Palus and Novarro) ; Valentia
(Collection of antiquities from the neighbourhood in the archiepiscopal
palace. Tychsen, Biblioth. der alten Litt. und Kunst. i. s. 100) ; Segovia
(aqued.) ; near Augostobriga (Talavera la Vieja) ; Capaba (triumphal
arch); Norba Cesarba (? Alcantara; bridge, temple) ; Emebita (several
temples, theatre, amphith., aqueducts, cisterns) ; Italioa (Laborde, Descr.
d'un pave en mosaique dec. dans Pane, ville d'ltaUca, P. 1802). Descu-
brimento de los pavimentos de Bielves fol. Arabesques, meanders and the
like without figures. [P. Arnal on the mosaics of Bielves and Jumilla.
Ivo de la Cortina Antiquidades de ItaUca, SevUla 1840. 8vo. with 5 pi.]
In Portugal a Bom. theatre at Olisipo (Memoir by Azevedo).
Ancient statues in Ildefonso and the gardens of Aranjuez. Coins and
gems in the Royal Library. Private coUection of statues belonging to
the Duke of Medina-CeU. The Odesoalohi collection has come to Spain,
through the queen Christina. See Notes to Winckelmann. M. Odescal-
cum. R. 1747. 1751, fo., engr. by P. S, Bartoli, Text by Nic, Galeotto
(also contains the earUer pubUshed Gemme d' Odescalchi, fo,), MedaUles
du Cabinet de la R, Christine. A' la Haye, 1742. fo. — Tychsen in loco, s,
90 ff.
263, England in like manner possesses many scattered
remnants of Roman civilization which took root there very
early and very deeply; but it unites in a great national
museum the most important collection of genuine Greek
sculptures in existence, with many acquisitions from Rome
and Lower Italy. The numerous collections which are dis
persed over the country, — few of them accurately, many of
them not at all known, — are principally the results of traflic
in art (especially by Jenkins) and restoration workships at
Rome (chiefly Cavaceppi's). Of greater interest in a scientific
point of view, although less extensive, are many collections
which have recently been formed by travellers in Greece
itself 1. Cambden, Britannia. L. 1607. fo. Gordon, Itiner. Septentr. L. 1727.
Horsley's Britannia Eomana. L. 1732. fo. W. Roy, The Military An
tiqu. of the Romans in Britain. L. 1793. fo. W. Musgrave, Antiqq. Bri-
tanno-Belgicse. Lyson's Eeliquise Brit. Romanss. L. 1813. fo. The
Archseologica Britannica in numerous essays (see Reuss, Report, p, 39),
The fifth room in the British Museum contains Roman sepulchral anti
quities. Traces of temples, amphitheatres, baths, castles, roads, tombs, dweUing
houses (mosaic pavements) in different places. In London mosaics
have been found under the Bank and the India House, RuTUPia:
(Richborough in Kent), Jo. Battely, Antiqu, Butupinse. Oxf 1746. An-
DERiDA (near Beachy Head) in Sussex. Aq,vjE Calid.s, Lyson's Remains
of two temples at Bath and other Rom. Antiqu. discovered. L. 1802. fo.
Lyson's figures of mosaic pavements disc, at Horkston in Lincolnshire.

SPAIN, ENGLAND. 291
L. 1801. fo. By the same. Account of Rom. Antiqu. discovered at Wood-
ohester in the county of Gloucester. 1796, fo.
2. The principal constituent parts of the British Museum are : 1st,
An old coUection founded by Hans Sloane, 2d. One of the Hamilton
coUections of vases, together with bronzes and utensils from Lower Italy.
3d. The Egyptian monuments mostly captured by Nelson, Engravings
with a descript, account of Egyptian monuments in the British Mus.
coUected by the French Institute in Egypt and surrendered to the Bri
tish forces (the drawings by W, Alexander), 4th, The Townley collec
tion of marbles and terracottas [since 1810 ; on this collection G. Porster'a
Ansichten von England s. 181 ff.]. 5th. The Elgin collection (§, 263, R.
2,) with other new purchases, especially the Phigalian reliefs. 6th. The
Payne Knight coUection of bronzes, gems, coins (Numi vet, M, R, P. K.
asservati. 1830, comp, Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 363). The great treasure of
old coins (Haym, Combe) has also been thereby augmented with very
rare and exceUent pieces. The chief work §. 38. Descr. of the collec
tion of anc. terracottas in the Brit. Mus. L. 1818. Synopsis of the Brit.
Mus. [47. Ed. 1844. The Lycian Museum §. 90*.]
3. In Oxford the Marmora Pomfretiana, the Arundeliana (chiefly
inscriptions), the Ashmolean M. (native antiquities). Some things in
BatcUff's Library and Christ-church college. (Browne and Chandler)
Marmora Oxoniensia. Ox. 1763. fo. At Cambbidgb, some objects in
Trinity coUege ; the Clarke coUection in the vestibule of the public li
brary (above §. 263. R. 2).
Lord Pembroke's coUection at Wilton near Salisbury very considera
ble, rich in busts (mostly with wrong names). Two accounts of it by
Kennedy and Richardson, Mdes Pembrokianse 1788. 8vo. Lord Egre-
mont's collection at Petworth, Amalthea iu. s, 249, As to the Blundel
coUection at Ince near Liverpool, on which there exists a work of copper
plate engravings, 2 vols, fo,, ibid. s. 48. Collection of the Duke of Bed
ford in Bedfordshire, Outline engravings and Descriptions of the Woburn
Abbey marbles. [1822. 48 pi.] Gott. G. A. 1827. N. 185. The Duke of
Marlborough's coUection of gems at Blenheim. In London the Lans-
downe coUection, containing very exceUent things (Amalth. iu. s. 241), and
the Hope coUection (which, besides statues, contains the second Hamilton
collection of vases.) There are many things from these collections (Payne
Knight's) in Specimens, §. 38, On coUections of an earlier date : M.
Meadianum. L. 1755. (Ainsworth) Mon. Kempiana. L. 1720. 8vo.
Middletonianse Antiqu. cum diss. Conyers Middl. Cant. 1745. 4to. [Sam.
Lysons, the Mosaics in England.]
4. Of this description is the Worsley collection at Appuldurcombe in
the Isle of Wight. M. Worsleyanum (Text by Visconti). 2 vols. fo. L.
1794. [pubUshed at Darmstadt by W. Bberhard and H. Schaffer, 6 nos.
fol. Mus. Worsleyano, Milano 1834. 8vo. 2 vols.] The House of Lord
Guilford contains (if they are still there) many valuable objects from
Greece. The smaU private collections of Leake, Hawkins, Burgon, Fiott
Lee (golden ornaments from Ithacan sepulchres), Roger. [Sir John
Sloane, publ. L. fol. The Burgon coll. chiefly of terracottas and vases
from Greece, now in the Brit. Mus. On the other hand, that of Mr.
Thos. Blayds at Baglefield Green near Windsor, containing the Pizat-

292 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART,
ti vases from Florence is now not inconsiderable, also that of Lord North
ampton, The CoghiU vases were sold at London in 1843,] CoUections
of coins — Lord Northwick's, §, 132. R, 1,, Thomas's [sold by auction in
1844], Egyptian antiquities in the possession of Lord Belmore, Bankes
and others. [Engraved stones in the possession of Sir R, Worsley, the
Duke of Devonshire, C. CarUsle, Jos, Smith,]
J, DaUaway, Anecdotes of the arts in England. L. 1800. In French
with Notes by MUlin, Paris 1807, contains nothing but rude and un
critically prepared catalogues. Gode, England, Wales, Irland und Sohott-
land, 1805. 5 bde., Spiker, Reise durch England, Wales und Schottl.
1818. 2 bde. [Waagen Kunstwerke und Kiinstler in England. B, 1837,]

6. GERMANY AND THE NORTH.
1 264. In Germany, — where museums have now come to be
regarded as public and patent institutes of national civiliza
tion, — in addition to the Dresden collection of statues which
has been for a long time the chief and much-famed central
point of archaeological studies for our native land, and the
Vienna cabinet, which vies with that of Paris in engraved
stones and coins, two new collections have very recently risen
to the first rank, supplementing and completing the archaeo
logical materials in the most satisfactory manner, the one by
its fine historical succession of statuary monuments, the other
by its comprehension of the most different classes of ancient
2 products of art. The native remains of Roman culture in
the provinces beyond the Danube and in the agri decumates
on this side of the Danube and the Rhine, however important
they may be historically, excite nevertheless but seldom an
artistic interest.
1. Zur Gesch. der Sammlungen fiir Wiss. u. Kunst. in Deutschland
by G. Klemm, Zerbst 1837, very complete as regards external infor
mation. The great mass of the antiquities at Dresden were purchased
in 1725 from the princes Chigi, many things afterwards from the Albani
coUection ; the Herculanian women (§. 260. R. 2) from Eugene of Savoy.
Engraved works §. 37. 38. Besides, J. Casanova, Abh. iiber alte Denkma
ler der Kunst, besonders zu Dresden, Leipz. 1771. 8vo. Beschreibung
der Chf. Antiken-Gallerie in Dresden, von J. Fr. Wacker und J. G. Lip
sius. Dresden 1798. 4to. (Hase) Verzeichniss der alten und neuen
BUdwerke in den Saalen der Konigl. Antiken-Sammlung zu Dresden.
Dr. 1833 [1839. 5th Ed.], in 12mo. (many things determined with more
accuracy). [Observations in the Kunstbl. 1827. N, 11,] H, Hase Bei
Wiedereroffnung der k, Antiken-Samml, zu Dresden im Mai 1836, Nach
richten zu ihrer Geschichte, Hirt, Kunstbemerkungen auf einer Reise
nach Dresden u, Prag, 1830, s, 128, [Idem in the artist. Notizenblatt
of the Abendzeit. 1830, N, 22,]
The Royal cabinet of antiquities at Vienna contains, besides the great

GERMANY, MUSEUMS, 293
coUection of coins (Bckhel's Cat. M. Csesareo-Vindobonensis 1779. Numi
anecd. SyU. i. 1786. Great manuscript work by Neumann), which is
constantly increased by discoveries from the whole empire (golden me
dals of the time of Constantine, Steinbiiohel, Not. sur les medallions
Rom. en or du M. I. R. 1826, 4to.) and by purchases (comp. §. 261. R. 2),
and the splendid treasure of cameos, intaglios and pastes (Eckhel, Choix
des pierres gravees du Cab. Imp. des ant. representees en 40 pi. 1788, fo.),
several antique vases of sUver (§. 200. R. 2) and gold (large Byzantino-
Sclavonian gold-vase from Hungary), fine bronzes and terracottas, a
considerable collection of vases into which the great Lambert collection
has merged (Al. de Laborde, CoU. des Vases Grecs de M. le Cte de Lam
berg. 1813. 1825. 2 vols, fo.), and several interesting statues and busts
(§. 121. R 2. 199, R, 6, 380). Some things came from the coUection of
the eminent connoisseur Barth, Besides, a collection of Roman busts,
altars, and tomb-stones in the souterrains of the temple of Theseus in the
pubUc garden (Steinbiichel Beschr. des Theseums, 1829), and Egyptian
antiquities (Steinbiichel Beschr. 1826. Scarabsei §. 230. R. 2). Some
ancient sculptures and bronzes in the Ambras coUection. Of older date,
the M. Prancianum (mostly gems), 2 vols. 8vo. with preface by Wolfg.
Reiz. The coUection in the monast. of S. Pierian, formerly that of Apos-
tolo Zeno, Arneth in the Wiener Jahrb. 1838. 8vo. Anz. S. 40. [J. Ar
neth, Das K. K. Miinz cabinet Wien 1846. (Catalogue of the vases,
bronzes, gold and sUver vessels, engraved stones). Beschr. der im cabinet
zur Sohau ausgelegten Munzen u. MedaUlen, 1845. Beschr. der zum —
Cab. gehorigen Statuen, Biisten, ReUefs, Inschr., Mosaiken 1845. 8vo.]
— Former coUection of the emperor Rudolph II. at Prague.
At Munich the Glyptotheca is formed from recent purchases of the
jEginetan statues, exceUent sculptures from Roman villas (§. 261. R. 1)
and the Barth collection, Ukewise Etruscan (§. 173. R. 2) and Egyptian
works. Kunstblatt 1827. N. 68. 1828. N. 33—48. 1830. N. 1. 3. 4.
Klenze and Schorn, Beschr. der Glyptothek. 1830. Antiquarium in the
Palace, consisting of Roman busts and bronzes [chiefly modern]. Comp.
Kunstblatt 1826. N. 12. Jahresberichte der K. Bayerschen Academic.
A cabinet of coins in the Academy augmented by the Cousinery collec
tion. A fine coUection of vases in which are said to have been merged
that of Madame Murat, the Panettieri of Agrigentum, and the Feoli from
Volci, is not yet available. [Now exhibited in 5 apartments. There were
also purchased 60 of the 100 last discovered vases of Prince Canino,
among which there are some very remarkable ones. The so-called United
CoUections in the old gaUery in the palace garden, containing remarkable
objects from Greece, a coll. of terracottas from SicUy (Centorbo) and the
Fogelberg coll. from Rome, and consisting of 500 articles, bronzes and
other objects. Catal. Munchen 1848.]
In Berlin there were some time ago 1. The chamber of art in the
Royal palace, with bronzes, gems, coins (which have been also recently
increased), partly from the Palatine coUection (Laur. Beger, Thesaurus
Palatinus. Heidelb. 1685. Thes. Brandenburgicus. B. 1696). Here was
also 2. Baron Stosch's DactyUotheca which was purchased by Frederick
II, (Gemmse ant, artificum nominibus insignitse cum expos. Stoschii,
Amst. 1724, fo, Winckelmann, Descr, des pierres gravees du Baron de

294 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART,
Stosch, F, 1760. 4to. Choix de pierres grav, de la coll, du Baron de
Stosch accomp, de notes par SchUchtegroU. Niirnb. 1798, also in Ger
man. Many impressions from these in Lippert and Tassie, and in a
new coUection, Verzeichniss der geschn. Steine in dem K. Mus. 1827,
Gothe, Werke xUv, s. 72). 3. Statues in the palaces of BerUn, Potsdam
and Sans-Souci, especially the so-caUed famUy of Lycomedes, from Cardi
nal PoUgnac's bequest (RecueU deSoulpt.ant. Gr, et Rom, [1763. 8vo.] 1754.
4to,) purchased by Fred, II. (Levezow iiber die Familie des Lycomedes. B.
1804). (Bsterreich, Descr. des deux Palais & Sans-Souci, 1774. 8vo, Kriiger,
Antiqu. du Roi de Prusse k Sans-Souci. B. 1769. fo. To these have been
adde(i in more recent times 4. The great KoUer collection of vases from
Campania, Lucania and ApuUa, Ukewise terracottas, bronzes, glass articles.
Levezow in the Berl. Kunstbl. i. s. 341. u. s. 4 ; 5. The M. Bartoldiano
(descr. dai D. T. Panofka. B. 1827. 8vo.), consisting of bronzes, vases,
terracottas, glass articles and pastes. Berl. Kunstbl. i. s. 315 ; 6. Several
smaUer coUections of vases (Count Ingenheim, also statues ; Henin) ;
7. A number of statues recently purchased in Italy ; 8. The Dorow (Mag
nus) coUection of vases, chiefly from Volci (R. Rochette, Journ. des
Savans 1829. p. 131. Dorow, Binfiihrung in eine AbtheUung der Vasens.
des K. Mus. B. 1833). AU this now forms the great Boyal Museum.
Comp. Levezow, Amalthea ii. s. 337. iii. s. 213. Catalogues by L. Tieck
and Levezow. Gott. G. A. 1830. N. 202. [by Gerhard BerUn's Ant. Bild
werke Beschr. B. 1836. 1 Th. Sculptures and vases. Recently acquired
ancient monuments 1—3 Heft 1836. 40. 46, Vases to No. 1922. Works
on Vases §. 321. R, 5. The vases in 1834 by Levezow, the intagUos
by Tolken 1835. The terracottas pubUshed by Panofka 4. B. 1842.]
There remains separate from it a considerable coUection of Egyptian
antiquities, formed by Baron MinutoU (Hirt Zur Wiirdigung der von
dem Gen. Freih. v. MinutoU eingebrachten Sammlung. B. 1823), Count
Sack and Passalacqua (Catal. Raisonne et historique des antiqu. deoouv.
en Egypte par M. J, Pass, 1826, 8vo,), — Private coUection of W. v.
Humboldt (sculptures) at Tegel,
Cassel, Mus, Predericianum contains several excellent statues, many
gems and some fine bronzes. Many antiquities were acquired from At
tica about 1687. Diet, Tiedemann, Dissert, ui. Cass, 1778 sqq. 4to. Vol
kel in Welcker's Zeitschr. i, 1. s. 151. [Stuhl Uebersicht des Museum zu
Kassel.] Brunswick, Ducal Museum, marble busts, bronzes, the Mantuan vase,
[missed since the fiight of the second last duke, who denies however that
he took it with him. Its value is enormous.] Montfaucon, Ant. expl. ii.
78. Eggeling, Mysteria Cereris et Bacchi, 1682. Meurs. Bleusin. ii. p. 525.
Vase d'onix antique . . . dessine par P. G. Ceding, grave par M. Tyroff.
[Niedmann in the appendix to Denkwiirdigkeiten u. Reisen des Obr.
V. Nordenfels 1830. Bottiger kl. Schr. ii. S. 306. Tf 4. Gerhard Ant.
Bildw. Tf 310, 2. S. 73. f Kunstbl. 1827. S. 376 ff.] Comp. §. 358.
Hanover, the WaUmoden coUection. [Nachr. von einer Kunstsamml.
in Hanover 1781. 78 s.] Heads of the emperors in the garden at Herrn-
hausen. Arolsen, rich collection of bronzes and coins in the Prince of Wal-
deck's palace. Gerhard, Kunstbl. 1827. N. 87 ff. [On the marbles of this

GERMANY, LOCAL ANTIQUITIES, 295
coll, Jahrb, des Alterthumsvereins zu Bonn, v, §. 348, Worlitz, since
1806, ApoUo and the Muses, statues from Herculaneum, basreliefs,
painted vases, (fee]
Gotha, large coUection of coins. Liebe, Gotha Nuraaria. Amst, 1730,
fo. [Considerable recent purchases. Catal, by Fr, Jacobs,]
The Erbach collection at Brbach in the Odenwald,
Darmstadt, some busts and antiquities in the palace, Gothe, Werke
xlui, s. 389. [Ph. Walther des G H. Mus. zu D. der Antikensaal.
1841. 8vo.]
2. Comp. OberUn, Orb. Ant. p. 62. Schweighauser in the Kunst
blatt 1826, N. 86 ff. On the ruins of Tbbves, §. 193. R. 7, Porta
Nigra, amphith,, baths, bridge over the MoseUe, Roman walls (so-
caUed palace of Helen) in the cathedral, pagan tower. CoUection of
antiquities in the Gymnasium and in the Porta Nigra, Brower,
Antiqu. et Annales Trevirenses. Col. 1626. Alterthiimer u. Naturan-
siohten im Moselthale bei Trier, gez. von Ramboux, erkl. von Wyt
tenbach. 4 Liefer ; Trier u. Miinchen. [Wyttenb. Neue Forsch. Trier
1835. 2 Ausg. 1844. Ueber das Alter der Moselbriicke 1826. 4to. Ch.
W. Schmidt, Rom. Byzant. u. German. Baudenkmaler in Trier 1 Lief,]
Steininger Die Ruinen am Althor zu Trier 1835, A theatre? Qued-
now, Trierer Alterthiimer, 1820. Th. v. Haupt, Panorama von Trier,
1834. Monument of the Secundini at Iqel. Drawing by Hawich, with
explanatory text by Neurohr, Treves 1826. Work by C, Osterwald,
Gobi. 1829. [by L. Schorn in the Abhdl. of the K. Bayerischen Akad. der
W. phUos. Kl. i. s. 257. 1835.] Gothe xUv. s. 180 fo. Aix-la-Chapelle,
Roman columns in edifices of Charlemagne. Sarcophagus with the rape
of Proserpine. Cologne, Roman towers in the wall of the city. Cabinet
of antiquities of Wallraf (Gothe xliii. s. 315) and in the coUege of the
Jesuits. [Xanten Fiedler Rom. Antiq. des Notars Houben zu Xanten,
Denkmaler von Castra Vetera u. Col. Trajana. Xanten 1839 fol. Antike
Brotische Bildw. 1839 fol. (of the same coll.) By the same : Gesch. u.
Alterth. des untern Germaniens i. Essen. 1824. 8vo. Die zu Cleve gesam-
melten Alterth. B. 1795. 8vo.] Bonn, Collection of the University ; many
things from the Roman station near Wichelshof Dorow, Denkmale
Grormanischer und Rom. Zeit in den Rheinisch- Westphal, provinces, 1823.
4to. Roman baths at Andernaoh, Sayn, Antiqu. Saynenses a L. Ph.
de Reyffenberg. a, 1684, coU., ed. 1830. CoUection at Neuwibd, Dorow,
Riim. Alterthiimer bei Neuwied 1827. Coblenz, Count Rainesse's col
lection of bronzes and other antiquities. Roman tower at Rudeshbim,
Wiesbaden, the Nassau Society's coUection of antiquities. Annalen
des Vereins fiir Nassauische Alterthumskunde u. Geschichtsforschung
hft, i. 1827, Dorow, Opferstiltten und Grabhiigel der Germ, u, Rom, am
Rhein. 1819, 20. Heddernheim, Ruins of a castra stativa, Habel, An
nalen i, s. 46. comp. §. 408. [Jahrbiicher des Vereins von Alterthums-
f'reunden im Rhein-Lande Bonn. 1842-47. 10 hefte.]
Maienoe, Bichelstein in the citadel, other architectural remains (on
the Kestrich). Eoman aqueduct near Zahlbach. Collection in the Li
brary, in which there is likewise a composite capital from Ingelheim
(comp. Aix-la-ChapeUe). Private coUection of Bmele, Beschreibung Mainz,
1825. [with 34 pi. Malten Ausgrabungen in und bei Mainz, 1842, 8vo,

296 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
Das Mainzer Mus. Alth. Verein zu Bonn ii. s. 50.] Discoveries at As-
chaffenburg (Hein). Knapp, Rom. Denkmaler des Odenwaldes. 1813.
Alberti, von Wanstadt, Mayer, Eisenherz, Graff iiber Rom. Alterthiimer
am obern Rhein, Heidelberger Jahrb. 1838. s. 1125. WUhelmi. [Pauli
die Romischen u. Deutschen Alterth. am Rhein. i. Rheinhessen, Mainz.
1820.] Mannheim, Antiquities from Mayence, Godramstein, Neuburg
on the Danube and elsewhere. [Graff Das Antiquarium in Mannheim
1839. i. ii.] Spire, public coUection. Beschr. von J. M. Konig. 1832.
Carlsruhe, collection of bronze figures and the Uke. [Ulrichs Alterth.
Verein in Bonn ii, s. 65 — 66. Creuzer Zur Gallerie der alten Drama-
tiker. Griech. Thongefasse der Grossherz. Badisghen Sammlung. 1839.
Munzen in the Bibliothek.] Durlaoh, altars and other stone sculptures
in the palace garden. Baden, Roman baths. Badenweileb, Roman
baths, almost the best preserved and most instructive ruins of the kind
(Weinbrenner, Entwiirfe i, 3). Stuttgart, Roman antiquities in the
Library. Egyptian antiquities in the cabinet of natural history. For
general information, Wielandt Beytr. zur altesten Geschichte des Land-
strichs am r. Rheinufer von Basel bis Bruchsal. Carlsr. 1811. On the
state of civilization in the agri decumani, Leiohtlen very full : Schwaben
unter den Romern (Forschungen im Gebiet der Gesch. Deutschl. iv.).
Creuzer Zur Gesch. altrom. Cultur am Oberrhein und Neckar. 1833. s.
44 ff. SuUe antich. rom. trov. in Suevia, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 214. [v. Jau-
mann Colonia Sumlocenna, Rottenburg on the Neckar under the Ro
mans. 1840. 8vo.]
In Rh^tia : Augsburg, Antiquarium. W. Kaiser Die Rom. Al
terthiimer zu Augsburg, mit 13 Kupfert. Augsb. 1820. 4to. [and
the Rom. Antiquarium zu Augsburg. 1823. 4to.] By the same:
Der Ober-Donaukreis, drei Abhandl. 1830 — 32, and Antiqu. Reise von
Augusta nach Viaca (Memmingen) 1829. Guntia, Gunzburg. Samm
lung Rom. Denkmaler in Baiern. heft., 2. Miinchen 1808. 4to and fol.
Rom. Camp at Oberndorf, near Donauwerth, Hist. Abth. der Miinch.
Akad. Bd. v. [P. A. Mayer iiber versch. im Konigr. Baiern gefundne
Rom. Alberth. Munchen 1840. 8vo.] In Norioum : Salzbubg especiaUy
(Mosaic §. 412. R. i.). On Austrian discoveries, the Anzeigebl. of the
Wiener Jahrb., especially by Steinbiiohel, Bd. xiv — xlviii. Muchar, Das
Rom. Noricum. Graz 1826. In Pannonia: the ruins of Carnuntum near
Petronell; Cilly (Celeja), [Von Hohenhausen die Alterth. Daoiens im
heutigen Siebenblirgen, Wien 1775. 4to.].
1 265. The countries that border Germany on the west
resemble the Rhenish districts in the richness and kind of
Roman remains ; in Holland there is no want of collections
of superior works of art; Belgium is much more deficient.
2 The North, likewise, which possesses no native antiquities
but those of German heathendom (for the Sclavonian nations
seem to have still less than the Germans attended to the erec
tion of durable monuments), has no important collections of
valuable works of ancient art except the Royal Swedish (from
which however many splendid possessions have again escaped,
§. 262. R. 4), and the Imperial Russian, which is always in-
,3 creasing. Ancient Daoia in regard to Roman remains does

b b

SWITZERLAND, HOLLAND, (fee, 207
not stand far behind the west of Europe; and the newly
awakened national feeling of the Magyars endeavours to con
centrate them as much as possible within the limits of their
native country.
1. Switzerland. Aventioum amphitheatre (Mus. Aventicinum at
Avanche), v. Schmidt Antiqu. d'Avenches et de Culm. Bernse, 1760. 4to.
(particularly mosaics.) Ritter, Mem. et Recueil de qqs. antiq. de la
Suisse, B. 1788. 4to. Augusta Raurao. (Aoftt) amphitheatre. Schopflin,
Alsatia, p, 160, A work by Jacob. Cantonal museum at Lausanne, [At
Zurich, Antiquarium in the town Library.]
Holland. Cabinet of coins and gems at the Hague, in which is also
incorporated the weU known collection of Fr. Hemsterhuis (Gothe, Jenaer,
LZ. 1807. Progr. Werke, xxx. s. 260, xxxix, s. 313). Notice sur le
Cab, des MedaiUes et des pierres grav, de S, M. le Roi des Pays-Bas par
J. C. de Jonge Dir. A la Haye. 1823. [Premier Suppl. 1824. By the
same Catal, d'empreintes du Cab. des p, gr. 1837, 8vo,] Museum of the
University at Leyden, formed from the Papenbroek coUection (Ouden-
dorp, Descr, legati Papenbroekiani. L, B, 1746, 4to,) and new objects of
art procured partly from Greece by Col. Bottlers [1819], and from Africa
by Humbert. V. Antiquiteiten, een oudheidkundig Tijdschrift bezorgd
door Nic. Westendorp en C, J, C. Reuvens ii, 1, s, 171, 2, s, 269. Amal
thea iu. s. 422 ff. [Monumens Egyptiens du Musee d' antiq, des Pays-
Bas par C, Lemans, Leide 1839. Janssen De Grieske, Bom, en Etr, Monu-
menten van bet Museum te Leyden 1843,] At an earlier period M, Wil-
dianum descr. a Sig. Havercamp, Amst. 1741. Cabinet de Thoms, partly
purchased for Paris, partly for the Hague. RecueU de planches du Cab,
de Thoms, — Cabinet of Horry at Antwerp (vases from Greece).
Considerable antiquities at Nimweguen (Neomagus), Smetius, Anti-
quitates Neomagenses, Noviom, 1678, 4to, and other works. Letters of
Gisb. Cuper, J. Pr. Gronov and others. Antiquiteiten ii, 2, s, 206, [Count
Wassenaer Catal. Statuarum cet Hagse Comit. 1760. 8vo, P, Petau An
tiq, recueillies a Amsterdam 1757, 4to. Sallengre Nov, Thes, Ant. T, ii,
Guyot collection in Nimwegen, Jahrb. des Vereins Bonn vii. s. 56, at
Utr, ix, s. 17,] Nic, Chevalier, Recherche curieuse d'Antiquite. Utr, fo.
Forum Hadbiani near the Hague. Excavations since 1827, Reuvens,
Notice et Plan des constructions Rom, trouvees sur Pemplac. presume du
Forum Hadr. fo, [The Dodwell collection has been taken to Brussels. M.
Notice sur le Musee Dodwell et Catal, rais, des objets qu'il contient, Rome
1837, 8vo,]
2, The Royal Museum at Copenhagen contains some Egyptian anti
quities, the fragments from the Parthenon, §, 118, R, 2,, a few Roman
busts and antiquities, especially vases, lamps, glass -articles from the
neighbourhood of Carthage (regarding which there is some information
given in the Memoir by Falbe, Sur I'emplacement de Carthage), also
engraved stones. See von Ramdohr Studien i. s, 139 ff. Das poUt.
Journ, 1817. Sept. Oct. Royal Cabinet of Coins, C. Ramus Catal 1815. 3
bde 4to. The collection of Prince Christian is now particularly interest
ing. It contains coins, especially Magna Grecian and SiciUan, vases
from Magna Grecia, also from Volci, and a few marbles ; many objects

298 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ART.
in it were purchased from the coUection of Capece-Latro, archbishop of
Tarentum. Sestini, Descr. d'alcune med. Greche del. M. di sua A. R
Msg. Cristiano Federigo princ. ered. di Danimarca. P. 1821. Bishop
Munter has caused some antiques from Bgypt and Italy to be let into
the walls in the episcopal palace ; his collection of coins has been soljl.
[Musle Thorwaldsen par L. MiiUer 1847. Scot. i. u. Egyptian Antiquities,
Etruscan, Greek and Roman vases and terracottas, marbles, gold, silver,
bronze, etc. iu. Scot. Engraved stones.]
Royal Swedish Museum at Stockholm. E. M. R. Sueciss antiqu. sta
tuarum series ace. C. F. P. (Fredenheim). 1794. fo. [The nine Muses,
Bndymoin, of which latter there is a cast at Berlin.]
Russia. The palace of Sarskoselo near St. Petersburg, contains some
sculptures of rare exceUence; Statues in the hermitage at the winter
palace. There are many fine things in the Imperial Russian Cabinet of
engraved stones at St. Petersburg, which arose out of the Natter coUec
tion, and was augmented in the time of the revolution by the Orleans
collection (works by La Chan and Le Blond. 1780. 84), and in 1802 by
the Strozzi coUection from Florence. Kohler, Bemerkungen iiber die R.
Kais. Sammlung von gesch. Steinen, 1794. 4to, and in different mono-
graphies on gems of this collection. An unimportant work by MiUotti,
1803. fol. A Pizatti coUection of vases, bronzes, terracottas is now also
at St. Petersburg since 1834, Dorpater Jahrb. ii, 1. s. 87, University
coUection at Dorp at, enriched especiaUy with Egyptian antiquities by
Richter's travels in the Bast, unimportant [Morgenstern Prolusio con-
tinens recensionem numorum famiUarum Rom. qui in Museo Acad, con-
tinentur P. 1. 2. 1817. 18, xxx, numorum Grsec, argent, 1820, — numorum
imperatoriorum 1820, 1834. fol,]. An Egyptian cabinet in Polerb. As
to the shores of the Black Sea, §, 254. R. 2.
3. Hungary and Transylvania. Severini Pannonia vetus monum,
iUustr. Lips, 1771. 8vo. V. Hohenhausen, Alterthiimer Daoiens, Wien
1 775, 4to, Ruins of Sabaria (Stein am Anger), Caryophilus, De thermis
Herculanis nuper in Dacia detectis. Mantua 1739, 4to. Schonwisner,
De ruderibus Laconici etc, in solo Budensi, Budse 1778, fo. Kunstbl.
1824. N. 69. New Excavations in Hermanstadt (Walsh's Journey). —
Hungarian national museum at Pesth, founded in 1807. Account in Cat-
taneo, Equejade. Milano 1819. 4to. Prefaz.; and in the Acta M. Nat.
Hungar. T, i, CoUection of Count Wiczay at Schloss Hedervar near
Raab (gems, bronzes, especially coins). On the Wiczay coU, and Bestini's
writings thereon, H, Hase, Zeitgenossen dritte Reihe N, xix. s. 79 ff. M,
Hedervarii numos ant, descr, C, Mich, a Wiczay, Vindob, 1814, 2 bde 4to.
[The Hungarian Museums have received many things from Ehrenreich
a dealer in antiquities, Cattaneo Oss, sopra un framm. ant, di bronzo,
Milano 1810, p, 2,]

FIRST MAIN DIVISION.

tectonics.
266. Among the arts which represent in space we distin- 1
guish (according to §, 22.), in the first place, those that are
subservient to purposes of utility, and which fashion and pro
duce vessels, utensils and buildings in conformity to the wants
and purposes of external life, but at the same time in accordance
with the internal requirements of the human mind. It is by 2
this latter feature that they belong to art, and it therefore
must be here especially kept in view.

I, BUILDINGS,
ARCHITECTONICS.
267. The endless diversity of architectural structures can 1
only be comprehended in the idea that by means of materials
of an inanimate nature inorganic forms are presented, which,
occupying, designating or demarcating in an immediate man
ner the area of the earth, bear in themselves a character of
fixity and solidity. Here we can always distinguish 1. the 2
materials furnished by nature, and the manner of applying
them; 2. the forms which the hand of man impresses on
them; and 3. the particular purposes and occasions of the
construction, which determine the particular kinds of build
ings. 1. Is there any other definition that will not exclude tumuli, chrom
lechs, causeways, aqueducts, syrinxes, and even ships (buildings that
are destined to occupy the unstable surface, in such a way as it will
admit of) ? The notion habitation, monument, place of abode, and the Uke,
certainly must not be included.
2. The summary presented in the sequel can for the most part be
nothing more than nomenclature which oral exposition must supply
with the iUustrations. At the same time are to be made use of the
numerous commentators on Vitruvius, especiaUy Schneider, with tho
plates to Vitr. Bank, by A. Rhode. B. 1801 ; C. L. Stieglitz, Baukunst der
Alten. Leipz. 1796. 8vo. with 11 copperplate engravings. The same, Arch
aologie der Baukunst der Griechen und Romer. 2 thle. 1801. 8vo. with
plates and vignettes, and Gesch. der Baukunst. Niirnb. 1827; his Beitr.
zur Gesch. der Ausbildung der Baukunst. Th. 1. Leipz. 1834, with 25
lithogr. pi. especially A. Hirt's Baukunst nach den Grundsatzen der Al
ten. B. 1809. fo. ; in the latter pt. 3. the election of building, also Wie-

300 ARCHITECTONICS.
beking biirgerl. Baukunst, 1821, Hubsch uber Gr. Archit, 1822. 2 Ed,
with defence against Hirt, 1824. Durand, Recueil et paraUfeles d'edifices
de tout genre (text by Le Grand), P, a. viii. Rondelot, L'Art de batir.
1802 — 1817. 4 vols. 4to. Le Brun, Theorie de Parchitecture Greoque et
Rom. P. 1807. fo. Canina, L' Architettura [antica descritta e dimostr.
coi mon. Opera divisa in tre sezioni riguardanti la storia, la teoria e le
pratiche dell' archit. Bgiz. Greca e Rom. R. 1839 — 44. 6 vols. fol. K.
Botticher, die Tektonik der HeUenen, Introduction and Dorika, with 21
pi. Potsdam 1844. 4to. and fob]

1, BUILDING MATEllIALS.

268. First: Stones. In Greece there was a great quan
tity of marble made use of, from the quarries of Hymettus,
Penthelicon, Paros, Ephesus, and Proconnesus ; but tufa and
calc-sinter from different districts were also employed. In
Rome there was originally used for the most part volcanic
tufa of a blackish colour, lapis Albanus, now called peperino,
and afterwards the harder calcareous tufa or sinter of Tibur,
lapis Tiburtinus, now travertine, until the taste for marble
gained ground ; besides the white kind from Greece or Luna
(Carara), the green, yellow and variegated sorts were preferred.
1. Aaf is a common field-stone, Ti/So? a better kind of stone. Marble
Ai'^of Xsuxo's, more rarely pix^fix^ivog. Ilijof, ¦j^ii^ivog xi%g porus lapis in
Pliny is a light but solid calcareous tufa which was employed in the
Delphian and Olympian temples. Many speak erroneously of a marmo
porino. Koyxirng x/Soj, muschel-kalk or marble (lumachella bianca an
tica), was common especiaUy at Megara, Paus. i, 44, 9 ; Xenoph. Anab. iii,
4, 10. seems to call it xoyxVf^ixrng.
2. Similar to the lapis Albanus was the Gabinus, Fidenas and the
harder Volsiniensis. The earthy tufa (lapis ruber in Vitruv.) was of less
utiUty. There are distinguished from each other structures molles (1. Al
banus), temperatce (1. Tiburtinus), durce (silex in which basalt was es
pecially included).
3. Comp, below §, 309, particularly on white marble. On the later
appearance of variegated marble (Menander etiam diligentissimus luxu
rise interpres primus et rare attigit) Plin. xxxvi, 5. The favourite col
ours of marble in Roman architecture were : Numidicum, giaUo antico,
golden yellow with reddish veins ; rosso antico, of bright red colour (the
ancient name is unknown) ; Phrygium s. Synnadicum, white with blood-
red stripes, paonazzo (Leake has discovered the quarries of Synnada,
Asia Minor, p. 36. 54) ; Carystium, undulated, with veins of green talc
(cipoUino) ; Proconnesium, which is held to be bianco e nero ; LuouUe-
um and Alabandicum, nero antico ; Chium, spotted different colours,
marmo Africano. Aea^iog a/^os xxrrt(p^g xxi pi.i'hxg PhUost. v. Soph, ii, 8.
Isidor. -Kv, 8, 13. bases (perhaps basanites) nomen est petrse fortissimse
Syro sermone, Egyptian basalt is in general a combination similar to
the modern Syenite, The Lacedsemonium marmor is (according to

BUILDING MATERIALS, 301
Corsi) a green porphyry which workers in marble call serpentine ; the
lapis ophites a real serpentine called verde ranocchia. The clear trans
parent phengites, of which Nero buUt a temple, does not seem to be yet
accurately determined. Besides, breccias, different kinds of porphyry,
basalts (lapis basanites, comp. Buttmann, Mus. der Alterthums-W. ii, s,
57 sq,), and granites (from Ilva and Igilium ; there was also a great deal
quarried near Philse as late as a. d. 200, Letronne, Recherches, p, 360)
were also much employed in architecture at Rome. [Catalogo deUa Col-
lezione di pietre usate degU ant. per costruire ed, adornare le loro fab-
briche deU' Aw. Fr, BeUi, R, 1842, 8vo,]
269. The treatment of this material was in general three- 1
fold. 1. The solid rocky ground was, among the Greeks and
Romans, hewn into catacombs, and in some instances into
Panea and Nympheea. 2. Single detached stones, just as 2
they were found or quarried, were put together and united
{Xoyd&ig Xihoi, caementa, opus incertum). 3. The stones were 3
hewn either in irregular and polygonal forms, as in the My
cenaean and other walls and the Appian Way, or into a regu
lar and rectangular shape {avmo/jboi Xi^oi, •rXiv'^oi), from whence
resulted the isodomum, pseudisodomum and reticulatum opus
{dixTvo^irov, with diagonal lines running throughout). Early 4
architecture preferred great masses and also employed on all
occasions a precious material when it could be commanded ;
the later style generally incrusted works of brick or rubble
with slabs of costly marble. The earlier did not join at all g
by external means, or only by wooden pins and iron clamps
and dovetails ; in uniting the later employed mortar in great
abundance. Together with the usual hewing of the stone, q
the turning of column-cylinders (turbines) on a sort of turn
ing bench, an operation especially applicable to softer mate
rials, was practised even in early times; marble was also
sawn with the aid of Naxian (§. 314) or Ethiopian sand.
2. These xi%i >.oyxleg, of which Thucyd. makes frequent mention,
were coUected by the Xi%7^oyoi (Valken. Opusc. T, ii. p, 288, Ruhnken
ad. Tim. p. 175). The opus incertum in its widest sense embraces the
primitive Cyclopean architecture, §, 45, Comp. Klenze, Amalthea iii, s,
104 ff.
3. On 7^7iiv%g especially the inscription from the temple of M, Polias,
Bockh, C. I. i. p. 273, Isodomum is explained by the signification of
hofiog, corium, a horizontal layer of stones. The emplectum is a conjunc
tion of the isodomum in the frontes and diatoni (facing and tye waUs)
with the incertum as filUng up.
4. See above §. 46. 49. 80. 153. The stones of the architrave iu the
temple of Cybebe at Sardis are 17| f to 23,^ t. in length, 4^ t. high.
Leake, Asia Minor p. 344 sq. In the Propylsea of Athens, stone beams
of 17 and 22 feet in length. Topogr. of Athens, p. 180 sq. The Untel of
the door of the opisthodomos of the Parthenon 26 ft, 6 in, A xptx^ixlog
hi^og §, 105, (xxxg xpi.x^o'Tr^.r&'/ig Bur. Phoen, 1175), fiUed an entire wag-

302 ARCHITECTONICS,
gon. Also in Roman buildings, bridges and arches, the single stones
often appear as powerful and significant members of the body. Of the
triUthon at Balbec there are to be seen stones as much as 60 feet in
length, Richter, WaUfahrten s. 87. — Mausolus' palace was according to
Pliny xxxvi, 6, the first example of a brick building incrusted with a
marble facing.
5. See above §. 46. 106, clamps and dovetails were caUed to'j^o/ (Expl.
of Diod. u, 7), or yoptipoi ; and are often stiU to be met with at Rome,
As to the model of a waU, exempla Vitruv. x, 22.
6. On turning, Klenze, Amalth. iii. s. 72. Sawing (Plin. xxxvi, 9)
was of great service in the preparation of marble tiles, §. 63, 2; hence
this art was invented by a Naxian.
270. Secondly: Wood — ^the material most easily obtained
and wrought, and hence of such influence on the form of the
earliest temple-architecture. It retreated in public architec
ture more and more into the ceiling (in the Athenian temples
even that was of stone), and from that into the rafter-work of
the roof, until it was even expelled thence by the prevalence
of the vault On the other hand, joisting remained at Athens
(not so at Alexandria, §. 149) the ordinary mode of construc
tion in private buildings of minor importance.
1. V. §. 52 and comp. the Tuscan temple §. 169. In the temple of
Ephesus the roof was of cedar (Plin. xvi, 79), the lacunaria of cypress,
Vitruv. ii, 9, Hence the conflagration §. 80. R, i, 1.
Chief members of the rafter-work : tigna, main beams ; columen s. cul-
men, ridge-piece ; cantherii, rafters ; templa, purUnes ; asseres, laths
(deUcise, Pestus ; deUcise perhaps cantherii angulares). PoU. x, 167.
hoxoi, Zoxiheg, ix^ix, ar^ar^^eg, xxXvpApixrix — ix^iarii^sg.
On timber for buUding (^materia) Vitruv, ii, 9, PaUad, xii, 15, Abies,
quercus, esculus, cupressus, larix, alnus, etc,
271, Thirdly: as to soft masses which were treated in a
plastic manner, clay formed into bricks and either dried in
the air or burnt was used for public buildings especially in
Lydia, Egypt and Babylon, but also in Greece and afterwards
at Rome. Slacked lime combined with sand, or, in Italy, with
volcanic Pozzolana (Puteolanus pulvis), was employed as mor
tar in joining stones, and also as a preparation for pavement
and similar purposes ; lime, gypsum, marble dust and the
like were used for plaster (tectorium, xovioieig) — in preparing
which the ancients showed much skill and care, — for stucco-
work (albarium opus), &c.
1. The waUs of Mantinea were of brick (on a stone plinth, Xen. HeU.
V, 2, 5), as were also the old waUs of Athens on the south (HaU. ALZ.
1829. N. 126), several buildings at Olympia (brick-ruins), aU sorts of
small temples in Pausanias, Croesus' palace at Sardis, that of Attains at
TraUes, and that of Mausolus at HaUcarnassus. Tiles IJ foot long, 1 ft.

SIMPLE GEOMETRIC FUNDAMENTAL FORMS. 303
broad, were caUed Lydion, certainly because they wore in use in Lydia.
Baking tiles was called vxiv^ovg 'eXxvvsiv. It came from Babylon to Lydia.
The ancient tUes are generally broader, and thinner in proportion than
ours, PoU, X, 157, xxXvTir^^eg KooivSliov^ytig. x, 182, xi^xfiog ariyxarrig.
In Italy old brick waUs at Arretium, a metropolis of the plastic art,
and Mevania. In ancient Rome buildings were usually composed of brick
walls on a plinth of stone, Varro in Non, s, v. suffundatum. On account of
the limited space, thin stone walls were afterwards introduced in private
buUdings, when they would be too weak if made of bricks to bear the
numerous stories, Vitruv. ii, 8, Country buildings were made of unburnt
bricks and clay, Agathius ii, 16, The Romans likewise borrowed from
Carthage walls of trodden clay (pise),
2, Pozzolana (an earthy tuff-wack) was also of great importance in
laying foundations, especially in water, and in rubble vaults, as in the
baths. But even in Grecian buUdings in the water, as the harbour
wall of Clazomense, the mortar appears very firm as if vitrified. De la
Faye, Recherches sur la preparation que les Rom. donnaient ^ la chaux.
P. 1777. Old investigations by Vicat, Rech. experimentale sur les chaux.
Bad mortar also occurs.
3. Bubble walls, but very carefully plastered, are most common in
Pompeii, §. 190. R. 4. In the house of the Faun there are sheets of lead
between the waU and the plaster. Similar waUs in Greece, for instance
a temple of Poseidon at Anticyra, Xoyxaiv ^xolopAripiivog TiiBotg, xexovixrxi
ii rd ivrog. Pans. X, 36, 4.
272. Fourthly: Metal. In the early Greek times it was 1
employed especially in decorating and facing, but also, as it
seems, in the internal construction of buildings ; it afterwards
disappeared from the essential members of architecture, until
it came to be used again in the Roman period more for roof- 2
ing, especially in vaults of great span.
1. Above, §. 47 — 49. Prisci Umina etiam ac valvas ex aere in tempUs
factitavere, PUn. xxxvi, 7. ApoUon. Rh. iii, 217. ^^lyxog icpv^e^Sie lopcoio
T^xtvfog j(;otA«£5j(7/i/ £7ri yXv<ptieffmv (triglyphs) d^ri^ei.
On Corinthian capitals of gold and ivory, §. 153. R. 2. comp. 192. R. 5.
Bronze capitals from Syracuse in the Pantheon, and the Corinthian por
tico of Cn. Octavius. Plin. in loco.
2. See on the Pantheon, the temple of Roma and Trajan's forum, §.
190. R. 1. i. b. 191. A concameratio ferrea in an inscription of Trajan's
time, OrelU Inscr. n. 1596. 2518. Bronze eig to' ar^apix roii vea roii ' AttoX-
A(a»of C. I. n. 2266. 1. 24. Sawn?

2. THE SIMPLE GEOMETRIC FUNDAMENTAL FORMS.
273. Principal Forms. First, the right line and plane sur
face, which are sometimes vertical, sometimes horizontal, and
sometimes obliquely inclined ; the last either approaches the

304 ARCHITECTONICS.
horizontal surface, as in the roof, or the vertical surface, as
in the jambs of pyramidal doors and windows: an oblique
surface midway between them is not admitted in fine archi-
2 tecture. Secondly, The curved line and surface, which some
times includes perpendicular right lines, cylindrically or coni-
3 cally disposed, as in the columns ; and sometimes supplies the
place of horizontal planes by hemispherical, or elliptical or
4 kindred forms of vaulting (§. 285). The dimensions of these
surfaces as well as their proportions to one another are deter
mined by static and aesthetic laws (simple numerical propor
tions, symmetrical correspondence, predominance of certain
main lines), which the Greeks practically observed with the
greatest nicety.
1. There are apertures of this kind, for example, in the temple on
Ocha, the Erechtheum, the temple at Cora (§. 259) ; and doors of this
description are prescribed by Vitruvius after Greek architects.
2. Cylinders strictly so-called are only to be found in crypts or vaults,
as at Eleusis, §. 109. R. 5. and in Roman baths. The ordinary column
would have been a frustum of a cone but for the entasis.
I 274. Subordinate, interrupting, separating, preparatory
FORMS OR mouldings. First, rectilinear: 1. fascia, face; 2.
tffinia, band; 3. quadra, listel, fillet; 4. supercilium, lintel;
2 6. oblique apophygis, weathering. Secondly, curvilinear; 1.
torus, half-round ; 2. echinus, ovolo, a, upright, b, reversed ;
3. astragal, bead, tondino; 4. striae, striges, flutings, channel-
lings; 5. cymatium Doricum, cavetto (sguscio), a. upright, b,
reversed ; 6. trochilus, of two unequal quadrants (scotia) ; 7,
apophygis, apothesis, in a curved line ; 8. cymatium Lesbium,
a, cyma recta (gola dritta), the lower quadrant outwards, a.
ascending (sima), (3. descending; b. cyma reversa, ogee (gola
3 rovescia), a. ascending, /3. descending. Several of these mem
bers admit of an undercutting or quirk which is not visible in
elevations of the entire surface, but produces an agreeable
separation and shading when looked at from below.
2, The contrast between the Doric and Lesbian cymatium is con
nected with the circumstance that the Dorians employed the simplest
members, for example the simple quadrant ; the Lesbians, on the other
hand, sought to introduce more variety into the art, hence their olxolofiri,
according to Arist, Eth. Nic, v, 10, 7. and Michael Ephes. ad loc, de
manded a moveable xxvav.
The ornaments, which were added to these members, appear to have
been for the most part painted in early times, before they were carved
in the marble. The torus received flutings or a plaiting of fiUets, the
astragal the beads (astrag. Lesbius, paternoster), the echinus the eggs
and darts (or serpent-tongues), ovi, ovoli, the Lesbian cymatium leaves,
(or rather sheUs, xxXx»i in the inscription of the Brechtheum C, I. p,
282), the taenia the mseander-ornament h la Grfecque, The so-oaUed

ARCHITECTURAL MEMBERS, .305
hawk's beak, that is, an echinus reversed, with an undercutting, appears
in painted temples as a border of reed-leaves which were placed upon it,
and continued under it. The echinus with the astragal is called yoyyv-
Xog xiSio; in the inscription referred to, as a separate stone fitted in. In
Greece the architectonic enrichments were designed more by the eye,
among the Romans in a mechanical manner.
3. The Greeks were very partial to those undercuttings in the best
times of the art ; they are to be found under the corona, and in cornices
of entablatures and antse under the echinus.

3. THE ARCHITECTURAL MEMBERS.
275. The architectural members are compositions of geo- 1
metric forms which already bear in themselves the destined
tendency to architectonic purposes, but do not however in
general fulfil these until they are combined into a greater
whole. They are divided into bearing, borne, and intermediate.
Among the bearing the column is the form naturally suggested 2
by which individual points are to be supported in the most
safe and durable way possible, and then through the coherence
of the mass the intermediate parts are held together and
borne by these. The column is a carrying body complete
in itself and enclosing a vertical axis;* by its conic form or
diminution (contractura), on the one hand, it insures its own
solidity, and, on the other, it approaches the form of the en
tablature by its quadrangular abacus. The particular form 3
of the column depends chiefly on the way in which this sup
porting block is united and reconciled with the upper end of
the shaft. In the Doric column (§. 52), which expresses with
greatest clearness and purity the destination of that member,
this is produced in the simplest manner by means of a swell
ing enlargement with which the Ionic (§. 54) unites over
hanging ornaments, which press forward as it were in an
elastic manner, until the Corinthian places in the room of
the simple bulge of the Doric order a slender body striving
upwards, graduaUy enlarging and richly clothed with vegeta
tion. At the same time the Ionic capital absorbs the Doric,
and the Corinthian the characteristic forms of the Ionic, in
conformity with the universal tendency of -Greek art, to sacri
fice nothing without cause in a newer development of the
earlier form.
2. Marquez DeU' ordine Dorico. R. 1803. 8vo. [AntoUni L'ord. Dorico
ossia U tempio d'Brcole a Cori. R, 1785. fol,] Normand, Nouv, parallfele
des ordres d'architecture, continued by J, M, Mauch. B, 1832, C. A.
* Recent discoveries have shown that the axis is somewhat inclined towards
the wall. — Transl. U

306 ARCHITECTONICS,
Rosenthal, Von der Entstehung und Bedeutung der archit. Formen der
Griechen (from CreUe's Journal fiir Baukunst. iii,). B, 1830. Ingenious
remarks on the two first orders, but those on the Corinthian are, it seems
to me, erroneous, J. H. Wolff Beitr. zur Aesthetik der Baukunst oder
die Grundsatze der plastischen Formen nachgewiesen an den Haupt-
theUen der Griech. Archit. with 28 pi. 1834 (Jen. L. Zeit. 1835. N.
39,) Kugler Polychromie s, 36 ff.
276. In each columnar ordinance we must distinguish
different periods of development and formation. In the Do
ric: 1. The ancient stout column of the Peloponnesus and
Sicily (§. 63. 80. R. ii.); 2. that used at a later period in-
Sicily, somewhat more slender, and tapering very much (§.
109. R. iv.); 3. the lofty and graceful column of Periclean
Athens (§. 109, R. i.); 4. the elongated and weakened col
umn of the Macedonian and Roman era (§. 109. R. 14, 153.
R. 3. 190. R, 1, ii, 259,); 5, the attempts to give it a richer
character, especially in honorary columns (§. 109. R. 1). In
the Ionic: 1. The simple forms cultivated in Ionia, sometimes
with rectilinear, sometimes with curved canal (§, 109. R. iii.) ;
2. the richer and more complex form in the temple of Mi
nerva Polias (§. 109. R, 4), and other collateral forms in dif
ferent Greek cities; 3. many attempts made in the Roman
period to give a greater variety of sculptured ornaments (§.
109. R. 4.). In the Corinthian: 1. the still wavering or ar
bitrarily deviating forms, sometimes closely resembling the
Ionic capital, in Phigalia, in the Didymseon, in the monument
of Lysicrates and tower of Cyrrhestes, also in Pompeii (§. 108,
R 4. 109. R, 12. 15. 153. R. 4); 2. the established forms of
the perfected order (§. 153. 190 — 192); 3. the overloaded
collateral forms of the composite capital (§. 189. R. 4); 4.
variations by the addition of figures, for example, victories,
trophies, winged horses, dolphins, and eagles — preludes of
many rude fantastic forms in the early Gothic architecture.
1. But it must be remarked at the same time that lighter propor
tions .were given to the Doric order in porticoes than in temples, as is
shown by Vitruv, v, 9. and the porticoes of Messene and Solus. The
measure of the column is the lower diameter, or in large columns the
half diameter, modulus.
2, The neck of the Ionic columns ornamented with foliage in the
temple of M. Polias {dvdipnov in the inscr.) is found again in a similar form
in the theatre at Laodicea. Ion. Ant. ch. 7. pi. 50. The Ionic capitals
in tombs at Cyrene with a honeysuckle in the spandrel between the
spirals of the volute, beneath a Doric cornice, are a subordinate form.
Pacho, pi. 43.
3. The Ruins of Cyrene furnish evidence of the numerous modifica
tions which the Greek architects introduced in the Corinthian capital.
Pacho, pi, 27.

THE COLUMN. 307
277, The three main portions of the column are: i, Spira, 1
the BASE, It gives the column, besides a broader foundation,
a sort of girding at the lower end of the shaft ; it is therefore
suitable for slender and more developed forms of column,
whereas the Doric columns of the three first kinds ascend
immediately from the pavement. Chief kinds related to 2
which there are sometimes simplifications, sometimes wider
combinations: A. In the Attic order; 1. plinth; 2. torus; 3.
scotia or trochilus: 4. a 'second upper torus. B. The Ionic ; 3
1. plinth; 2. trochilus; 3. an upper trochilus; 4. torus; in
which are not included the separating and preparatory fillets.
ii. ScAPUS, the Shaft. It is generally fluted QalSdaiThg), and 4
the column gains in apparent height by means of the vertical
stripes, and also in beauty by the more lively play of light
and shade. The external surface of the column is by this
means divided either into mere channels or flutings (striatura
Dorici generis), or into flutings and fillets (strife et striges).
In the shaft we observe, in the later Doric and other columns, 5
the adjectio, hragig or swelL iii. Capitulum, xiox^mov, ivix^avo'/,
xtfoiXii, Capital. A. The Doric, divided into: 1. hypotrache- 6
lium, neck, coUarino, with the grooves or channels as a sepa
ration from the shaft. 2. echinus, with the annuli or rings
(originally perhaps hoops of metal around the wooden capi
tal) ; 3. plinthus s. abacus (in Vitruvius and in Roman edifices
with a cymatium). B, The Ionic: 1. hypotrachelium (only 7
in the second kind) ; 2. echinus with an astragalus Lesbius
beneath (a torus above it only in the second kind) ; 3. canalis,
the canal, and the volutes with the oculi et axes on two sides,
on the two others the pulvini, cushions, with the baltei, straps
(the latter, in the ordinary capital, alternate with the other
two sides, but in the corner capitals join on to one another) ;
4. abacus et cymatium. C. The Corinthian. Two main parts : 8
1. calathus, the vase of the capital, the ornaments of which rise
in three rows: a. eight acanthus leaves; b. eight acanthus
leaves with stalks (cauliculi) between; c. four volutes and
four scrolls (helices) with acanthus buds and leaves. 2. aba
cus consisting of cymatium and sima, or otherwise composed,
with projecting angles, and at the curved parts enriched
with flowers.
3. This base actually prevails throughout Ionia; however there is
found in the ruins of the Herseon at Samos a simpler form, consisting of
a neck laced together as it were with a number of fiUets, and a torus.
6. There is a wide distinction to be made between the bellied swell,
on which §. 80. R. ii, 1 — 4, and the graceful, §. 109. R. 2. Accurate
measurements on this subject are given by Jenkins, Ant. of Ath. Suppl.
pi. 4. 5. 8. t'hii, il xvxy'hv(p'ii wa^a roig x^x"^"-'""''- Hesych. Doric capitals
in Delos with fillet instead of the ring. Kunstbl. 1836. N. 17.

308 ARCHITECTONICS.
Enqaged columns, which, strictly taken, are opposed to the principle
of the column, but may be justified particularly by the necessity for win
dows, are to be met with at least as early as the 90th Olympiad. V. §.
109. R. 4. comp. 16. 20. Those of PhigaUa, §. 109. R. 12. are more than
half columns,
I 278. The Pillar, Pila, is distinguished from the column
by the closer relation in which it stands to the wall, on ac
count of which it is always treated as a piece of wall in severe
2 architecture. On the other hand, however, it at the same
time is often destined to support a beam in common line with
the column, from which it sometimes borrows ornaments, espe
cially those of the capital, and occasionally the diminution of
3 thickness, even the entasis. The principal kinds are : 1. pillars
standing separate, for example, in a wall formed of tapes
try, pilae, ffraS/io; ogSotfrara/; 2, pillars which strengthen the
termination of a wall, corner- pilasters, antffi, ira^agrdbeg, ipXiai;
3. pillars which bound the wall at the door-way, door-posts,
jambs, pastes, era'bfiol •TragaSTddeg; 4. pillars which advance out
of a wall, whether it be to prepare for a row of columns con
nected with it, and to correspond to it as a support, or, in the
spirit of later architecture, from the mere striving after inter
ruption, pilasters, ira^aerdrai, ogSoffrara;; 5. buttresses, anter-
4 ides. Finally, short and truncated pillars also belong to this
class, whether they serve as pedestals for columns (stylo-
5 batse), or for other purposes. The chief members of the pillar
are: 1. the base, spira, more in the Ionic than the Doric order;
2. the shaft or die, truncus; 3. the capital, l^ijigavov, iJiiroiirov,
which is always lighter than in the columns, and is either
composed like a cornice, of simple mouldings (for example a
band with annuli, cyma, echinus, cavetto, and plinth) or or
namented after the analogy of the capital of a column.
3. The expressions for pillar and pUaster are very uncertain, ' O^ao-
arxrxi are separate piers Burip, Ion, 1148., columns Eurip. Her. Fur.
976,, buttresses Vitruv. ii, 8; antse and pilasters in the inscription
here often referred to C, I. n. 160, Ylx^xmrxg, keeping out of view the
cases in which Uke ir^oardg it stands for an entire portico, is an anta
(Schneider ad Vitr, vi, 7, 1,) ; but is also called the door-waU, the door-
piUar, Burip. Phon. 426. PoUux i, 76, x, 25, comp, Eur. Androm, 1126.
and the same inscription, p. 280 ; in Athen. v. p, 196. it seems to be a
disengaged pillar, in Hesych, a half-column. In Vitruvius parastatoe
are pilasters, also disengaged, as in his basilica Col. Jul, Fanestri. Par-
astaticce in Plin. and insor. are pillars. The ^Xixi rav veuv, on which the
vpo^evixi were inscribed (Polyb. xii, 12, 2) become evident especiaUy by a
comparison of the passage, where similar decrees stood in the temple in
Ceos (Brondsted, Voy. i. p. 19) ; wx^xardg is met with in the same con
nexion in Chandler i, 59, 1. In Plin. xxxvi, 56, a piUar is also called
colwmna Attica, comp. Nonius, p, 30,
5, The cornice-like pilaster-capital in the Parthenon is particularly

WALLS. 309
rich in composition; it has an upper hawk's beak moulding, and an
echinus with the egg ornament. In the temple of M. PoUas it takes the
flower ornaments of the neck {dv^ipnov) from the Ionic capital. The en
richments of the Ionic capital, but kept very light and narrow, with ara-
besque-Uke sculptures, are to be seen on the capital of the antse in the
Didymseon and in the Propylsea of Priene, §. 109. R, 16. 16, Corinthian
pUaster capitals, §, 109. R. 6, b. and elsewhere.
279. Statues occupying the place of separate pillars or
pilasters, and which are called Atlantes, Telamones, Carya
tides, were employed by Greek architecture in great modera
tion, and never without an especial reference to the object
and significance of the edifice; such supports were much
more frequent in tripods, cauldrons, thrones, footstools, and
other articles of furniture.
Comp, §, 109. R. 4. 20, on the virgins of PaUas Polias and the giants
of the giant-queUer Zeus. The outside of Hiero's ship was adorned with
"ArXxvrig, Athen, v, 208 b, comp, Nsevius in Priscian vi. p. 679, Atlantes
gibbosi, Servius ad Aon, i, 746. Martial Epigr. vi, 77. (Baths of Pompeii,
sepulchre at Tarquinu.) The Romans caUed such figures Telamones, (C.
I. ii. p. 76. 79. n. 205 3*. 2056. R, Rochette Atlas p, 62, 78,) and what
were in earlier times called xoqxi. Caryatides, Vitr. vi, 10, See Hirt,
Mus. der Alterthums-W. i. 271. Bottiger, Amalth. iii. 37. Comp, Stuart
in the new (German) Bd. i, 488 sqq. — [Preller De causa nomines Carya-
tidum AnnaU d. Inst, a, xv. p, 396 — 406.] — The figures on the upper pil
lars of the Portico of Thessalonica (§, 192, R, 5), caUed Incantada, are not
Atlantes, but mere reUefs on the piUars of an upper stoa, — In Delos there
are also found the fore-parts of cattle fixed on as pUlar-capitals and as
ornaments of triglyphs (in the same way as at Persepolis). Kinnard,
Antiqq. of Athens, SuppL pi. 5.
280. The Wall (murus, reT^og, or paries, ro/%os) is a I
continuation of the pillar, but at the same time it forsakes
more completely the analogy of the column, inasmuch as in the
column the sole object is to support, but in the wall, together
with supporting the chief purpose is to enclose. However it 2
often receives in the manner of the pilaster three parts, the
base, the trunk, and a sort of capital or cornice, which terms
here coincide {imx^am, ^^lyxog). This member appears more as
a capital when an entablature lies upon the wall; as a cornice
when the wall by itself fulfils its object as an enclosure, in which
case it even receives its name, ^giyxhg, from the covering and
protecting cornice. Dwarf walls were first employed indepen- 3
dently by themselves as enclosing fences (maceria, ai/j,aeia,) ; but
afterwards as supports of the main walls, in order to elevate
these above the level of the ground, and also to make their base
visible. Such under-walls which advanced a little beyond the 4
main wall, with or without steps, are called xgjjff/Ss?, crepi-
dines, plinths ; higher and more elegantly treated basements
of columnar structures are called stereobatae, stylobatae (in

310 ARCHITECTONICS.
Vitruvius), podia ; they have a base (quadra, spira), die (trun
cus) and corona. The steps likewise in many cases serve
chiefly to raise a building higher above the ground; then stairs
and entrances were obtained by inserting intermediate steps.
To the dwarf walls belongs also a stone or wooden parapet
(pluteus or pluteum) fixed in between pillars and columns;
metal railings (clatri, cancelli, reticula) might also occupy its
place. 2. These Sj/yxoi as enclosures of temples and palaces with large court-
gates {xvXeioi Au^xi) in the centre, and the prospect of the main buUding
over them, formed usually the principal portion of the tragic scene.
4. The numerous investigations on the scamiUi impares of Vitruvius
in the stereobate and the entablature (see among others Meister, N.
Commentar. Soc. Gott. vi. p, 171. Guattani, Mem, encicl, 1817, p, 109.
Hirt, Baukunst, a. 57, StiegUtz Archaol. Unterh, i, s, 48) seem to lead
to the conclusion that they do not designate any observable member of
the architecture, but merely a contrivance used in the building in order
to give to the stylobate and entablature the pulvinated appearance
which (according to Vitruvius) was opticaUy necessary. The lysis above
the corona of a short pillar, of which there is mention made twice, was
probably a smaU echinus.
On theatre-steps, §, 289, R. 6, StiegUtz treats of stairs. Arch. LTnt. i.
s. 121, Grsecse scalse , , . omni ex parte tabularum compagine clausse.
Serv. ad Mn. iv, 646. GeUius N, A. x, 15, 29,
6. On the plutei especiaUy Vitruv, iv, 5, comp, v, 1, 7. 10. Such
parapets or railings, inasmuch as they are fitted in between antse and
columns, and occupy the place of a wall, often form a pronaos, as §. 109.
R, 1. 9. In the Palmyrenian temple §. 192. R. 5. the door is placed in
the centre of the colonnade on account of the plutei, as in Egypt §. 221.
Railings and raU-doors {xiyxxihg G. I. 481, clatri, clatratse fores) between
the columns of a monopteral and peripteral tholus are to be seen on the
reUef in Winckelm. W. i. tf. 15. 16. Wooden fences or hoarding i^lKpxxroi
were usual at Athens for enclosing fore-courts, see especially Schol. Aris
toph. Wasps. 406.
I 281. The wall is modified in its destination to enclose, by
the necessity of admission for persons as well as air and
light. The forms of the door-frame imitate those of the en-
i tablature in the diflerent orders (§. 282). There are distin
guished: A. Doric doors; these consist of 1. antepagamenta,
jambs, which together with 2. supercilium, the lintel {^uyd),
inclose the aperture of the door (lumen ostii) and are framed
with cymatia and astragals. To these are added over the
lintel 3. hyperthyrum, the cornice, consisting of cymatia,
? astragals and the projecting and protecting corona. B. Ionic
doors; here also 1. antepagamenta {'tr^osroixia.m'i) and 2. super
cilium both which are divided into faces, corsse, by astragals in
the manner of the Ionic architrave; 3. the hyperthyrum from

THE ENTABLATURE. 311
which hang on the right and left 4. the ancones or parotides
(called £ra, at Athens), the trusses or consoles. C. Attic door, 4
similar to the Doric, only that it borrows the fasciae from the
Ionic. The windows, Sug/iss, had similar but simpler frames. 5
In both, but especially the doors, the panels contributed very 6
much to the splendour of the ancient temples, and in attempts
at restoration must be taken into account as an essential ele
ment for the general effect.
1. However, Vitruvius has not here any part corresponding to the
frieze ; while the superciUum is simUar to the architrave, and the hy
perthyrum to the cornice. And yet friezes are also found on doors some
times running round altogether as on the grand door of the temple of
Pallas Polias, sometimes only under the cornice as in Roman edifices.
The numerous doors of tombs at Cyrene have always merely the lintel
and cornice, together with consoles of simple but very pecuUar form.
The shade-giving 6<p^vg over a house-door in Liban. Antioch. p. 239. R. is
rather a hyperthyrum than supercUium. [Donaldson, A CoUection of the
most improved examples of Doorways. London 1833. 4to. One belonging
to the time of the tombs of Bournabat near Smyrna.]
6. The door-leaves (valvse, with scapi, stUes, impages, rails and tym
pana, panels) were often gUded {^v^aaxi xi"'"""' Sy?«'?. Aristoph. Birds
613), often also chryselephantine, Uke the famous doors in the temple of
PaUas at Syracuse (Cic. Verr. iv, 56), where the Gorgon heads from the
mythology of Pallas were used in place of the lion heads generally em
ployed. SimUar doors are described by Propert. ii, 31, 11. and VirgU G.
iii, 26. Regarding the contrivances for shutting, see especially Salmas.
Exero. PUn. p. 649. sq. Bottiger, Kunstmythologie, s. 258. Becker, Gal-
lus ii. s. 253. The circumstance that the hinges, as in the Cyclopean
doors §, 46, B, 2, were also at a later period placed in the siU of the door
serves to explain Soph, (Ed, Tyr, 1261, Eurip, Her. Fur. 1002. Theocr.
24, 15.
The closing of windows was effected sometimes by shutters (comp. the
angustsB rimse in Pers. ui, 2) sometimes by transparent materials, lapis
specularis, lapis phengites (especiaUy from the time of Nero ; men moved
about within tanquam inclusa luce, non transmissa), glass, vitrum {Sx'Kog),
either candidum {hevx^), or varium, also versicolor {dxxxaaovaa). Comp,
Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst iii. s. 66, §, 316,
282. The entablature, that portion of the building which I
reconciles the supporting members properly so-called with
those which immediately serve as a covering, is naturally
divided into three parts: 1. that which unites the supports
into rows, the architrave; 2. that which spans the walls form
ed thereby, the frieze, which was conceived at least originally
in conformity to this destination; and 3, the overhanging and
covering portion which belongs to the roof, the cornice. I. 2
Architrave, epistylium, main beam. A. Doric, plain, with the
teenia above to which are attached, underneath, the triglyphs,
and the regula with the guttee, drops. B. Ionic, consisting

312 ARCHITECTONICS.
of two or usually of three fascise, and above these the cyma
tium cum astragalo et quadra. The same is also placed above
4 Corinthian columns. II. Frieze, ^u»>}, 3/a^w^a. A. Doric: 1.
triglyphs over all the columns and intercolumniations (accord
ing to Eustratius ad Aristot. Ethic, ad Nicom. x, 4, 2. Zell.
//,outXov); in these are to be distinguished the femora {m^o'',
fillets), canaliculi, channels, semicanaliculi and a capitulum;
5 2, metopae, metopes. B. Ionic and Corinthian, called zophorus
from the reliefs of metal or marble attached to the plain sur
face (rows of figures, bucrania with wreaths of flowers or other
6 arabesque - like ornaments) with a cymatium above. The
Doric frieze by its composition recals the original destination
of that member (§. 52) ; at the same time the triglyphs, by
their upright position and separation, continue the vertical
tendency of the columns, and impart an enlivening contrast
to the entablature, which is only at length completely resolved
into horizontal extension in the cornice. In the Ionic archi
tecture the frieze is more an ornament of the building, with-
7 out the essential significance of the Doric. III. Cornice. A.
Doric: 1. Cymatium Doric. 2. Corona, ys/iroi/, projecting oblique
ly on all sides, but terminating perpendicularly, and beneath
it, over all the triglyphs and metopes, the mutules (mutuli)
from which hang the guttse; 3. a second cymatium; 4. the
8 sima with the lion-heads above the columns. B. Ionic: 1.
denticuli, dentels with the intersectio, iJjiroy(ri, the interdentels ;
2. a cymatium; 3. corona, with concave under profile; 4.
cymatium; 5. sima, C. Corinthian, similar to the Ionic, only
that under the corona the modillions, ancones or mutuli,
whose form is a composition of volutes and acanthus leaves,
9 act as supports. In each order proportionate height, strength
and simplicity are signs of early antiquity ; contraction of the
plain surfaces, a narrower and thinner form, as well as richer
decoration, are indications of a later period.
2. Guttse in a continued row without triglyphs were not perfectly
rare in antiquity — in the pronaos of Rhamnus, the tower of Cyrrhestes,
the Cyrensean tombs (Pacho, pi. 19. 40. 46.).
4. Triglyphs were also employed as ornaments of castle-walls, as on
the acropolis of Athens; see §. 52. R. 3. 272. R. 1. and Epicharmus in
Athenseus vi. p. 236 b. When they are above columns, the corner tri
glyphs must be advanced beyond the axis of the column — an irregularity
in a great measure compensated by the contraction of the last inter-
columniation, which is grounded in static and optical laws; but with
many Roman architects it was a reason for rejecting the whole order.
In early times the triglyphs were always painted blue (cserulea cera,
Vitruv.), Brondsted, Voy, ii, p, 145.
5. The oldest Ionic architecture had certainly the dentels immedi
ately above the architrave, for instead of the heavy cross-beams of the

CEILING, ROOF. 313
Doric roof only light joists were laid upon the slender columns, forming
the dentels on the outside. This arrangement is first found in the ori
ental form of Ionic architecture (comp. §. 64. 244), at Persepolis, at Tel
missus and in Phrygia (§. 241.* R. 3), and then in the haU of the Cary
atides at Athens. ' E'^riarvXiov xxi 0 i^r xvroij xonpi^og specially consecrated
C. I. n. 2751. 52. 53.
7. 8. Vitruvius derives the mutules from the projection of the rafters,
the dentels from the jutting out of the laths (comp. §. 270) ; against
this just objections have often been made. The mutuli in the Corin
thian order appear to have been with him a sort of modUUon. \ Modil-
Uons are very appropriately called ¦x-^ofiox^i C. I. 2297.
283. The simplest ceiling, a stone laid across, is only met I
with in monuments of the most unpretending kind. Temples
and other sumptuous edifices had sunken panels, lacunaria,
parvti/iara, which were transferred from wood-work, which
was also inlaid with gold and ivory, to stone (§. 53.) The 2
ancients distinguish: 1. the beams lying immediately over the
architrave {boxol dou^odoxoi) ; 2. the narrower joists placed above
these and mortised into one another (called o-rgwr^gsj collec
tively, singly probably epnxiexoi and i/jLavng) ; 3. the covers or
caps filling the openings, xuXu/j^/j^dna: which parts were also
imitated in stone-building, but then wrought more as a whole.
1. 'Ogo(p5) (pxrvxig lixysyTiVftpiivn Diodor. i, 66. Chryselephantine
lacunaria are even described by Ennius, Androm. p. 35. Bothe, as a part
of the ancient kingly magnificence. In Diod. iu, 47. cpix'Kxi Xi^oxi^.'h.riroi
are mentioned as an ornament of the cassoons. Laquearu as a distinct
class of artists in the Theodos. Cod. xiu. t. 4, 2. — The space between the
lacunaria and the roof often occurs as a place of concealment. Comp.
Appian de B. C, iv, 44. Tacit. A. iv, 68. Valor, Max. vi, 7, 2.
2. See especially PoUux x, 173, and the investigations in Bockh 0, I.
p. 281, comp, p, 341. The more accurate view which the Uned.
Ant. of Attica give of the lacunaria of Attic temples must be considered
in connexion therewith. In the Eleusinian propylsea the "ioxoi are placed
over the Ionic architrave of the interior, and the stone fiags with their
depressed panels are mortised directly into these. But in Rhamnus and
Sunium these stone flags are so cut out as to leave square holes into
which the xx'Kvpcpi.xrix exhibiting the inner panels are fitted. It is pre
cisely the same in the SeUnuntine temple, tbe lacunaria of which with
their coloured ornaments are given by Hittorff, pi. 40.
284. In private buildings the roof was either laid on fiat I
(that is with slight inclination), or inclined on all sides,
slanting; in public buildings, on the other hand, especially
temples, it was provided with pediments at the ends, which
among the Greeks were generally an eighth of their breadth
in height, but were more elevated among the Romans. To 2
the pediment or fronton, fastigium, aerog, airmiMa (comp. §. 53)
belong 1. the tympanum ; 2. corona and sima above the tym-

314 ARCHITECTONICS.
panum; 3. antefixa, ornaments at the corners, and on the
summit; 4. acroteria, angularia et medianum, pedestals for
statues at the corners and in the middle. The sloping sides
of the roof consist of 1. tegulae, flat tiles, xaXwjrrrjgeg, and 2.
imbrices, hollow tiles — of marble, clay or bronze — which were
ingeniously fitted into one another. The rows of the latter
closed with upright elegantly ornamented eave-tiles, frontati,
imbrices extremi, which in Grecian temples were not only
placed above the cornice but even ran along the top of the
ridge as an elegant ornament.
1. In ^qSx (on vase-paintings) the favourite practice was to change the
dsrog of the ie^x (comp. Aristoph. Birds, 1109) into a low arch ornamented
with fieurons stuck upon it. Perhaps these are Vitruvius' semifastigia.
2. The sima as well as the obUquely overhanging corona are not, if
we look to their destined object, suitable for the side of the pediment,
but are applied throughout for the sake of the agreement of forms. In
the small temple of Artemis at Eleusis, where the sima has a very fine
profile, it stands more upright over the fronton and inclines forward more
above the side-walls, which is not less fitting than agreeable. Beautiful
aetoma in a sepulchral monument at Bpidauros, with two different kinds
of eave-tiles, hewn out in marble.
The antefixa (the author's Etrusker ii. p, 247) we become acquainted
with especiaUy from vase-paintings where temples and heroa are seldom
without them, -For example, MUlingen, Vases de div, coll, pi, 12, 19,
MiUin, Vases u, pi, 32, 33, Tombeaux de Canosa, pi. 3. 4. 7. 8. 11. 14,
Antefixa of steles, resembUng eave-tUes with the usual flower ornament,
Stackelberg Graber Tf 3, 4, Pretty stele of Theron with painted ante-
fixum thereon, in Attica, ibid, Tf 6, 2, Painted sarcophagus tUes ibid.
5, 2. 6, 1.
The acroteria were for the most part narrower in Greece than in Rome
where the pediments of the temples were often ornamented above with
numerous statues. See for example the coins of the Tiber with the
temple of Concordia, Pedrusi, vi, 4, 1. C. I. n. 2388, 6. xxi vtjov S 'e^rl
x^xrl fiervio^ dyxXpt,xrx ^vixxv r^iaax, ovo i^ixxg, pceaax Bs Tlepffecpovriv,
The conflict into which the front tiles over the cornice come with the
sima was settled by the Attic architects generally in this way, that they
merely placed a part of the sima with a lion's head at the corner beside
the acroterium, and more rarely by carrying the front tiles further- back
behind the sima, as in the temple of Artemis at Eleusis, or by leaving
them away altogether.
285. Vaults, according to the development which this
part of architecture received, especially in the Macedonian
and Roman period (comp. §. 48. 49. 107. 109. R. 5. 110. 149.
R, 3. 168. 170, R. 3, 190. sqq,), are divided into the leading
kinds which lie in the nature of the thing, only that the
pointed arch must have always remained foreign to ancient
architecture (§. 195), whose character does not affect a tower
like striving upwards and a mutual conflict of buttresses.

KINDS OF BUILDINGS. 315
arches and vaults, but a predominating horizontal expansion,
a secure position on the extended surface.
Vaults are called fornicationes (cuneorum divisionibus), concamera-
tiones (hypogeorum), Vitruv. vi, 11. Among the Greeks xipig, ipxxlg
xxfi,<pdsi(!x (comp. Wessel. ad Diodor, ii, 9), Sophocles' Lacaen. arev^v
8' iiv/iev ^ctXiix xovx dSo^fioQov. An oriental kind of vault ? xxpca^x,
ojxog xexapca^aptivog (C.I. n. 1104.) arsyri xxptx^arvi, ariyri '7ce^i<pe^yig. Demetr.
de eloc. 13. The keystone of the vault is called in Ps. Aristot. De mundo
6. ofi<pxx6g, also a<piiv, tholi conclusura, Lobeck Aglaoph. p. 1103 s. Chief
kinds according to Festus : tectum pectinatum (in duas partes devexum),
cylindrical vaults ; and testudinatum (in quatuor), cross or groined vaults.
A cupola oiiqxviaxog §. 150. R. 2, rqoiiKhog §. 194. R. 4. A vault of sUght
curve and wide span was probably called solea. Hirt. Mus. der Alther-
thums-W. i. s. 279. RectiUnear vault, see PhUo p. 87. [The vaulted
porticoes in the theatre of Sicyon are worthy of notice. They are built
through the side buildings up to the third part of the height of the seats,
in order to admit a portion of the spectators immediately from without
at the height which they wished to reach. They are 4 paces broad, 22
long, and over 4 upright courses of square blocks, 5 others form the arch.
Steuart found in a sepulchral monument in Phrygia, near Afghan Khia, a
beautiful wide arch built of large stones, which however were not so
large as those in this theatre,]

4, KINDS OF BUILDINGS.

286. In enumerating the different kinds of buildings it is
of particular importance to point out the simple fitness and
characteristic significance with which the manifold purposes
and aspects of life were architectonically satisfied and ex
pressed. The first class of structures is formed of those in
which regard is merely had to the external surface ; they are
divided into two kinds, inasmuch as they sometimes, standing
by themselves (often with the aid of inscription and figure)
fulfil the purpose of a monument, and are sometimes destined
to support another more important work of art, or even pro
vide an elevated platform for some transaction of life. The
simplest monuments of the first kind carry us back to the
point when architecture and the plastic art grew from one
root, as in the hermee, the Agyieus, the Hades-stone on the
tomb (§. 66. R. 1). With these are to be classed conic bar
rows {xoXSimi, tumuli) piled up with earth or stones; grave
pillars {srnXai, cippi, columellae) of elegant architectonic forms,
with inscriptions and often reliefs (§. 431) ; and the horizontal
gravestones which were called T^d.iri\ai (mensse). To the other
kind belong the single columns which were even used in the
most ancient Grecian temples, on account of the smallness of
most of the old carved images, in order to elevate the forms
of the gods above the crowd of their worshippers — whence

316 ARCHITECTONICS.
originated the honorary pillars of later Roman times — together
with the pillars or even columns upon which were destined to
be placed cauldrons, tripods and other anathemes, as even this
word imports: of these there are now more to be found in
6 reliefs and pictures than in architectural remains. We may
also reckon as pertaining to it the hearth {eerla), the place of
the fire, and hence the central point of human habitation,
with which the Greeks connected the idea of a thing firmly
established and immoveable, whereby an unsettled life re-
7 ceived an abiding hold. The hearth in a religious reference
and application becomes an altar, which, where it was not a
mere low fire-place {£ex<^So-), received the natural form of a
truncated pillar, or frustum of a column with base and cap-
8 ping; however, it was not unfrequently developed in Greece
9 into large and spacious structures. Other buildings of the
kind even served as a pedestal for the living human form, in
that they exalted those who were called to the guidance of
popular assemblies and armies above the heads of the crowd,
such as the bema, the tribunal of the praetor and general, the
rostra. 4. A collection of steles, simple Greek and more ornate Roman,
BouiU. iii, 84 sqq. Clarac, pi. 249 sqq. Piranesi, Vasi, Candelabri,
Cippi. 1778. 2 vols. fo. The r^x-re^xi served for libations and water-
sprinkling, hence Cic. de legg. ii, 26, together with the mensa mentions
the labellum (laver) on Attic tombs. Inscriptions on them, Plut. x. Or.
Isocr. p, 241 H. Somewhat similar were the ix^ix as signs of the Keno-
taphion, MarceUinus v, Thuc. 31, Comp. §. 54. 174. B. 2.
[5. Very ancient examples of pillars supporting images of the gods,
Welcker SyU. Bpigr. Grsec. n. 119. 120. Others Paus. v, 24, 1, 22, 1.
(Zeus, Nike) and frequently in reliefs and vase-paintings (ApoUo Pythios,
Agyieus, Pallas, Artemis), in like manner columns {xioveg), on which
were consecrated gifts, eagles, owls, sirens, see L, Ross in the Annali d.
I, a, xiii, p, 25, tv. B, comp, Zoega de Obel, p, 228, ' Portraits also were
thus exhibited. According to Plutarch, ..Emilius Paulus caused his own
likeness to be placed on a large column at Delphi which was intended for a
golden statue of king Perseus. The statue of Polybius stood on a column
in the Asklepieion at Mantinea, Paus. viii, 9, 1. At Lodi there have been
discovered remains of a large honorary column supposed to have been for
a statue. HaU. LZ. Int. BL 1836. N. 29. The enormously large one at
Alexandria §. 193 a. 6. was an honorary column. Cinerary urns on
columns, BuU. 1847. p. 78.]
7. S^iyxapixrx are the cappings of the altars. Eur. Iph. Taur. 73.
We sometimes see on reliefs (BouUl. iii, 33, 1) an elegantly formed round
altar standing on a square one of simple shape. Altars placed together
in Moses' Collection of Anc. Vases, Altars, &c., pi. 61 — 63. Clarac, pi.
249 sqq.
8. For instance the great altar of Olympia whose base, ¦Trqo^vaig, was
125 feet in circumference; the whole was 22 feet high; the altar of
Parion, a stadium square (Hirt, Gesch. ii. s. 59) ; the one of equal size

TEMPLES. 317
at Syracuse (ii. s, 179) ; the marble one 40 feet high with a battle of the
giants in reUef at Pergamon, AmpeUus c, 8.
9. The Rostra, situated between the forum and comitium, was con
structed for walking up and down on, and therefore extended longitu-
dinaUy. We see it on the coins of the Lollia gens.
287. The contrast to this class is formed by enclosures of 1
all sorts, such as the walls of entire citadels and cities, which
often likewise received architectonic forms and decorations,
with arched gates for the most part; and the fences of sacred 2
precincts (TsoZ/ioXa/), or places of public assembly (septa),
which appear to have been not unimportant architectural
undertakings. 2. Septa of the comitium of TuUus Hostilius, Cic. de R. P. ii, 17.
Septa JuUa, §. 190. R. 1. i. b. At Athens such fences were generally
but slight, of wicker-work (the yippx of the ecclesia) or extended ropes
{ve^wxoiviapcx of the councU). Statues were surrounded with reeds, xxvvxi,
¦to prevent soUing, Arist. Wasps. 405 ; columns with reticula. Digest, xix,
1, 17, §. 4.
288. By the addition of a roof to this enclosure a house is i
the result. The simplest house was the temple (rao's, aedis),
at first nothing more than a place where a religious image
was erected in a secure manner and protected, but which was
however also consecrated by solemn election and foundation
(l'Sgu(f;s in Greece, inauguratio, dedicatio, and consecratio at
Rome). Seclusion and mystery always remained character- 2
istic of the vahg properly so-called, which therefore never
admitted of windows ; there was soon however combined with
it a free and open exterior, which at the same time afforded
shade and shelter, by the temple receiving porticoes and en
circling colonnades (laxamentum). The interior of the temple 3
likewise received afterwards from the hypaethral construction
a clearer and more spacious appearance ; the only light other
wise admitted was by the door which was very large. Temples 4
are divided into the following kinds: a. as regards the placing
of the columns around, into: I. sedis in antis, vahg h ^aga-
eraen, with corner pilasters under the pediment; 2. prostyle,
with porticoes on the front, and 3. amphiprostyle, at the two
ends; 4. peripteral with colonnades around; 5. pseudo-perip
teral with engaged columns around ; 6, dipteral with a double
circuit of columns ; 7. pseudodipteral with a circuit of double
breadth ; 8. The temple constructed according to the Tuscan
plan (§. 1 69) ; 9. according to a mixed Greco-Tuscan design, b.
as regards the number of columns (on the front) into the
tetrastyle, hexastyle, octastyle, decastyle, dodecastyle. c. as
regards the width of the intercolumniations, into 1. the pyn-
costyle (3 mod.) ; 2. systyle (4) ; 3. eustyle (4^) ; 4. diastyle

318 ARCHITECTONICS.
5 (6); 6. arasostyle (more than 6). A subordinate kind, the
circular temple, is divided into 1. the monopteral (in which
mere parapets or railings fill up the intercolumniations); 2.
peripteral; 3. pseudoperipteral; 4. circular temple with a ves-
G tibule, a prostylum. But as concerns the parts of the temple,
the following are distinguished in large edifices of this kind:
1. the foundation with the steps, suggestus, x^n'jrlg or xjjjm'Sw/ta ;
2. the temple strictly so-called, . vaog, arixhg, cella, sometimes
7 double in the same building; to it belong: a. rh s3os, the place
for the statue, which was often enclosed with a parapet Or
railing (§. 68. R. 1), b, Hva^^ov, the central space under the
open sky, c. eroal, the surrounding colonnades, also h-jrs^ojoi,
upper galleries (§. 109. R. 9), d. sometimes an a&urov, the
8 holiest of all; 3. the pronoas; 4, the opisthodomos (§, 109. R.
2) ; 5. the circuit of columns, Trri^M/j.a, alae, including the pro-
styla; 6. porticoes built on to the temple, -Triodrdaeig, only in
9 particular cases (§. 109. R. 4). The more carefully we study
the existing remains, the more must we admire the way in
which ancient architecture, in sacred structures, accommo
dated itself to the different wants of the particular worship,
notwithstanding the general regularity,
2. Quatr, de Quincy (Mem, de I'Inst, Roy, T, iu,) [Jup, Olymp, p, 262,]
lays down several untenable assertions on the lighting of temples. Vitru
vius' expression (iii, 1, comp. i, 2) of the medium sub divo sine tecto be
tween the double colonnades describes distinctly enough the hypaethral
arrangement. Comp, §, 80, 109, R, i, 6, [The old temple on Mount
Ocha was an hysethron §, 53, R, 2, as weU as that at PhigaUa, §. 119. R.
3,, and at Delphi §, 80, i, 5,, where the passage Burip. Ion must be struck
out, in room of which Wieseler will furnish another testimony, comp,
Ulrichs Reisen s, 83 f. On the difficult question as to the partial roofing
of the hypsethral temples see Stuart Antiq, of Ath, a new ed. ii, p. 33.
not. 0. K. P. Hermann, die Hypathraltempel des Alterthums, Gottingen
1844. (comp. BuUet. 1846. p. 98.), refutes the opinion that this kind was
exclusively appUed to the worship of Zeus, and assumes a strictly hypse
thral construction, which left the cella quite uncovered, and that it was
not on account of the light, but was connected with an altar in the centre.
Contrary opinions entertained by C. W. in the AUgem. Zeit. 1846. BeU.
N. 213. and especiaUy L. Ross Hellenika 1846. St. 1. The latter entirely
denies this form of building, in reference to which doubts have also been
expressed in the HaU. ALZ. 1831. Int. Bl. N. 71. Botticher Der Hypa-
thralbau auf Grund des Vitruvischen Zeugnisses gegen Prof Ross erwie-
sen, Potsdam 1846. 4to. comp. Archaol, Zeit. 1846, S, 359. This proof is
also very minutely gone into by R, Rochette in the Journ, des Sav. 1846.
p. 669, 721. Letronne in the Revue Archeol. iv, p. 693 — 602. Sur deux
passages de Pausanias et de Strabon qu'on a cru reiatifs aux temples
hypfethres Grecs.] The door of the temple is placed by Vitruvius iv, 5,1,
(corrected Min. Pol. p, 27) to the west ; but not merely the Athenian,
the Ionian and SiciUan temples likewise usuaUy have them in the east.
4, The ancients do not mention any temples with an odd number of

TEMPLES. 319
columns on the front ; such a number as well as a row dividing the cella
lengthwise, gives the idea of a stoa, §, 80, R, ii, 3, 109. R. 8, However the
so-called temple of Hercules at Pompeii has also an odd number of columns.
6. Circular temples represented together especially in Piranesi's Rac
colta dei Tempi antichi. We get a knowledge of the temple of Vesta
from coins. Comp. §. 280. R. 6. Temple of Hera at Platsea ixxropi.'irolog,
Thucyd. iu, 68, certainly not square,
6. Temples with double oeUs (vaoV iiir'hovg) had generally the principal
doors at the opposite ends ; however there were also cases in which there
was a communication from the one to the other, Paus, vi, 20, 2. Hirt,
Gesch, iu. s. 35. Pausanias was acquainted with one example of two
temples as stories above one another, iv, 15. The great temple of Cyzicus,
§. 153. R. 3. is divided by Aristides into the xxrxytiog, ptiaog and v-nre^aog ;
gaUeries, \opi,oi, ran through it in aU directions. Roman temples on coins
have frequently several tiers of porticoes on the outside. On temples re
sembUng the basiUca, such as the temple of Pax, Hirt, Gesch. ui. s. 36.
7. "Ixfix Teqi TO sSoc on the Inscr. .^gin. p. 160, i^vptxrx around the
throne at Olympia, Paus. v, 11, 2; simUar perhaps in the Parthenon, §.
109. R. 2. [In the Gott. Anz. there quoted there is an examination of the
doubts as to the place where the colossal statue in the Parthenon stood ;
these faU to the ground in consequence of the observation of Ulrichs a.
ibid. S. 84, that an altar stood in the centre of the cella under the hypse-
thrum. Since the removal of the mosque, which partly fell in of itself, the
traces of the quadrangular base of this altar have become still more evi
dent. It is clear that the statue did not stand here, as CockereU and
DodweU supposed, but at tbe back waU of the cella, as at Olympia and
everywhere, as Stuart also assumed.] The temple of Demeter at Pses
tum, §. 80. R. ii, 1., has an inner sedicula for the mystic image. The
Pompeian temple of Portuna a tribunal with a prostyle in a niche, M.
Borb. ii. tv. B. Of a simUar description was the thalamos in Asiatic
temples, §. 153. R. 3. 192. R. 5.
289. Buildings destined for the exhibition of a contest,
constructed for musical, gymnic, and other agones, form a very
extensive class among the ancients. An open space levelled,
fenced off, and distributed according to the requirements of
the agon, forms the first and most essential part. Over it
must arise, in order to enable the greatest possible number to
see, terraced platforms and steps which however were often
obtained in a natural way, especially in stadia and hippo
dromes, by taking advantage of the surrounding heights. In
the theatre there was added to the dancing-place, the original
choros (§, 64. R. 1), a platform with its wall behind, which
was destined to exalt individuals above the crowd and exhibit
them in a poetic world. Hence result the following parts : A.
orchestra, with the thymele (the altar of Dionysus) in the
middle, and the open passages (^^o/ios?) at the side (the space
of which is by others assigned to the stage). B. The scene,
consisting of: 1. the wall {axrivri) with its fixed decoration,
which arose in several stories (episcenia), and was composed

320 ARCHITECTONICS,
of columns, intermediate walls, and entablature; 2. the ad
vancing side- walls or wings {ira^aexrivia, versurae procurrentes) ;
3. the space before the scene-wall between the wings (frjo-
exriviov), which was generally raised on a wooden platform
6 {ox^i^ag, XoyiTov); 4. The front of this platform towards the
spectators, and the space covered thereby {bmsxnviov). C. The
place for the audience, or the theatron properly so-called
{mTXov, cavea), the steps for sitting on which ran round in a
lengthened semicircle, concentrically divided by broad pas
sages {biaZ^oifkara, praecinctiones), and wedgewise by stairs lead
ing down (into the xe^xibig, cunei). The seats were formerly
7 wooden scaffolds {ix^ia), afterwards they were generally, in the
Greek theatres, placed on the rocky ground. D. The surround
ing colonnade, TEg/Varog, above the seat-rows, which served to
widen the theatron and give an imposing termination to the
whole, and was also rendered desirable from acoustic advan
tages {rh tsuvrixiTv), which, together with perspective (§. 107),
were a chief study with architects of theatres. Behind the
S scene there were also porticoes (portions pone scenam), an
acceptable addition to the public recreation. The Odeion
sprang from the theatre, as the music of individual virtuosi
from the festal songs of the choruses; here, where no room
for movement was necessary, where the main object was to
be heard, the whole was concentrated and came under a cir
cular roof
3. We must however guard against assuming at once that the count
less theatres in all parts of the Grecian world were aU destined for the
drama. Processions with chariots and horses (Athen. iv. p, 139), Bac
chian orgies, the proclamations of heralds, musters, for instance that of
the orphans of those slain in war when the Athenian state dismissed
them in full equipment, were likewise held there; nay, the theatre
became more and more the place for popular assembUes, and the stage
then certainly took the place of the simpler bema on the pnyx which
was in like manner constructed in the theatrical form.
4r-7. RniNS OF Theatres : in Greece, especiaUy Epidaurus (§, 106, R,
2), Argos (450 feet in diameter, according to Leake), Sicyon (Leake,
Morea iii, p, 369,, 400 f.) Megalopolis, Sparta, Thoricus (Dodwell, Views,
pi. 23), Chseronea, Melos (Forbin, Voy, dans le Levant, pi, 1), Nicopolis,
near Rhiniassa in Epirus (Hughes, Trav. [i, p, 486,] ii, p. 338), near Dra-
myssus in the neighbourhood of Jannina (Donaldson, Antiqq. of Athens,
Suppl, p. 46, pi. 3). In Asia Minor, especially Assos, Ephesus (660 feet),
MUetus, Lindus, Stratonicea, Jassus, Patara, Telmissus, Cisthene, Anti-
pheUus, Myra, Limyra, Side (best preserved), [that at Aspendos stUl
more perfect according to Texier], HierapoUs, Laodicea (where there is
much of the scene preserved. Ion. Antiq, ii, pi, 50), Sagalassus (to which
the same remark appUes, Arundel, Visit, p. 148), Anemurion, SeUnus in
CiUcia. Leake, Asia Minor, p, 320 sqq. [That at Aphrodisias, Ion. Antiq.
iii. ch, 3, pi, 4 sqq, at Cnidos ch, 1, the upper pi, 3, 24 sq, the lower pi,
22 sq, 32,] In Syria, especially the theatres of Gerasa, one with open

THEATRES, 321
scene consisting of columns, one with closed, Buckingham, Trav. in
Palest, p, 362. 386. In SicUy, Syracuse (§, 106, R, 2), Tauromenium,
Catana, Himera, Egesta (Hittorff, pi. 7—9). That at Egesta BuU, 1833.
p. 169, [Theatre and Odeon of Catania, Serradifalco T. V. tv, 1 — 6,, that
of Tauromenium ibid. tv. 20 — 25,, of Tyndaris tv, 31,] In Etruria, §,
170. R. 1. The great number of these ruins, and the completeness of
many of them, encourage the hope that we shall yet obtain, after the re
cent labours of Groddeck, Genelli, Kanngiesser, Meineke, StiegUtz, Hirt,
Donaldson, CockereU, and the editors of Vitruvius, a representation of
the ancient theatre founded on a complete architectonic availment of the
materials, Stieglitz makes a distinction between pulpitum and prosce
nium, Beitr, S. 174, The difference between the theatres in Asia Minor
as weU as that of Syracuse, in which the seats end in obtuse angles, and
those existing in Greece with seats cut away at right angles, is remark
able. [J. H. Strack Das altgr. Theater, Potsdam 1843, fol. Many
indications in P. G, Welcker's Griech. Trag. S, 925. 1295 ff",]
The Roman theatre (§, 188, R. 4. 190, R, 1, i, a, b. R. 4, comp, §, 266.
259. R.) is only a modified form of the Greek with a different use of
the orchestra. Its construction was afterwards transferred to halls for
recitation. GiuUo Ferrara, Storia e descr. de' princip, teatri ant. e
moderni. Milano 1830, 8. [The Roman theatre at Falerona is in per
fect preservation (even the foundation of the periacti). There are models
of it at Rome, There was one discovered at Vicenza in 1839 by the
architect Mighiranza, which seems from its size and the richness of the
marble ornaments and statues to belong to the time of Augustus, That
at Parma was found in 1844 more deeply buried, and is Ukewise weU pre
served. Remains besides at Brescia, Assisi, Teoni, at Nora in Sardinia (della
Marmora Voy. de la Sardaigne T. u. pi, 37, 2), at Saguntum (Schiassii De
tipo ligneo theatri Saguntini, Bononise 1836,, cf Bullett. 1837, p. 376.]
6, We can obtain from the ruins a knowledge of the elegant and
space-economizing form of the seat-steps. The gentle inclination of the
horizontal surfaces to the back, which occurs at Epidaurus, secures seat
and footing. [This is found often, for example in the smaUer theatre at
Melos.] The space for the feet is depressed compared with that destined
for sitting ; only in the theatre of Tauromenium and so-called Odeum of
Catania are there (according to Hittorff) separate steps for the feet and
others for the seat. On the linea3 dividing the sittings (which are still
to be seen in the amphitheatre of Pola), see Forcellini s. v.
7. On this colonnade especially Appulei, Metam. iii, p, 49, Bip, ; he
also speaks. Florid, p, 141, of the pavimenti marmoratio, proscenii con-
tabulatio, scense columnatio, of the culminum eminentia and the lacuna-
rium refulgentia. Sometimes temples interrupted this gallery, as in the
theatre of Pompey, §, 188. R. 4. also in the amphitheatre of Heraclea
according to the coin, Buonaroti, Medagl. tb. 4, 7. comp. p. 275 sq. The
proscenium at Antioch contained a nymphseum. — Chladni, CsBcilia, H.
22. controverts the old opinion that the sound was strengthened by in
serting vessels, and by the form of the masks ; Banks, however, is said to
have discovered traces of acoustic cells at ScythopoUs.
8. The Odeia were similar to theatres {Hexr^oeileg wSero^, Inscr. from
Arabia Petrsa in Letronne, Analyse du recueil d. Inscr. de Vidua, p.
24), with large circular roof (§. 106. R. 3, comp. the epigr. in Welcker's
X

322 ARCHITECTONICS.
SyU. p. 44), which rested on a great number of columns (Diodor. i, 48.
Theophr. Char. 3. (fee). The stage must have been in the middle. The
theatra tecta on the other hand, such as that of Valerius, Plin, xxxvi,
24, and that of Pompey, had the ordinary stage. Martini on the Odea,
[Klausen in the Bncycl. of Ersch and Gruber, C. Rose Ueber die Odeen
in Athen, Rom u. Karthago, Soest 1831. 4to, Odeum at Laodicea, Ion.
Antiq. ii. ch, 6, in Smyrna, Aristid, Rhod, i, p. 630, in Catania, <fec,]
1 290. The stadia received their form chiefly from their
destination for the race, to which refer the barriers {jSaXlSlg and
uevXri^) and the goal-pillar {ri^/J'a, meta), as well as the length
of the course ; however there was at the same time a space
in the neighbourhood of the goal for contests in wrestling and
boxing and other exercises: — this part of the stadium (called
(Kpevbavn) had some resemblance to a theatre, in its rounded
2 form and seat-steps. The hippodrome was at first of very
simple design; among the Greeks the suitable construction
of the barrier {acpesig with the i/j-lSoXoi) was especially a sub
ject of nice calculation (§. 106. R. 4); the Romans made a
large and sumptuous edifice of their circus, the principal parts
of which are thus distinguished: the front building (oppidum)
with the barrier (carceres, -^aXibairal i'jr'ra(p£geig) and the gate
for the procession, the race-course with the spina bounded
by two pointed columns (metffl, vuesai xa/j,i'r>j^ig) and the
Euripus around; the encircling wall with the seat-rows (po
dium et sedilia) and grand stands (suggestus et cubicula) ; to
which was also added a portico with tabernse on the outside.
3 Amphitheatres, although they originated in Italy, are alto
gether conceived in the simple and grandiose taste of the Hel
lenic architects; the problem here was also more easy than
in the theatre. The elliptic form which the arena universally
received, gave the advantage of a longer line for sustained
charges and pursuits; the locality lost thereby the uniformity
of the circular surface which, everywhere presents equal advan-
4 tages. The parts of the amphitheatre are: 1. the arena with
the subterranean passages and the equipments for the parti
cular games ; 2. the foundation wall of the seats (podium) ; 3.
the different stories (mseniana) of seat-rows (gradationes) with
their stairs; 4. the different circular passages between the
maeniana (praecinctiones) with the gates under the seats (vo-
mitoria); 5. the higher and lower vaults and arcades (for-
nices, concamerationes) over and alongside one another, which
occupied the whole space under the seats; 6. the stories of
columnar architecture on the outside; 7. the portico around
the whole amphitheatre, above the highest meenianum ; 8. the
uppermost gallery with the beams from which the awning
(vela) was spread out by means of an immense apparatus of
5 ropes. As amphitheatres were sometimes filled with water,
and th(! arena converted into a basin, there also originated at

AMPHITHEATRES, PORTICOES. 323
Rome, from the insatiable passion of the people for public
amusements, the Naumachije as a separate kind of buildings,
which furnished larger surfaces for sea-fights in the interior.
1. This sphendone (Malalas, p. 307, ed. Bonn.) is seen very distinctly
in the Bphesian stadium, where it is Ukewise separated from the rest of
the race-course by a few projecting seats. The Messenian stadium,
which is surrounded by colonnades, has 16 rows of seats in the sphen
done. Exped. de la Moree, p. 27. pi, 24 sqq. In the Pythian stadium
(described by Cyriacus Inscr. p. xxvu.) this is caUed by HeUodorus iv,
1. a ^ixr^ov. Several stadia in Asia Minor (Magnesia, TraUes, Sardis,
Pergamon) are rounded off at both ends. Leake, Asia Minor, p. 244.
2. [The hippodrome at Aphrodisias Ion. Antiq. iii. ch. 2. pi. 10 sqq.
That at Perga is also weU preserved. On the phiale (of the fountains) of
the hippodrome at Constantinople, Texier Revue Arched, ii. p. 142.]
The ornaments of the spina of the Roman Circus, among others the
pulvinar, the scaffolds with eggs and dolphins, conic pyramids on a base,
are partly derived from decursiones funebres, also from the worship of
Poseidon [the pulvinar was for distinguished personages, the maenia-
num, a stair to the different stories ; the Euripus prevented the runners
from approaching the podium]. The Euripus as weU as the basin (lacus)
of the spina (distinctly to be seen in the circus of CaracaUa and in mo
saics) served to moisten the sand. — The Circus Max. at Rome was 2,100
feet long, 400 broad, and surrounded by galleries in three stories {aroxl
rqiariyoi, Dion. Hal.) the lowest of which had stone, and the upper wooden
seat-rows ; in Trajan's time it contained about 300,000 spectators, G,
L, Bianconi's work, §, 258, R, 4, Mosaics, §. 424, R, 2.
3. The Greeks sometimes converted stadia into amphitheatres, Hirt,
Gesch. u. s. 345. Lipsius de amphith., Thes, Ant, Rom, ix, p. 1269.
Maffei degli Amfiteatri. Carli d. Anfiteatri (the Flavian, that of Italica
and of Pola). MU. 1788. Fontana Anfit. Flavio (§. 190. R. 3). 1725. fo.
Ruins of amphitheatres in Italy, §, 258, 260. R, BibUot, Ital, xU. p. 100.
Comp. §. 254. 256. 262.
4. The recent excavations in the Coliseum have shown the subterra
nean passages of the Arena. See Lor. Re, Atti d. Ace. archeol. ii. p. 125
(for Bianchi, against Fea). [The amphitheatre of Syracuse, CavaUari in
Serradifalco iv. tv. 13-15, of Catania v. tv. 7-9 ; there is a large work on
that of Capua prepared.] The sight of the amphitheatrical games in
their strange combinations must have been wonderful, surprising and
exciting to a degree which we cannot adequately imagine. The splendid
decorations, the moveable ivory cylinders and gold nets for the protec
tion of the podium, the gems on the balteus, i, e. the prsecinctiones, and
the gilding of the porticoes are described especiaUy by Calpurnius, Eel.
vii, 47 sqq.
5. In the Naumachia of Augustus the longer axis amounted to 1,800
(basin) and 100 feet (seats), the shorter 1,200 and 100 f.
291. Another class of buildings consists of porticoes des
tined for public social intercourse, which the ancients loved
so much, for commerce and all sorts of assemblies, in which a

324 ARCHITECTONICS.
roof resting on columns and affording a shelter against wind
and rain was the main object, whereas in temples it was
merely an external appendage. To these belong first, entirely
open porticoes of two or more rows of columns (tetrastichoe,
pentastichoe), such as sometimes traversed cities in the form
of streets, like the great colonnades of the Syrian towns (§.
149. R. 4. 192. R. 5), sometimes surrounded quadrangular mar
ket-places and other squares; sometimes also they constituted
distinct buildings by themselves. But then walls were also
added to the colonnades on one or both sides, aud thus
were developed the halls which Rome borrowed from Greece
under the name of basilicas {sroai jSaaiXixai §. 180. R. 3. 188.
: R. 3. 191. R. 1. 194.) Here we distinguish: three or five
aisles running along parallel to one another, together with the
galleries over the side-aisles, which were formed by columns
disposed in pairs, the chalcidicum in front, and the tribunal in
the posterior part of the building, frequently in a semicircular
) recess {-Myy^ri). — We shall content ourselves with merely men
tioning other public edifices, as we can scarcely say anything
general as to their construction, such as the Buleutbria or Cu-
mm ; the Prytaneia of the Greeks with the Tholi or circular
buildings which were destined for the state-sacrifices of the
Prytanes; [the Ship-houses, vswg/a (Bockh Urkunden des At-
tischen Seewesens s. 64 ff.) and Skeuothecae, the celebrated one
of Philo in the Peirseus Olymp. 112. (Ibid. s. 71.)]; the pri
sons, which were often very strong and resembled donjons ;
the THESAURI (aeraria), in which subterranean cellar-like vaults
seem even in later times to have been the principal thing [?].
3 The numerous groups of Thesauri, which stood on platforms
{xgrivTdec) in the temples of Delphi and Olympia, were also pro
bably for the most part circular structures,
2, Thus for example there stood at Athens, according to Paus. i, 2, 4.
several temples, a 'gymnasium and Polytion's house in a stoa, that is to
say in a square enclosed by it. Of the same description was the portico
of MeteUus, §, 180, R, 2. 190. R, 1, i. The portico of Thoricus (§. 109. R.
8,) shows no trace of walls, and was therefore perhaps a mere structure
of columns ; so also for the most part the portico of Diocletian at Palmyra,
Cassas i. pi, 93 sqq, — Comp, Hirt, Gesch, iii. s. 265.
3. The Corcyrsean Hall at Elis contained a wall between two rows of
columns, Paus. vi, 24, 4. A CBYPTOPOETicns had walls with windows on
both sides, and probably only engaged columns between. On hangins
porticoes §. 149. R. 2. comp. §. 279. R. Forcellini s. v. mxnianum, solar
ria, Mseniana, iiXixarri^ix, Salmasius Hist. Aug. i. p. 676. [Portico of the
Agora at Aphrodisias, Ion. Ant. iii. ch. 2. pi. 6 sqq.]
4. We obtain a knowledge of the Basilicce especiaUy from that of
Vitruvius at Fanum (in the description of which however there are stiU
many obscurities,) that at Pompeii (Mazois iii. pi. 15. sqq. Gell, Pomp.

GYMNASIA, THERMS. 325
New Ser. ch. 2.), the one at Ocriculum and those of the Christians. On
the vestibule, which was called Chaioidioum, and was therefore derived
from Chalcis, see Hirt ii. s. 266. Sachse's Stadt Rom. ii. s. 7. The Pom
peian Chalcidicum however formed a separate peristyle with a crypto-
porticus behind it. Becchi, del Calcidico e d. Cripta di Eumachia. N.
1820. Malalas has often the expression xoyxn. [oixixi voXv6^o(poi. Ja
cobs ad Philostr. Imag. 4, 23.]
5. The Tholus of Athens was also called Skias (Suidas s. v. 'S.xii.g, C.
I. p. 326.), and was therefore one and the same sort of building with the
skias of Theodorus at Sparta, §. 66. R., only that the latter was large enough
to contain assembUes of the people. Was the tholus qui est Delphis (de
eo scripsit Theodorus Phocseus, Vitruv. vii. Prsef) the buleuterion of that
place or a thesaurus 1 TraveUers frequently speak of a circular building
there. — Welcker, Rhein. Mus. ii, 3. s. 469 ff., throws doubt on the idea
brought forward § 48. regarding the ancient thesauri; but, in the first
place, native tradition certainly designates distinctly the well known
buUdings as the treasuries of Minyas and Atreus (the latter of which is
even yet a xxrxyxiov oi'xnfix, as Pausanias calls it), and secondly, analogies
are too much wanting in Greece to explain such domes contrary to tra
dition to be sepulchres. See on these Dodwell, Views of Cyclop. Remains,
pL 9. 10. 11. 13.
6. These buUdings (on the position of which see Paus. vi. 19, 1.) are
called by Polemon Athen. xi. p. 479. vuoi, in Burip. Androm. 1096. xi^""""
yifiovrx yvx'h.x. The smaU buildings also which were designed to sup
port prize-tripods were caUed vxoi (§. 108. R. 4), Plut. Nic. 3. Comp.
also §. 232. R. 4.
292. Among the public buildings which were erected for
the general care of the body, the Gymna.sia were in Greece,
and the THERMiE in Rome, and probably even in the Mace
donian East, the most important. They stand in close con
nexion with one another, for, as in Greece the warm bath
was attached to athletic exercises as a remedy for exhaustion,
so in Rome some corporeal exercise was connected with the
use of the bath. The Greek Gymnasia, in their complete
ness, contained the following spaces and apartments: A. as
parts of the main portion, the palsestra: 1. the stadion; 2.
the ephebeion, the exercise-hall for the youths; 3. sphajris-
terion, for ball-playing; 4. apodyterion, for undressing; 5.
eleeothesion, aleipterion, for anointing; 6. konisterion, for
rubbing with dust; 7. the swimming-bath {xoXui/jfinh^a) with
other bathing accommodations; 8. covered promenades {^usroi,
in Rome, portions stadiatae, stadia tecta); 9. open promen
ades {'jre^ibio/ilbeg, in Rome, hypaethrae, ambulationes or xysti).
B. as surrounding portions : all sorts of rooms (ceci), open halls
(exedrae), porticoes (portions, also cryptoporticus), by means
of which the gymnasium was also fitted to become a place of
intellectual gymnastics. Now, in Thermae, we distinguish in
a similar way: A. The main edifice, in which were, 1. the ephe-
beum, the large circular hall in the centre of the whole; 2.

326 ARCHITECTONICS.
the cold bath (balneum frigidarium) ; 3. the tepid (tepidar-
ium); 4. the hot (caldarium); 5. the sweating-room often
connected therewith (Laconicum sen sudatio concamerata, in
which were the clypeus and the labrum, and the hypocaustum
with the suspensura beneath) ; 6. the anointing-room (unctu-
arium); 7. sphasristerium or coryceum; 8. apodyterium; 9.
elseothesium; 10. conisterium; 11. the swimming-bath (pis
cina); 12. xysti; 13. all sorts of apartments for attendants;
14. the vestibulum (all these chambers, except the vestibulum,
ephebeum and piscina, are usually found double). B. sur
rounding and enclosing structures such as otherwise belong
especially to museums — porticoes, exedr®, apartments for
learned intercourse (scholae) and libraries, also buildings in
the form of theatres.
2. The best preserved ruins of gymnasia are at Ephesus (the most
magnificent in Asia, built by Adrian, Philostr. Vit. Soph. 1. Polemo),
Alexandria Troas and HierapoUs (drawings of the last by Cockerell).
For carrying out into detail the above data from Vitruvius see Hirt. iii.
s. 233 ff. Kruse Theagenes S. 131 ff. [Plan of the palsestra, Leake Tour
in Asia, Appendix Note 3.]
4. In elder Greece and Rome the baths, fixf^xveix, were insignificant
edifices and probably in general private undertakings. (PubUc Mvr^aveg
however are mentioned by Xenophon, RP. Ath. 2, 10). In these a round
and vaulted form was the usual one at Athens, Athen. xi. p. 501. But
this form always continued to be that of the bath-haUs ; large windows
in the dome admitted the Ught. Comp. Lucian's Hippias 5. Seneca Bp. 86.
Statius Silv. i, 5, 45, Plin. Bp. ii, 17. Sueton. de ill. gramm. 9. 11. Comp.
§. 194. R. 3. [Baths at Cnidos Ion. Ant. iii. ch. 1. pi. 12 sqq.]
We know the construction of baths and thermse especiaUy from the
picture found in the baths of Titus (Winckelm. W. u. Tf 4. Hirt, Tf
24, 2.), the thermse of Badenweiler (§. 264. R. 2.) and PompeU (M. Borb:
ii, 49 sqq. Gell, Pomp. New Ser. i. pi. 23 sqq.), which are restricted to
the necessary parts, and Palladio's plans of the baths of Agrippa, which
however are not altogether to be relied on, the Nerono-Alexandrine, those
of Titus (or Trajan?), of CaracaUa, Philip (1), Diocletian and Constantine,
which in general present very distinctly the lavacra in modum provinci-
arum extructa (Ammian). PaUadio, Terme de' Bom. dis. con giunte di
Ott. Barotti Scamozzi. Vic. 1783 fo. [Vicence 1797. 4to.] Ch. Cameron, The
Baths of the Bomans. L. 1772 fo. comp. §. 192. R. 1. 193. R. 6. Becker
Gallus ii. S. 19. Kruse Theagenes S. 138. distinguishes the coryceum from
the sphseristerium.— AUied to the baths were the ntmph.s!a, halls with
high cupolas and fountains (Dissert. Antioch. i, 22.).
5. The Alexandrine museum (§. 149. R. 3) was a large peristyle with
Ubrary and other rooms behind, and having a large dining-haU. Strab. xvii,
p, 793, Aphthonius, p, 106, ed, Walz, Comp, J, Pr. Gronov and Neocorus,
Thes. Ant. Grsec. vui. p. 2742 sqq. On the exedrse of the museums com
bined with stoso, Gothofred. ad Theod. Cod. xv, 1, 53. But artificial sta-
lactitic grottoes were likewise called museums, Plin. xxxvi, 42. Comp.
Malalas, p, 282, ed, Bonn. [Large ruins at Sardes point at pubUc granaries.]

PRIVATE HOUSES. 327
293. The design of private houses was of course at all 1
times dependent on the various wants of different ranks and
trades, as well as the particular inclinations of the owners,
and therefore less regulated by pervading rules than the public
buildings; however, there are even here certain easily distin
guishable leading forms. I. The primitive Greek house of 2
the anaktes (§. 47), to which may have corresponded in gen
eral, even in later times, the designs of houses among those
tribes of Greece who more faithfully adhered to the ancient
customs. II. The design described by Vitruvius, which pro- 3
bably emanated from the lonians, and which was perfected in
the Alexandrine times: A. the front porch for the door-keeper
(^ugwgE/bt). B. The division for the men {avb^ovlrig), a peri
style (with the Rhodian stoa towards the south), surrounded
by apartments of all kinds, dining-rooms, rooms for the men's
meals {dvb^meg), exedrae, libraries, cells for slaves, stables. C. 4
Division for the women {ywaixoivTrig), also in connexion with
the front porch, with a small prostyle to itself and adjoining
porch (wgoffrcbs or ira^aardg), rooms of all sorts, bed-chambers
(the SaXa^og and d/ji,fi^dXa/j,og), cells and so forth. D. Cham
bers for guests {^evmeg, hospitalia), as separate dwellings; in
termediate courts {/iigauXoi) separated them from the main
building. III. The Roman house, a combination of the later 5
Greek with the primitive Italian (§. 168. R. 5), which always
continued to be pretty generally retained in the habitations
of plain citizens; its parts: 1. Vestibulum; 2. atrium or cavas-
dium, either Tuscan (without columns), or tetrastyle, or
Corinthian, or vaulted (testudinatum) ; 3. Side-rooms of
atrium (alae, tablina, fauces) ; 4. the peristyle ; 5. dining-
rooms (triclinia, ccenationes, sestivee, hibernae) ; 6. halls
(oeci, tetrastyli, Corinthii, .ffigyptii, Cyziceni); 7. conversa
tion-saloons (exedras) ; 8. pinacothecae and bibliothecae ;
9. the bath with the paleestra ; 10. closets, bed-chambers
(conclavia, cubicula, dormitoria); 11. store-rooms and work
rooms for the slaves (cellae familiae) ; 12. the upper story
called coenacula; 13. cellars (hypogea concamerata; 14. gar
den buildings (viridaria, ambulationes). To the character of 6
the ancient house in general belongs external seclusion (hence
few and high windows), and the open communication of the
apartments of the house with one another, as they were built
around inner courts from which they were immediately acces
sible, often lighted merely through the open doors, and some
times separated only by moveable wooden partitions (hence
the tablinum) or curtains (vela). As to the country houses, 7
it is suflScient to remark that they are divided into villw rus-
ticw, really designed in a way suitable to the life of a coun
try gentleman, and urhance, which transferred the luxurious

328 ARCHITECTONICS.
construction of the city into rural environment (of such there
are not wanting minute descriptions).
1. A leading circumstance in the explanation of these structures is
the Uttle necessity for carrying off smoke ; hence the want of chimneys.
On the means of compensation comp. StiegUtz Arch. i. s. 124. Remains
of ancient chimneys, Fea in Winckelm. W. ii. s. 347. Such were most
usual in Gaul. Elsewhere heating by means of pipes in the wall and
floor was a favourite method.
2. Comp, Dorians ii, p. 271 sq. At Athens an «i7n) before the house
was usual even in later times; the women Uved mostly in the upper
story, v'jre^^ov, liviqeg (Lysias Ap, for the murder of Eratosth. 9,), the
maids in irvqyoi (Demosth, agt. Buerg. p. 1156.). Hence the hiareyix on
the stage, Pollux iv, 127, Antigone appears on the balcony over the Par
thenon in the iiareyix. The data of Vitruvius on the whole are evidently
inapplicable here. Comp. Schneider, Bpim. ad Xen, M, S, iii, 8. ad
Vitruv, vi, 7,
5. These data of Vitruvius agree on the whole extremely well with
the more stately houses in Pompeii (§. 190, R. 4,) and in the Capitoline
plan of Rome, Mazois, Essai sur les habitations des anc, Romains, Ru
ines de Pompei, P. ii, p. 3 sqq, [A monument erected to science. The
most accurate and complete work is Descriz, di una casa Pompeiana Nap,
1837. 4to, a 2nd ed. 1840, a third 1843 by AveUino, who says that there
is nothing for which he admires Winckelmann more than his accounts of
Pompeii, as he anticipated so much that has been confirmed by later
discoveries. P. Marquez Delle case di cittJi d. ant. Romani seoondo la
dottrina di Vitr. R. 1795. 8vo. V. Schiassi Degli edifizi di R. ant. Bo
logna 1817, 8vo. C. G. Zumpt Ueber die bauliche Binrichtung des
Rom. Wohnhauses. B. 1844. 8vo.]
7. Pliny's description of his Laurentinum and Tusoum, Statius Silv.
i, 3. are main sources ; [Felibien des Avaux Les plans et les descr. de
deux maisons de camp, de Pline. L. 1707. 8vo.] among the moderns, Sca
mozzi, FeUbien, Rob, Castell, The Villas of the Ancients iUustrated. L.
1728 fo. The plans of Hadrian's vUla by Ligorio, Peyre, and Piranesi
are in the main imaginary. — As to inns we know especially the great
xxrxyayiov of Platsea which resembled a caravanserai, Thucyd. iii. 68.
1 294. In sepulchral structures one of two objects com
monly predominated, — either to have a chamber for deposit
ing the body or the ashes of the deceased, or to erect to him
2 publicly a monument of commemoration (comp. §. 286). The
former was the only object in sepulchral chambers constructed
subterraneously or hewn out of the rock, if a frontispiece in
the rocky wall did not even here announce the situation of a
3 sepulchral chamber (§. 170, 2. 241,* 3. 256. R. 3). In Greek
districts, as the colonies of Lower Italy, the form of cofiin-like
chambers, or stone-receptacles, recalling the original burying
4 of corpses, prevailed. Labyrinthine chambers and galleries
in the rocky ground were also from early times a favourite

SEPULCHRAL STRUCTURES. 329
form of necropolis (§. 50, R. 2). The other object, on the 5
contrary, was a necessary ingredient in monuments which are
raised above the ground, although these also must still have
contained a chamber, in which the immediate receptacle of
the relics of the dead was deposited. A vaulted chamber,
with niches for the different urns, if the monument (as colum
barium) was intended for several, satisfied this want in the
simplest manner; to this corresponded externally, and in a
natural way, the form of a round towerlike building, which
frequently occurs at Rome and Pompeii. Other forms arose 6
inasmuch as the ancient tumuli {yj^iJiara, xoXoivai §. 50, 2) had
sometimes circular foundations (§. 170, 2. 241,* 2), and were
sometimes of a quadrangular form, from whence resulted a
pyramid; which again placed on a cubic basement gave the
wide-spread form of the mausoleum (§. 151. R. 1). The ter- 7
race-form of the tombs of Roman emperors (§. 190. R. 1. 191.
R. 1. 192. R. 1) was perhaps indebted for its origin to the
analogy of the rogus, where it is the most natural. Other 8
forms were produced by the analogy of altars on which liba
tions were made to the dead, as well as of temples, with
which sepulchral monuments were so much the more closely
connected as they were even regarded as heroa.— Connected 9
herewith are the honorary monuments, which certainly had
no reference to concealment of the dead, and furnished a
place for honorary statues, sometimes under a roof supported
by columns (such as the Tetrakionia §. 158. R, 5), sometimes
in niches (such as the monument of Philopappus §. 192).
Triumphal arches combine in an ingenious manner the
twofold destination, to commemorate a victorious return from
war, and to elevate curule statues high above the ground.
3. In Attica stone coffins are often found hewn out of the rocks and
covered with a stone slab (Leake, Topogr. p. 318) ; similar ones also on
the road to Delphi. AnnaU d, I. vii, p. 186. On the Attic tombs {Siiixxi)
Cic. de legg. ii. 26. Tile sarcophagus {xs^xpiiog uo^og) Stackelberg Graber
Tf 7, an earthen sarcoph, ibid. 8. There are stone-coffins found in
niches in the rocks near Ephesus, in Melos and elsewhere. [Numerous
and pecuUar in character are the tombs at Chalcis, which are hewn
out in the gently acclivous rocky ground. Sepulchral chambers in
Melos Ross HaU. A. L. Z. 1838. No. 40. Tombs of Thera Idem AnnaU
d. I. xiii. p, 13.] At Assos, Thasos and other places there are many large
sarcophagi standing free on pedestals [also before the gate of Platsea
along the road to Thebes]. On the tombs of Rhenea, BuU, d, Inst, 1830.
p, 9. Kunstbl. 1836. N. 17. In Magna Grecia according to Jorio (§, 257,
R, 5) tombs composed of large blocks and covered with small stones
or earth prevaU (see the frontispiece to Tischbein's Vasengemalden),
and along with these are found tombs hollowed out of the tufa, or even
in the mere earth. The tufa-sepulchres especially are often richly orna
mented with painting, stucco-work and reliefs. An elegant tomb' dis
covered at Canosa in 1826, M. I. d. Inst. 43. Lombardi, Ann. iv. p. 285.

330 ARCHITECTONICS,
Comp. Gerhard, BuU. 1829. p. 181. Burial of the dead, Becker GaUus ii.
S. 271. 291.
4. The grottoes near Gortyna are given in Lapie's map of Crete.
Irregularly planned catacombs at Rome, Naples, and Paris; more
systematic at Syracuse, Wilkins M. Gr. p. 50. Hirt ii, s. 88. SimUar to
these are the Alexandrine ' (MinutoU, Abhandl. verm. Inhalts, zw. Cycl.
i, s, 1,) and the Cyrensean (Pacho, pi, 61,), [E, Braun II laberinto di Por
senna comparato coi sepolcri di Poggio-GozeUa nell' agro Clusino. R,
1840 fol,]
5. [In Lycia four kinds of sepulchral architecture ; Fellows Lycia, p.
104. 128., one with Gothic arch in the roof, comp. p. 112. 142. 186. Asia
Minor (by the same), p. 219, 231. 228 ; others imitate the timber con
struction in the rock, especially at Xanthos, Telmessos and Pinara, comp.
Asia Minor, p. 228, an idea which betrays itself also in several of the
facades of Phrygian tombs. No part of Asia Minor is so rich in sepul
chres as Lycia. Tomb at Mylasa with an open chamber above the grave-
chamber, resting on 12 Corinthian columns. Fellows Lycia, p. 76. Re
markable tumuU, walled within at Kertsch (Panticapseon). Dubois Voy.
in Crimee iv. Sect. pi. 18. Tombs in Phrygia in Steuart Descr. of some
anc. mon. with Inscriptions, stUl existing in Lydia and Phrygia L. 1842.
comp. BuU. 1843. p. 64. Tombs on the north peak of the citadel of
Smyrna (one of Tantalus, according to the false supposition that this was
the site of Sipylos), Hamilton Researches in Asia Minor i. p. 47 sqq.
comp. Prokesch Wiener Jahrb. 1834. iv. s. 55. of the Anz., tombs hewn out
of the rock, sometimes with column fa9ades, at Cagliari in Sardinia, see
DeUa Marmora Voy. de la Sardaigne,] Comp. the Rom. tombs in BartoU
(§, 210, R, 4,), H, Moses' Collection of ant, vases, pi, 110 — 118 and others.
— [Uhden in Wolf and Buttman's Mus. i. s. 586 ff. on temples to the
dead with gardens, arbours, choirs, in which were the portrait statues in
the form of deities. One of the finest sepul. mon. is that at Weyden near
Cologne, Alterth, Verein zu Bonn iu, Tf 5—8. s. 134.]— The Palmyrenian
monuments are very peculiar, — quadrangular towers with balconies, on
which the occupiers of the monument are represented resting.
6. A PYRAMIDAL monumont near Argos is mentioned by Pausanias ii,
25, 6., a simUar one, of polygonal stones but with mortar, with a sepulchral
chamber, is to be seen on the river Pontinus near Argos. Leake, Morea
ii. p. 339. With the mausoleum is to be compared the monument of
Constantina, in which a pyramid rises over the entablature of a circular
building surrounded with columns, §. 256. R. 4. [Comp. §. 48, R. 3.]
7. Hephsestion's pyre (§. 151. R. 2) was perhaps itself an imitation
of older Babylonian pyres, such as that of Sardanapalus. [See Gerhard
Archaol, Zeit. 1848, s. 73 ] The pyre on the Tarsian coins, on which
Hercules-Sandon is burnt (§, 238. R. 4), has the form of a pyramid on a
cubic substruction.
8. 'Bapifiii^g Txipog, Paus. ; fiapioi on tombs, Welcker, SyU. Epigr. p,
45. To this class belong the Pompeian sepulchral monuments, which
consist of a low piUar with a capping and Ionic cushion ornaments. The
Sicyonian tombs were in the form of temples according to Paus. ii, 7, 3.
comp. Leake, Morea iii. p. 358. Restoration of an aetos of this kind

SANCTUARIES, MARKET-PLACES. 331
found at Bpidauros. Staokelb. Graber Tf 4, Sepul. mon. of Asia Minor
C. I. n. 2824 6 •TrXxrxg (hypobathrum), thereon a pcvrifniov = (ia/xog,
therein m^og and eiaaarxi, columbaria, si'Soipogof between the fiapiog and
sarcophagus, with the figure. The vases, especially those of Lucania and
Apulia, also the clay-lamps (Passeri iii, 44.) give numerous representa
tions of tomb-temples. Nothing is more common than engaged columns,
temple-pediments and antefixa on tombs and cippi. See the examples
in Hirt, Tf. 40, 5. 6. 8. 9. and the Mylasenian monument n. 24. Antefixa
§. 284. R. 2.
9. One of these destinations of the triumphal arch is described by
PUny xxxiv, 12: columnarum ratio erat attoUi supra ceteros mortales,
quod et arcus significent, novitio invento (however fornices and signa
aurata upon them occur in Liv. xxxiii, 27. as early as the year 566 of
the city). L. Rossini GU archi trionfali onorarii e funebri degli ant.
Rom. sparsi per tutta Pltalia R. fol. max. Bull. 1837. p. 30. Similar to
the triumphal arch were the Tetrapyla at Antioch (§, 149. R, 4), Csesa
rea, Palmyra, Constantinople, wherewith especially the crossings of colon
nade-streets were arched over. In a gymnasium at Aphrodisias xtvxo-
"hi^oi 'TTXqxffrahes xxi to xxr xvrav eiXnpiX pcerd rvig y'hv<pyig xinav xxi
xioveg fierd rav ^pioofjrsi^av (stylobates) xxi xe(pxXao. C. I. n, 2782.
295. From these single edifices we now extend our view 1
to such structures as contained several buildings destined for
different purposes, but yet conceived as a whole and calcu
lated for one architectonic effect. To this class belong the 2
sanctuaries ('Ega) of the Greeks which, with their high-altars,
temples and heroa, prytanea, theatres, stadia and hippodromes,
sacred groves, fountains and grottoes, are to be conceived as
a manifold assemblage of edifices, sometimes calculated to
produce a solemn, and sometimes an agreeable effect (comp. §,
252. R. 3). Further, the market-places {dyo^al, fora), whose 3
regular design emanated from lojiia (§. Ill, 2), and was after
wards very much perfected at Rome: — squares surrounded
with open colonnades, and, behind these, temples, basilicae,
curiae, triumphal arches and other honorary monuments, also
booths and shops; it was intended that in these above all the
spirit of political life should prevail, and recollections of
a patriotic nature be kept alive ; whilst, on the contrary,
other markets (fora olitoria and macella) were destined to
provide for the nourishment and necessities of life. Lastly, 4
the most extensive problem — the laying out of entire cities —
which since the time of Hippodamus (§• 111, 1.) was often
. assigned in Greece to distinguished architects. Even the
earliest founders of cities and colonies in Greece were com
mended for choosing the site of the city with reference to
pleasing view, and in reality many Greek cities present,
especially from the theatres, prospects of enchanting beauty ;
nor were the later architects so carried away by the striving
after regularity, as not on all occasions to observe and adopt
with nice perception the advantages of a picturesque situa-

332 ARCHITECTONICS,
tion. The theatre-form in especial was a favourite mode of
construction, which in the rock-encircled Delphi must have
produced an awfully sublime impression, and a gayer and
more brilliant effect in maritime towns such as Rhodes and
HaUcarnassus. These cities in particular, with their large
public edifices and well distributed colossi, must have even in
the distance appeared to the traveller as splendidly decorated
theatres. 3. The design of a forum is rendered quite clear particularly by the
Gabinian discovered in 1792 (Visconti, Mon. Gab. tv. 1,), and that of
Pompeii (see the splendid restoration in Gell, Pomp, pi, 48, 61).— A cov
ered forum §. 191, R. 1,
4. On the fine situation of Greek towns, Strabo v. p, 235. Assos in
Asia Minor is a striking example, Choiseul Gouffier Voy. Pitt. ii. pi. 10,
Together with this a skilful use of, and defence from, wind and sun was
from early times a grand aim with founders of cities. Arist. Polit. vii, 10.
Vitruv. i, 4, 6. Of aU the Grecian cities, with the exception of Athens,
perhaps Syracuse is the one of which we possess the most accurate
knowledge as regards its plan ; here also the more modern portions were
more regular than the ancient. Plan in Levesque, Goller, Letronne. The
improvements at Ephesus by Damianus, Philostr. v. Soph, ii, 23.
1 296. As architecture does not reject any phase of human
life as unsusceptible of artistic forms, any more than it is
capable of providing itself with forms elsewhere than from
the wants of life, the mention of land and water buildings
must not be here omitted, by means of which the people put
their place of habitation in a firm and secure manner in con
nexion with others, procured for themselves the necessary
wants of life from a distance, and on the other hand conveyed
2 away what was unprofitable. We here refer in the first place
to the ROADS, in the construction of which the Romans were
so distinguished (§. 180. R. 1), on account of which rocks were
quarried through, and wide valleys and marshes spanned by
3 long arches; then to the vast bridges, canals, outlets of
4 lakes and cloace of the same people; further, to the entire
magnificent system of water-supply for Rome which Fronti
nus not without reason ranks above the pyramids of Egypt
and other wonders of the world, and to which, besides canals,
aqueducts and conduits, belonged reservoirs, wells and foun
tains, which, ornamented with columns, basins and statues,
were very numerous in Rome from the time of Agrippa.
B Although indeed the lofty arcades of the aqueducts might
sometimes be spared by means of cheaper contrivances, their
architectonic feeling however, besides other considerations,
determined the ancients to prefer to such unostentatious sub
stitutes, those gigantic rows of arches which hasten from the
mountains over valley and plain to the well-peopled city,

ROADS, AQUEDUCTS, &o. 333
and already announce it from afar. In like manner, too, the
HARBOURS of the aucicnts, although smaller than ours, never
theless presented with their moles, pharoses, outer bays and
inner basins, arsenals, wharfs and docks, together with enclos
ing quays and colonnades, temples and statues, a far more
complete and significant general effect; and even here archi
tectonic feeling was intimately combined with fulfilment of
the external object. Ships also, the round and unwieldy one
of the merchant as well as the light and menacing one of the
fleet, the latter of which might rather be compared to an adroit
warrior than a floating bulwark, presented a significant aspect
and peculiar physiognomy; and in the Alexandrine period
these as well as chariots (§. 150. 152) were magnificent struc
tures of colossal dimensions. Only where mechanics takes
possession of a building so entirely that its complicated fitness
does not exhibit itself in a connected view, architecture as an
art yields to a mere calculating activity of the intellect not
warmed and animated by any feeling.
2. The Roman streets were partly sUice stratse (the Appian way
best), sometimes glarea; the footpath alongside lapide, with softer
stones: mUe-stones (comp. §. 67) on aU the high roads. Bergier, Hist.
des grands chemins de I'emp. Remain (Thes. Ant. Rom, x,), Hirt ii, s.
198, iii. s. 407. In Greece particular care was bestowed on roads for
festal processions, — at the Didymseon, at Mylasa. On the axv^ard 6lcg in
Cyrene, Bockh. ad Pind. P. v. p. 191.
4. A map of the Boman aqueducts in Piranesi, Antich. Rom. tv. 38.
Fabretti in the Thes. Ant. Rom. iv. p. 1677. The splendid monolith vases
of porphyry, granite, marble, having even 20 — 30 feet in diameter, which
adorn the museums, are mostly to be regarded as basins of fountains.
Hirt, iu, s, 401. The most celebrated fountains {x^iivxi, comp. Leake,
Morea U, p, 373,) of Greece, §, 81. R. 1. comp. 99. R. 3, 13. Cisterns of
Byzantium, §. 193. R. 8.
6. A main constituent of the ancient harbours were the arcades on
the moles, which had for their object the cleansing of the inside by
pouring in a stream of water. They are found in mural paintings (Pitt.
di Ercol. u, 65. GeU, Pomp. New S. pi. 67.) and in ruins. Giuliano di
Fazio Intorno il migUor sistema di costruzione dei porti. Nap. 1828 and
enlarged Obss. sur les precedes architect, des anciens dans la constr. des
ports 1832 (the harbours with arcades in order that the courants lito-
raux might pass through). BuUett. 1833. p. 28. On the harbour at
Cenchrese, above §. 262. B. 3. That of Carthage also was enclosed with
Ionic columns, behind which were the veagoixoi. Appian viii, 96. Pharos
§. 149. R. 3. 190. R. 2.— Ships, see below Stieglitz Beitrage, s. 205.

334 FURNITURE AND VESSELS.

II. FURNITURE AND VESSELS.
297. However much the moveable house-furniture might
be distinguished from the buildings, by the relation to the
soil, it was not the less related to these as regards the union of
utility and beauty, which the Greek taste always knew how to
attain equally and in the shortest way, and also in respect of
the geometric forms which it employed therein as the leading
forms. However, furniture and vessels, precisely because they
are moveable objects, admit in their supports, feet, handles
and decorative portions, not merely of the forms of vegetable,
but also of animal, life to a much greater extent than the
rigidity of architecture will bear; as we see for example on
thrones and other kinds of seats. These kinds of furniture,
which have been often mentioned already (§. 56. R. 2. 85. R.
2. 115. R. 1. 2S9. R. 5), as well as the coffers {xnXol, Xd^vaxig,
§. 56. 57), chests and casquets {xitSaroi xi(3iiria), tables and din
ing sofas of the ancients, in like manner made of wood, are in
general known to us but mediately, on account of the perish-
ableness of their material; however, there are also thrones of
marble, which are decorated with great taste, (comp. §. 358.
towards the end).
1. Comp, Winck, W. ii, s, 93, Weinbrenner is therefore right in
ascribing (Architect, Lehrbuch Th, iii, s, 29,) the ancient forms of vessels
to the exercise of architectural taste.
3. The xt/iaroi are often distinctly to be seen as receptacles for clothes
(Pollux X, 137,) on vase-paintings, MilUngen, Uned, Mon, 35. V. de
Cogh. 30, Div. coll, 18. But simUar chests also occur filled with oil-
flasks, Div. coll. 17. 58. as well as at sacrifices, 61. We often see on vases
very elegant sacrificial tables, r^xis-e^xi (Polyb. iv, 35, Osann, SyU, i, 74.
C. I. p. 751), for example MilUngen Div, coll, 58, T^x'ire^xi for the prizes
at the games (a chryselephantine one at Olympia, Q, de Quincy, p, 360)
are often to be met with on coins. Tables of bronze Ukewise were nu
merous ; the tables of Rhenea (Athen. xi, 486 e,) are connected with the
tricUnia aerata of Delos (PUn, xxxiv, 4. xxxiu, 51) and the banquetings
of the gluttonous DeUans (Athen. ix, 172).

1 298. Vessels for fluids are more accurately known, and
more important for the knowledge of ancient art. Wood only
occurs as a material for country use ; the most common were
burnt earth and metal (Corinthian brass, enchased silver),
which often, according to the measure of wealth, took the place
2 of one another alternately in the same vessel. The forms are
conditioned by the particular object of the vessel; we distin-

VESSELS FOR FLUIDS. 335
guish the following leading destinations: 1. Vessels which
were to receive considerable quantities for a short time, to be
taken out of it in small quantities, and arranged to stand fast
in the central point of a banquet ; whence resulted the high,
capacious form, expanding upwards, of the mixing-vase, xgar^^.
2. Small vessels for drawing out of the crater and pouring
into the cup, consisting of small goblets with long handles,
ladles, called doheri-xog, dgoraiva, d^usrrig, xhaiiog, similar to the
primitive Italic simpulum, also trulla. 3. Small cans for pour
ing from with slender neck, broad ear, pointed mouth, '7r^oxo\ig,
-r^o-xyrrig. 4. Vessels without handles, sometimes longish,
sometimes round, but always with slender neck, in order to
let oil or other such fluid drop, Xrix\&og, oX-ffn, dxd^aar^ov, am
pulla, guttus. 5. Flat shield-like goblets, especially for mak
ing libations directly from, (pidXri, {a^yv^ig, x?'"'''s)) patera (to
be distinguished from the platter, patina, patella), yauXog evi
dently round and flat; capis, capedo, probably a patella with
an ansa, cf Fest. v. patella,
1. Thericles (§. 112, R. 1.) also turned cups of turpentine-wood,
Athen, ix, 470, PUn. xvi, 76. Theocr. i, 27. describes a carved cup {xia-
ttii^iov), with two handles, surrounded at the rim with a wreath of ivy
and heUchrysos, beneath with acanthos, between which were reUefs of
elegant composition (comp, Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 88). — In early times the
craters of CoUas earth were esteemed (§. 63.), afterwards only silver ones
set with precious stones, Athen. v, 199. xi, 482. What Athenseus de
scribes are in general sUver and gold vessels. Vasa operis antiqui found
at Tegea Sueton. Vespas. 7. [Silver vessels §. 311. R. 5.]
2. No. 1. ArgoUc craters, Herodotus iv, 152, Lesbian, iv, 61, Laconian
and Corinthian, Athen. v, 199. On three feet, Athen. ii, 37., on sup
porting giants. Her. iv, 152., on hypocreteridia, §. 61. C. I. p. 20. With
handles on both sides {hx/ixl dpt^iaropioi) Sophocl. CEd. Col. 473. The han
dles are generaUy placed on the lower rim of the belly above the foot,
rather for pushing than carrying. Numberless craters on reUefs. Very
fine ones of marble in BouUl. iu, 77. 78. 80, Moses, Vases, pi. 36. 40. 41.
Particularly celebrated are the two from Hadrian's viUa, in Warwick
castle (Moses, pi. 37) and in Woburn abbey (Wob. Marbles). Sopra U
vaso app. Cratere, Diss, dai Oonte Floridi, p. 565.
2. Athen. x, 423. Schol. Arist. Vesp. 887. Festus s. v. simp. Ac
cording to Varro L. L. v. §. 124. the simpulum belongs to sacrifices, and
the cyathus to banquets. The figure of the simpulum with upright
handles is to be seen on Boman coins, and among the sacrificial utensils
of the friese, BouUl. iu, 83. Causeus de insign. pontif. tb, 2, (Thes.
Antt. Rom. v). Perhaps the cxxcpiav also belongs to this class, C, I. 1570,
b. Cic, Verr, iv, 17. The truUa was sometimes of silver with reUefs.
OreUi Inscr, 3838.
3. Iris pours the water of Styx from the prochus as a libation,
Hesiod. Th, 785., Antigone the ^o*'' of her brother. Soph, Ant, 426. The
holding the prochus up high (agSnv) is often observed in those who pour

336 FURNITURE AND VESSELS.
out for a Ubation. See the reliefs §. 96. No, 17, 18. and among others the
vase-paintings MUUngen Un. Mon. i, 34, Cogh, 23, 28. We often see pro
chus and phiale together. It is often met with among painted vases, for
example Laborde ii, 41. The ¦w^oxvrng in Heron is the same vessel. Spirit.
p. 163. (Vet. Mathem, Paris,) ; the n'Trovieiov was perhaps simUar, p, 175.
The 'it^oxoi'g or 'eicixvuig (Bekker, Anecd. p. 294.), also caUed guttus (Varro
L. L, V. §, 124,), has not a biU, but a pipe or nozzle {xi/Xiaxag) for the
mouth, according to the scholia to Clemens, p, 122, ed. Klotz.
4, AmpuUa especially conveys the idea of a very much beUied
form, see Appul, Flor, ii, 9. These vessels were often of leather, gener
aUy of clay or metal ; the dy^x^xar^x for anointing (on the form of which,
PUn. ix, 66,) frequently of the stone which is named from them. Some
times balsam oU is still found in vases of this form (balsamario, unguen-
tario, lagrimale) ; in order to save the oil the internal cavity is some
times very short. The xiixv^oi are often seen on vases, united with
strigils and spunges as bath-utensils {^v(rr^o7inx,vdiov).
5, Macrob, v, 21. Athen, xi, 501. also on the 6pt,(px>.oi therein.
They are very frequent among vases, for example Moses, pi, 68. 69, (a
piempcipxXog, according to Panofka's explanation) sqq. The patinse {ttx-
rxvxi) were plates especiaUy for fish ; there are many of these painted
with many kinds of fish among the KoUer vases, PateUa is merely the
diminutive of patina, principally the flesh-plates of the Lares. Likewise
pateUse cum sigilUs in Cic. Verr. iv, 21. x"^?'*' with owl, Aristoph. Av.
357, for the explanation of the small x^?'^' of Nola and Volci [also very
numerous in SicUy].
299. 6. The vessels immediately destined for drinking have
the greatest variety of forms. The following in particular are
of archseological interest: a. xao-xriaiov, a high cup contracted
in the middle with handles from the upper to the lower rim;
b. xdv'iia^og, a large wide cup with a lid and a mouth at the
side for drinking; c. xJAav, a cup with narrow neck and an
elevation on the bottom; d. ffxiipoc, a large round Centaurian
and Heraclean cup, with small ears or handles; e. xvXi^, a
goblet with one foot and short handles {cSra) ; to this sort be
longs the Thericlean cup ; f -^vxr^^, a cylindrical vessel, with
a columnar foot placed on an orbicular base; g. dgu/SaXXos,
purse-formed cups narrowing upwards ; h. xoruAjj, a small
cup, a pointed glass ; similar to it was the top-shaped vXrifio-
¦Xfin ; i, iifiiro/jiog, probably a small semi-oval cup ; k. pvtov, rhy-
tium, a horn-shaped vessel, not intended for standing, except
when there was a particular stand for it, with a shutting
aperture in the lower pointed end, through which the wine
poured in at the top flowed out ; of very various, often gro
tesque, forms; 1. xigac, the real drinking horn. Another class
of vessels are : 7. such as were destined for drawing in quan
tity and carrying away (even on the head), xdX'Trri, ubgla, x^aa-
chg, urna, large, bellied, narrow above, and provided with a
foot and two handles (S.'w.-.s). 8. Similar vessels for carrying

DRINKING VESSELS, 337
away, and at the same time for preserving, with narrow neck
that could be closed, xdbog, d/j.(po§eug, amphora. 9. In general
immoveable vessels, casks, mostly also of clay, ot'3oc, dolium.
10. Basins for hand-washing, ;^sgv;4', ;^Ego'i'/5rrov, polubrum, trul
la, trua (Forcellini), aquiminale. Like these were the sprink
ling vases, dTo^oavriigiov, 'rigisiavrri^iov, (the sprinkling brush was
also so-called), d^bdviov, xu/j,^aXov prffifericulum, 1], Cauldrons
for cooking, Xe>3rig, pelvis, ahenum, of course .only elegantly
wrought when not to be used for that purpose. The favourite
kind of lebes in both cases, especially the latter, was the tripod
{xifSrig Tg,Vous, i/irruoiiSrirrig or d'jru^og), the much-boasted master
piece of ancient workers in metaL
No. 6. a, Athen. xi, 471 e. Macrob. v, 21, Dionysus a'Triviav ix xx^-
xviaiov Athen. v, 198 c. The carchesion is often to be seen on vase-paint
ings, MUUngen, Cogh. 23, 26, 31. 44. 46. 51. MUlm i, 9. 30. It often
appears Ukewise in connexion with the prochus, MilUngen Un. Mon. i,
34. The form on reUefs is less defined, Zoega, Bassir. 77. BouUl. iU, 70.
It is not rare among vases, Cogh. 32.
b. Athen. p. 473. Macr. in loco. Schol. to Clem. p. 121. In the
hands of the Centaurs, in Athen., of Dionysus, according to Plin. xxxiii,
53. Macr. Gruter, Inscr. p. 67, 2. Comp. §. 163. R. 6. and Lenormant,
Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 311.
c. Athen. p. 483. Plut. Lye, 9. PoUux x, 66. vi, 96, 97, &c. In
Athen. a satyr holds xa^avx pUvarov px[iZar6v, xa^av are^xvxriv, cf, Liebel
ad ArchU. p, 142,
d. See Athen. p, 498 sq., especiaUy Stesichorus ibid., Macr. v, 21.
and the well-known passages of the Roman poets. On the Heraclean
scyphos, Athen. 469. ; it is recognised in the wide vase, with the inscrip
tion vixx 'H^xxXng, Maisonneuve, pi. 50, and in the reliefs, Zoega 67. 68,
70. 72. ' n.oaxv(pix are two semi-oval cups with the points to one another.
Athen, p. 503.
e. On the Thericl. KyUx, Athen. p. 470. Schol. Clem. p. 121. Lar-
cher, Mem. de PAc. d. I, xUii, p, 196, The name KyUx comprehends
many things besides.
f. This psykter (see the schol, to Clem, p, 122,) has its name from
the cooling vase which is also pointed out in vase-paintings, Letronne,
Journ. des Sav. 1833, p. 612.
g, Athen. p, 783, compares the aryballos merely on account of the
name with d^mnxog. Was it vaso a otre ?
h. Athen. p. 478. The cotyliskos was according to Athen. employed
especiaUy in the mysteries. On the plemochoe, p. 496, PoUux x, 74.
i. Athen. p. 470.
k. 'PuTM from pmig. Athen. p. 497. rhytium, MartiaUs ii, 35. The
aperture was called x^owog. Hydraulic pvrd of Ctesibius, Athen. ibid.
and Heron, p. 172. 203. 216. The rhyton has a picturesque appearance
Y

338 FURNITURE AND VESSELS.
when it is drunk out of In the hand of a kind of Hebe, Athen. x. p.
426,, of satyrs, msenads (Athen. x, 445), reveUers, also sacrificial servants.
See Ant. Ere. i, 14, iii, 33. Gell, Pomp. pi. 30. Used as a cornucopia,
Athen. xi, 497. Among vases it occurs with very different animal-heads,
bicchiere a testa di mulogrifo-cavaUo-pantera. Tischb. ii, 3. MiUin, i,
32. u, 1, Of stone, BouUl. iii, 76.
1. Ki^xrx especially in earUer times, but later also at Athens, with
stands {¦x-e^itrxexig, Bockh, Staatsh. ii. s, 320. R. Rochette, Journ, des
Sav. 1830. p. 472.), often in the hands of the old Dionysus, Laborde ii,
19, On 3/x£j«f §. 433.
I pass by many names which are in general clear, such as xo-irdg, xvpi-
i8/oi/, yxvXog, oivoxm, 'hxynvov, o|i//3«(po», acetabulum, also measure, Panofka
Recherches, pi. 6. n. 8. p. 20. ; also the older names only preserved in
poetry : Hicxg, xKeiaov, xv'iieXKov {xfitpixiiTriTiT^ov) ; also the strictly Roman
ones: sini, capulce, which were superseded in Varro's time by Greek
forms. L. L. ix. §. 21.
7. We see how near this kind of vessels is allied to that which
foUows, especially in the Panathenaic prize-vases (§. 62. 99. R. 3. No, 1.),
which are mostly called Ilxvx^nvx'ixol dpitpo^eig (Atben. v, 199,), but also
xx>^wihg (Callim,) and Ci^lxi (Schol. Pind. N. x, 64,), The Corinthian
hydrise had two handles at the top, and two smaUer ones in the middle of
the beUy, Athen. p. 488. Uke many vases, Langella, [Brinna Bpigr. 2,
mv^ipiog x^aaaog. So also Hegesippus Ep, 6, Moschus iv, 34, evx x%"''£"">
'eg ourix xpaaaov XTtrxvroiv Xi^xvreg. In Attica numerous marble x^aauot of
the kind with inscriptions and sometimes also figures, Hesyohius x^ouraog,
xixv%g, hence Letronne in the Joum, des Sav. 1830. p. 308, takes the
two to be one, and explains it as vase funeraire. But 'Aiixv^og is not a
water vessel, Uke x^amog, according to poets and grammarians quoted by
Letronne ; the Xtixv^og might be occasionally caUed x^aaaog, but the urn
(xjujffffoV) never xiixv^og as the latter only contained perfumes.]
8. The amphorse were often pointed below, and could then only
stand in holes, like those of Herculaneum (Winck. u. s. 70.) and those of
Leptis in the Brit. Mus., some of which stiU bear the name of the consul.
There are also amphorse of this description with stands in Canino. This
was the case also with the xe^xfux Xix on the coins of Chios. Such are
carried by satyrs, Terrac. Brit. M. 13. MiUin, Vas. i, 53. The stand for
them was the in^itega {iyyv^rixn, dyyo^iixn), Festus s, v, Athen. v, 210 c.
So xTix/ixarQo^^xn. Sculpture on the iyyv^rixxi. Bekker Anecd. i. p.
245, 29. The iftfixaeig (Cod, Flor.) of Corinthian vases appear to be the
same. Dig. xxxii, 100. The Panathenaic vases on the other hand have
bases ; their form in early specimens is shorter and more beUied, after
wards more slender (as on the later coins of Athens).
10. See Nonius, p. 544. Phialse served also as aporrhanteria. C.
I. 138, 1. 6. 142. 1. 5. Festus : Nassiterna est genus vasi aquari ansati
et patentis, quale est quo equi perfundi sclent ; Plautus — Cato.
11. With regard to the tripod, it is proved that the destination of
receiving minced flesh lies at the foundation (the author's diss. De Trip.
Delph.), even by the use of it for riptvuv acpxyia at the S^xog (Eurip. ' Ixet.
1202, by which Soph. (Ed. Col. 1593 is explained). As to the form, see the

SACRIFICIAL UTENSILS, SEPULCHRAL VASES. 339
dissertations Amalth. i. s. 120 ff. ii. s. x. ni. s. 21 ff. [B6ttiger Archaol. u.
K. I. S. 154. Passow S. xxiii. (Bottiger) ]. BrSndsted Voy.. i. p. 116
sqq. Gott. G. A. 1826. No. 178. As the orbicular form of the holmos is
proved, and the so-called cortina has now been recognised as the ompha
los (§. 361.), the essentials of the tripod-form are now clear. The ring in
which the cauldron hung was called ari<pxvn, the cross-bars of the feet
pxiiloi, see Euseb. c. MaroeU. i. p. 15. d, ed. Col. Tripods from Meta
pontum, Cab. Pourtalfes. pi. 13. in Durand from Volci.
300. Among vessels for other uses, the sacrificial utensils
are of especial importance to art, particularly the following:
1. Little baskets of wicker-work, but also of clay or metal,
wherein knives, salted cake and garlands were concealed,
called xavouv, canistrum. 2. The van of the Cerealian wor
ship, Xixvav, vannus. 3. Broad dishes with numerous small
cups fastened on them {xorvXiexoi), and full of different kinds
of fruit, xigvo?. 4. Censers {^upnarrigiov, Xi^avoirsig, acerra, turi-
bulum, and pans of different kinds.
No. 1. As the xxvovv could not well be wanting at a sacriflce (Jk^jxtos;
rd xxvx), it is recognised with tolerable certainty in the flat Uttle baskets
with aU sorts of dvT^tiptxrx on vases, for instance MUlin i, 8, 9, E'iXixro
xxvovv, Burip, Her, Fur, 921. 944., is explained by the vase-painting i,
61 a., comp. AnnaU d. I. a, ix, 2, p. 203 note.
2, A lihion for instance at the rural sacrifice, BouUl, iii, 68,
3, Athen, xi, 476, 478. <feo. EspeciaUy in the Phrygian worship;
hence xe^vxg a sort of gallus, in the epigr. on Alcman. Perhaps on vase-
paintings, Laborde i, 12. MiUin i, 64. In the coUections of vases, as at
Berlin, such cruets are not rare.
4. Acerrse, for instance on the reUef BouiU. iii, 61., among the
sacrificial utensUs iu, 83. Clarac pi. 220. 252. The smaU altars of in
cense on reUefs and vase-paintings are often very elegant.
301. The rich collections of earthen vessels which are
found, of the most various and elegant forms, in Greek tombs,
must perhaps be more immediately regarded as vessels be
longing to the worship of the dead, which were placed along
with them as symbols or pledges of continued ablutions and
anointings of the tombstone, as well as of annual sprinklings
and libations upon the grave ; in authors there is only men
tion made of the hydria or urn as a receptacle for the ashes,
and of the lekythos, which was specially painted for this pur
pose. But at the same time, vessels which commemorated
important passages in life (victories at games, distinction in
the gymnasia, participation in the Bacchian thiasos, reception
of the manly himation, marriages, journeys), and were given
as presents on such occasions (otherwise the frequently occur
ring xaXhg, o •rra/'g xaXhg, xaX'i mai, xaXhg ii., xaXri boxug, and the
like, cannot well be explained), might very probably be also

340 FURNITURE AND VESSELS,
deposited in the grave; as it is undeniable that such vessels
were also used in life, and were put up as ornaments of rooms.
— Whilst, in the case of hydriae, the usage of concealing the
ashes of the dead, was merely an after application, the sar
cophagus {ffo^hg, S^xj), Xdgva^, irdiXog, solium, loculus) was
derived from the custom of complete interment, — practised
even in early Greece, — was preserved (diminished in Etruria
to cinerary cistse, §. 174, 3.) through all ages, and became
again, in later Rome, more customary along with interment
(§. 206, 2). Wrought of wood, burnt earth or stone {X'iitog
ea^xo(pdyog, sarcophagus), it sometimes borrowed the decorative
forms from the house, such as the doors and handles, but
sometimes also from water-cisterns or press-vats, for instance
the lions' heads.
1. On the forms of vases Dubois Maisonneuve, Introduction a I'etude
des Vases ant. accompagnee d'une coUection des plus beUes formes. 1817.
13 Uvr. Gargiulo, CoUez. deUe diverse forme de' vasi Italo-Greoi. N.
1822. The first plates in Tischbein and Millin, MiUingen, Div. pi. A. B.
C. Cogh. 32 sqq. Inghirami Mon. Etr. S. v. pi. 47 — 54, many in Hancar
ville and Laborde. Panofka's very extended Greek nomenclature (Rech.
sur les verit. noms des vases Grecs. P. 1830) is very much limited by
Letronne (Journ. des Savans. 1833. Mai-Dec). Comp. Gerhard, Neapels
Bildw. S. xxviu. and Ann. d. Inst. iu. p. 221 sqq. Berl. Kunstbl. 1828.
Dec. [Gerhard Berlins Ant. Bildw. i. S. 342. and Annali viii. p. 147 — 69.,
comp. Letronne J. des Sav, 1837, p, 683 cf 751], Clay vessels with
sculptures Stackelb, Graber Tf 49 — 52. [and in all larger coUections of
vases,] There is great variety and elegance in the forms especially of the
handles (vasi a volute, colonnette etc). The diversity in the forms of
vases, which are often very strange, cannot be exhausted by any termi
nology. Among them even crepitacula occur, R. Rochette, M, I. p. 197,
The size of the vases, in the KoUer coUection at BerUn, amounts to 3
feet 5 inches in height. — Vases as xreqiapixrx on the Archemorus vase.
2, It is worthy of remark, and perhaps not without significance, that
the WATBK-piTCHER received the ashes left after the fire. The urna
feraUs is well known, in Uke manner the hydria, kalpe, krossos are to be
met with. Plut, MarceU. 30, Orelli, Inscr, 4546, 47, Moschus iv, 34. In
place of these, also amphorse (even in the Iliad 24, 76,), footless ones
likewise in columbaria, Comp, Bottiger, Amalth, iii, s, 178 sqq. But
even the lebes served as a cinerary jar, .ffisch, Choeph. 676. Soph. El.
1393. — Mortuary urns in reUef on cippi, BouiU. iii. 84. 86., Stackelb.
Graber Tf 3, 1., on earthen lamps, Passeri iii, 46., in vase-paintings,
MUliug. Div. 14. Cogh. 45. Marble vases of the kind, for example Moses,
pi. 28 sq. BouiU. iii. 78. 79. 80. ; the larger ones must be taken for vasa
disoma, trisoma. — On the painting of oil-flasks for the dead, Aristoph.
Bccl. 996. On the vessels used in the worship of the dead, see among
others Virgil, Ma. iu, 66. v, 77. 91.
Very interesting is the group of vases, a crater, two amphorse, and
numerous bowls in different compartments under a table-leaf in the
painting in the grotto del f Querciola.(§. 177. R. 2.), Of a kindred nature

LAMPS, CANDELABRA. 341
is the representation on the lamps, in BeUori t. 16. and especially that in
Passeri iii, 51., where ai"e to be seen a repositorium with the urna, am
phorse, ampuUse and gutti around, simpulum, acerra, secespitse and a
so-called aspergiUum, also an augural fowl on the upper compartment,
symbols of the suovetaurUia beneath, and a lectisternium above. [A side
board, xvXixiov, of terracotta, from Naples, with different vessels on it,
Stackelb. Graber, s. 42.]
3. Bottiger, Ideen zur Archaol. der Mahlerei s. 173—234. His Vasen
gemalde, three parts 1797 — 1800, at different passages. A vase-painting
(Broochi's BibUot, Ital, Milan, xvii. p, 228,) presents a row of painted
vases in a marriage room. On prize-vases, Panofka Vasi di premio. P.
1826. ; the same author on an Eleusinian vase. Hall, ALZ. 1833, InteU,
101. [Considering the frequent x«?vo'f the praise of integrity is a rarity,
"iH ixx^X"' xx^x iixxiog, de Witte Vases de Mr, M*** p, 60 s, [Once
also xxXT^iarog, HIIIOKPITOS KAAI2T02, on a kylix from Vulci, BuU,
1847. p. 126]. ] T^xpipixrixov 'exirupi,x in Athen, p, 466, is a metal cup
with inscriptions inlaid, with gold for instance. In Plautus Bud, ii, 5,
25. urna Uterata ab se cantat cuja sit. ¦worii^ix y^xpipt,xrixx, Becker's
GaUus i. S, 143, — On vase-painting §, 321,
4, 6, Cedar coffins, Eur, Troad. 1150, Fictilia solia, Plin, xxxv, 46-
Stone sarcophagi in BouiUon, Piranesi, Moses, Comp, §, 294, 3, Lions'
heads as spouts for water are weU known ; in press- vats {'Anvoi) the wine
escaped by these. Boissonade Anecd. i, p, 425.
Works on vessels and furniture : Lor. Fil. di Rossi, Raccolta di vasi
diversi, 1713. G. B. Piranesi, Vasi candelabri, cippi, sarcofagi, tripodi,
lucerne ed ornamenti ant. 1778. 2 vols. fo. H. Moses, CoUection of ant.
vases, altars, paterse, tripods, candelabra, sarcophagi from various Mu
seums engr. on 150 pi. L. 1814. [mostly from the Hope collection.]
Causeus, Caylus, Barbault and other general collections. PCl. vii, 34
sqq.  Comp. Laz. Baifius, De vasculis, Thes, Ant, Gr. ix, 177. De la
Chausse, De vasis etc. Thes. Bom. xii, 949. Caylus, Mem. de I'Ac. des
Inscr. xxx. p. 344. Vermiglioli, Del vasellame degli antichi, Lezioni ii,
231., [C. Antonini Manuale di vari ornamenti componenti la serie de' vasi
ant. si di marmo che di bronzo esistenti in Roma e fuori. Vol. i. I vasi
esistenti nel M. Pio-Clem. e Chiaramonti. R. 1821 fo. 71 tv.]

302. Next to vases, utensils destined for lighting were
those with which even excellent artists were most occupied
in antiquity; partly simple lamps {x-j^voi, Xu^via), which, some
times of bronze, mostly of terra-cotta, constitute an important
branch of ancient monuments of art, with their unpretending
elegant form and their ingenious ornaments ; partly candela
bra {Xuxviia, Xtixvo^X"')' which were made sometimes of burnt
earth, very elegantly of bronze in the bloom of art, in later
times often of precious metals and gems, but also of marble,
of which many works, almost too richly and fantastically
ornamented, have been preserved. Mirrors also, which were
usually nothing more than round hand-mirrors with handles.

342 FURNITURE AND VESSELS.
were fashioned and decorated in an artistic spirit, before the
costliness of the material came to be here considered as the
grand object.
2. The lamps have a hole for pouring in, opiipxXog in Heron, one for
the wick {nroptx) and a smaU one for the needle by which it was raised.
Heron, p, 187., among other works of art, describes a lamp which raised
the wick itself Often with several wicks, lucerna dimyxos, trimyxos.
Lamps furnish of themselves an almost complete artistic mythology, and
many representations which refer to human destiny and a future state of
existence. Licetus, De lucernis ant. reconditis 1, vi, 1652. Bartoli and
BeUori's Lucernse sepulorales. 1691 (a new edition regefitly pubUshed in
Germany by Beger). Lucernse fiotUes M, Passeru. Pisaur. 1739. 3 vols.
Montfaucon, Ant, expl, T, v. Ant. di Brcolano, T. vui. Moses, pi, 78 sq.
Dissertations by De la Chausse and Perrarius, Thes. Ant. Rom. T. xii.
Becker's GaUus u, s, 302. [Bottiger's Amalthea iu. s. 168 ff. and Kl. Schr.
iu. s. 307 ff.]
3. Names of candelabra, Athen. xv, 699 sq. Tarentine, .ffiginetan,
Tyrrhenian, PUn. xxxiv, 6. §. 173, 1. 2. Candelabrarii in inscriptions.
The parts of the candelabrum are the foot, ^xaig, the shaft, xxvi^ig, and
top, xx'Kxitog. Heron, p. 222. The calathos is supported by an Amor in
two bronze candelabra (ceriolaria), Gruter Inscr. p. 175, 4. Many-branched
ones in the temple of the Ismenian ApoUo, afterwards in Cyme, PUn.
xxxiv, 8., in the prytaneum at Tarentum (Athen. 700 d.), comp. CalUm.
Epigr. 69. Magnificent ones of marble, PCI. iv, 1, 6. vii, 37. sqq. BouiU.
iii. pi. 72, 73, (those on pi, 74. have sometimes more of the slender and
simple form of Greek candelabra) and Clarac, pi. 142. 257, ; bronze and
marble ones in Moses, pi, 83 — 93,, comp. §. 301. Ai^oxoh.'h.rrroi §, 161, 1.
[Trapezophora, Becker's GaUus U. s. 113,] Marble throne seats, the Samo
thracian with very high reUef, those of Themis and Nemesis in the tem
ple at Bhamnus, of Dionysus and Demeter, of Poseidon, <fcc. That of
Boethus the Attic Prytanis, Stackelb. Graber s. 33 f (vign,) *
4. Mirrors were of bronze, §. 173, 3,, silver, 196, 2,, gold, Burip.
Troad. 1114. x?""""" xaToxTjoi' xoQiv^iov^yig, .ZGUan V, H. xii, 58,; Nero
had them of emerald; favourite gifts for temples (Venereum speculum,
Gruter, p. 6. 6. OreUi n. 1279.) and in tombs. On mirror- and dressing-
boxes §. 173. 3. Guattani M. I. 1787. p. xxv. A bronze mirror from
Athens Stackelb. Graber Tf 74.

SECOND MAIN DIVISION.
THE FORMATIVE ART.
(sculpture and painting,)
303. We unite in this division those arts which, indepen
dent of external wants and aims, but, on the other hand,
bound to the imitation of nature (§. 24 sqq,), represent life by
means of the forms naturally connected therewith. As we
must necessarily, in our consideration of the subject, reverse
the process which the creation of works of art must itself fol
low, we begin with the treatment of the material, by means
of which certain forms are communicated to, and impressed
on it (the doctrine of the technics of ancient art) ; then pass
on to those forms in so far as they can be considered apart
from the subjects (the doctrine of artistic forms); and con
clude with the consideration of the internal contemplations
and intellectual conceptions, which are properly speaking what
is represented in art (the doctrine of subjects).

FIRST PART.
OF THE technics OF ANCIENT ART.
304. Technics we regard as twofold: First, the process by
which the impression of a form is presented to the human
eye, by a certain fashioning of the material furnished to the
artist, without regard to the properties and peculiarities of
the material by means of which this is effected: this we
shall call optical technics. Secondly, the process by which
the form determined by optical technics, is produced in a par
ticular material, with reference to its peculiarities, by adding to
or taking from, by laying upon or altering the surface: this
we shall here call mechanical technics. In conformity with
the general tenor of our treatment of this subject, which be
gins with what is most sensible and tangible, the latter divi
sion is prefixed to the former.

344 TECHNICS OP THE FORMATIVE ART.

I. MECHANICAL TECHNICS.
A. OP THE PLASTIC ART IN ITS MOKE EXTENDED SENSE
(§• 25, 1).
1 1. THE PLASTIC ART STRICTLY SO-CALLED OR MODELLING IN
SOFT OR SOFTENED MASSES.
A. WOKKING IK CLAY AND OTHEK MATERIALS.
2 305. From the hand of the modeller in clay (§. 63.), who
was originally closely allied to the potter, proceeded not merely
handles and ornaments of vessels, in which the potter's wheel
could not be used, but also reliefs (ri's-o/) and whole figures
3 (§. 72. 171). In these, working freely with the hand was
everywhere older than the application of mechanical and
manufacturing contrivances, and the plastic genius of the
Greeks displayed itself already in all its splendour in numer-
4 ous terra-cotta figures and reliefs. Besides clay, there was
much gypsum {yo-^og, platre) and stucco used; and waxen
images were frequent especially as playthings; to all such
ruder materials a higher charm was lent by colouring, and the
imitation of humble natural objects was carried the length of
5 illusion. However, this species of art was more important as
the harbinger of others (mater statuarise, sculpturte et cselaturfe
according to Pliny), inasmuch as through it the other branches
6 of art received models and forms. Taking casts of limbs
also, and casting statues were not unknown to antiquity, comp,
7 §. 129, 6, In large figures the clay was spread over a skele
ton-like kernel of wood; the coarser parts were wrought with
the modelling stick, and the finer with the finger and nail,
8 The burning of figures as well as of vessels, was practised with
great care; a feeble degree of heat sufiiced to harden the ves
sels, which were often very thin; in both sorts there were
also unburnt works (cruda opera §. 71. R. 2. 172. R. 2).
1. For general information, Winck. W. v. 92 sqq. Meusel N. artist.
MisceU. i. 37. iu. 327. iv. 471. Hirt, Amalth. i. 207. ii. 1 sqq. Clarac
Musee de Sculpture, Partie technique. — Pr. di Paolo Arvolio, SuUe an
tiche fatture d'argiUa che si ritrovano in Sicilia. Pal. 1829. (see BuU. d.
Inst. 1830. p. 38.)
3. The Italian fastigia templorum of clay mira, cajlatura (PUn. xxxv,
46.), and the oor^xxivx rooevpixrx of early Corinthian vases (Strab. viii.
p. 381.) were, judging from these appellations, wrought freely with the
hand ; but the terra-cottas of Boman manufactories, as well as the relief-
ornaments of the red Roman and Arretine vases (§. 171. R. 2.) were doubt
less impressed with moulds. Those terra-cottas are limited to a definite
number of mythological and arabesque-like compositions. See Agincourt
Recueil de fragm. de sculpture ant. en terre cuite. P. 1814. and T. Combe

MODELLING IN CLAY, 345
§, 263. R, 2, [Opere di plastica della coUezione del, cav, G, P, Campana
Distrib. 1—12. 1842. 43, A third vol, to foUow. Panofka Terracotten
des k. Mus. zu BerUn 1842, 43, 64 tf [Two goddesses Stackelb. Graber
Tf 57, UrUchs Veientine Terracottas, Jahrb, der Rhein, Alterthums-
freunde viu, Tf 2, The fine Burgon collection from Athens in the Brit,
Mus,, coUections ai Studi, S. Angelo, Gargiulo (Archaol. Zeit. 1848, s. 297)
and others in Naples, several in SicUy, those at Munich, Carlsruhe, <fec,]
Cic, ad Att, i, 10, wishes for such typi from Athens in order to fix them
on the plaster of an atrium. Gerhard Intorno i monum, figulini della
SicUia in the Annali d, Inst, vii. p. 26 — 63. Large statues in clay are rare,
Minerva from Capua at Vienna, [However there are in the very rich col
lection of terra-cottas in the museum at Naples, statues of Jupiter and
Juno, larger than life, said to be from a temple of Jupiter at Pompeii,
three other statues the size of life, and an actor somewhat less, a good
figure. A life-size statue of Hermes and pieces of two draped statues also
the natural size in the Mus. Gregorianum at Rome. Statues of deceased
persons, of the size of life, lying on Etruscan earthen sarcophagi, are not
rare ; they are to be found especially in the Mus, Gregorianum, in the
Brit, Mus, and in Cav. Campana's coUection,]
¦4, ArgiUa, marga, creta, see Mem, de I'Inst. Boy, iii, p, 26, Rubrica
§, 63, xxvvxfiog, stipa, stipatores. Lindemann in Festus p, 684. Works
of wrihog, Plato ThesBt. p, 147. On yv^o'!r>.xaix Welcker Akad, Kunst
museum, s. 7, Statues of gypsum were used especiaUy for temporary pur
poses. Spartian Sever, 22. comp, Pausan. i, 40, 3. Arnob. vi, 14 sqq.
Gypsum heads, Juv. ii,.4. Reliefs in stucco were often only sketches for
distant view (we have such from Hadrian's vUla), often continued with
colours on the fiat surface. It is stiU a question whether the tabula Uia-
ca and the apotheosis of Hercules are of stucco. Waxen images, §. 129,
5. 181, 3., images of the gods, PUn. Bp. vii, 9., of the Lares, Juv. xii, 88.,
as children's playthings in Lucian Somnium 2. and elsewhere. DoUs,
xoqoxotifiix, of wax and gypsum, Schol. to Clem. p. 117. Comp. on the an
cient xȤoirAa9(K Bottiger's Sabina, s. 260, 270, Variegated doUs of
¦jrrikog, Lucian Lexiph, 22., oi ¦?r?ixrrovrsg roiig irrihivovg, Demosth. PhU. i. p.
47., xojo^rAaSo;, Isocr. De Antid. §. 2., statues of this kind at Naples.
Comp. SibyUin. ui. p. 449 Gall. On the deceptive fruit-plates of Posis
(§. 196. R. 2.), PUn. xxxv, 46, There are also gilded terra-cottas of deli
cate Greek workmanship, painted ones from Athens, Cab, Pourtalfes pi, 2,
comp, pi, 31, [the finest from Athens at Munich, others here and there],
5. Ilqoir'hxirpix as a model in miniature in Cic, ad Att, xii, 41,, comp.
§. 196, 2. Hippocr. de victus rat. p. 346. Foes.
6. That gypsum was much used in taking casts (¦s-jo's diropi.xypi.xrx)
is stated by Theophrastus, De lapide, §, 67, The Athenian artists also
used pitch in casts of Hermes Agoraios (§, 92. R. 3.), comp. Luc. Lexiph.
11. (Mouler \ bon creux, ^ creux perdu; pliltre; cou tures des inoules ^
bon creux; parties qui ne sent pas de depouille, of mastic).
7. This, as it were, still fleshless figure of wood was called xiwxliag,
x.xvxi3og (canevas) ; similar figures likewise served as an anatomical study
to plastse and painters. See Arist. H, an, iii, 5, de gen, an, ii, 6, Pol
lux vii, 164, X, 189, Suidas and Hesych. s. v. cum. Intpp. Apostol. iii,
82. Bekker's Anecd. p. 416. To these refer the parvi admodum surculi,

346 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
quod primum operis instar fuit, PUn. xxxiv, 18. — The modelling stick
in the hand of Prometheus, Admir. Rom. 80. Ficoroni, Gem. ii, 4, 5.,
comp. 6, 1. Imp. Gemm. del Inst, iv, 75 ? and the reUef in Zoega, Bassir.
23. But according to Polyclete the work was most difficult orxv iv 6'vvxi
6 irrihog yiyvnrxi. Winok. V. s. 93 387. Wyttenbach ad Plut. de prof.
virt. p. 86. a. PolUce ducere (coram) Juv. vu, 232. Pers. v, 40., comp.
Stat. AchUl, i, 332.
8, Schweighauser the younger has instituted investigations, from
excavations in Alsatia, as to the construction of ovens for burning Ro
man vases; there is a model of them in the museum at Strasburg.
Archseologia xxU, pi, 36. p. 413. Remains of a Roman kiln or furnace for
pottery. On Greek vases §. 321. Lucian describes the great thinness
and lightness of ancient vases (PUn. xxxv,- 46) in the Lexiph. 7. by dve-
p60<p6^nrx and vpt.ev6ar^xxx.

B, metal-castikg (statcakia ars).
1 306. In the ancient mode of casting metal two things
come into consideration: the mixing of the bronze, the more
refined technics of which flourished at an early period espe
cially in ^gina (§. 82. R.) and Delos (§. 297. R. 3.), then for
a long time at Corinth, but afterwards disappeared (§. 197, 5).
2 Not only was the Corinthian brass itself sometimes of a bright
and whitish, sometimes of a dark brown colour, and sometimes
between the two, but there were also a variety of colours com-
3 municated to the metal; it is likewise difiicult to deny that
they knew how to give different shades of colour to different
4 portions of a statue. In order to promote the fusion at cast
ing, and the hardening of the cooled metal, tin was almost uni
versally blended with the ancient bronze, frequently also zinc
5 and lead. Secondly: the process of easting in moulds. As is
also the case generally in modern times, the statue was em
bossed with wax on a fire-proof kernel, above which a model
of clay was laid on (called Xlybog, also x^vog), in which were
distributed pipes for pouring in the metal. The process was
carried by the ancients to astonishing perfection, as well in
the thinness of the metal as the purity of the cast, and the
6 facility of the entire operation. However, they were not
averse also to the joining of parts by mechanical or chemical
means; the insertion of the eyes was usual at all times, as
well as the addition of attributes in precious metals.
1. The preparation of the bronze was the business of the x'^Xxov^yog
(Aristot. Pol. 1, 3.), or x<^Xxo%rng (reUef in the Louvre 224. b.), at Rome
of the flaturarius faber (in inscriptions, flatuarius in the Theodos. codex).
Of Corinthian brass there were especially vases (such as were manufac
tured by the Corinthiarii or fabri a Corinthiis), but also, notwithstand
ing Pliny denies it, signa Corinthia (Martial xiv, 172), such as the Ama-

CASTING IN METAL. 347
zon of Strongylion (01, 103) ; Alexander also had such, and Delphi was
iuU of them. Plut. de Pyth. or, 2., comp. §. 123. R. 2. But the imago
Corinthea Traiani Csesaris in the Inscr. Gruter 175, 9. is remarkable,
Fabretti Col. Trai, p. 251. ArgoUca statua in TrebeU., Trig. tyr. 30. seems
nearly the same. There were many fables about the Corinthian brass,
for instance that cooUng it in the fountain Peirene made it so exceUent,
Paus. ii, 3, 3. comp. Plut. ibid. Petron. 60.
2. PUn. xxxiv. 3. The Grsecanious or verus color asris was extolled
(PUn. Ep. iu, 6,). The ijvxri^ov, and the colour of the athletes were
esteemed, Dio Chrysost. Or. 28. in. Sea-blue naval heroes at Delphi, §.
123. R, 3. The preparation of x*'"'"? x?v(ro<pxrig is mentioned among
other metal preparations in the papyrus from Egypt, Reuvens Lettres h,
Letr. iu. p. 66. On the patina of the ancient bronze, which merely arises
from oxydizing, L. Bossi, OpuscoU scelti, T. xv. p. 217. Mil. 1792, 4to.,
extracted by FioriUo in the Kunstblatt 1832. N. 97 sqq,
3. With regard to the variegated bronze statues the statements of
CaUistratus might be rhetorical phrases (Welcker ad 5. p. 701.) ; these
also mostly refer to pieces a rapport, such as the purple proetextce from
mixing lead with Cyprian brass, PUn, c, 20. But SUanion's Jocaste
with deadly pale countenance, from mixing sUver (Plut, de Aud. poet. 3.
Qu, Symp. v, 1. comp, de Pyth. or. 2.), and Aristonidas' blushing Athamas,
from a mixture of iron (PUn. 40.) are worthy of remark, as iron certainly
does not otherwise admit of being blended with copper. Appul. also, Flor.
p. 128. describes a tunica picturis variegata on a brass statue [perhaps
enamelled painting Uke the tabula Bembina, §. 430, 4. Quatremfere de
Qu. Jup. Olymp. p. 55 — 64. de Part des aUiages dans son rapport avec la
methode de teinter les ouvrages en m6tal et de Pusage d'introduire des
couleurs dans les statues de bronze, Feuerbach, Vatic. Apoll, s, 211, Peter
sen De Libanio Prol, 2, Havn, 1827, p, 9, and even FigreUus De Statuis
14. p, 126. According to Himerius Or. xxi, 4. Phidias gave a red colour
to the cheeks of the Lemnian Athene, The artistic expression jix^pig
XX'Kxw xxi aii'/i^ov in PoUux vu, 169. from Antiphon, x^'Xxov ^xCfixi in
.aisch. Agam. 624. (597.), see Nachtr. zur TrU. S. 42 sq. is remarkable,
and Klausen observes in his edition that the comparison perhaps received
an additional charm from the novelty of the invention. The force of the
latent comparison to the adultery and its ^Eschylian wit cannot be mis
taken. G. Hermann contradicted, inasmuch as he with Schiitz and others
referred x'^'Xxoii fix(pxg to blood and wounds, and took it as an ambiguous
allusion to the intended murder of Clytaemnestra. This was already done
by W. Humboldt, and what other course was left, before the literal sense
was attended to ? But the other enigmatical meaning destroys the char
acter of the speech, and is too inhuman in this place even for Clytsem-
nestra. Letronne Peint. Murales p. 617 sided with Hermann. Franz
translates correctly "colouring of brass." — The Gauls had the art of
combining colours with brass in fusion, Philostr. Imag. i, 28. p. 44, 24.
cf Jacobs. The Chinese also give colours to bronzes.]
4. The proportion of tin mixed with the brass (for instance in the
nails of the treasury of Atreus, §. 49.) varies between f and 24 per cent.
There is least tin found in the horses of St. Mark (of later date), see
Klaproth, Mag. encycl, 1808, ui, p. 309, Mongez (sur le bronze des an-

348 TECHNICS OP THE FORMATIVE ART.
ciens, Mem. de I'Inst. Nat. v. p. 187. 496. Inst. Roy. viii, p, 363.) ascribes
entirely the hardness of tho bronze to this mixture, and to cooling in
the air, and, from modern experiments, denies the trempe by water, in
opposition to Procl. ad Hesiod, W. and D, 142, Eust, ad II. i, 236, whose
testimony was brought forward by Graulhig, Sur les kges d'or et d'argent,
d'airain et de fer, Mag, encyc, 1809, Dec, 1810 Janv, — X«?vxof x"'^<'i<
cast, 'e'hxrog, rvTrlxg (ductilis), maUeable. PoUux vii, 105,
6. The artistic expressions are : rd irXxa^evrx xii^ivx' >.iyiog, ro wiiXivov,
xovix, dXoi(p7i' r^vTTVifixrx ra A Ttx^xTrT^^ffix' p^jwyo?, p^iyi/gyg/y* See PoUux
x, 189., Photius, x/ySof, Bustath. ad II. xxi. p. 1229., ad Od, xxu, p, 1926.
R, Schneider s, v, Xtyiog, x"^"''!- Diogenes L, v, 1, 33, ug iv r$ xn^$
0 'E^pcvig iTirriheiorrirx 'exav i'jrihi^xa^xi roi/g x^^^xrii^xg xxi 6 iv ra x<xAx^
dvi^ixg ; [Soph, Aixpt-xT^ar. drr-Trlg pciv vipf.i'hiyhog ag Tirifxv opcptxrii cf. F, G,
Welcker Griech. Trag. S. 172.] Coins were also sometimes cast in the
ligdos. Seiz sur l'art de fonte des anciens, Mag. encycl, 1806, vi, p, 280.
Clarac, M. de Sculpt, ii. p. 9 sqq. It is doubtful whether they also made
the movie a bon creux over the model as is now done, and then furnished
the pieces of it inside with wax after which the kernel, noyau, was poured
in. A statue by Onassimedes was solid, Paus. ix, 12 ; smaller bronzes are
so commonly. An dvi^ixg cost, in the time of Diogenes the Cynic, 3,000
drachms {\ talent, about 60 guineas), Diog. Laert. vi, 2, 35. [A brass-
casting is represented on a remarkable kylix, Gerhard Neuerworbene
Denkmaler N, 1608 and Trinkschalen Tf 12, wherewith G, Braun in the
BuUett, 1835, p, 167 compared the vase explained in the .fischyl. Trilogy,
in which Feuerbach afterwards in the Kunstbl, 1844, N, 87, pointed out
the kernel and coating of a cast-model, Cf. besides an archaistic vase with
a brass-foundry, in Campanari, at London ; which is to be published. Bull,
1846, p, 67, Bergk gives a different explanation of the vase in the Tri
logy Archaol, Zeit. 1847, S. 48. On the low price of bronze statues see
Kohler Ehre des Bildnisses S. 127.]
6. On partial casting in the case of colossi, PhUo vii. mir. 4; the
horses of S. Marco likewise were probably cast each in two moulds. On
soldering, §. 61. Ferruminatio per eandem materiam facit confusionem,
plumbatura non idem efficit. Digest, vi, 1, 23. See, however, Plin.
xxxiii, 29 sq. Locks of hair soldered on, Winok. W. v. 133. On the in
sertion of the eyes, ibid. v. 133. 435 sq. Bottiger's Andeutungen, s. 87.,
comp. also Gori, M. B. ii. p. 208. To this is referred the faber oculariarius
in inscriptions, see ForcelUni. The beautiful Nike of Brescia (§. 260. R.
3.) has a silver fillet ; according to an inscription in Gruter, p. 67, 2.
there was a Bacchus cum redimiculo aurific. et thyrso et cantharo arg.
Preserved bronzes, §. 127. R. 7. 172. R. 3. 204. R. 4. 205. R. 2. 207.
R. 6. 261. R. 2. 380. 385. 422. 423. 427. The most of them from Hercu
lanum. Colossal head with a hand in the Capitol. [The fine statue
from Volci at Munich, Kunstbl. 1838. St. 86.]
307. The mode of executing statues by hammering and
embossing, which prevailed before the Samian school (§. 59,
60. 71. comp, 237, 2, 240, 2,), continued to be even in later
times the usual one for gold and silver; but statues of pre
cious metals, large ones especially, were more in conformity

STATUES OF SILVER AND GOLD, 349
to the Asiatic than the Greek taste. The gilding of entire ;
statues, likewise, did not come into favour until the art of
giving a fine colour to brass by mixing had been forgotten;
in ancient art particular portions, even in the naked body,
were distinguished by gilding with silver or gold. Too many .
experiments were made with iron to admit of its successful
and permanent application to works of sculpture, as raw iron
adapted for casting was unusual in antiquity. With regard i
to what may be called works of art in lead, there occur tickets
for public games and distribution of corn, as well as for hang
ing on vessels, marks on building stones resembling seals,
bulls, amulets and the like; many of which were evidently
cast in moulds.
1, The golden Pallas of Aristodicus was a iT(pv^iiKxrov, Brunck's Anal,
ii, p, 488 ; the sUver figures from Bernay (comp, §, 311, R, 5.) were cer
tainly embossed, the separate parts very finely soldered with lead, or
dovetailed into one another,
2, SUver statues of the Pontic kings, Pliny xxxiii, 54 ; golden ones
especially of barbarian deities, Luc, Z, r^xy. Instead of tbe pretended
golden statue of Gorgias, Pausanias only saw a gilded one. The dv'h^idg
XPvaovg are^eog, solidus, is opposed to the plated, i-!rix^vaog, inauratus, or
slightly gUded, xxrxx^vaog in general only, subauratus ; however holo-
sphyraton in Pliny xxxiu, 24. denotes a perfectly massive work, X^vaog
d'jre^^og the same as aurum obryzum, [Schweigh, ad Herod, i, 60. xirv^og,
xiirofixro;, xinocpviig, Lennep ad Phalar. p. 365,]
3, Gold was laid upon brass generally with quicksilver, and in thick
sheets, also with the aid of notches (PUn, xxxiii, 20, xxxiv, 19), on
marble with the white of eggs. Winck. W. v. s. 135. 432. M. Acilius
Glabrio erected at Rome the first statua aurata, Liv. xl, 34. Traces of
gilding on the horses at Venice, M. Aurelius, a quadriga from the theatre
of Herculanum, and the fine statue from LiUebonne, §. 262. R. 2. [most
of all on the famous Hercules in the Capitol], An antique head of an
athlete at Munich, N. 296, has gilded lips, [the Orpheus of CalUstratus
7, with his chiton bound by a golden strap,] and the early Greek lampa
dephorus, §. 421. according to R, Rochette has the lips, nipples and
eyebrows silvered, [not silvered, but inlaid with copper, see Letronne in
the AnnaU d, I, vi, p, 230. The tiara of the Orpheus just referred to is
X^vira xxrxo^rixrog. The sUver inlaid work on bronze figurettes in the
museum at Naples is very fine, eyes and all sorts of ornaments ; a vase
from Herculaneum with inlaid silver work is described by MartoreUi De
theca calam. cf Pea ad Horat. T. ii. Epist. ad Pis. 435 (fee.]
4. Iron statues by Theodorus of Samos (§. 60.), Paus. iii. 12. Her
cules' combat with the serpent by Tisagoras, x, 18. Alcon's iron Hercules,
PUn. xxxiv, 40. The causes of the rareness of iron-casting in antiquity
are investigated by Hausmann, Commentat. Soc. Gott. rec. iv. p. 51, The
tempering, aropiaaig, of iron (by water. Homer Od, ix, 393,) [Soph, Aj,
660, og rd Se/V exx^e^ovv Twe (ixtpii aiin^og wf, cf, §, 311. R. 2,] for cutting
instruments, was a native branch of industry on the Pontus, in Lydia

350 TECHNICS IN THE FORMATIVE ART.
and Laconica. Eust, ad II. ii. p. 294, 6. R., comp. Hausmann, p. 45 sqq.
Magnetic vault ? §. 149. R, 2.
5, Ficoroni Piombi antichi, R, 1740, 4to, Stieglitz Archaol, Unterh.
H. s, 133,

2. WORKING IN HARD MASSES.
a, wood-cauving.

I 308. Carving in wood is denoted by ^iuv and yXvfuiv, the
former* of which indicates a more superficial, the latter a
2 deeper working, with pointed instruments; in early times a
main branch of temple statuary (§. 68. 84), it continued
through all ages to be employed in the images of field and
3 garden deities. Whilst the appropriate kinds of wood of the
native soil were used for that purpose, frequently with some
4 reference to the significance of the image, foreign sorts, es
pecially cedar, which was reputed incorruptible, were still
5 employed in later times even by excellent artists. Turning
was of more importance for vessels and implements of wood.
1, Both expressions occur in reference to wood and stone. Sieiv is
scalpere, whence ^vixri, ^ofg {^otptevix^), scalprum, a carving-tool. Vy^vipetv,
sculpere, approaches nearer to caelare, roqevuv. Instruments, yXv(pxvov,
ro^og, cselum, chisel, burin. The api.i'Kn also served for iieiv, §. 70, 3 : comp,
§. 56, 2. Quintil. i, 21, 9. Sculptura etiam Ugnum, ebur, marmor, vitrum,
gemmas, prseter ea quae supra dixi, complectitur.
2. In Psyttaleia Tlxvog .if exxarov ervxe S.6xvx ire'Ttoinpi.ivx, Paus. i, 36, 2.
A Pan of beech-wood with tKe rhind, Anth. Pal. vi, 99. Images of Dio
nysus, Priapi of fig-tree.
3. Cypress, abundant in Crete, and used there by the Dasdalidss (comp.
Hermipp. Athen. i. p. 27.), beech {api.i'Kxi), oak, pear-tree, maple, vine,
oUve, &c. Paus, viii, 17, 2, Q. de Quincy, Jup. 01, p, 25 sq, Clarac, p.
41, Populus utraque et saUx et tiUa in scalp turis necessariae, Pallad.
de R, R. xii, 15.
4. Of foreign woods ebony (§, 84, R, 2, 147, R. 3,), citron {°ivov 1 Mon
gez, Hist, de I'Inst, Roy, iii. p, 31. Thyon with cypress in the Olympian
Zeus of Phidias, inside or on the throne, Dio Chrys, xii. p, 399, R.), lotus,
above aU cedar (comp, 52, R, 2. 67. R, 2). The ApoUo of Sosius of Se
leucia was of cedar, Plin, xiii, 11, also the Esculapius of Betion, Anth.
Pal, vi, 337, KeSfou l^uiix x?<"'V iiriv5i<rptevx are described as round figures
by Dontas, Paus. vi, 19, 9. More such in Siebelis ad Paus. v, 17, 2.
Amalth. u, s, 259.
5. Comp, §, 298. R, 2. Voss. ad Virg. vol. u. p. 84. 443. Of turning
in wood, ro^veiisiv, ro^voiJv, tornare, see Schneider under Tojsi/iu. Tornus,
ro^vevrii^iov, the turning iron, invented by Theodorus, §. 60.

SCULPTURE. 361

H. SCULPTURE (SCULPTURA.)

309. The solid calcareous stone, susceptible of polish, which 1
was on account of its shining surface called marmor {i^dggjagov
from fia^iLai^u), white marble being thereby understood, was
early recognised as the most fitting material for sculpture,
and the Parian was sought above all others throughout Greece,
as that of Luna was afterwards in request at Rome, However, 2
in Greece as well as Italy all sorts of tufa were employed for
works of less careful art: on the other hand coloured mar- 3
ble, as well as other kinds of coloured stone, first came into
favour in the Roman empire, especially for the representation
of Egyptian deities and barbarian kings, and also for the ad
dition of accoutrements, drapery and the like. Wonderful is 4
the finish of the workmanship on the hard and brittle masses
of porphyry, granite and basalt, in which pointed irons, -which
were sharpened ever and anon, must bore away to the requi
site depth, and afterwards laborious rubbing and polishing
gradually bring the smooth surface to its proper state.
1. GaryophUus de marmoribus antiquis is not of much use ; of greater
value are Berber, Lettres mineralogiques sur I'ltalie, Mongez, Diction.
de Pantiquite de PEncyclop6die, especially Faustino Corsi, Delle pietre
antiche, ed. sec. R. 1833. Comp. Hirt, Amalth. i. s. 225. Clarac, p. 165.
Platner, Beschr. Roms s. 335. The marble is either grained, to which
belongs the Parian (x/9oj IlxQiog, T^vylivog), which was mostly quarried in
small blocks, sometimes in galleries, {Kvxvirng), of a large shining grain
[resembling salt], caUed marmo Greco duro, also scdino, as well as that of
Carrara, mxirmor Lunense (§. 174. R, 1. on its age the author's Etrusker),
resembUng fine sugar, often with bluish spots : or slaty with veins of talc,
such as the Penthelic with greenish streaks (Dolomieu in MiUin M. I. ii,
p. 44) and the less precious Hymettian, marmo cipoUa [or cipolUno],
There were other weU known kinds of statuary marble, the Thasian, of
a pale white (the local situation of which was discovered by Cousinery),
[as weU as the verde antico in Macedonia], the Lesbian, of a more yellow
ish colour, the coraUtic resembling ivory, from Asia Minor, marmo Pa-
lombino. De marmore viridi, Tafel in the Munchner Abh. philol, Cl, ii.
s. 131. The Megarian also (§. 268. R, 1,) was used for statues, Cic, ad
Att. 1, 8, The lapis onyx or alabastrites of the ancients, called after the
vases §. 298. is a fibrous calc-sinter (alb^tre calcaire oriental) which came
from Arabia and Upper Bgypt, Salmas. Exerc. PUn. p. 293. On the Vo-
laterranian, §. 174. R. 3. Rumohr has given accounts of marble in Cala
bria. 2. A SUenus of poros (§. 268. R, 1) at Athens, Many municipal hon
orary statues in peperino ; five statuse togatse of the kind at Dresden.
Tliere were many works executed in calcareous stone in the provinces
and in Germany. Etruscan sarcophagi of calcareous tufa §. 174. R. 3.
3. In black marble, nero antico, there are many statues of Isis, the

352 TECHNICS OP THE FORMATIVE ART.
African fisherman, the two centaurs of the Capitol, the NUe, cf Pausan.
viii, 24, 6. In red marble, rosso antico, which was rare in architecture,
there are numerous good sculptures, especiaUy heads of Bacchus, satyrs
in imitation of carved images painted red (§. 69) ; besides basins and
baths. There also occur statues of particoloured marble, Caylus, Hist.
de I'Ac. des Inscr. xxxiv. p. 39. Statues of porphyry are found at Rome
from the time of Claudius, comp. Visconti PCI. vi. p. 73, porphyry statues
with bronze extremities Race. 53. Basalt was used for busts of Serapis,
likewise granite and syenite (but which the moderns do not consider to
be syenite) for sculptures in the Egyptian style. Comp. §. 228. 268. R. 3.
4. The auger guided by two bridles, Burip. Cycl. 461.
1 310. Marble, on the other hand, bears the assault of in
struments of very different kinds, saws, drills, files, rasps, which,
together with the chisel driven by the mallet, must do the
2 most and best. When the artist, — which was by no means
always the case, — worked after an exact model, he made use,
like the moderns, of points which mark the dimensions in all
directions, and must be constantly renewed in the progress of
3 the work. For smoothing statues by rubbing, the dust of the
Naxian whetstone, pumice and other means were employed;
however the shining polish so injurious to the effect was not
introduced till later; and in some excellent statues we can
4 still see perfectly the traces of the iron. On the other hand,
the soft and fatty appearance, which the surface of marble
often h^as in itself, was enhanced by rubbing with melted wax,
especially the Carthaginian {xaostg), with which an appro-
5 priate tone of colour (circumlitio) was easily combined. The
painting of marble, in the antique and archaizing style, with
glaring, and afterwards with softer colours, as well as the ad
dition of metal attributes and gilding of particular parts, was
maintained throughout all antiquity; in the Roman period
however there was a tendency to substitute the natural varie-
6 ty of colour in the stone for paint (comp. §. 309). The join
ing together of different blocks was managed with so much
nicety, that the wish for monolith colossal statues was often
satisfied, at least in appearance.
1. Ancient sculptures which represent workers in stone : the reliefs
in Winck. W. i. tf 11. M. Borb. i. 83, 3. with the grave-stone of Eutro
pus in Fabretti, Inscr. v, 102., and the engraved stones, Ficoroni Gem
mas ii, 5, 6. and Lippert, Suppl, ii, 388. Ancient instruments on various
monuments (in Muratori, p, 1335, 1,, diflerent compasses and others) ;
also found in Pompeu ; those now in use in Clarac, pi. 1, On the saw,
§. 269, 6,, the auger, §, 123, 1, [Wagner discovered that on the statues of
.^gina were employed quite the same instruments as those now in use,
auger, pointed, toothed and flat irons and file,]
2. Of Pasiteles it is something remarkable that he nihil unquam fecit
ante quam finxit, and many irregularities are explained by the free and
bold procedure of the ancients. On the points see Clarac, p, 144 ; hence

SCULPTURE, 353
the mammiform elevations on many ancient statues, see Weber on the
colossi of Monte CavaUo in the Kunstbl, 1824, s, 374, and the discobolus
in Guattani, M, I, 1784, p, 9, [Bullett, 1841, p. 128,]
3. On the Na.ri(e cotes Dissen ad Pindar, I, 5, 70., comp, Hoeok, Creta
i. s. 417., where Naxos in Crete is rightly represented as an invention.
The stones were caUed Naxian from whatever place they came, whether
from Crete, Cyprus or elsewhere, '^pi.rixeiv, artXfiovv dvi^ixvrxg. 'Etti-
'Kexiveiv xxi yxvovv rd 'KXriyivrx xxi -Tre^ixoTivrx rav dyxXpcxrav. Plut.
de adul. 62.
4. Q. de Quincy, Jup. 01. p. 44. Hirt, s. 236. Volkel Archaol. Nach
lass i. s. 79. The epidermis of the ancient statues is formed of the
smearing with wax, which signa marmorea nuda received, according to
Vitruv. vii, 9. [Hirt in Bottiger's Amalthea i. s, 237, remarks that it is
only because this coating was so thin, that no traces of it are to be found,
Fea found many, MisceU. filol. T. i. p. co. But circumUtio is not tone of
colour or " a rubbing of marble with wax, which communicated to the
surface a greater apparent softness, and perhaps also a gentle gloss of col
our," as the present author asserts in the Wiener Jahrbiicher 1827, " a
varnish" (of Nicias), according to Hirt, also ibid., " on which he not sel
dom reUed too much." Neither is circumUtio a painting of the ground
of statues in diff'erent tints, light and shade, <fec., as is supposed not only
by Volkel, after Visconti PioCl. ii, 38. iii, 5 and Quatremfere, but by Le
tronne Peint. Mur. p. 28. 491. R. Rochette Peint. Ant. p. 286. and Clarac
Mus. du Louvre i. p. 156 — 60. Neither general probability, nor anything
in the accounts, or in the remains, of genuine art, favours these opinions,
and the name itself is opposed to them. For it expresses a painting
round {'Tre^ix^icig), a framing of the borders of drapery, the hair, and per
haps also the body with a quiver-band and the like, and these border
ornaments might be executed very elegantly and variously ; the beauti
ful small archaistic Diana in the museum at Naples is a valuable instance.
So in painting, circumlitio is a painting of the ground around the figures,
in order to separate and make them stand out, as QuintiUan viii, 5, 26
shows, — a circumductio oolorum in extremitatibus figurarum qua ipsse
figurse aptius finiuntur et eminentius extant, contorno, profile (Forcellini),
hence the same author xii, 9, 8, says of the substance of speeches : extrin-
seous adductis ea rebus circumUnere (to border), and i, 11, 6 simplicem
vocis naturam pleniore quodam sono circumlinere, Prcetexere lies in the
idea of circunditio. Seneca Epist, 86 : nisi Alexandrina marmora iUis
(Numidicis crustis) undique operosa et in picturse modum variata cir
cumlitio prsetexitur. Rubbing with wax is yxvactg dyx'Kpi.xrav, Plut,
Qusest. Rom. 98, wherefore in Vitruv. vii, 9, 4. instead oi gnosis we should
read gaiiosis, not xovixmg, which is something quite different, nor 'ey-
xxv<rig. Vitruv. says : ita signa marmorea moda curantur, that is to say,
white wax melted with oil was laid on with a thick brush, and then rub
bed dry. Plin. xxxiu, 40. sicut et marmora nitescunt, Juvenal xu, 88.
fragiU simulacra nitentia cera, comp. the notes of Heinrich. Arrian
Diss. Epictet. ii, 825. rore Zei^a vpciv ro xyxXpt.x orxv reT^etu^ri, orxv ariT^-
¦icva9!ri. Canova, after the example of the ancients, attempted to make
marble softer and milder in tone, by rubbing in a composition of wax and
soap ; but the unguent decomposed, and, as Thiersch informs us in hia
Reisen in Italien i, 142, changed the colour.]
Z

354 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
6. On painted statues and reUefs, §. 69. 90. R. 118. R. 2. b. 119. R.
2. 4. 203. R. 3. In Virgil's Catal., .iEneid. dedic, a marble Amor is de
scribed, with variegated wings and quiver. Nicias the great encaustes
gave those tints to the finest statues of Praxiteles. PUn. xxxv, 40, 28.
But the Cnidian Venus was colourless. Lucian de imag. Feuerbach Va
tic. ApoU. S. 212. ' Ayx'Kfixrav iyxxvarxl xxi x?"""'^"''' "¦'"¦^ li«-<P£is, Plut.
de glor. Ath. 6. Hair of a statue, coloured with wax, is distinctly men
tioned by Chseremon in Athen. xiii. p. 608. Painted reliefs are y^xTi-rol
rv-TToi, such as are mentioned in Fronto's Burip. Hypsip. fragm. 11. ed.
Matth. ; comp. Welcker, SyU. Bpigr. p. 161. [R. Rochette Peint. Ant. p.
289., Letronne Lettres d'un antiq. p. 339, Bockh C. I. ii. p. 662.] but also
§. 323. R. According to modern investigations the figures on Trajan's
column also were raised in gold on an azure background. G. Semper.
ueber vielfarbige Archit. u. Sculptur, s, 37. [has not been confirmed,] On
adjuncts of metal, and gUding (that of the hair in particular was very
common) §, 84, 90, R. 117. 118. R. 2. b. 127. R. 3. 158. R. 3. 203. R, 3,
In imitation of the ancient acroUths §, 84, there were made statues of
black marble with the extremities of white, such as are certainly to be
met with of later times, for example those of the priests of Isis,
6, See above, §, 156, 157, and the Inscr, C, I, 10, rxiirov \i^ov etpt xv-
l^idg xxi ro a(pixxg. Pieces of marble left standing as props (punteUi),
are to be found for the most part in copies of brazen statues.

C, WORKING IN METAL {TO^lvrmri, CELATURa) AND IVORY,
I 311, The working of metals with sharp instruments, sculp
ture in metal, is what the ancients called the toreutic art, with
which was also combined according to the requirement of the
task, a partial casting in moulds, but particularly the beating
2 out or embossing with punches. In this manner was silver
more especially wrought, in the fairest times of Greek art, but
3 gold and bronze also, and even iron in many districts. This
branch of art was employed on armour, especially shields;
besides the embossed work a sort of golden design served as
an ornament to these, which was probably similar to the
modern damask work {tausia, lavoro all agemina) ; moreover,
chariots in particular were ornamented with embossed silver,
4 Vessels were sometimes provided only with ornaments of a
vegetable form, for instance the large silver platters; some
times adorned with mythic representations in relief (anaglypta)
which were in later times often moveable, and might be em
ployed in ornamenting different goblets which were sometimes
5 of gold (emblemata, crustse). The fame of the masters in this
department, and the passionate desire of the Romans for the
possession of such articles are conceivable to us from particu
lar remains. The art of the toreutes was likewise put in re
quisition for ornamental furniture ; and that of the worker in

THE TOREUTIC ART, 355
gold, which chiefly consisted in embossing gold-plates, and
inlaying gold-wire, is closely connected with this branch of
art. 1. To^evrix^ (§, 85.) corresponds completely to ccelatura (Plin, xxxiii.
Salmas. Exerc. Plin, p, 737.), which QuintiUian ii, 21. confines to metals,
whereas sculpture comprehends besides, wood, ivory, marble, glass and
gems. [Thrones of ivory, therefore, should not be mixed up, §, 173, 1,]
Embossing is 'e'Kxvveiv (Creuzer Comm, Herod, p. 302.), ixxQovetv §. 59.
R. 2., xa^^s"^"". excudere (Quint, ibid.). Isidore Orig. xx, 4. Cselata
vasa signis eminentibus intus extrave expressis a cselo quod est genus
ferramenti, quod vulgo ciUonem vocant. Tritor argentarius (Spon. Misc.
p. 219.), tritum argentum (Horace s. i, 3, 91. Phsedr. v, 1, 7.) appear to
refer to embossing. Terere is ro^eiv.
2. Comp. R. 3. 4. There were figures, insects, foUage enchased on
Glaucus' crater-stand (§. 61.). At Kibyra, in Asia Minor, iron was en
graved with ease, Strab. xiu, 631. Alexander's iron helmet, a work of
TheoJihUus, gleamed like silver, Plut. 32. To this refers lix(p'/i aHii^ov in
Soph. Aj. 651. cf Lobeck, on the softening [Getting. Anz. 1838. S. 1111 :
"But there must have been a simUar, though less known process, whereby
iron was made suitable for embossing and enchasing. — The ftxXx^ig of
Glaucus was lid Tri/goj xxi Slxrog iix(p'/iv, from which, indeed, one would
rather expect the opposite elFect." (Indeed.) In- the Hall. ALZ. 1837. also,
Apr. S. 634 f i^ni^vv^nv is combined with lix(pri aiin^og ag. The reference
of these words to ixx^i^ow is preferable; for it is not said that the
quenching in oU makes iron soft, but only that it prevents spUtting.]
3. On artistic workmanship of armour, §. 58, 59. 116,3. 117,2. 240.
R. 4. Cic. Verr. iv, 44. mentions bronze coats of mail and helmets en
chased in the Corinthian manner. The y^x^rrd iv 'inc'ha 'eyxtyaa elxdv
(Inscr. from Cyme, Caylus Rec. ii, 57., comp. Osann. Syl. p. 244. C. I. n.
124.) I hold to be the same with the scutum chrysographatum (TrebeU.
Claud. 14.). May not the x^"""'/?'*'?'''' of ^^^ Egyptian papyrus, Reuvens,
Lettres k Letr. iii. p. 66. perhaps refer to this 1 [Letronne Lettres d'un
antiq. p. 517. dissents.] eixav y^xTtrii see C. I. Gr. ii, p, 662, s,, elxovav
'luovXoig 'eirtx^vGoig dvx'heaig ib. no. 2771. [Engraved work, Gerhard Etr.
Spiegel, S. 80 Not. 63,] The barbicaru of later antiquity were also em
ployed in inlaying metal with threads of gold and other metals, see
Lebeau, M6m, de PAc, des Inscr. xxxix, p, 444, In preserved armour
with reliefs, the mail-plates from Locri §, 267, R, 4, and the bronze helmets
(with mUitary representations) and greaves from Pompeii are worthy of
remark. Votive shield (?)' of the Ardaburia famUy, see §, 424, R, 2.
Massieu Sur les boucliers votifs, Mem. de PAc, des Inscr, i, p, 177, Of
work on chariots §, 173, 2, Carructe ex argento cselatse, PUn, xxxiii, 49,
Vopisc. Aurel, 46, [On bronze reliefs, as facing of wooden boxes, <fcc,
AveUino Descriz di una casa Pompeiana, 1837. p. 67 sqq.]
4. To the first sort belong the lances filicatce, Cic, disci corymbiaii,
lances pampinatce, patince hederatm, TrebeU. Claud. 17. It appears Uke
wise that animals' heads, masks, wreaths and the like, but no historical
reliefs, were fixed on the Corinthian bronze vases. But the golden x(ixr^^eg
Ko^iv^iov^yeig, in Athen. v, 199 e. had round figures, ^$x iTe^i<pxvii rsro-

356 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
^svpiivx, sitting on the rim (similar figures on tripods, Amalth. iii. s. 29.),
and reliefs on the neck and belly. — Cic. Verr. iv. 23. distinguishes on
silver vases the crustse aut emblemata. The caslator anaglyptarius in
inscriptions made in later times merely the reliefs, the vascularius the
vase, the purum argentum. Homeric subjects were much in favour, thus
Mys (§. 112. R. 1. 116, 3.) represented on a Heracleotic scyphos the
conquest of Ilium after Parrhasius' design [the epigram in Athen. names
Hn^xaiog, of Meineke Spec. alt. p. 20. SUlig Catal. artif p. 288.] ; hence
the scyphi Homerici, Sueton. Nero, 47. [One in the Antiquarium at
Munich, pubUshed by Thiersch in the Abhdl. of the Mun. Acad, v, 2.
1849.] A platter with large historical representations, TrebeU. Trig. 32.
Masters in working vessels §, 60. 122, R, 5, 124, R, 1. 159. 196, 3, comp.
Athen, vi, 781 sq.
5. The most important silver vessels are : the cup in the Corsini
coUection, found at Antium §, 196. R. 3. ; the vase with the apotheosis of
Homer, at Naples, Millingen Un. Mon. ii, 13. [MiUih Gal. MythoL pi. 149.]
silver vessels found in Pompeii, 14 articles, Archaol. Intell. Bl. HaU. 1835,
No, 6, ; the so-caUed shield of Scipio (restoration of Briseis), found in*1656
at Avignon, in the cabinet at Paris, Montfaucon iv, 23. MiUin M. I, i,
10 [A, G. Lange in Welcker's Zeitschr. f a. K. Tf vi, 22. S. 490.]; the
bowl found in Perm in Stroganow's collection, the contest for the
armour of Achilles, see Kohler, Mag. encyc. 1803. v. p. 372 [Archaol.
Zeit. of Gerhard i. Tf 10. S. 101] ; the goblet from Aquileia, at Vienna,
§. 200. R. 2. comp. 264. R. 1 ; the vases from Palerii (with vegetable
decorations), Al. Visconti, Diss. d. Aoc. Rom. i, ii. p. 303 sqq. especiaUy
the rich treasure in vessels of a temple of Mercury, found at Bernay.
The raised work in these is invariably embossed, and drinking-bowls
placed inside ; drapery and armour enhanced by gUding, as is also often
the case elsewhere ; on the Homeric representations §. 415. R. Ro
chette, Journ. des Sav. 1830. p. 417. Lenormant, BuU. d. Inst. 1830.
p. 97. The so-caUed disci also are for the most part merely the inner
surfaces of goblets. A sUver discus, Cleopatra with her women (?), from
Pompeii, Ant. Ercol. v. p. 267. Another found at Geneva with figures
in glorification of Valentinian, Montfaucon Suppl. vi. pi. 28. On a Chris
tian one, Fontanini, Discus argent. R. 1727. [One from a tomb at
Kertsch in half barbaric and half Grecian design, in Gerhard's Archaol.
Zeit, i. Tf 10, s, 161, One Anacreontic, 51,] In bronze there is nothing
finer than the discus from near Paramythia in Epirus, in Hawkins' pos
session, highly embossed figures inlaid with silver ornaments, represent
ing Aphrodite's visit to Anchises, Tischbein Hom. vii, 3. MiUingen Un,
Mon. ii, 12, [Specim. ii, 20.] On the entire discoveries, Gott. G, A. 1801,
s, 1800, [Argenti M. Gregor, i, 62—66.]
6. Silver casket with a considerable sUver treasure found at Rome in
1794, of the last period of art, in the ScheUersheim (now Blacas) collec
tion, Mag. encyc. 1796. i. p. 357. B. Q. Visconti, Lettera intorno ad una
ant. supelletile d'argento. Sec. ed. 1827. In golden ornaments (to which
belong the early Attic cioadse) there have been important discoveries
made in Ithaca (Hughes i. p. 161.) ; at Rome among others in 1824 (G.
Melchiorri, Mem. Rom. iii. p. 131.) ; at Parma (Diss. d. Ace. Rom, ii. p,_
3,) ; at Canosa (rich golden chaplet, Gerhard, Ant, BUdw. 60. AveUino,"

WORKING IN IVORY. .357
Mem. d. Ace. Ercol. i.), [now in Munich]; at Panticapaion, masks and
medaUions of thin gold leaflets embossed (R. Rochette, Journ. des Sav.
1832. p. 45), [other gold articles also from thence Dubois de Montp6reur,
Voy. en Crimee au Caucase cet. pi. 20. 21, and silver vessels pi. 23. 24, also
vases of amber pi. 22.] These medaUions were still in request in later
antiquity (see that of Tetrious, Mongez Icon. Rom. pi. 58, 6) ; such were
perhaps wrought by the bractearii aurijices. On the aurifices generally,
Gori, Columb. Liv. n. 114 sqq. [Gold articles from a rich tomb in Melos,
L. Ross Inselreise iii. S. 18. One of the finest golden chaplets in the
possession of Barone at Naples in 1846, recently found at Pasano, de
scribed by AvelUno. BuU. Napol. iii. 129. In inscriptions there are
golden honorary garlands mentioned of 100 gold pieces, 500 drachmas,
<fec. and in incredible number, besides the crowns decreed to be conse
crated in temples, for example in that of Jupiter in Plautus Mensechm.
V. 6, 38, very many only representing oUve-leaves. Etrurian gold arti
cles S. 175. R. 4.] Vase of lead with Bacchus, SUenus and the four
seasons, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 87.
312. In the studios of the ancients, with the toreutic art 1
was likewise connected working in ivory, which it was a
favourite practice throughout antiquity to combine with gold,
in statues as well as all sorts of furniture. The ancients re- 2
ceived from India, but especially from Africa, elephants' teeth
of considerable size, by the splitting and bending of which — a
lost art but which certainly existed in antiquity — they could
obtain plates of from 12 to 20 inches in breadth. In executing
a statue, then, after the surface of the model was distributed
in such a way as it could best be reproduced in these plates,
the individual portions were accurately represented by sawing,
planing and filing the ivory (this material being too elastic to
be wrought with the chisel), and afterwards joined together
especially by the aid of isinglass, over a kernel of wood and
metal rods. The holding together of the pieces of ivory, how
ever, required incessant care ; moistening with oil (particularly
oleum pissinum) contributed most to their preservation. The
gold, which represented hair and drapery, was embossed and
fixed on in thin plates. In ivory, besides reliefs, little figures, 3
small utensils and tokens, and especially the class of diptycha
(writing tablets with reliefs on the outside) have come down
to our times from the later Roman empire. These are divided
into consular, which were presented by magistrates as gifts on
entering oflftce, and ecclesiastical.
1. In opposition to the employment of the term introduced by Q de
Quincy, it is correctly remarked by Welcker that ro^evrix:^ among the
ancients merely signifies ccelatura; we nowhere find tho word expressly
used of chryselephantine statues. As however the embossing of gold was
in these a main feature, and the first masters who made these colossi,
Phidias and Polyclete, were also according to Pliny the most eminent
toreutse (§. 120. R. 2.), we must perhaps adhere to the connexion above

358 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
indicated. On chryselephantine works, see above §, 85. 113—115. 120, 2.
168. R. 1. 204. R. 6. comp. 237. 240. X^vaeXe<pxvr'iiXexr^oi dtrmhg at
Syracuse, Plut. Timol. 31. ; on the doors of the temple of PaUas there (§.
281. R. 6.) the argumenta or representations of events were of ivory, the
rest of gold. Lyres were often of ivory and gold, and crowns of ivory,
gold and coral, Pindar, N. vu, 78. Dissen in Bockh, p. 436. Ivory coun
tenance on a shield, Diogen. viii, 1, 5. Signa eburnea in Sicily, Cic. Verr.
iv, 1., in Rome at the Circensian games, Tac. Ann. u, 83.
2. The above sentences give Q. de Quincy's theory, which is the most
probable, p. 393 sq. Comp. Heyne, Antiq. Aufs. u. p. 149., in the N.
Biblioth. der schonen Wiss. xv., and N. Commentar. Soc. Gott. i, ii. p.
96. 111. On the ivory trade, Schlegel Indische BibUoth. i. s. 134 sqq.
In Phidias' time chiefiy from Libya, Hermipp. in Athen. i. p. 27, as after
wards from Adule, PUn. vi, 34. Democritus is said to have invented the
mode of softening ivory, Seneca, Bp. 90. Q. de Quincy, p. 416. Comp. §.
113. B. 1. In the working, Lucian De conscr. Hist. 62. distinguishes the
TtXxrreiv (of the model), the ir^ieiv, i,ieiv {radere. Statins, S. iv, 6, 27.),
xoXhxv, pvBfii^eiv of the ivory, and the e^rxv^i^eiv r^ x?""?- Isinglass
served to unite the parts which Damophon renewed in the Olympian
Zeus, .aiUan V. H. xvii, 32. On the oil, among others Methodius in
Photius, C. 234. p. 293. Bekk. On the kernel of statues, especially vrihog,
Lucian, Somn. s. Gall. 24. Arnob. vi, 16. §.214. R. 2. On the appUcation
of the gold, §. 113. R. 2., eyes of precious stones, Plat. Hipp, i, p, 290,
3. Most reUefs and figurettes of ivory in Buonarroti, Medagl, Antichi,
[Knebel De signo eburneo nuper eflTosso. Duisburg 1844, 4to, A hero
carrying a dead body,] There are also early Greek works of the kind.
The iXe([ixvrov^yol, eborarii, according to Themistius, p. 273, 20 Dind.
made chiefly SsTito;, libri dephantini (Vopisc. Tac, 8.) or pugillares mcm-
branacei opercuZis eboreis (Inscr,), The diptycha consvlaria are adorned
with the figures of consuls at the pompa circensis, the missiones and the
like, the ecclesiastica with bibUcal subjects. Besides those of ivory there
were also wooden ones, Ukewise argentea ccelata, of which there are some
remains. Also triptycha, pentaptycha, etc. Writings by [M, Chladni, J,
A. Schmidt, Negelein] SaUg and Leich dx diptychis Donati De' dittici.
Coste Sur I'origine des Diptyques oonsulaires, Mag. enoycl. 1802. iv. p.
444. 1803. V. p. 419. Principal work : Gori, Thesaurus vett. Diptyoho-
rum consularium et ecclesiasticorum,.^ opus posth. cum add. I. B. Passeri.
F. 1759. 3 vols. fo. Particular ones described by Fil. Buonarroti, Chph.
Saxe [Dipt, magni consuUs 1757], Hagenbuch [de dipt. Brixiano, 1799
fob], Mautour (Hist, de PAc. des Inscr. v. p. 300.) and others. [De Dipt.
Quirini Card. Lips. 1743. 4to.] Paradise on an ivory tablet, Grivaud de
la Vine. Ant. Gaul. pi. 28. The Wiczay Diptychon, engraved by R.
Morghen, with the figures of Esculapius and Telesphorus, Hygieia and
Bros, is distinguished from the usual Byzantine dryness by more inge
nious workmanship.
The teeth of hippopotami likewise served instead of ivory, Paus. viu,
46, 2. Tortoise-sheU (chelyon) was used especially for lyres, dining sofas
and other furniture ; it also came partly from Adule, Plin. vi, 34. Beliefs
of the bones of animals. Works in mother-of-pearl, Sueton. Nero 31.
There wore statuettes in amber (§. 56, R, 2,), Paus, v, 12, 6, Plin, xxxvii.

WORKING IN PRECIOUS STONES, 359
12,, but particularly vases [Martial iv, 31. vi, 69], Ueliadam cru^tce (Juv,
V, 40,), among which the dectrina vasa, Dig. xxxiv, 2, 32,, and the electrina
patera with Alexander's medaUion and history, TrebeU. Trig, 14,, may
perhaps be rather classed than regarded as vessels for mixing metals,
[Other manufactures of amber, DUthey de Electro et Bridano, Darmst,
1824. p, 13, fol] The ' A^nvx iiXexr^ivn in d, fibula, HeUod. iu, 3. is like
wise a fitting appUcation of amber [scarcely, cf. DUthey p. 7 — 9.] ; there
are stiU ancient amber buckles with Gorgonea (at Berlin) ; also early
Greek and Etruscan sculptures in that material, MicaU, Ant. Mon. tv.
118. Clarac, p. 82. Cab. Pourtal^s pi. 20. p. 24. [CoUections of the Duke
S. Giorgio Spinelli and Mr. Temple at Naples, single specimens not rare.
D. Schulz on Amber works, in the BuU. 1842. p. 38.]

D. WORKING IN PRECIOUS STONES (si'ALPTURA).
313. The work in precious stones is either depressed (in- I
taglio) or raised (ectypa scalptura in Pliny, came-huia, cama-
yeu, cameo). The impression {sip^ayig) is the main object of
the former; the chief aim of the latter is to adorn. For the 2
former were employed transparent stones of uniform colour,
but likewise such as were spotted and clouded, of precious
stones properly so-called almost only the amethyst and hya
cinth, on the contrary many half precious stones, especially
the numerous varieties of the agate, among these the highly
esteemed cornelian, the chalcedony and the plasma di smeraldo;
for the latter, variegated stones, such as the onyxes, consisting 3
of smoky brown and milk-white layers {zonce), and the sar-
donyxes, which added a third layer of cornelian, and were
frequently also produced by artifice, with similar kinds of
stones which Oriental and African commerce brought to the
ancients, of surprising and now unknown beauty and size.
1. The impression ixptxyeiov, d'^otrcp^xytirpix, ixrii'jrapix, also trCp^xylg,
in sigillaris creta, especially Lemnian, or wax.
2. According to the ancients the diamond cannot be cut (Pinder de
adamante, p. 65.) ; there are hardly any genuine antiques of it. The
ardentes gemmce likewise, such as the carbunculi, according to PUny
xxxvii, 30. resist working and cUng to the wax, however (Theophrastes
de lap. 18. knew of sphragides of anthrax). It was not so with the hy-
acinthus, our amethyst, of dull violet colour, and the more muddy and
spotted amethystus; the greenish topazium (not chrysolite, according to
Glocker, De gemmis PUnii, inprimis de topazio, 1824.) ; the bei-yllus, now
aquamarina; above aU the sarda, nx^iov, now cornelian and sard, which
was very common in the time of Menander ; the achates, which was for
merly in high favour, but in Pliny's time however had lost its repute ;
the leucaehates, now chalcedony ; the jaspis, especiaUy the tile-coloured
(untransparent) ; the cyanus, to which the sapphirus of the ancients was
alUed, now lapis lazuli ; our sapphire, on the contrary, adamas Cyprius,
did not make its appearance till later times, §. 207. R. 7. The emerald

360 TECHNICS OP THE FORMATIVE ART.
of the ancients is in general plasma di smeraldo, which came chiefly from
the mines between Coptus and Berenice, which have been recently re
opened. There were also fine works in crystal. Obsidian was an Ethi
opian stone which was counterfeited in lava-glass, obsidianum vitrum.
, Caylus, Fabroni d. gemma Obsid,, Blumenbach Comment. Soc, Gott, rec,
iu. p. 67. For stones generally, see, above all, Haiiy, Trait6 des carac-
tSres physiques des pierres prScieuses, P. 1817. 8vo. Corsi, p, 222 sqq.
3, The sardonyx is oaUed >p7i(pog tSu r^ix^apiuv, i^v^qd 'eirmoXiig, Lucian
dial, mer, ix, 2, Sardonyches temis glutinantur gemmis ; — aliunde ni-
gro, al. candido, al, minio. Plin, 75, comp, 23, AohiU. T, u, 11, Schol,
ad Clem, p, 130, Works by Kohler and Briickmann on the subject
(1801 — 1804), PUny also mentions (63) other oriental stones of several
colours, quse ad ectypas scalpturas aptantur. The bluish nicolo (onicolo)
consisting of two layers was used for intagUos. The ancients recognised
especiaUy Upper India and Bactria as the native country of cameo-stones,
Theoph. De lap. §. 35. Comp. Gr. Veltheim, Sammlung einiger Aufsatze
ii. s. 203. Bottiger, ueber die Aechtheit und das Vaterland der antiken
Onyx-Cameen von ausserordentlioher Grosse. Leipz. 1796. Heeren,
Ideen i, 2. s. 211. Luc. de Syr. dea 32. mentions that there were on the
image of the goddess many precious stones, white, water-coloured, fiery
sardonyxes {owxeg 'S.x^iaoi), hyacinths, and emeralds which had been
brought thither by Egyptians, Indians, Ethiopians, Medes, Armenians,
and Babylonians.
1 314. Now, with regard to the mode of working, we only
know from antiquity this much, that the polisher (politer)
first gave to the stone a plane or convex form, which was
2 preferred especially for signet-rings ; then the stone-cutter
(scalptor, cavarius) attacked it partly with iron instruments
smeared with Naxian or other emery and oil, which were
sometimes round, sometimes pointed and drill-formed, but
3 partly also with a diamond point set in iron. The adjustment
of the wheel, by which the instruments were set in motion,
whilst the stone was held to them, was probably similar in
4 antiquity to what it is now. The careful polishing of all parts
of the engraved figures was a great aim with the ancient
stone-engravers, and is therefore a criterion of genuineness.
1. AiSiorqi^ixvi and ?i(9ougy;x^, the art of the politer and scalptor in
Lysias' Fragm. ¦jre^l rov rinvov. On the Latin names, Salmas. Exerc. Plin.
p. 736. comp. SiUig 0. A. p. viii. We do not find the numerous facets
of modern art among the ancients; hexagons and cyUnders were the
favourite forms for ornaments.
2. PUn. xxxvii, 76. Tanta differentia est, ut aUse ferro scalpi non
possint, ali» non nisi retuso, verum omnes adamante : plurimum vero in
his terebrarum proficit fervor. The ferrum retusum is the punch, boute-
roUe, whose round hoUowings did the most in the coarser works, §. 97, 3.
On ccelum and marcvlus, Pronto,' Bp. iv, 3., on the lima likewise Isidor.
Origg. xix, 32, 6. The Naxian dust §. 310, 3., served for cutting and
polishing, according to PUny xxxvi, 10., comp. Theoph. 44. On vpiv^ig,
emery Dioscor. v, 165. [Hesych. v. npA-vqig, Isid, xvi, 4, 27. smir Jerem.

WORKING IN PRECIOUS STONES. 361
xvii, 1 . Ostracite used for gnawing, Veltheim Ueber Memnons Bilds. S.
40 If.] Schneider ad Bcl. Phys. p. 120. and in the Lex. Plin. xxxvii, 15 :
Adamantem cum feliciter rumpere contigit, in tam parvas frangitur
crustas, ut cerni vix possint ; expetuntur a soalptoribus, ferroque in-
cluduntur, nuUam non duritiam ex facili cavantes, speaks evidently of
the diamond point, Pinder de adam. p. 63. comp. on the splinters of the
ostracitis, PUn. 65. Veltheim Aufsatze ii. s. 141.
On the technical processes of the ancient stone-cutters: Mariette,
Trait6 des pierres gravies. P. 1750. f. Natter, TraitS de la m6thode ant. de
graver en pierres fines compar6e avec la meth. moderne. L. 1764. Lessing
in the Antiq. Briefen i, 103 ff'. [Br. 27. S. 209 ff.] and in the KoUectaneen
zur Literatur. Bd. i. ii. Ramus von geschnittenen Steinen und der Kunst
selbige zu graviren. Kopenh. 1800. Gurlitt, Gemmenkunde, Archseol.
Schr. herausgeg. von Corn. MuUer, s. 87 i. Hirt, Amalth. ii. s. 12.
315. Stones destined for signet-rings next came into the 1
hand of the goldsmith (compositor, annularius) who set
them, and here the form of the sling {^(pivbdvn, pala) was a
favourite one. Although in the signet-ring the device was 2
certainly the principal thing, the name however is sometimes
added ; and here it must be assumed, that a name which
readily strikes the eye, must rather be referred to the posses
sor, than to the artist, of the gem. The circumstance that not 3
merely individuals, but states had their seals, perhaps explains
the great correspondence of many gems with coin-types; thus
also the Roman emperors sealed with their heads, at the same
time that their coins were stamped with them. The frequent 4
application of engraved stones to the decoration of drinking-
cups and other utensils [a practice derived from Byzantium],
was continued down to the middle ages; even now antique
gems must be sought for sometimes in church-vessels. In 5
engraved vessels entirely of gems, which are connected with
the class of large cameos, many works, admirable for the
extent and difficulty of the workmanship, have been pre
served, although none of them belongs to the times of a pure
taste, and a genuine Hellenic exercise of art.
1. See among others Eurip. Hippol. 876. rCirai a^evlovng xjuffnTiaTov,
comp. Monck. — AU rings were at first signet-rings (comp. §. 97, 2) ; then
they became ornaments and badges of honour, un-engraved also were
readUy worn, and the engraved everywhere else applied. Kirchmann
De Annulis.
2. On the names on gems, v. Kohler and R. Rochette, see §. 131. R.
2., Comp. §. 200. R. 1. Gemmse ant. litteratse by Fr. Ficoroni. R. 1757.,
by Stosch, §. 264. R. 1. Bracci Comm. de ant. soalptoribus, qui sua no
mina inciderunt. P. 1786. 2 vols, text, 2 plates. It is certain, indeed,
that when the artist gave his name he did it in the least observable
manner possible. Hence the catalogues of gem-cutters, of which the
Visconti-Millin (Visconti, Varie Opere, T. ii. p. 115. MiUin, Introduc
tion a l'6tude des pierres gr. P. 1797. 8vo.) is the richest, furnish little

362 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
that is avaUable for the history of art. Many names rest merely on a
difiFerent reading, as Pergamus and Peigmus ; Dalion and AUion are pro
bably Admon (AAAION), comp. Journ, des Sav, 1833, p, 753 sq. Besides
those above named, we also know, from PUny, Apollonides and Cronius ;
of the former we have perhaps still a fragment. The Tryphon celebrated
by AddsBus of Mitylene, Brunck Anal, ii, 242,, is perhaps the same whose
name stands on several beautiful stones ; however even Addseus' time is
uncertain, 3. See on the state-seals Facius' Miscel. 72. On the imperial seals
Sueton. Aug. 60. Spart. Hadr. 26. U. Fr. Kopp, ueber Entstehung der
Wappen. 1831.
4. See §. 161, 1. 207, 7. also 298. R, 1, Gemmata potoria, PUn,
xxxvu, 6. [vasa ex auro et gemmis xxxvu, 63, gemmata vasa of Agatho
cles, Auson. ep. 8,] Juv, x, 27,, from which are also to be explained Juv,
V, 43. and Martial xiv, 109. Yuxt^js? iixXi!ioi, Plut. vii, p, 154. H. lances,
phialsB with gemmse inclusse. Dig, xxxiv, 2, 19. Comp. Meurs. de luxu
Rom, c. 8, T. V, p, 18, [The Xi^oxoXXnra §, 161. R, 1, were even in use at
Babylon §. 237, R, 2, among the Indians also golden vessels set with pre
cious stones occur Bhartrihari's Sententise ed, Bohlen u, 98, Doors, waUs,
roofs with gold, silver, and precious stones also among the Sab«ans,
Strab, xvi, p. 778, Stones from Bactriana, which wore used in 'Ki%x6x>^nrx,
Theoph. -TT. x/9, §. 35. At the Persian court xXivxi 'hiSiox.oKKrrroi xxi o'Ao-
xqvaoi, PhUo in Euseb. Pr. ev. viii, p, 389 a. A dove Xi^ox. in the pos
session of Cyrus, .SlUan V, H. xii, 1. (paxlg y^Aox. on the hearse of Alex
ander Diod. xviii, 26,, at a symposium Cleopatra gave to Anthony "mxvrx
X^yuex xxi A. -neqirrag i^ii^yxirpiivx rxig rixvxig, Athen, iv. p. 147 sq.
A ieqd (ptxT^ri ix ;^fU(roS itxxrxTiXvrog iixTiiSiog made for the triumph of
Paulus iEmilius. Plut. .Slmil. P. 33. Pompey triumphed in a x^ptx x.
Appian. B. Mithrid. 117. Into his hands fell at Talaura, Mithridates'
treasury of art {rxpneiov rrig xxrxaxev/ig), besides 2,000 onyx vessels,
<pixXxt xxi ipvxr^qeg ¦ttoXXoI xxi pvrd xxi xT^ivxi x,xl ^qovoi xxrxxoaptoi xxi
'i'TT'TTav x^Xtvol xxi irqotjreqv'iiix xxi iTrapiiltx, irxvrx opcoiag hixXt^x xxi
xxrxxi^vcrx, which required 30 days to be deUvered up, derived partly from
the dominion of Darius Hystaspis, partly from that of the Ptolemies, — what
had been deposited by Cleopatra with the Coans, and these had surren
dered, — partly collected zealously by himself, ib. 115. The ixmiptxrx iid.
Xi^x at the banquets of Mithridates are mentioned by Plut. LucuUus 37.,
and dv^eog rig S<«7i/9of from him, which adorned LucuUus' triumph, ib. 40.
Eratosth. in Macrob. Sat. v, 21. mentions a x^ar^ja i^Aox., x^""""" X.
Menander iv Tlxilia, 'ex-irapcx ?v. PoU. x, 187., phials Athen. ii. p. 48 sq.
and Agatharchus in Phot. p. 459. Bekk., %eqixvxevix X. Heliod. vU, 27.,
neck-laces x^tiavxg ?i. Diod. xviii, 27., x^^'^^^^ **^ ^. xoupiiov 'ev ¦rr'Koxioig
xxi ¦?reqiheqxioig Plut, Phoc, 19, and Eunap, Aedes, p, 30. Wyttenb, x'^S-
vxg (read xXiiavxg') iixxqvoovg 'A. tS:/ '!7oXuripi'/irav CaUix. in Athen, v, p,
200 b, a mask "bixxqvaov xxi x, Lucian Tim, 27, dagger belt and golden
garlands Heliod, ix, 23, x, 32. Plin. xxxiii, 2 turba gemmarum potamus
et smaragdis teximus caUces. Juv. v, 43. Also an iron helmet-band,
¦weqirqxxriXiav A. occurs Plut. Alex. 32.] Die Edelsteine der H. drei
Konige herausg. Bonn 1781. [The best were taken away at the flight in
the time of the French revolution.]  Gems infiiulis (Spart. Hadr. 10.,
in busts likewise wo find the buckles hoUowed out for them, PioOl. vi. p.

WORKING IN PRECIOUS STONES, 363
74,), on sword-hilts, belts, [shoes, Uke those significantly presented by
Trajan to Adrian,] Cameos often on garlands and crowns of antique
heads, PioCl. vi. p. 56. Comp. §, 131, R. 1, 207. R. 7.
6. §. 161, 3. Gem/ma bibere, Virg. G, ii, 506, Propert. iu, 6, 4. The
6'vv^ fiiyxg rqxyeXx(pov vqix'jvi^ovrog, Bockh C. I. 150. Staatsh. ii. s. 304.,
is perhaps to be understood according to §. 298. 309. R. 1. Celebbated
VASES : The Mantuan in Brunswick, §. 264. R. 1. Farnesian goblet of
sardonyx, [from the tomb of Adrian] with representations of Egyptian na
tural productions, NeapePs Antiken. s. 391. MUlingen Un. Mon. ii, 17.
[A. Gargiulo Intorno la tazza di pietra sard, orientale del M. Borb. Nap.
1836. 4to. B. Quaranta in the Mus. Borb. xii. tv. 47. Uhden in the Schr.
der Berl. Akad. for 1835, s. 487 — 497. Zoega in an unpublished explana
tion understood " la spedizione di Perseo" on account of the " closed knife
and the sack" of the centre figure. The sack, and the plough above, are
also explained by Quaranta who, amid a heap of the most untenable obser
vations, with MiUingen sees Alexander in this figure, but the knife, which
in Uhden's drawing according to the microscope is curved downwards,
he took for a dagger. Uhden's explanation of the incomparable, and ex
tremely difficult work is a model. He recognises Egypt in the array
of fertiUty after the overflow. Isis resting on the sphinx, holds aloft the
ripened corn-ears, the NUe sits tranquUly on the accustomed bank, two
of his daughters, the nymphs of the stiTeams which form the Delta, have
drawn the drinking water clarified there, the winds hover peacefuUy, tho
peasant lays aside the plough which has done its work, the bag of seed-
corn is emptied, he has taken up the knife for pruning in the garden and
vineyard.] Coupe des Ptolemees or Vase de Mithridate, in the Cabinet
du Roi at Paris, adorned with very highly raised sculpture, representing
side-boards and Bacchian masks. Montfaucon i, 167. (Kohler) Descr.
d'un vase de sardonyx antique grav6 en relief St. Petersb. 1800. (mar
riage subjects). The Beuth onyx vase at BerUn, see Tolken, Staatzeit.
1832. N. 334. Hut, Gesch. der bild. Kiinste s. 343. SUlig, Kunstblatt
1833. N. 3 f. Thiersch Miinchner Abhdl. der philol. Kl. u. s. 63. Birth
of Commodus, of Augustus, SUUg, of L. Csesar, Tolken. A balsamario of
onyx in the Vienna cabinet, with Bacchian attributes on the foreside,
is seen, from the inscription on the back, to have been a present to a
hetaira : ^^nxig iv dyx'^oig, (piAri ydq el ^ivotg, exaov Be p^e if>pavrx Trteiv.
The verse from Anacreon Fr. 66. ed, Bergk. — [Arneth, Explanation
of the 12 largest engraved stones of the Boyal Cabinet of Coins, Weiner
Jahrb. 1839. i Anz. s. 28. The gems with Germanicus and Agrippina,
Gott. Anz. 1847. s. 456.] Large cameos §, 161, 4. 200, 2, 207, 7, The
Vatican cameo in four layers is still larger than that of Paris ; it repre
sents Dionysus and Ariadne drawn by four centaurs, Buonarroti, Me
dagl. p. 427, comp, Hirt ibid,, s, 342. — Statue of Nero in jasper, of Ar
sinoe in emerald, PUn, ; figurettes in plasma di smeraldo are oftener to
be met with.
The LITERATURE of glyptography is given by MiUin, Introd, (very in
complete) and Murr, Biblioth. DactyUograph. Dresd. 1804. 8vo. Geh-
BRAL coUections of gems by Domen. de Rubeis (iEneas Vicus inc.). Pet.
Stephanonius (1627), Agostini (1667. 69), de la Chausse (1700), [Rome
1805 in 2 vols. 8vo.] P. A, Maffei and Domen, de Rossi (1707-9, 4 vols,),

364 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
[Nov. Thesaur. vet. gemmarum 4 vols, fob] Gravelle (1732. 37), Ogle (1741),
Woriidge (1778), Monaldini and Cassini (1781-97, 4 vols, fo,), SpUsbury
(1785), Raponi (1786) and others. Particular cabinets by Gorlseus (first
1601), Wilde (1703), Bbermayer (1720-22), Marlborough (1730), [Choix de
pierres ant, gr, du Cab, du Duo de Marlborough fol, 2 vols,, each of 50 pi,,
very rare,] Odescalchi §, 262. R.4., Stosch §. 264. R. 1., Zanetti (ed. by A.
Fr. Gori. 1750), Smith (DactyUotheca Smithiana with commentary by
Gori. V. 1767. 2 vols. fo.). From the Cabinet du Roi, Caylus RecueU de 300
tStes and Mariette's Recueil 1750. comp. §. 262. R. 3. Those of Florence
in Gori, Wicar, Zannoni, §. 261, R, 2, Those of Vienna, §, 264, R, 1. The
Imperial Russian, §, 265, R, 2, Those of the Netherlands, §, 266, R, 1.
[The Royal at Naples,] Catalogues of the Crozat collection (by Mariette
1741 ; it has gone to Russia with the Orleans coUection), the de France §,
264, 1,, the Praun at Niirnberg (by Murr, 1797), [now in the possession
of Mad. Mertens-Schaafhausen at Bonn,] the coUection of Prince Stanis
las Poniatowsky, which is fuU of counterfeits, [Catal. des p, gr. ant. du
prince Stan. Poniatowsky 4to, Fir, 1831,] L, Rossi Spiegaz, diuna Race,
di gemme vol, i. Mil. 1795, 8vo. [Dubois Descr. des p. gr. ant. et mod.
do feu M. Grivaud de la VinceUe P. 1820.] Creuzer zur Gemmenkunde;
ant. geschn. St. vom Grabmal der h. Elizabeth 1834. cf. Feuerbach im
Kunstbl. Visconti Esposiz. deUe impr. di ant. gemme raccolte per uso del
Princ. Chigi in his Op. Div. T. 2, his most important work on engraved
stones. SohlichtegooU's Answahl 1798. 4to.] Vivenzio, Gemme antiche in
edite, R, 1809. 4to. Millin, Pierres gravees ined. (an opus postumum). P.
1817. 8vo. [Gemme incise dai Cav. Gius. Girometti publ. con le iUustr. di.
P. E. Visconti R. 1836. fol. 10 pi. Bd. of only 100 copies.] Impressions by
Lippert in a pecuUar mass (two collections, a Latin catalogue by Christ
and Lippert for the first, a German one by Thierbach for the second) ; by
Dehn in brimstone, descr. by Fr. M. Dolce (E. Qu. Visconti?) 1772; by
Tassie, in something Uke enamel (Catalogue des empreintes de Tassie by
Raspe, 1792) ; of the BerUn coUection §. 264. B. 1. ; Impronte gemmarie
deir Instituto, comp. BuU. 1830. p. 49. Cent. i. u. Bull. 1831. p. 105, iu,
iv, BuU. 1834. p. ] 13. [v. vi. 1839. p. 97.] Archaol. InteU. 1835. No. 64-
66, [Th, Cades has coUected 5,000 carefuUy selected impressions in Rome,
among them 400 stones of Etrurian origin,] Much on particular gems in
Montfaucon, Caylus, Visconti, loonographie, <fec,
Victorius, Dissert, glyptogr. R. 1739. 4to. Gori's Hist, glyptographi-
ca, [prsestantiorum gemmariorum nomina compl. Ven. 1767 fol, together
with an App, in the Memorie d, Accad, di Cortona ix, p, 146,] in the second
vol, of the Dact, Smith, Caylus, M6m, de I'Ac, des Inscr, xix, p. 239,
Christ, Super signis, in quibus manus agnosci antiques in signis possint,
Commtr, Lips, Utter i, p, 64 sq. The same author's treatise by Zeune, p,
263, and preface to the Dactyliothek of the Richter cabinet, Klotz, Ueber
den Nutzen und Gebrauch der alten geschnittenen Steine, Altenb, 1768,
G, A, Aldini, Instituzioni glittografiche, Cesena 1785, [MilUn Introd, &,
P6tude des p, gr, 1797, 8vo. Caylus, sur les p. gr, in the Mem. de I'Acad,
xix, p 239,] Gerhard zur Gemmenkunde, Kunstbl. 1827, N, 73-75, B.
Braun iiber die neuesten Fortschritte der Gemmenkunde Archaol, InteU.
Bl, 1833, St, 7, 8,

WORKING IN CL.'VSS. 366

E, WOKKING IN GLASS,

316. Glass is the more fittingly mentioned in this place,
as it was used among the poorer classes as a substitute for the
precious stone of the signet-ring, and, for that reason, the imi
tation of gems and cameos in glass-pastes was very widely dif
fused in antiquity, whereby many very interesting representa
tions have been preserved to us in this class of monuments.
According to Pliny, it was wrought in a threefold manner, :
sometimes blown, sometimes turned, and sometimes engraved ;
of which processes the first and third are also found united.
Although perfectly clear and white glass was far from being
unknown to the ancients, they everywhere manifested a pre
ference for other colours (especially purple, dark blue and
green), and for an iridescent splendour. They had also beau
tiful cups and goblets of coloured glass, which were sometimes
made of pieces of variegated glass, and sometimes ingeniously
composed of glass and gold. The murrhina, which we must
mention by the way, can only be considered as articles of
luxury, not as works of art.
1. ScpgayiSs; vxAivxi at Athens, about 01. 95, C, I, n, 150, Vitrese
gemmse ex vulgi annulis, Plin, comp, Salmas, Exerc. PUn, p, 769, As
counterfeits in TrebeU. GalUen, 12, and often in PUny, Comp, §. 313, R, 3.
The largest glass-paste is the cameo 16 X 10 inches in the Vatican
(Winck. W. iu. s, 44 ff".), Dionysus lying in Ariadne's lap, Buonarroti,
Medagl. p, 437,
2, Plin, xxxvi, 66. Toreumata vitri. Mart, xii, 74. xiv, 94. ' TxAo-J/og
or ixAeip-fig, vitri coctor, see Stephani Lex. ed. Brit. ; opifex artis vitrise,
Donati Insor. u, 335, 2. [veAivo'Tcoiog, Spartan inscr. BuUett. d. Inst. 1844.
p. 149. S. vxAorixvrig, ux'Kovqyog. AchiUes Tat. u, 3. xqxriiqx — iixXov piev ro
TTsiv epyov opapvypcevyig, xvxK(^ "he xvrov xf^Tre'Koi Treqieare^ov, Appulei Meta-
morph. ii. vitrum fabre sigiUatum.] The Barberini, now the Portland
vase, exhibited in the British museum, [wantonly broken in pieces in
1845 and successfully restored,] from the so-caUed tomb of Alexander Se
verus, consists of blue, transparent glass, and over it a white opaque
glass-fusion, the latter sculptured. Gr. Veltheim Aufsatze i. s. 175. Wedg
wood, Descr. du Vase de Barberini. L. 1790. Archseol. Brit. vui. p. 307.
316. MUUngen Un. Mon, i, p, 27. [St, Piale Dissert. T, i. The fact that
the nymph does not seem to ward off the god, but to draw him towards
her, is opposed to MUUngen's explanation. The fine amphora from Pom
peu, of a simUar style of art, M. d. I, iu, 5. AnnaU xi, p. 84., and a pa
tera, M, Borbon, xi. tv, 28, 29,]
3,. Same glass articles in Stackelb, Graber Tf 66, Beautiful pure
plates of glass found in Velleia and Pompeu, called also specularia accord
ing to Hirt, Gesch, ui, s, 74. On variegated windows §, 281. B. 6. WaUs
wore faced with vitrice quadratures, Vopisous Firm, 3, There were parti
coloured glass seals in Athens. Colour-changing glass, dxhxaaov, see Ha-

366 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
drian in Vopisc. Saturn. 8. The Alexandrine glass-wares, §. 230, 4., were
very celebrated in the time of the emperors, comp. §, 240, 6, On the
ancient art of colouring glass, Beckman, Beytrage zur Gesoh. der Brfind,
i. s. 373 sqq. Works in glas8,'Becker GaUus i, s, 145.
4, Lesbian cups of purple glass, Athen, xi, 486. Lesbium vas ceela-
tum, Fest, 'Txhivx tixxoyax v, 199, Vasa vitrea diatreta Salmas. ad
Vopisc. 1, 1. ; such were wrought by the diatretarii. Pine goblet from
the Novarese, of moveable colours, encompassed with a sky-blue net,
with an inscr, in green glass, Winck. W, iii. s, 293. [in possession of
the Marquis Trivulzi at Milan; perfect in its technical execution.] A
similar drinking glass of the Emperor Maximian, white in a purple net,
found at Strasburg. Kunstbl, 1826, s, 358. [Two others at Cologne,
Jahrb. des AUerth. Vereins at Bonn Tf 11. 12, s. 377. by UrUchs. On a
vase from Populonia on which a viUa maritima is represented, a memoir by
Dom, Sestini, On a glass vase from Genoa, a memoir by Bossi, Frag
ments in the catacombs, Bosio i, p. 509, Buonarroti Osservazioni sopra
ale. frammenti di vasi ant, di vetro ornati di figure, trov, ne' cimiteri di
Roma, F, 1716, — Ach. Tat. u, 3. describes a crater of rock-crystal with
grapes which appear to ripen through the pouring in of the wine,]
5, On the murrhina vasa (from the Bast, known to the Greeks, but
little however, from the time of Nearchus, at Rome from the time of
Pompey, not gems according to the legal acceptation. Dig, xxxiv, 2, 19) :
[N, Guisbert De murrhinis, Francof 1697. 8vo,] : Christ, De murrinis vet.
Lips. 1743, 4to. V, Veltheim on the vasa murrh. (Aufs. i, s, 191). Le
Blond and Laroher, M6m, de I'Ac. des Inscr, xliii, 217 sq, 228 sq. Mon
gez, M6m. de I'Inst, Nat, u, Litt. p, 133, Schneider Lex, s, v. pLvp'pivx.
Roloff' and Buttmann Mus. der Alterth. W. ii, s, 509, (Porcelain ; Schnei
der opposed, Programm von Mich, [Brieg] 1830.) Mag, encycl, 1808 JuUl.
Ruperti's coUection to Juv, vi, 156, <feo. Rozifere, Memoires de la Descr,
de I'Bgypte i, p, 115, MinutoU, Gott, G. A, 1818, s, 969. Abel-Remusat,
Hist, de la ville de Khotan, 1820. Gurlitt, Archaol. Schriften, s, 83, Corsi,
DeUe pietre antiche, p, 165, (murrha := spate fluore), Becker's GaUus
i, s, 143. Porcelain according to Cardanus first De subtil. 1660. Chinese
steatite according to Veltheim, the stone Ju according to Hager Descr.
des med. Chin, du Cab. Imp. P. 1806, Abel-Rfimusat opposed, ibid.
Fluor spar according to MinutoU on the murrhina of the ancients B.
1835, Thiersch Miinchner Abhdl. der philos. philolog. Klasse i. s. 443 and
Classic. Journ. 1810. p. 472. [Creuzer was led to the same explanation
by Doppelmayer before 1830, Heidelb. Jahrb. 1830. s. 369, so also HuU-
mann Handelsgesch. der Gr. s. 209. Fluor spar fi-om India,] In Thiersch
Tf A. B. (§, 605) fine fragments of murrina cocta, among which he even
classes the Barberini vase ?

F, ART OP DIE-OUTTING,

1 317, Numismatics, or the science which treats of the money
in use among the ancients, is, in the main, an auxiliary to the
knowledge of the trade and mutual intercourse of the ancients ;
but also, at the same time, for the history of art, through the

ART OF DIE-CUTTING, 367
artistic value of the types (§. 98. 132, 162, 176. 182.. 196. 201.
204. 207.). The art of cutting dies, notwithstanding the
small fame which these artists enjoyed even in the chief
places where the art was cultivated, was carried by the
Greeks to the highest perfection, so that nothing remained to
the Romans but to regulate better the process of stamping.
Although the casting of coins was not confined to ancient
Italy (§. 176. and 306. R. 5.), stamping however was the usual
practice in Greece and later Rome, and yet the blanks, that
is the pieces of metal destined for impression, were cast in
moulds, commonly of a lenticular form, that they might be
the better able to bear the stamp, which was often very deeply
engraved. The dies were made of hardened brass down to
the time of Constantine, then of steel. Medals properly so-
called, which were not to circulate as money, have not re
mained from the Greek period of art ; on the other hand the
large gold pieces of the Constantinian period must be regarded
as such.
1. Eckhel, D. N. Prolegg. i. Hirt, Amalth. u. s. 18. Stieglitz Einr.
ant. Munzsamml. s. 13. 23. Archaol. Unterhalt. ii. s. 47. Mongez, Mem.
de I'Inst. Roy. T. ix. The die-cutters for the imperial coins were after
wards caUed scalptores sacree monetce, Marini, Insor. Alb. p. 109.
2. Except in monograms there are no engravers who give their names,
except those of SiciUan coins, as Cimon and Eucleidas on coins of Syracuse,
and Busenetus of Syracuse and Catana ; also Cleudorus on coins of Velia,
and Neuantus of Cydonia. See R. Rochette, Lettre h M. le Due de Luynes.
1831. [Supplement au Catal. des artistes p. 83 sqq. cf 475, there are 28
names quoted, among them particularly the fine Apollo on coins of the
Clazomenians with ©EOAOT02 EnoiEI, of which, besides those that are
well known, there are two in the Garriri coUection at Smyrna, see N.
Rhein. Mus. vi. St. 3. s. 383.] and Streber, Kunstblatt 1832. N. 41. 42.
Even the ancients thought it remarkable that the coins of Athens should
be so destitute of art, whilst the Macedonian coins of Alexander were so
elegant, Diog. vii, 1, 19.
3. Tresviri A. A. A. flando feriundo. The chief apparatus of stamp
ing is seen on a denarius of Carisius, viz. anvil, hammer and tongs. The
matrix was originally on the hammer and anvil (quadr. incusum). Aiyloi
(§. 306, 5) of clay and stone are stiU found.
4. These gold pieces are often understood as medals, and busts of
generals on monuments adorned with them. See Steinbiichel, Notice
sur les MedaiUes Rom. en or du M. Imp. et Roy., trouvees en Hongrie
dans les ann. 1797 et 1805, 1826.

368 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
B. DRAWING ON A PLANE SURFACE.
1. BY LAYING ON COLOURING STUFFS OF A SOFT AND FLUID NATURE
A. MONOCHROME DRAWING AND PAINTING.
318. The ancients paid very great attention to delicate and
finely undulating outline drawing, and in their schools (§. 139, 3)
long preparatory exercises with the style (graphis) on tablets
covered with wax, and with the brush (penicillus) and one
colour on boxwood tablets, sometimes with a black colour
on white, sometimes with white on black-coloured tablets,
were held necessary before the scholar should venture to dip
the brush in several colours.
See Bottiger, Archseol. der Mahlerei, s. 145 ff. Mere outlines were
pt.av6yqxpi.pi.x (Parrhasius produced such) ; figures of one colour on a
ground of several colours pcovoxqapixrx. Aevxoy^xcpsiv eixovx, Arist. Poet.
6. denotes monoohromata ex albo, Uke those of Zeuxis, Plin. (comp.
ApeUis monochromon 1 Petron. 84. [rather monocnemon §. 141. R. 3. ;
Zeuxis goes immediately before in Petronius, but monochromes by Apelles
are not otherwise known. Fronto ad Verum i. : quid si quis Parrhasium
versioolora pingere juberet, aut ApeUem unicolora?]; a sort of camayeu,
comp. Bottiger, s. 170. Lucil. in Nonius, p. 37. calls figures merely
shaded monogrammi, comp. Philostr. Apoll. ii, 22. Above §. 210, 6.

E. PAINTING IN WATER-COLOURS.

I 319, From the superior importance attached to design,
great soberness in the use of colours prevailed for a long time
in antiquity, and in so much the higher degree, as the design
2 was sharper and more accurate. Even the Ionic school, which
loved florid colouring (§. 137, 141, 1,), adhered to the so-called
four colours even down to the time of Apelles ; that is, four
principal colouring materials, which, however, had not only
natural varieties themselves, but also produced such by mixing;
for the pure application of a few colours only belonged to the
imperfect painting of the architectural w-orks of Egypt (§, 231,),
the Etruscan hypogea (§. 174, 4.) and the Grecian earthen-
3 ware. Along with these leading colours, which appeared stern
and harsh {colores austeri) to a later age, brighter and dearer
colouring materials {col. floridi) were gradually introduced.
4 These were dissolved in water, with an addition of glue or
gum (neither the application of the white of eggs nor of oil
is discoverable in ancient pictures), in order to lay them on
S from the palette with the brush. Painting on panels (for
which larch-wood was preferred) was according to Pliny held
in high esteem, at the most flourishing period of art; however.

i i

PAINTING IN WATER-COLOURS, 369
the primitive practice of painting temples with ornaments (§.
274, II. 2.) naturally led to mural painting properly sO-called,
which was also employed in Grecian temples and tombs, in
like manner as in Italy, but was chiefly applied, from the time
of Agatharchus (§. 135.), to the decoration of rooms, until it
seems in the Roman period to have absorbed all art (§. 209.).
The surface was prepared for it in the most careful manner, 6
and the advantages of painting on the fresh plaster {al fresco)
were very well known; canvass paintings also occur in the
Roman period. Not only did the ancients anxiously strive 7
to discover and observe the harmonic proportions of colours
{harmoge), but they also had a fine eye for the quantity of
light which the picture should on the whole maintain, for
unity in the general effect of light; this was the rovog or splen
dor, which Apelles promoted by a thinly dissolved black {tenue
atramentum), therefore an azure colour, which at the same
time protected the picture and mellowed the sharpness of the
colours. On the whole, the climate and views of life were 8
equally influential in causing the ancients to prefer sprightly
colouring, with decided tones which resolved themselves into
a pleasing fundamental tone.
1. This regular proportion is distinctly stated by Dionysius De
Isseo 4; the earlier pictures were x^'^t^''-'" f'i" ei^yxapcivxi x^Aag xxi oiiSe-
piixv iv roig piiypixffiv s';<;ouo-a/ 'ttqixiXixv, dxqifisig §e rxig yqxpt,p(.xig and SO
forth; the later were eliyqxpi.pi.oi fiiv tirrov, or had variety in light and
shade, and 'ev r^ •TrXvi^ei rav pbtypLxrav rviv 'itxx^v. We must not however
stretch the former too far ; in the time of Empedocles, and therefore of
Polygnotus, the blending of colours was already greatly perfected. See
SimpUcius ad Aristot. Phys. i. f 34. a.
2. The four colours (according to PUny xxxv, 32. Plut. de def. orac.
47. comp. Cic. Brut. 18, 70.) ; 1. yfldte, the earth of Melos, Mrihixg. More
rarely white lead, cerussa. In mural paintings especially the Parseto-
nium. 2. Red, the rubrica from Cappadocia, called 'S.ivavig. MiArog,
minium, has various significations. M/^i-rof, of burnt axqx, was acci
dentally discovered by Cydias, 01. 104., according to Theophr. de lap. 53 ;
according to PUny, who calls it usta, it was first used by Nicias about
01, 115, 3, Yellow, sil, oixq"-, from Attic silver mines (Bockh, Schriften
der Berl. Akad, 1 816, s, 99,), in later times used chiefly for lights, besides,
the reddish yellow av/ri-piginentum, crxvixqxxn, arsenical ore, 4. Black
(together with blue), atramenta, piiAxv, of burnt plants, for example the
rqvyivov, of the skins of pressed grapes. Elephantinon, of burnt ivory,
was used by ApeUes.
3. Col. floridi (furnished by those who ordered pictures, and often
stolen by the painters, Plin. xxxv, 12.) were: chrysocoUa, green from
copper-mines: purpurissum, a chalk mixed with the juice of the purple-
fish ; Indicum, indigo, known at Rome from the time of the emperors
(Beckmann, Beytrage zur Gesch. der Brfind. iv. St. 4.). Coerxdeum, blue
smalt, of sand, saltpetre and copper (?), was invented in Alexandria. Cin-
2A

370 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
nabari (in Sanscrit, chtnavarl) denotes actual cinnabar, sometimes natural,
sometimes artificial (Bockh, ibid. a. 97,), but also another Indian drug,
probably from Dragon's blood. The artificial was first prepared by the
Athenian CaUias about 01, 93, 4, — On colouring materials : Hirt (§. 74.)
M^m. iv. 1801. p. 171. Landerer on the Colours of the Ancients in Buch-
ner's Repertorium f Pharmacie Bd. 16, 1839. S, 204, yqx<(ilg ix^voxoAXx
in gilding S. 210. Gothe, Farbenlehre, ii. s. 54. on the ancient names
of colours ; s. 69 ff. hypothetical history of colouring by H. M. Davy
(chemical researches) Transact, of the Boyal Society. 1815., extracted in
Gilbert's Annalen der Physik. 1816. St. i. 1. Stieglitz Arch. Unter-
haltungen. St. 1. MinutoU in Brdmann's Journ. fur Chemie viii, 2.
Abhandlungen, zw. Cykl. i. s. 49. J. P. John Die Malerei der Alten, B.
1836. 8vo. see Knierim Die Harzmalerie der Alten Lpz. 1839. [Idem
Die endlich entdeckte wahre Malertechnik des Alterth. u. des Mittel-
alters 1845. Roux Die Farben, ein Versuch iiber Technik alter u. neuer
Malerei, Heidelb, 1824.]
4. A female painter with palette and brush, copying a Dionysus-
Herma, M. Borb. vii, 3. comp. the figure of the painting in Pompeii, on
which see Welcker Hyp. Rom. Studien, s. 307. [A painter working at
the portrait of a person sitting to him, playfuUy treated. Archaol. Zeit.
iv. S. 312, copied as a vignette in Mazois R. de P. ii. p. 63.] The easel
oxqijixg, xtXXi^xg.
5. On tabular paintings, Ukewise on whole series of tablets (his in
teriores tempU parietes vestiebantur, Cic. Verr. iv, 55, tabulse pictse
pro tectorio inoluduntur. Digest, xix, 1, 17, 3, comp, PUn, xxxv, 9. 10.
Jacobs ad Philostr. p, 198,), Bottiger, s, 280, and on the prevalence of
these R, Rochette Journ, des Savans 1833, p. 363 sqq. G, Hermann De
pictura parietum, Opusc, v. p, 207. Letronne Lettres d'un Antiquaire
sur I'emploi de la peinture hist, murale P. 1836. 8vo. Appendice aux
Lettres d'un Antiq. 1836, R, Rochette Peint, Ant, precedees de rech.
sur I'emploi de la peint. dans la decoration des 6dif P, 1836, 4to, Welcker
in the HaU. L. Z. 1837. N. 173 ff'. R. Rochette, Lett. Archaol. i. P. 1840.
8vo.] However, there is no doubt about the stucco in the interior of the
Theseion (Semper ueber Vielfarb. Arch. s. 47.) ; the battle pieces of Micon
must have been painted on it. In Uke manner doubtless Pansenus painted
on the tectorium laid on by him in the temple of Pallas at EUs. PUny
xxxvi, 55. comp. xxxv, 49. Of this kind are temples which v^i-o t5i/
dyx^ai yqx(peav xxrx'urewoixiXrxi, Plat. Euthyphr. p. 6. comp. Luc. de
conscr. hist. 29. [R. Rochette Peint. in6d. p. 198, remarks that the tes
timony of Lucian does not apply here.] Solon already forbade sepulchres
(Cic. de legg. ii, 26.) opere tectorio exornari, that is evidently to be deco
rated with paintings. A tomb painted by Nicias, Paus. vui, 22, 4. comp.
25, 7. ii, 7, 4, Mural paintings by Polygnotus and Pausias at Thespise,
PUn, xxxv, 40, On the waU-paintings in Italy §. 177, 3; these were
used by the Greeks DamophUus and Gorgasus in the temple of Ceres, as
well as by Fabius in the temple of Salus (above §. 182. R. 2.- comp.
Niebuhr Rom. Hist. iu. p. 356).
6. In Herculaneum the ground is generally alfresco, the rest a tem
pera. On that manner of painting (i(p' vyqoig) Plut. Amator. 16. Letronne
Peint. Mur. p. 373. Vitruv. vii, 3. PUn. xxxv, 31. Pictura in textili, Cic.
Verr. iv, 1. comp. §. 209, 5. Technical processes of waU-painting in Pom-

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. 371
peii, G. Bevilacqua Aldobrandini, Progresso delle Scienze vii. p. 279 sqq.
(not encaustic, water colours on smoothed plaster, no animal and vege
table colours, merely in gouache.) R. Wiegmann, Die Malerei der Alten
in ihrer Anwendung u. Technik. Hannover 1836. 8vo. cf Klenze Apho
rist. Bemerk. 1838. S. 586 ff'. (Only the first kind of fresco painting,
applying the colours to the fresh plaster, was practised iu antiquity, never
the second, wetting with Ume-water, or the third, a gradual laying on
of the uppermost lime-ground).
7. PUn. xxxv, 11. 36, 18. On the azure colour (from asphalt?) Go
the's Farbenl. ii. s. 87. In the painting of light we can neither deny to
the ancients powerful fire-scenes (as the burning of the Soamander, Phi
lostr. i, 1.) [the lightning birth of Semele i, 14.], nor milder eff'ects (thus
for instance the Pompeian picture, in R. Rochette M. I. i, 9,, presents
an agreeable twUight in the background). However, such are rare in
ancient pictures.
If very carefully analyzed, the so-called Aldobrandini marriage (§. 140,
B. 3.), dug up in the EsquiUne in 1606, is painted in a slight and thin
manner, but with a very fine feeUng of harmony and the significance of
colours, now in the Vatican Museum, — Die Aldobrandinische Hochzeit,
by Bottiger (in an antiquarian point of view) and H, Meyer (artisti
cally). Dresden 1810. L, Biondi, Diss. deU' Ace, Bom. i. p. 133, G. A.
Guattani, I piu celebri quadri riuniti neU' apartem. Borgia del Vaticano.
R. 1220 f. [tv. 1. with some diff'erences by Meyer.] Gerhard, Beschr.
Roms u, u. s, 11, For the Uterature of ancient painting: Dati, Della
{•ittura ant, F, 1667. 4to. Jo, Scheff'er, Graphice, Norimb. 1669, H.
Junius, De pictura veterum. Rotorod. 1694, fo, and the works mentioned
§, 74. R, Diirand, TurnbuU, [A treatise of anc. painting L. 1740. fob
important on account of the 18 paintings, now mostly unknown, of which
it contains engravings,] Requeue, Riem. [G. Scholer Die Malerei b. den
Griechen, Lissa 1842. 4to. Idem iiber Farbenanstrich und Farbigkeit
plastischer BUdw. Danzig 1826. 4to, fuU of insight. Fr. Portal Des
couleurs symboUques dans I'antiq,, le moyen age et les temps mod. P.
1837. The lUad painted red, the Odyssey sea-green, Bustath. ad II. v, 9,]

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING,

320. Encaustic painting was a very extensive branch of
ancient art (§. 139. 140.), and was employed especially in ani
mal and flower pieces [?], where illusion was more the prin
cipal aim than in paintings of gods and heroes. Three kinds
were exercised: 1. The mere burning in of outlines on ivory
tables with the style. 2. The applying of coloured wax,
all kinds of which were kept arranged in boxes, commonly
on wooden tablets (but also in burnt clay), with the aid of
hot pencils, which was followed by complete blending and
softening down (ceris pingere et picturam inurere). 3. The
painting of ships with brushes which were dipped in a kind
of fluid wax mixed with pitch, which not merely provided
their external surface with an ornament, but, at the same time.

372 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART,
5 with a protection against the sea-water. We must rest satis
fied with these slender data, gathered from passages in the
ancients, as the attempts to revive the lost art of encaustic
painting have not hitherto yielded any satisfactory result.
[A very important application of painting, from an early
period, was that for which in our times the term lithochromy
has been formed, and which served to ornament the various
architectural members, employing different, but always un
mixed colours, which were either applied to the marble or the
plastered limestone, poros or Xl'^og <rJ)^ivog ; arnXoy^afiia was a
particular branch of it (a term, like Toixoy°a<fiia, which does
not refer to writing ;) the dXajSaar^oy^afiTg were also of a similar
class.] 2. Biicausta pingendi duo fuisse genera antiquitus constat, cera, et
in ebore (therefore without cera) [?] cestro, i. e. veruculo, donee classes
pingi coepere. PUn. xxxv, 41. Letronne Journ. des Sav. 1835. p. 540,
connects cera, et in ebore cestro (verioulo), not correctly : if cera is not
cestro, the opposition to what follows faUs to the ground.
3. Tablets, those of Pausias for instance, were painted in the encaus^
tic manner, also doors (C. I. 2297, waUs and ceilings, on the contrary, in
another way), triglyphs, that is those of wood (cera ccsrulea, Vitruv. iv,
2.), lacunaria, in earUer times perhaps with simple ornaments (as in
the Athenian temples), since the time of Pausias with figures, PUn.'
xxxv, 40. (such pictures xoujaj, iyxovqdg, Hesych,, comp. Salmas, ad
Vopisc. Aur. 46.). Figlinum opus encausto pictum, Plin. xxxvi, 64. On
the loculatse arculse ubi discolores sunt cerse, Varro de R. R. iii, 17., the
pxfi^iov ^ix'Kviiov Plut. de num. vind. 22 , xxvriiqiov Digest, xxxiii, 7, 17.
TertuU. adv. Herm. 1. Xqxiveiu is, according to Timseus, Lex. Plat, laying
on, diroxqoiiveiv, the softening down of colours ; however in Plato, Resp, ix.
p. 586., xToxqxiveiv rather signifies the reflection of colour on bodies.
' ¥jyxxvpixrx dvexirXiirov yqx<f)'/ig. Plat. Tim. p. 26. Knqoxvrog yqx(p'i as
late as the Byzantine empire, Du Cange, Lex. Grsec. p. 647 sq., comp. Euseb.
V. Const, iii, 3. G. Hermann supposes with Letronne that encaustic
painting was, according to Pliny, without brush. yqx<peiv S/« irvqog,
colores urere. According to Letronne Lettres d'un Antiq. p. 385. pxfiliov,
brush, 'iixvvqov, on account of hell, where it figures in Plutarch; evi
dently false. [Comp. also Appendice aux Lettres d'un ant. p. 104 sqq.
Schneider's explanation, on the other hand, is defended also by C. Jahn
Acta Societ. Grsec. i. p. 341.] Idem in opposition to Welcker's Encaustik
in Gerhard's Hyperbor. Studien. S. 307. Encaustic with the brush ac
cording to Klenze Aphorist. Bem. S. 606; obviously false, contrary to
the story of Pausias at Thespise. [The last of these manuscript additions
would scarcely have been aUowed to remain, if the author had more
closely examined the matter. What Klenze asserts cannot be otherwise
conceived, and the story of Pausias can be so explained as to agree there
with. The higher art of encaustic which was exercised by Polygnotus,
Nicanor and Archelaus, along with their chief branch of art, and exclu
sively by a number of famous artists whom Pliny separates from the
great temple painters, in order to give afterwards a mixed list of the in-

VASE-PAINTING. 373
ferior artists in both departments, was, as is certainly shown in the Hall,
A, L, Z, 1836. Oct. S. 149 — 160, (if the agreement of all text-passages
after unbiassed explanation proves anything), brush-painting with wet,
cold colours kept in numerous small compartments of a large box, in the
laying on of which wax was used, in what oily dissolving combination is
unknown, on which foUowed the burning in, and at the same the blend
ing of the colours, the x^'*'"^'" "*' x'rroxqxiveiv, the deepening and
softening of the tone, the regulating of the bright and dark tones, by
means of a smaU rod, hot at the lower end, and held over and passed along
the sviriSiCe {fixfihiov lid'Trv^ov, xxvrviqiov'). Tim. Lex. V, xfi^^^^^^ — rd p^g&i^g/w
Sia roll px/ihiov. A glowing rod could not surely be used for laying on
colours, and the oestrum which Hirt mixed up, referred merely to the
ivory. Thus by the encaustic process, foUowing on the painting itself
(like the enchasing of the toreutes on the embossing or casting of figures),
blending of colours, transparency, and depth of shadow were promoted,
and eifect and iUusion attained. The same process was rudely exempli
fied, when wax candles were employed for retouching and equalizing the
melted wax which was laid on with thick brushes on waUs and naked
marble statues, PUn. xxxui, 40.]
4. Painting of ships §. 73. Inoeramentum navium, Liv. xxviii, 46-
Knqog among the materials for ship-buUding, Xenoph. RP. Athen. 2, 11,
On pitch, PUn, xvi, 23. Knqoyqx<pix on Ptolemy the Fourth's ship, Athen,
V, p, 204, [,^schylus in the Myrmidons probably referring to the hippalek-
tryon on Hector's ship x7\qo[_xqi<7^evrav <paqp^xxuv 'TroAvg 'jrovog, like xriqoxvrea.
In Uke manner, Hipponax of the ship-painter Mimnes : 'i'Tireirx pixx^n r^v
.rqitiTiv TTxqxxqiaxg.'] — ^Painting on a gold ground derived from antiquity,
Letronne p, 556, Navis extrinsecus eleganter depicta, 4;PPulei. Flor. p.
149. On the fleets PUny xxxvi, 31. The same cerse, but the mode
different. 5. Caylus, Mem. de PAc. des. Inscr. xxviii. p. 179. Walter, Die wie-
derhergesteUte Mahlerkunst der Alten. Die Parben, ein Versuch ueber
Technik alter und neuer Mahlerei, von Roux. Heidelb. 1824. 8vo., comp.
Kunstblatt. 1831. N. 69 sq. Montabert, Trait6 complet de la peinture.
P. 1829. T. vui.
[6. Some remarks on the kind of colours, and the mode of laying them
on in Volkel Archaol. Nachl, s, 81 f HaU. L. Z. s. 150. Klenze Aphorist,
Bemerk. s, 566, 560. 587, In the inscription found in 1836 referring to
the works in the temple of Pallas Polias at Athens : ivxxvrri ro xvpcxnov
'evxrixvri to 'eirl r^ 'e'TcinrvAia ru ivrog x. r. X, In this way also were figures
painted on the metopes and frieze, and such, not of marble, on the frieze
of thp Erechtheum, seem to be referred to in the same inscription : o
'KXevirivixxig Ai^og ¦Trqog a rd ^ax (although ^So:/ by no means signifies
usually or by preference, a painting), comp. Wiegmann Die Malerei der
Alten s. 134 ff. Letronne in the Journ. des Sav. 1837. p. 369. Painted
steles in Stackelberg Graber Tf 5. 6,, three from the Peirseus engraved
in the Kunstbl, 1838, N, 69. There is a stele on a vase from Volci, on
which the painter represents yellowish palmettos on a white ground,
Gerhard Festgedanken an Winckelmann B, 1841, Tf ii, 1, and Mus.
Gregor. ii, 16, 1.]

374 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.

D. VASE-PAINTING.

321. The peculiar technical processes of vase-painting,
which stood in so close a connexion with Greek manners and
customs that it could not pass over to the Roman world, did
not however among the Greeks themselves rank as a separate
branch of art, as there is nowhere mention made of vase-paint
ers with the specific notice of any individual; but this only
exhibits the more clearly the artistic genius of the Grecian na
tion, which unfolded its splendour even in articles of so little
value. In painting vases the process, when performed in a
careful manner, was as follows: the vases, after being once
slightly burnt, received, with rapid strokes from the brush, a
coating of the dark-brown colour commonly employed, and
were then exposed again to a gentle heat. This dark-brown,
faintlyreflecting principal colour, appears to have been prepared
from bxide of iron ; a thinner solution of the same material
yielded, as it appears, the faintly shining reddish yellow varnish
which alone covers the colour of the clay, in the places not at
all, or sparingly, painted; variegated colours, in chequered
drapery, flower- arabesques and the like, were not laid on till
after the burning was completed, as opaque colours. This
seemed to the Greeks the most suitable technics for vase-paint
ing; the ruder process in the so-called Egyptian vases was
only kept up as an antiquity; and the placing of black figures
on a white ground (as on some vases found here and there in
Greece, and also at Volci) appears to have been the fashion
only for a short time. There are also vases occasionally found,
especially in Africa, which are painted exactly in the manner
of the walls, with bright colours on a white ground, and others
which exhibit on the same ground mere outlines.
1. See above in reference to this §. 75. 99. 143. 163. 177. 257. That
vases for use were also painted, is seen from vase-paintings themselves,
in which painted bowls and pitchers are borne (comp. Alcseus, fragm.
31. xvxixvxi ¦aoixixxi, Demosth. de f. leg. p. 464. Bekk. oi rdg xAxlixa-
rqo^iixxg yqx(povreg) ; their use however seems to have been graduaUy
confined to prizes, gifts, chamber ornaments and tombs (§. 301). The
cycle of subjects therefore was restricted more and more even in Lower
Italy to the Bacchian. See Lanzi, De' vasi ant. dipinti diss. 3., the second
on the bacchanals, Opuscoli raccolti da Accad, Italiani i, F. 1806. —
A catalogue of painters' name from the vases (especiaUy those of Volci)
is given by R, Rochette, Lettre h, Mr. Schorn, BuUetin des sc. hist. 1831.
Juin. [2d ed. 1845, p, 1—83, enlarged by Welcker, N, Rhein, Mus, vi, St,
2,] Comp, Comment, Soc. Gott. rec. vii. p. 92. 117.
2. That the vases were not soft when they were painted, is proved
especiaUy by the appearance of the scratched lines which frequently

VASE-PAINTING, 375
occur, and by which the painter guided his hand when he proceeded
carefully to work (see de Rossi in Millingen's V, de Cogh. p. ix.), as well
as by the substance of the paint being raised above the surface of the
vase. There are many grounds for opposing the notion that patterns
were used in the drawing of the outlines,
3, See Luynes, Ann, d. Inst, iv. p, 142 sqq, Comp, Hausmann de con-
fectione vasorum. Comment. Soc. Gott. rec, V. cl. Phys, p, 113 (where
naphtha and asphalt are assumed as colouring materials ; however the
present author is now decided also for the use of iron). Jorio, Sul metodo
degU ant. nel depingere i vasi. [Nap, 1813.] Brocchi, SuUe vernici, Bibl.
Ital. vi. p. 433. [Haus Dei Vasi Greci, Palermo 1823, de Rossi in MiUin
gen Vases de CoghiU. p. i — xx. Kramer iiber den Styl u. die Herkunft der
Griech. bemalten Thongefasse. B. 1837. F, Thiersch iiberdie HeUenischen
bemalten Vasen, Munchner Denkschr. iv, 1. of the 1st class, Lenor
mant Introduction k I'etude des vases peints. 1 Partie P. 1845. 4to.,
from the EUte des mon. c^ramogr. thrown off' separately. A vase manu
facturer in the work, Cylix from Tarquinu, Gerhard Festgedanken an
Winck. B. 1841. Tf ii, 3. Archaol. Zeit. 1848. s. 108. N. 5.]
5. On very beautiful vases with variegated figures. Bull. d. Inst.
1829. p. 127. Variegated vases from Centorbi BuU. d. I. 1833. p. 6. [R.
Rochette Peint. Ant. pi. 8 — 10.] Specimens of vases with Unear designs
in Maisonneuve, Introd. pi. 18. 19. Cab. Pourtalfes pi. 25. Vase paintings
with diff'erent parts in relief, Cab. Pourtalfes pi. 33. (from Athens), Mus.
Blacas pi. 3., [not rare also in Naples and SicUy]. Athen. v, 200 b. speaks
Ukewise of vases at Alexandria painted with variegated wax -colours.
MinutoU gives an account of painted vases from a catacomb at Alexan
dria, Abhandl. zw. Cykl. i. s. 184. Works on vases: Picturse Etr. in vas-
cuUs nunc primum in unum coU. Ulustr. a J. B. Passerio. 1767. 1770. 3
vols. fo. Antiquites Etrusques, Grecques et Bom., tirees du cabinet de
M. HamUton a N. 1766. 67. 4 vols. fo. Text by HaucarvUle, also in
EngUsh. CoU, of Engravings from ano, vases mostly of pure Greek
workmanship discovered in sepulchres in the kingdom of the two Sicilies
— now in the possession of Sir W. HamUton, pubUshed by W. Tischbein,
from 1791 downwards, 4 vols, fo. Text by Italinsky, also in French. [99
plates for a 6th vol. were taken in 1843 to London by H, Steuart, toge
ther with a number of plates already engraved for the Tischbein Odyssey,]
Many single plates or smaUer coUections by Tischbein (Reiner's 'Vases).
Peintures de vases antiques vulg, app, Etrusques tirees de diffl coUections
et ^av. par A. Clener, ace. d' expl. par. A. L, MilUn, publ, par Dubois
Maisonneuve. P. 1808. 2 vols, fo, Descr. des Tombeaux de Canosa par
MiUin. P. 1816, fo. MiUingen, Peintures ant. et ined, de vases Grecs
tir6es de diverses coUections. R, 1813. The same, Peint. ant, de v, Gr, de
la coU. de Sir J, CoghiU, R, 1817. Al, de Laborde §, 264, R, 1, Coll, of fine
Gr. vases of James Edwards, 1816, 8vo. [Moses,] Vases from the collec
tion of Sfr H. Bnglefield. L, 1819. 4to. Inghirami, Mon, Etr. (§, 178,)
Ser. V. Vasi fittiU. [4 vols, 1837. 400 articles,] G, H. Rossi, Vasi Greci
nella copiosa raccolta di — Duca di Blacas d'Aulps, descr, e brevemente
iUustr, R. 1823. Panofka §, 262. R. 3. A work promised by Stackelberg
on Attic vases [merged into the Graber der HeUenen]. 'Works on par
ticular vases pubUshed by Remondini, Arditi, Visconti, &c. [Vases
Etrusques du prince de Canino R. 1830. f m. 6 pi. Mus. Greg. ii.

376 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
tv. 1 — 100. Raf PoUti Esposiz. di sette vasi Sicoli-Agrigent. Palermo
1832. 8vo., Cinque vasi di premio — ^nel Mus. di Palermo 1841. 4to. and a
series of vases pubUshed separately at Girgenti and Palermo, N. Maggiore
Mon. Sicil. ined. faso. 1. 1833 fo. Gerhard Auserles. Griech. Vasenbilder,
hauptsachUch aus Etrurien, I, Bd, GotterbUder 1840. II. Heroenbilder
1843. III. not yet completed. Trinkschalen des K. Museums 1840.
Mysterienvasen 1839. Etr. u. Campan, Vasen des k, Mus, 1843. Apu-
Usche Vasenbilder des k. Mus. zu, B, 1845 f m. Vases peints du Due de
Luynes. P, 1840. fo, (Ann. d, Inst. xii. p. 247.) Le Normant and de Witte
Bute des mon, cSramographiques P. since 1844, T. i, U. iii, 0, Jahn
Vasenbilder Hamburg 1839. 4to, By Prof Eoulez at Ghent since 1840.
Melanges de phUol. d'hist. et d'antiquit6s, chiefly vases, extracted from
the BuUetins de I'Acad. de BruxeUes T. v — xiii, faso. 2 — 5. down to 1846.
Descr. dei vasi rinvenuti neUe escavaz, fatte neU' Isola Farnese per or
dine di S. M, Maria Cristina — di Second. Campanari. R. 1839 4to., Bull.
1840. p. 12. Vases from the tombs of Panticapseon (Kertsch) in Dubois
Voy. en Crimee iv. Sect. pi. 7 — 15., one with aENQctANTOS EIIOIH-
2EN A0HN. (BuU. 1841. p. 109.) and one pi. 13. with the torch race
round an altar, therefore perhaps xeqxp<,og ' Arr/xiif .]

2. DESIGNING BY THE JUNCTION OF SOLID MATERIALS, MOSAIC-
WORK.
322. Mosaic, in the widest sense of the word, any work
which produces a design or painting on a surface by the join
ing together of hard bodies, comprises the following kinds: 1.
Floors formed of pieces of stone of different colours, geometri
cally cut and cemented together, pavimenta sectilia. 2. Win
dows, composed of glass -panes of different colours, which
appear to have been known at least to later antiquity. 3.
Floors inlaid with small cubes of stone forming a coloured
design, such as were usual in antiquity, not merely in rooms
but also in courts and terraces, instead of pavement, pav. tesse-
lata, lithostrota, dd'jrsba Iv dSaxiaxoig. 4. The finer mosaic, which
tried to come as near as possible to pictures properly so-
called, and usually employed coloured pieces of clay or rather
glass, but also the very costly material of actual stones,
where the imitation of numerous local colours was required,
called cnistce vermiculatce, also lithostrota. Splendid works of
this description were made of stone as well as clay cubes,
as early as the Alexandrine period (§. 163. 6.). The employ
ment of glass cubes in the decoration of apartments, first made
its appearance in the time of the emperors, when this kind of
mosaic, which came more and more into request (§, 190. R, 4.
212, 4,), w^as even transferred to the walls and ceiling, and
was used in all the provinces (§, 262, 2, 263, 1,) ; hence there
is even now by no means any want of monuments of this
kind, among which there are some that may be pronounced

MOSAIC. 377
excellent. 5. Glass threads molten together, which in section ;
always give the same extremely tender and brilliant image.
6. Contours and depressed surfaces were engraved in metal or '
some other hard material, and another metal or enamel melted
into it, so that figures resulted from the process — the so-called
niello. As this kind of work leads immediately to copper-en- '
graving, so even a certain description of the latter, — an easily
multiplied impression of figures, — seems to have been not un
known to antiquity as a transient appearance.
1, On the pictum de musivo (the name borrowed from museums,
first in Spart, Pescenn, 6, TrebeU, Trig, 26), comp, GurUtt, s. 162 ff',
Ciampini, Furietti (§. 212. R. 4.), Paciaudi De sacris Christian, balneis.
Cam. Spreti Compendio istor. deU' arte di comporre i musaici. Rav.
1804. L. Bossi, Lett, sui cubi di vetro opalizzanti degli ant. musaici.
MU. 1809. VermiglioU, Lezioni i. p. 107. u. p. 280. GurUtt Ueber die
Mosaik (1798), Archaol. Schr. s. 159. Hirt, Mem.de Berlin 1801. p. 151.
To the first kind belong also the Lacedsemonii orbes, on which the
haughty rich man sprinkles the tasted wine, Juv. xi, 172., the parietes
pretiosis orbibus refulgentes, Senec. Ep. 86. and often, the macules inserted
contrary to the nature of the stone, Plin. xxxv, 1. Probably the Alex-
andrinum marmorandi genus, Lamprid. Al. Sev. 25, belongs to these.
The pav. sectiUa were often similar to the modern Florentine mosaic
lavoro di commesso.
2. Prudent. Peristeph. hymn. 12, 45. The passage however is not
quite clear. Comp. R. iv.
[3. A brick column covered with coloured glass mosaic found in Pom
peii in 1837, see Zabn's Ornamente alter class. Kunstepochen Tf 60.]
4. Everything here bears reference to floors, hence the imitations of
sweepings (asaroti oeci, §. 163, 6., comp. Statius S. i, 3, 65 ; asarotici lapiUi,
Sidon. ApoU. C. xxui, 57 ; a fine asarotum by HeracUtus found in 1833 at
Rome, §. 209. R. 1) ; the labyrinths originating in meander-ornaments
(Salzburg mosaic §. 412. R. 1.) and the Uke. "AvS>ivx rav iixcpHv in the
palace of Demetrius Phalereus, Athen. xii, 642. The mosaic of glass
cubes is designated in Pliny xxxvi, 64. by vitreee camerce; to this refers
Statius, S. i, 5, 42 : eiFulgent camerse vario fastigia vitro, comp. Seneca,
Bp. 90. Noted workers in mosaic (musivarii ; in the Theodos. codex dis
tinguished from the tesselarii) besides Sosus, Dioscurides and HeracUtus
(§. 209. R. 1.) [on the fine asaroton from VUla Lupi in the Lateran ....
irog nqyxaxro, and the other portion of the name is said to be still with the
restorer, §. 209. R. 1.], Proclus and J. Soter (Welcker, Rhein. Mus. fiir
Phil, i, 2, s, 289,), Puscus at Smyrna (1 Marm, Oxon, ii, 48,), Prostatius ?
(Schmidt Antiq, de la Suisse, p. 19,), Celebrated mosaics besides those
mentioned §, 163: 1, The Prsenestine, from a tribunal (comp, Johannes
Bv. 19, 13.), which can scarcely be that of Sulla (PUn. xxxvi, 64.), a na
tural-historical and ethnographic representation of Egypt. Del. Jos.
Sincerus, sc. Hieron. Frezza. 1721. Bartoli Peint. ant. 34. comp. M^m.
de I'Acc. des Inscr. xxviii. p. 591. xxx. p. 503. L. Cecconi, Del pavimento
in mus. rinv. nel tempio d. Portuna Prfoncst R. 1827, opposite views in

378 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
C. Pea, L'Egitto conquistato daU' Imp. Cesare Ott. Aug. sopra Cleopatra
e M. Ant. rappr. nel musaico di Palestrina. [R. 1828. 4to. A striking
explanation, which is confirmed on all sides. In Uke manner is the re
ception of Io by Egypt represented in Pompeian pictures §. 351. R. 4.
Visconti also conjectured it to be Octavian as conqueror of Egypt M.
PioCl. vii. p. 92., Idem in Laborde Mos. d'ltaUca p. 90. The best coloured
copy is that of Barthelemy in the 2nd ed. of his Treatise, of which only
30 copies were printed ; a new one is a necessity for the history of paint
ing. There is an antique copy of a smaU portion at BerUn, according to
Uhden in the Schriften der BerL Akad. fiir 1825. S. 70 f ] Comp. §. 435.
2. The CapitoUne mosaic with the spinning Hercules from Antium, M.
Cap. iv, 19. 3. That in the ViUa Albani, executed in a particularly fine
manner, Hercules as the deUverer of Hesione, Winck. M. I. 66. 4. The
one from Hadrian's Tiburtine -yiUa with the battle of the panthers and
centaurs, in sed. M. Marefusci, SavoreUi del. CapeUani sc. [in execution
the finest of all, now in Berlin, Bull. 1845. p. 226. ; it appeared in the M,
d, I, for 1847. Two important pieces also in the Quirinal palace from
VUla Hadriana, — a youthful colossal head and a great number of birds,
separated by treUis-work]. 5, That from Prseneste in ViUa Barberini,
the rape of Buropa, Agincourt, Peint. pi. 13, 8. 6. The large mosaic
from Otriooli, in diff'erent compartments (Medusa's head, centaurs, ne-
reids, (fee), PCI, vii, 46, (others 47-50,), 7. Scenes from tragedy and the
satiric drama in the PioClem. Millin, Desor. d'une mosaique antique du
M. PCI, 1819. fo, 8. The large mosaic from ItaUca (38 X 27^ feet. Muses'
heads and circus games) of which a minute account has been given espe
ciaUy by Laborde §, 262, R. 4. Comp, §. 424, R. 2. Mosaic of Toulouse,
§. 402. R. 3. Theseus and Minotaur <fcc. in Pompeu, BuU. 1836. p. 7.
Mosaic work in relief, Welcker, Zeitschr, fiir a. K, S, 290 ff'. [The Pem
broke mosaic reUef here referred to No. 1, (Winck. W. 3. S, xxxiii,) is
described and praised by Waagen Kunstw. in England u. S. 279 f. The
Hesperid is not wanting along with Hercules. R. Rochette Peint. in6d. p.
393 — 96. 427 — 30., where Spes is given in pi. 12. Besides the repetition
of this one in Caylus, I saw the upper part of another in the Mus. at
Lyons 1841. There are pastes and stones combined, in the two figures
from Metapontum, formerly in the possession of the archbishop of Ta
rentum, now in the St. Angelo coll. at Naples. In the mus. at Naples
there now hung up 28 pieces of smaUer mosaics ; there are several such
specimens in the Vatican in Appart. Borgia, engraved in Guattani 1784.
p. xxxiii. tv. 3., one of the best in Santa Maria in Trastevere, a pair of
ducks and other aquatic fowls, one in Vienna, about 2 feet high, five
warriors, the foremost of whom hurls a torch, the symbol of war (Burip.
Phoen. 1836, c- Schol,), as Trvq<p6qog, Arneth Beschr. der zum k. k. Antiken-
Cab, gehorigen Statuen u. s, w. S. 16, The floors in the Vatican in 9 pi.
fol. m. by different designers and engravers ; one from Sentino at Munich
in the furthest back vase-room, ApoUo in the oval Zodiac, the four sea
sons underneath: Mosaic Lupi, BuU, 1833, p. 81, AchUles dragging
Hector, found in 1845 at Rome before the Porta S, Lorenzo, with another
floor, entirely of smaU stones ; Poseidon and Amphitrite drawn by sea
horses in Algiers, BuU, 1846, p. 69, Artaud Hist, abreg^e de la peint.
en mosaique Lyon 1835, 4to. gives a Ust of the mosaics in Lyons and the
south of Prance ; that of Avenohes in Schmitt, Rec, d'antiquitfis de la

OPTICAL TECHNICS, 379
Suisse 1771, 4to. Secchi II mus, Antoniano rappres, la scuola degli Atleti
R. 1843. 4to, (in the Lateran) ; W, Henzen BxpUc. musivi in viUa Bur
ghesia asservati, quo certamina amphiteatri repreesentantur, R. 1846.
4to,, discovered in Tusculum in 1834, On a floor found in London, in
the East India House, Bacchus on the panther, fine workmanship. A
large floor at Cologne, found in 1844, seven busts of wise men, among
whom are Socrates and Sophocles, Diogenes in the centre, see UrUchs in
the N. Rhein Mus. iv. S. 611. Juvavienische Antiken, Salzburg 1816.
4to. In Salzburg Theseus and the Minotaur, who frequently occurs in
mosaics, see 0, Jahn Archaol. Beitr. S. 268 f — Statius SUv. i, 3, 55, —
Varias ubi picta per artes Gaudet humus superare novis asarota figuris,]
6. Winck. W. ii. s. 40. Klaproth and MinutoU Ueber antike Glas-
mosaik. B. 1815.
6. On Egyptian metal-painting §. 230, 4, On draperies of statues
§. 115. B, 2. 306. R. 3. Bronze tablets with pictures in different metals in
India 1 PhUostr. V. ApoU. ii, 20. Remains of ancient enamel-work, V61-
kePs Nachlass, s. 33. On nieUo works (ptixxv, Ducange, p. 898.), FioriUo
Kunstbl. 1825. N. 86 ff. Bottiger Archaol. der Mahl. s. 35. [Creuzer,
Zeitschr. f AW. 1843. S.1076, in his Schriften zur Archaologie iii. s. 562.
666 ff.] On the agemina work of the bcniaricarii (who besides made
draperies of gold or with gold) §. 311. R. 3. Ant. di Ercol. vUi. p, 324.
[aUa gemina or damaschina the so-caUed Vase of Mithridates in the
Capitol.] 7. The much commented on passage in Plin. xxxv, 2, regarding Varro's
iconography (munus etiam dUs invidiosum), which was pictoriaUy mul-
tipUed and sent everywhere, will scarcely allow us to imagine anything
else than impressed figures. Comp. Martial xiv, 186. Becker's GaUus
i, s. 192 ff. [Comp. §. 421. B. 4, Kunstmus zu Bonn S. 8 or 2nd ed. S.
6 f. Creuzer in the Zeitschr. f AW, 1843, N. 133 ff,]

II. OPTICAL TECHNICS.
323. The artist endeavours, by moulding the given mate
rial, or by laying on colours, to furnish the eye and the mind
of the beholder with the appearance and representation of
bodies, such as they are to be found in nature. He attains
this in the simplest way by a complete imitation of the body
in a round form (rondo bosso): at the same time with the
great advantage that the eye is not confined to the enjoy
ment of one, but receives many images or views, among which
however, and that still more in groups than individual sta
tues, one will always be the most important to the artist.
However, alterations in the form are rendered necessary,
sometimes by the elevated position, sometimes by the colossal
size of the statue; these are conditioned by the point of view

380 TECHNICS OF THE FORMATIVE ART,
from which they are seen by the beholder, whose eye should
receive the impression of a natural and well -fashioned form.
4 The problem becomes more complicated when the natural
forms, pressed down as it were on a surface (a process which
has always its cause in the subordination of the plastic art
to tectonic aims), are to be exhibited in a weaker play of
light and shade than round work admits of, such as is the
5 case in the different kinds of relief. But the task becomes
a complete optical problem, when a view of the object is to
be attained by applying colours on a plane surface, as the
impression of reality can only be produced by the repre
sentation of the surfaces of the body as they appear from a
definite point of view, for the most part foreshortened and
disjilaced, and principally by imitation of the effects of light
on them, that is, only by observation of the laws of perspec
tive and OPTICS.
4. The ancients do not appear to have had any perfectly settled ter
minology, in applying names to the different kinds of relief (§. 27). Zioi/
a work of sculpture in general, figure ; see for instance Plat. Pol. p. 277.
Comp. Walpole, Memoirs, p. 601. [Welcker Theogn. p. Ixxxix. not. 627.]
Z£« -ireqiCilxvri distinctly denotes round figures in Athen. v, 199 e. (like
Iiix* ireqicpxvri, Clem. Protr. p. 13) ; on the other hand, in the same
author, v, 205 c. Treqitpxvv] ^alix are alti relievi. \l(iorv7rx {w^orrrvTrx,
Athen. v, 199 e.) and 'ixrvTrx are in Plin. xxxv, 43. opposed to one an
other as alto and basso relievo, and yet exrvirx in Plin. xxxvii, 63. and
Seneca, De benef iii, 26. is relief generally [in Pliny better manuscripts
have prostypa as relief generally, or flatter than ectypon.] On other occa
sions, rv'xog, iixrervTeapcevx, §. 237. R. 1., ixrerwu'urivx e-^i urifK'/l Paus. viii,
48, 3. and eTreiqyxnfiivx are used as expressions for relief. Projecting
animal-heads are irqoxqoaaoi, ¦jriioropixi. Comp. §. 324. R. 2.
1 324. Now, although ancient art did not set out from the
conception of the single optical image, but rather invariably
from corporeal imitation, and this always remained a principle
with it, so that the relief was treated in a statuesque manner,
and painting for the most part in the style of relief; yet, in
the period of its perfection, it was by no means deficient in
the observance of the laws of perspective, which were already
2 put greatly in requisition for colossal statues. In the relief,
art originally followed the principle of representing every part
of the body in the fullest and broadest possible view; the
development of art, however, introduced a greater variety of
3 phases, and a generally moderate use of foreshortening. Per
spective was, from the time of the elder Cimon (§. 99, 1.), of
more importance to painting, and this even gave rise to a
separate branch of perspective painting, scenography or scia
graphy, in which, notwithstanding the resistance of enlight
ened artistic criticism, more careful and delicate design was
sacrificed to the attainment of illusive effects for distant

OPTICAL TECHNICS, PERSPECTIVE. 381
beholders unskilled in art. But, in general, the complete 4
representation of forms in their beauty and significance, was
more highly regarded by the ancients, than the illusion re
sulting from the perspectively accurate foreshortening and
contracting of figures; and the prevailing taste conditioned
and limited the exercise and development of those optical
laws and artistic dexterities, differently, indeed, according to
the periods and branches of art, in easel-pictures less than in
reliefs and vase-monochromes, in a later and luxurious age
less than in earlier times, but on the whole, however, in a far
higher degree than in the modern development of art, which
takes quite the opposite direction. From that feeling of forms g
which desires to perceive with clearness, and to enjoy in their
refinements, eurhythmy and graceful purity of contour, resulted
also the slight attention of the ancients to aerial perspective,
— judging at least from the mural paintings preserved, — that
is, the faintness of outlines and blending of colours produced
by the greater or smaller stratum of air which the optical image
of the object pervades, as it is evident that the ancient painters
were generally accustomed to hold the objects near the eye, or to
conceive a clear atmosphere as the medium. Hence also light 6
and shade appeared to the ancient painters more calculated
for modelling single figures, than for contrasts of masses and
similar general eff'ects.
1. Phidias' Olympian Zeus is one of the chief examples, §. 115, 1.
General evidences. Plat. Soph. p. 235 sq. (who on this account considers
colossal formations as belonging to the (pxvrxanxri, not to the eixxanx'ii).
Tzetz. ChU. xi, 381. Comp. Meister, De optice fictorum, N. Comment.
Soc. Gott. rec, vi, cl, phys, p, 154,
2, The principle here laid down occasioned the strange posture of the
Egyptian (§. 229,), as weU as the SeUnuntine relief-figures (§, 90,), only
that the heads in the latter appear in front view, in the former in pro
file. On the other hand, the relief-figures on the Attic tombstones {oi 'tv
rxig arriKaig xxrd yqx(p^v 'exrervTrapcivoi, Plat. Symp, p. 193,) appear en
tirely in profile, as if sawn through the middle of the nose, (Here y^«(p»j
is a deUcate reUef ; for to connect xxrxyqx<pijv, is untenable for this reason
alone, that catagrapha in PUn, xxxv, 34, denotes quite the reverse,
namely foreshortenings). In the bas-reUefs Ukewise of the Parthenon
by far the greatest number of the figures are seen in profile ; violent
foreshortenings are avoided, and even many foreshortenings which to us
seem necessary, for example in the legs of riding figures, are sacrificed to
the striving after eurhythmy of forms, §. 118, 3, In the alti relievi of
PhigaUa, on the contrary, very great foreshortenings are ventured on,
comp. §, 119, 3, — In painting habet speciem tota fades. Quint, u, 13,,
comp, PI, xxxv, 36, 14,
3, On soenography and sciagraphy §, 107, 3, 136, 2, 163, 6, 184,
R, 2. 209, 3. On the perspective of the ancients generally, HeUod. Opt.
i, 14, (who describes the axnvoyqxqiixov as the third part of optics, which

382 TECHNICS OP THE PLASTIC ART,
architects, and sculptors of colossi could not do without), of the moderns
SaUier, Sur la perspect, de Pane, peinture ou sculpt., Mem. de I'Ac. des
Inscr. viii. p. 97. (in opposition to Perrault), Caylus, ibid, xxiii. p. 320,,
Meister, de optice vet. pictor., N. Commentr. Soc. Gott. v, cl, phys. p.
175. (incorrect in many points), Schneider Bclog, phys. p. 407. Ann. p,
262. Bottiger Archaol. der Mahlerei, s. 310. That the architectural
views of the Herculanean mural paintings contain faults (Meister, p.
162.), proves almost nothing against the studies of real artists.
6. In tabular painting there were many works treated otherwise.
Here was displayed from the time of Parrhasius the ambire se of the out
Unes. This denotes probably the floating and flickering character of the
contours, which arises in nature from the undulated and stripy nature of
Ught (or from the parallax of the eyes 1 Berlin Kunstbl. ii. s. 94 ff.).
6. See above, §. 133. R. 2., but also 319. R. 7. The deUcacy with which
shade was marked among the ancients (lenis, levis, (fee.) is noticed by
Beckmann, Vorrath n. A. i. s. 246. <b^oqd axixg perhaps denotes chiaro-
oscuro ; dmxqairig axixg, cast-shadow, §. 136. R, 1. — Much attention was
also paid in antiquity to the proper hanging of pictures (tabulas bene
pietas coUocare in bono lumine, Cic. Brut. 76, 261.) and the right point
of view for looking at them (the painter himself often stepped back
when at work, Eurip. Hec. 802, comp. Schafer.). Horace Epist. ad Pis,
361 ff.

SECOND PART.
ON THE FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
§. 324.* The forms of art are of two kinds. First, the
mere artistic form, of which nature does not furnish a type, the
frame as it were which art puts around a piece of nature, in
order to obtain a defined and separate representation; this
form, because it does not in itself represent spirit and life,
will receive its destination more from mathematical forms,
and constitute, so to speak, the connecting link between archi
tecture and the plastic art. Secondly, the forms presented by
nature and experience, on which rests the internal life of the
work of art — the representation of spiritual existence. We
shall begin with the latter.

FORM OF THE PLASTIC ART. 383
I. FORMS OF NATURE AND LIFE
A, OF THE HUMAN BODY,
1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
325. The principal form of ancient art was the human I
body, which appeared to the ancient Greeks as the necessary
correlative of the mind, as the natural and only expression
for it. If the conception of natural events and localities, 2
human relations and properties, as divine persons, originally
belonged to the religion, and emanated from the deepest foun
dation of the religious notions of antiquity, so afterwards,
when this religious manner of thinking had lost its power,
the representation of all these objects as human forms became
a pure necessity of art; and even independently of worship
and belief, art, in following its internal laws, created for itself
an immense number Of forms of this description. Down to 3
the latest period, even to that in which a foreign religion had
completely put an end to the earlier manner of contemplating
the world (§, 213. R. 2.), it remained a principle and charac
teristic of Greek art to introduce personally in human form
the place of an action, the internal motives to it, and the
promoting or obstructing circumstances, and, on the other
hand, to treat the external appearance of nature as compen
diously as possible, almost only as the attribute of these
forms. 1. Sentimental Ungering with nature in general, a romantic concep
tion of the landscape (§. 436.) was unknown to the Greek mind ; it pressed
on impatiently to the apex of corporeal formation, the human figure.
SchiUer uber naive und sentimentalische Dichtung. Werke Bd, xviii,
s, 232. 326. If this, as the nature of the thing requires, is not 1
conceived as an individual expedient of the artist, but as a
general and pervading principle of ancient art, we may
thereby acquire a knowledge of the main principle of Greek
art and genuine fundamental law of the artistic activity in
antiquity. This was not certainly a rendering and immediate 2
imitation of what was externally experienced, beheld, the so-
called Real, but a creating from within outwards, a seizing of
the spiritual life and impression of it in the form naturally
connected therewith. [§. 3. 419, 1,] Even this of course can- 3
not take place without a love-inspired imitation of what is
presented to the senses; nay, only to the most intimate and
ardent conception of this form, the human body, does it ap
pear as the general and lofty expression of an all-pervading

384 FORMS OP THE PLASTIC ART,
life. But the aim of this imitation was not a reproducing of
the individual appearance presented to experience, but the
expression of inward vitality, power and spiritual existence.
For this reason the formations of Greek art bear from the
beginning a certain character of generality, and the portrait
properly so-called did not make its appearance until a com
paratively late period,
4. In this respect the Bast is comprehended under quite the same
law with Grecian antiquity, and there art stands still further from indi
vidual imitation, the character of the forms is stiU more general, more
architectonic. 327. Now, however little Greek art, in its best and most
genuine times, considered itself entitled to devise forms tran
scending the body furnished by nature, it just as little thought
that, in its main tendency, — for at all times there were also
subordinate paths (§. 123, 2. 129, 5. 135, 3.), — it was bound
to adopt from the figure what appears to us unessential in
relation to the internal life, and as a pure accident, although
it is true that even this, in its dark connexion with the whole,
may have a particular charm and peculiar value (that of in
dividualizing). On the other hand, there were developed in
the Greek schools of art, forms which appeared to the national
sense and feeling as those which the undisturbed development
of the perfected organism would produce, as the truly healthy,
and were therefore in general laid as the basis of the repre
sentation of a higher life, — the so-called ideal forms. Sim
plicity and grandeur are the chief peculiarities of these forms,
from which arose, indeed, no neglect of details, but a subjec
tion of the subordinate parts to the leading forms, which lends
to the whole representation a higher degree of clearness. The
different characters by which life is artistically represented in
its manifold phases and tendencies, appeared sometimes as
modifications of these fundamental forms, and sometimes also
as intentional deformities. Hence, if it is necessary, on the
one hand, to become acquainted with the forms which ap
peared to the Greek sense to be generally correct, it is of not
less importance to learn the significance which the Greeks
observed in the separate form of each part.
3. On this principle Winck. W. iv. 53., Emeric David more definite,
Rech. sur l'art statuaire consid6re chez les anciens et chez les modernes.
P. 1806. Besides the requirements of the work of art in general which
have clear intelligibility and harmonious co-operation for their object,
the particular requirements of the material (§. 25, 2.) must also be here
taken into account. The dead material admits of less variety of detail
than the Uving body exhibits ; transferred to a rigid brittle mass many
things offend and repel which in life operate advantageously for the
whole. Different materials also have certainly different laws ; it seems

STUDIES OF ANCIENT ARTISTS, 385
from some fragments that the ancients gave more of the veins and other
slight elevations and depressions of the surface in bronze than in marble.

2. CHARACTER AND BEAUTY OF THE INBIVIDUAL FORMS.
A. STODIES OF THK ANCIENT ARTISTS.
328. Although in Greece even surgeons, and much more I
artists, were restrained from the dissection of bodies by an
invincible horror"; on the other hand, by the opportunity 2
which ordinary life presented, especially in gymnastic schools
and games (although models strictly so-called were not want
ing), the Greek artists, who possessed in a remarkable degree
the talent of apprehension, which was improved by practice
to a wonderful degree, acquired an infinitely more accurate
knowledge of the living human form in action or preparing for
action, than can ever be obtained by means of anatomical
studies. And if, in individual instances, some irregularities 3
are observable in their productions, yet the works of Greek
art in general are more correct and faithful in the represen
tation of nature in proportion as they come nearer to the best
times. The statues of the Parthenon exhibit the highest per- 4
fection in this respect, but all that is of genuine Greek crea
tion participated in this freshness and truth; while, in many
works of the Alexandrine period, art became ostentatious
and, as it were, obtrusive, and among the Romans marmorarii
a certain school, which was only attached to generalities,
dispensed with the warmth and immediateness produced by
the direct study of nature. The most accurate study of ana- 5
tomical science, also, is too weak to appreciate, thoroughly to
understand, those masterworks, because it must ever be denied
the contemplation of the body unfolding its splendour in the
fulness of Ufe and the fire of action,
1. [K. F, Hermann iiber die Studien der Griechischen Kiinstler, Gott.
1847, 8vo,] Kurt Sprengel, Gesch. der Arzneikunde i, 456, (1821) supposes
the first attempts at dissection to be indicated in Aristotle, and assumes
as a certainty (p. 524.) that there were such under the Ptolemies, Ac
cording to others even Galen himself only dissected apes and dogs, and
drew conclusions from them to man (according to Vesalius' observa
tion on the OS intermaxillare). Comp, Blumenbach's lecture de veterum
artificum anatomicse peritise laude Umitanda, celebranda vero eorum
charactere gentilitio exprimendo accuratione, Gott, G, A, 1823, s, 1241,
On the other hand Hirt, Schriften der Berl. Akad. 1820. Hist. Cl. s. 296.
attempts to prove a synchronistic relation between the development of
the art of dissection (from the time of Alcmseon 01. 70. ?) and the plastic
art. Studies of the Ancients in Osteology, Olfers Ueber ein Grab bei
Kumse s. 43.
2B

386 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
2. Many authors mention the Agrigentine virgins (Crotonian, say
others, because the picture was at Crotona) as models of the Helena of
Zeuxis, (The combination of separate beauties did not appear to the
ancient connoisseurs a thing by any means impossible, see Xenoph. M.
Soor. iu, 10, Arist, Pol, iii, 6. Cic. de inv, ii, 1,) Of Theodote, ^ ro
xx'KKog exvrijg imhi^ev, [and was emulously painted by artists,] Xenoph.
iii, 11, The bosom of Lais was copied by the painters, Athen, xiii, 588 d,,
comp. Aristsenet, i, 1, The passage Plut. Pericl, 13, also points at female
models which Phidias used, Male models indeed never occur ; gymnas
tics of course furnished much finer developments of masculine strength and
beauty than the formal postures of an academy. CoUection of passages
in the ancients on beauty in Junius De pict. vet, ui,'9, of Uttle use,
3, Winckelmann iv, 7 ft', has coUected from the ancients the principal
passages in reference to the vivacity and enthusiasm with which the
Greeks conceived corporeal beauty, and pursued this enjoyment ; he has
made a few oversights which can be easily rectified.
5. There is no work better calculated to communicate such informa
tion in osteology and myology as is most essential to the archseologist
than Jean-Galbert Salvage's Anatomie du Gladiateur combattant. P.
1812. fol. In the characterizing and detaUed description of statues the
forms that come most into consideration are those of the musculus mag-
nus, pectoraUs, rectus ventris, m. serrati (denteles), magni obliqui, magni
dorsales, rhomboides, magni and medii glutsei in the trunk, the sterno-
cleido-mastoides and trapezii in the neck and shoulders, the deltoides,
biceps, triceps, longus supinator in the arm, and the rectus anterior, in-
ternus et externus femoraUs, biceps, the. gemeUi and tendo AchiUes iu
the leg.

is. THEATMENT OF THE COUNTENANCE.

I 329. The principle of carrying out the contours in as
simple a sweep as possible, whereby that high simplicity and
grandeur were produced which especially belonged to ancient
art, is shown most distinctly in the Grecian profile of the
forms of gods and heroes, by the uninterrupted extension of
the line of the forehead and nose, and, on the other hand, the
greatly retreating surface which is prolonged from the chin
2 over the cheek in simple and softly rounded swell. Although
this profile is certainly borrowed from the beautiful in nature,
and*is not an arbitrary invention or combination of hetero
geneous ingredients, it is not, however, to be denied that
plastic necessities influenced its adoption and development;
for instance, the sharp arch of the eye-brows and the deep
sunk eyes and cheeks, which were carried to excess in the
Alexandrine period, were employed in order to produce an
3 effect of light to compensate for the life of the eye. To the
FOREHEAD, which is bounded by the hair in an unbroken
arch, but small height was assigned by the Greek national

TREATMENT OF THE COUNTENANCE. 387
taste; hence it was often even shortened intentionally by fil
lets. Advancing generally in a gently vaulted elevation, it
only in characters of remarkable force swells out into large
protuberances over the inner corner of the eye. The finely
traced arch over the eye, even in statues in v/hich no eye
brows are given, expresses the fine form of these. The normal 4
NOSE, which has the straight direction and a sharply defined
flat ridge, occupies the medium between the eagle-nose, the
ygu-TTOK, and the turned-up, snub nose, the aiihov. The latter was
on the whole considered ugly, and regarded as a barbarous
form; as the Greeks, however, also recognised it as a general
peculiarity of children, they fancied that it possessed a naive
grace and roguish petulance; hence the race of satyrs and
sileni exhibit this nose sometimes in graceful, sometimes in
caricatured development. To the eyes, that luminous point 5
of the countenance, the ancient artists communicated a living
play of light, by a sharp projection of the upper eye-lid and
deep depression of the pupil, size, by greater opening and arch
ing, and the tender and languishing air which was usually
called hp^yhv, by drawn-up and peculiarly formed eye-lids. We 6
may also mention the shortness of the upper lip, its fine form,
the gentle opening of the mouth, which, in all statues of the
gods that were the products of finished art, enlivens the coun
tenance with a powerful shadow and is often very expressive,
and above all, — the most essential sign of genuine Greek for
mation, — the round and grandly formed chin, to which a
dimple in a few instances communicates a subordinate charm.
The fine and delicate form of the ears is met with universally 7
except where, as in athletes, they are represented as swollen
by frequent blows {Ssra xanaytig).
1. See Winck. W. iv, 182, On the other hand Lavater (at that time
not without reason) entreated his friends " to wean themselves from the
so-caUed Grecian profiles; they made all faces stupid," and so forth,
Meusel, MisceU. xiu, 568.
2. On the relation of the Grecian profile (especially the so-caUed an-
gulus facialis) to nature, P. Camper, Ueber den naturl. Unterschied der
Gesichtsziige des Menschen, s. 63. who denies the reality of that profile.
The opposite view taken by Emeric David, Recherches, p. 469. Blumen
bach, Specimen historise nat. ant. artis opp. illustratse, Coramentt. Soc.
Gott. xvi. p, 179. Sir Charles Bell, Essays on the Anatomy and Philosophy
of Expression, 2d ed. (1824,) Ess, 7. Psester, Versuch einer Griechen-
Symmetrie des menschl, Angesichts in Daub and Creuzer's Studien ii, S,
359, — The principal passage on the Greek national form, in which the
Greek profile is also recognised, is Adamanteos Physiogn, c, 24, p, 412,
Franz : Ei Si rtat ro 'RT^Xrivixov xxi ' lavixov yivog e(pvXxx^ri xxBxqag, ovroi
eiaiv xvraqxag (iiyxhoi alviqeg, evqvreqoi, oq^ioi, ei/Tirxyeig, Xevxoriqoi r'^v x?""-"'
^xv^oi' uaqxog xqdaiv exovreg pcerqixv, ev-Trxyeareqxv, uxi7,rj oq^d, oixqx evtpv^'
xsipxX^v ptiariv ro pciys^og, TreqixyTj' rqxxnXov evqaarov' rqixapca ifTTo^xv^ov,

388 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
x'7rxJ\aTeqov, ov'Kov 'Trqxug' 'Trqoaa'Trov rerqxyavov, ;,;e/XJ7 Xe^rrx, pivx oq^y]v'
6^^xKpt.ovg vyqovg. j^»^o^ouf, yoqyovg, (pag ttoXv exovrxg iv xvroig' eiiofp^xT^-
pt,orxrov ydq ¦jtxvrav 'eSvav ro ''E/KKnvixov (the eTn'xa'Treg ' Axxioi of Homer).
Among modern travellers who praise the beauty of the Greeks CasteUan
is particularly enthusiastic, Lettres sur la Moree iii. p. 266. [Stackel
berg in the preface to his Griech. Trachten.]
3. Frons tenuis, brevis, minima, Winck. ibid, p, 183 sqq, '0(pqvav ro
evyqxpi.pi.ov §, 127, R, 4, The beauty of the avvo(Pqv cannot be pointed out
in art. [celsse frontis honos, Statius Sylv. 1, 2, 113.]
4. 'Pif cv^tix, 'ipipierqog, nvpifierqog, rerqxyavog (Philostr. Her. 2, 2. 10, 9.)
[cf Annali d. I. vi. p. 208. Aristsen. i, 1. p. 216. Boisson], see SiebeUs on
Winck. viii, 185. 'Vig -Trxqexfielinxvlx rviv evBvrrirx r'/iv xxT^Xiarriv, -Trqog ro
yqv^ov ri TO aipi,6v, Arist. PoUt. V, 7. The Aristotelian Physiogn, p, 120.
Fr. compares the yqwov with the profile of the eagle, the i^riyqvTrov with
that of the raven. In the same way are related tripcog (repandus, supinus,
resimus) and iiriaiptog. The aip&oreqxi, xvxtjtpt.oi, stand opposed to the
aepivxi, Aristoph, Ecol, 617, 938. The negro sima nare. Martial. Chil
dren, Arist. Problem. 34. The mask of the peasant, PoUux iv, 147.
2;^a ye'kxv, roguishly, Winok. v, 581. 2;^of has the same root with
uiKog, aiKXtig, liXnvog. Simula liXnvii ac '^xrvqx est, Lucret. iv, 1165.
The lover, according to Plato (Plutarch, Aristsenetus), calls the mpLog
'tirixxqig as well as the yqvuog jixaAixog. As resembling the satyrs the
ff/iKoi are also ¦hxyvai, Arist. Physiogn. p. 123. Comp. Winok. v, 261. 579.
vii, 93.
5. [Beauty of connected eye-brows, Jacobs and Philostr. Im p. 60, 29.
Blue eyes {y7,xvxoi) ugly, Lucian Dial, meretr. 2.] On the iyqov Winok.
iv, 114. vu, 120, Aphrodite has it, §, 127, R. 4.; but also Alexander, see
§. 129, 4., likewise Plut. Pomp. 2. The Romans put for it pa3tus, sup-
psetulus, of which strabus, squint-eyed, is the excess. In the execution
of the eyes in later times (§. 204, R, 2, Winck, iv, 201,), the true prin
ciples of the plastic art were sacrificed to a trivial imitation of nature,
6, To the pi;s/?in Xe^Trrd was opposed the TrqoxeiXov, which was usually
united with the aipi,6v. The gentle opening, x^''"! ^§£|«« lifiqnpi.evx, was
also considered beautiful in nature, \_xeihn hfiqnpiivx, Aristsen. p. 213,
irqoxei'f^ili'x PoU. ii, ncqixeif^og, labrosus, xsTTo'^E/Xof.] On the vvp<,ipn in the
chin, Winck. iv, 208. Varro TlxTrixg ¦jrxir-n-og, p. 297. Bip. and Appul.
Flor. p. 128. commend the modioa mento lacuna as a beauty. The gela-
sinus in the cheeks also only becomes satyresk beauties.
7. Winck. has first thrown light on this subject ii, 432. iv, 210. M.
I. n. 62., comp. Visconti PCI. vi. tv. 11. p. 20. Comp. the representation
of such ears from a bust of Hercules in the M. Napoleon iv, 70., and in
the engravings to Winck. iv. tf D. ' Ci,roxxrx^ig, aroSihxlix;, xXxartig
(Reuvens, Lettres ^ Letr. iu. p. 6.).
330. In Greek art even the hair was characteristic and
significant. For although thick and long hair was usual in
Greece (from the time of the xa^rixopi.6oivrtg ' Axaiof), on the
other hand the custom of wearing it cut short prevailed
among the ephebi and athletes, and a close-lying, slightly

TREATMENT OF THE HAIR. 389
curled head of hair denotes in art figures of this kind. In 2
very masculine and powerful shapes this short-locked hair
assumes a stiffer and more crisped form; on the contrary, 3
more expanding hair, curling down over the cheeks and neck
in long curved lines, was regarded as the sign of a more soft
and delicate character. A ¦ proud and lofty feeling of inde- 4
pendence seems to have had as a symbol among the Greeks,
hair which reared itself as it were from the middle of the
forehead and fell down on both sides in large arches and
waves. The particular fashion of the hair, in individual gods 5
and heroes, which is in general very simple, was sometimes
determined by the costume of different tribes, ages and ranks,
but, in the genuine Greek period, the hair was always arranged
with care and elegance, and, at the same time, in a simple
and pleasing manner. The shaving of the beard, which was 6
first introduced in the time of Alexander, and even then met
with much resistance, very clearly distinguishes later from
earlier figures. The artistic treatment of the hair, which in 7
sculpture has always something conventional, resulted, in
earlier times, from the general striving after regularity and
elegance, and, afterwards, from the endeavour to produce, by
the sharp separation of the masses, eff'ects of light similar to
those observable in the natural hair.
1. The short hair of the ephSbi has its natural reason in this, that the
hair cherished in boyhood was then first cut off (often in honour of deities
and rivers). SymboUsm of the cutting of the hair. Soph. Aj. 1179 (1158).
Instead of the elegant knots (xoi/i/of , axoKKvg, in general xiiicog), the simple
mode of wearing the hair, ijx.x<piov, was then used (comp. Lucian Lexiph.
5. with Thuc. ii, 62. Schol. AristoUi.Birds 806. Athen. xi, 494.). Add to
this the gymnastic advantages of snort hair ; hence Palsestra in Philostr.
Imagg. ii, 32. has short hair. Comp. §. 380. (Hermes). 'Ei/ x%<^ xwoxe-
xxqfiivog affTreq oi a(polqx dv'bqahetg rav d^'h-rrrav, Luc. Dial. Mer. 5, 3.
2. Ov-Kog, phoavqog to eilog, PoUux iv, 136. Comp. §. 372 (Ares). 410
^Heracles). 3. See §. 383 (Dionysus). Especially Burip. Bacch. 448 : ¦n-'hoxxptog re
yxq uov rxvxog oi -TcxKng vtco (it is not made SO long and slack in the
game of wrestling), yivw ¦Tcxq xvriiv xexvptivog, m^ov wT^eag. TqrXapixriov
pixXxxov as a sign of the hiXog, Arist. Physiogn. 3. p. 38. (p. 807. Bekker)
Terxvodqi^. 4. Thus in Zeus, §. 349. This kind of hair is caUed dvxffipiov or dva-
aiXXov rqi'xapix, PoUux iv, 138. Schneider Lex. s. v. [Hemsterh. Anecd.
p. 206.], and is a feature which belongs to the Uon, Arist. Physiogn. 6. p.
81 ; in men it denotes the iMv^iqiov, ibid. 6. p. 151. On the dvxxxiri^eiv
r'/iv xopcnv, PoU. ii, 26, and below §. 413 (Achilles). Of Alexander §. 129.
R. 4. The opposite is eitiaemrog, like Thraso according to PoU. iv, 147.
5. The early Ionic fashion of the xoqvpi^og, xqoifivKog or oxoq-w'iog
(Winck. vii. s. 129. Naeke, Choeril. p. 74. Thiersch, Act. Phil. Mon. ui,
2. p. 273. Gottling, Arist. Pol. p. 326) was a bow of hair fastened above

390 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
the forehead, which is perhaps most distinctly seen in the antique ar
rangement of the hair in the xoqxi in the temple of Minerva PoUas (§.
109. R. 4). In general use among the earUer Athenians, and even a
favourite mode in male statues (see §. 421. R. 1. and Serv. ad .^n. x,
832.), it was afterwards kept up especiaUy among the young, hence in
art it is found in Apollo, Artemis and Eros. The rows of curls above the
forehead in statues of the old style seem to be the' -Trqoxorrx, which was
probably Doric, PoUux ii, 29. Photius s. v. [ffoirrqvxoi, Ann. d. Inst. vi.
p. 205.] On the Doric knot of hair on the crown of the head, see Dorians
ii. p. 288. The Hectorian hair was copious in front and feU down upon
the neck (PoU. ibid. ; the Thesean or Abantic was cut away short in front,
Plut. Thes. 5. SchoL II. ii, 11. Very ingenious braids of hair on female
heads are to be seen on Sicilian coins. On the want of taste in later
times §. 204, 2. 205, 3. Hadr. Junius de coma. Roterod, 1708.
[6, Plut, Lysand, 1, Avaxvlqov ti euriv eixovixog, ev pLxKx xopt.uvrog
'e^ei Tw TTx'hxta xxi irayavx xx^eiptivov yevvxiov.^
7. See especiaUy Winck, W, iv, 219,

0, TREATMENT OF THE BEST OF THE BODl".

1 331. From the head downwards, the throat, neck, and
SHOULDERS are particularly adapted to distinguish powerful
figures, and gymnastically developed, from more delicate forms ;
2 in the former the sternocleidomastoides, trapezius and del
toides musculus are of considerable size and a swelling shape,
as in the bull-necked Hercules most especially ; in the latter,
on the contrary, the neck is longer, more languid, and has a
3 certain slackness and flexibility. The breast in men is not in
general particularly broad in ancient statues; in the form of
the female breast we can distinguish, irrespectively of the
forms of different ages and characters, the youthfully vigor
ous, more pointed than expanded form of early art, from the
fuller and rounder shape which afterwards became general.
4 The three intersections of the musculus rectus on the waist,
as well as the line of the hips below the rectus ventris and
the magni obliqui, are in male figures usually marked with
5 particular sharpness. The remarkable size of the musculi
glutsei in early Greek reliefs [especially in the oldest metopes
of SeUnunte,] and vase-paintings, recals Aristophanes' repre-
6 sentation of the youths of the good old stamp. The great lead
ing muscles are everywhere rendered especially prominent, and
presented in all their strength, as, for example, in the magnus
internus Qmyouvig) of the thighs, the large development of
7 which is characteristic of masculine forms. In the knees is
especially displayed the talent of finding the just medium be
tween too sharp indication of the separate bones and parts,
and a superficial and ignorant treatment of them.

PROPORTIONS. 391
1. ExceUent remarks, for that diagnosis of art, which gathers the
character from the particular muscles, are to be found in the ancient
physiognomists, especiaUy the AristoteUan treatise, which, however, is not
altogether Aristotle's. Hercules is admirably described in the dvlqeiog,
p. 35: rqixapt-x trxXriqov (§. 330, 2,) — apt.O'jrXxrxt -JirXxreixt xxi Zietrrrixvixt,
rqxxri^^og ipSapievog, oil a(poHqx axqxalrig, ro trr^^og axqxalig re xxi itXxrij
(comp. iisra ariqvav wXxrvg riqag TheocJ. 24, 78). laxi'ov •nqodsarxXpi.evov'
yxarqoxvnpiiai (muscuU gemelU) xxra Trqoaea'jrxirpi.ivxi. opcptx x'^qo'^^^v ovre
Xixv dveTrrvypiivov, ovre Trxvrx'TTXtTt avpcpciiov. The comparison attempted
by modern writers, not without ingenuity, of different characters with
animals (Zeus with the Uon, Hercules with the buU, <fec,) was already
carried out here with great skUl.
2. Of the palsestrian neck, Philostr. Heroica 19, 9. Juv. iii, 88. puts
the longum invaUdi coUum in contrast to the cervices HercuUs. A neck
of the former kind is usuaUy too fiexible, and indicates the weakUng ;
the rqxxri^og 'eTTixexXxa/xivog (Lucian), whence xXxvaxvxevi^eiv Plut. Alcib.
1. The highest degree of this laxa cervix (Pers. i, 98. comp. Causaub.)
is the capita jactare of the Msenads. Opposed to such are the cervices
rigidse, the caput obstipum (Suet. Tib. 68. Pers. iii, 80), which denotes
a suUen and haughty disposition.
[3. ' Oq^miritiog. Terence Eunuch, ii, 3, 21. Hand simiUs virgo est
virginum nostrarum, quas matres student Demissis humeris esse, vincto
pectore, gracUes ut fiant.
4. Form of the beUy, T. H. Anecd. p. 168.]
6. Aristoph. Clouds 1011. 'ii,eig del arri^og 'hmxqov, x?""^^ T^xpiTrqdv,
uptovg (ityahovg, 'wvyiiv pieydXriv.
6. The i'TTiyovvlg, which is minutely described by PoUux ii, 189, and
ApoUonius Lex, is in the Odyssey a criterion of pdwerful muscular de
velopment, because in the high girding of the drapery it presented
itself in aU its roundness, as is particularly shown by HeUodorus as
quoted by Schneider.
7. Of beautiful hands and feet Winck. iv, 223 ff. Xeiqeg xxqxi xxi
TTohg rd Xxpt.'n-qd toS xaATiouf yvaqlapixrx Aristsen. i, 6. [Beauty of the
hands, Isis von Oken 1824. s. 236.]

D. PKOPOKTION8.

332. The principles which the ancients followed in regard I
to proportions Qu'^/J^og, symmetria, numerus)^ — and we know
that this was a main object of artistic study (§. 120. r30) —
are naturally diflQcult to discover and determine, on account
of the manifold, modifications introduced by the application
of them to different ages, sexes and characters. It is likewise 2
quite impossible to discover the ancient canons, if we do not
distinguish the shorter, or, to use the ancient expression, square
proportions of early art, which had their origin in the Greek

392 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
national conformation (§. 329. R. 2.), from the more slender
fornls of later art, which emanated more from artistic prin
ciples and aims, and, moreover, do not neglect to consider the
3 intermediate stages (§. 130, 2.). While the moderns take the
height of the head as a unit for their basis, the length of the
foot was employed by the ancients as a measure, whose pro
portion to the entire height was in general maintained.
2. On the rhythm of the formative art Lange on Lanzi, s. 44 f,
Schriften s. 281. Measurements from statues, by Sandrart ii, 1., Au-
dran, Les proportions du corps humain. P. 1683. Morghen and Volpa-
to, PrincipU del disegno, especiaUy Clarac (from 42 principal statues),
Mus^e de Sculpt, p. 194 sqq. In these the head is taken as unit and
divided into quarters : a, from the crown to the roots of the hair over
the forehead ; b, to the root of the nose ; c, to the upper Up ; d, to the
bottom of the chin. But a and particularly b are less (especially in the
older style) than c and d. Vitruvius iii, 1, recognises a, b, c as equal,
with him d is somewhat smaller. Comp. Winok. iv, 167, who communi
cates Mengs' views. Each quarter is then di-vided into 12 minutes.
The older proportions are seen for example in the .Sginetan statues,
among which no. 64 has 6, 1, 12 for the entire height, no. 60. (Pallas) 7, 0,
6; the Borghese AchUles (a work in the style of Polyclitus) 7, 1, 11;
Apollo Sauroctonus 7, 0, 9, and the Capitoline Faun (works of Praxiteles)
7, 3, 6 ; a Niobid (one of the most slender) 8, 1, 6. According to Ly
sippus' canon are executed for instance the Dioscurus of Monte CavaUo,
8, 2, 6 ; the Farnesian Hercules 8, 2, 6 ; Laocoon 8, 3, 5. In regard to
individual parts three distances are usually about equal: a, from the
upper commencement of the sternum to the bottom of the abdomen;
b, from the navel to the upper commencement of the knee-pan; c,
from thence to the sole of the foot. However the foUowing difference
is here remarked. In the jEginetan statue no. 64 they increase in this
order : a (1, 3), b (1, 3, 4), c (2, 0, 4) ; in the Borghese AchiUes a and b
are equal (2, 1, 7), c considerably smaUer (2, 0, 9) ; in the Capitoline
Faun and the Dioscurus b is considerably larger than a, and c on the
contrary equal to a. (In the Faun a is 2, 1, 9, b 2, 2, 9, <; 2, 1, 9 ; in
the Dioscurus a 2, 2, 5, J 2, 2, 11, c 2, 2, 5.) In the Farnesian Hercules
c is equal to b (a 2, 2, 5, b 2, 2, 9, c 2, 2, 9) ; in the ApoUo Belvidere c
rises above b so that the proportions increase in the order a, b, c. (a 2,
1, 4, b 2, 1, 5, c 2, 1, 9). From the above may be drawn the foUowing
result. The .^ginetan school gave short bodies and long legs to male
figures (as did also the artists of Phigalia to the Amazons) ; in the Poly-
clitan canon the upper parts predominate a little ; the further develop
ment of art, on the other hand, again introduced a predominance of the
lower supporting parts. But in children a always remained considerably
greater than b. It is moreover worthy of remark that the earlier statues
make the length of the sternum, x, greater than the distance from the
sternum to the navel, /3 (the .ffiginetan statue has a 0, 2, 11, ^ 0, 2, 9 ;
the so-called Theseus of the Parthenon » 0, 3, 3, /3 0, 3, 1 ; the AchiUes
X 0, 3, 5, /3 0, 3, 3) ; the later statues, on the contrary, reverse the pro
portions (in the Farnesian Hercules » is 0, 3, 6, /3 0, 3, 6^ ; in the Paris
Faun X 0, 3, 2, /3 0, 3, 4 ; the Dioscurus x 0, 3, 1, /3 0, 3, 10 ; the Apollo
Belvidere « 0, 3, 0, /3 0, 3, 9 ; the ApoUino « 0, 2, 8, fi 0, 3, 8). We see

COLOURING. 393
that the breast is shortened more and more in proportion to the belly.
The greater breadth of the breast, measured from the sternum to the
external part of the shoulders, characterizes heroes, as the Here. Farn.
(1, 1, 6) and the Diosc. (1, 1, 1), in contrast to ungymnastic figures, as
the Paris Faun (0, 3, 8), and women (Medic. Venus 1, 0, 0, Capitol. Venus
0, 3, 4). Comp. §. 331. R. 1.
3. Winckelmann's assertion that the foot jn slender as weU as in
compact figures always remains on the whole i of the entire height (iv,
173. comp. Vitruv. ui, 1. iv, 1.), is confirmed in most cases; at least the
foot becomes larger in proportion to the head when the figure is more
slender. Hence the foot is in AchiUes 1, 0, 9 ; the Niobide 1, 1, 2 ; the
Dioscurus 1, 1, 3; Farn. Hercules 1, 1, 6. — On the whole it remains be
tween J and 4^. The proportions in Vitruvius iii, 1. I hold to be later
than those of PolycUtus. According to Vitruvius the height of the face
up to the root of the hair is ^ of the whole height (the palm also is the
same) ; the height of the whole head from the chin or nape of the neck
upwards i ; the height from the upper end of the sternum to the root of
the hair t, to the crown i (as Hirt reads) ; the foot i ; the height of the
breast i ; the cubitus i. The navel forms the centre of a circle which
circumscribes the points of the outstretched hands and feet.

E, COLOURING,
333. The ancients likewise made a very clear distinction 1
by the colouring between athletic forms, which had a great
resemblance in their hue to bronze statues, and delicate fe
male figures, or even youthful forms of the male sex. A 2
white skin and fair hair were attributes of juvenile deities;
however it was found that the latter did not produce a good
effect in painting. The red colour denotes fulness of the vital 3
fiuid, in which sense it was also symbolically applied.
1. On the colour of athletes §, 306, R, 2. Graeci colorati, Manil. iv,
720. 2. See PoUux iv, 136. In Plato Resp. v. p. 474. the white are sons
of gods, the pt.e'Kxueg manly. On the intermediate colour of the skin
fiexixqag Jacobs ad PhUostr. i, 4. On the colour of the hair Winck. v,
179 ; antiquity loved black hair in the shade, and brightly shining
(iihiaijxi) hair in the light (Boissonade ad Eunap, p, 185) ; but stiU more
a decided blond (hence the gUding) ; and yet painters even gave black
hair to the golden-haired ApoUo, Athen, xiii, p, 604,
3, Above, §, 69, R, 309, R, 3, Hence the mask of the aCpnvoTrayav
imitated from Hermes, in Pollux iv, 138, is red, of blooming aspect.

394 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.

F. COMBINATION OF HUMAN WITH OTHER FORMS.
334. The blending of the human form with animal por
tions, among the Greeks, rested entirely on national ideas,
the species called arabesques excepted, in which an unre
strained fancy sported freely about in the world of forms ; for
the artist did nothing more than give a definite impress and
development to the still indistinct and wavering image of po
pular fancy, which expressed rather a dark idea, than possessed
external embodiment in an established shape. And here we
find that art in earlier times, ere it had yet mastered the hu
man form in aU its fulness of significance, was naturally for
the most part disposed to add wings, and otherwise disfigure
symbolically the human shape (as is shown in the ark of Cyp
selus and the Etruscan works of art), although many com
binations did not come into favour till later times, such as the
giving wings to allegorical figures, which was very extensively
practised by artists. In a combined form the human portion
always appears as the nobler; and where tradition and fable
mention forms entirely animal, art was often satisfied with
alluding by slight adjuncts to the animal character.
1. We certainly do the artists injustice if we here regard them as in
novators, as Voss does in the Mythol. Briefen ; only we must everywhere
bear in mind, that where the poet describes an action, or activity, the
artist, who is confined to olyects in space, requires a visible means of
designation (Herder Kritische Walder i.), and that where the popular
idea is undefined and obscure, art always desires a fixed and clearly
marked form. But neither did the Centaurs {(pi^qeg oqeaxaoi) become more
bestial in the hands of the artists (rather more human), nor had the
Harpies (the snatchers who appear and disappear as gusts of wind) ever
been fair virgins. Strangest of aU is the assumption that to Iris, the
goddess of the rainbow, the epithet of gold-winged was only applied figu
ratively, on account of the swiftness other movements (Voss Brief 22).
2. I refer to the ith)rphaUic deities, who were favourite subjects
with earliest art, the gorgon-heads, the Uon-headed Phoebus (§. 65.), the
four-handed ApoUo of Lacedsemon, <fec. Artemis with wings on the coffer
of Cypselus, §. 363. The winged Athena-Nike on the acropoUs of Athens,
§. 370., was also probably ante-Phidian ; we find it again especially on
Etruscan mirrors. According to the Schol. Arist. Birds, 574. Archennus
(01, 55.) was the first that gave wings to Nike — earlier accounts could
not weU be had. [Eros see §, 391. R. 1. Dionysus §, 383: R, 9.] Yet
the giving wings to such demons was on the whole later. Panofka, Hy
perb. Rom, Studien, s, 264. Comp, Doring, Comment, de alatis imagini
bus, and Voss Myth, Br, ii., who divides winged figures into such as are so
from corporeal activity, from moral evanescence, and from elevation of
mind, to which are also to be added the animals on which the gods rode,
or by which their chariots wore drawn, [Zoega on the winged deities, in

THE BODY AND FEATURES IN ACTION. 395
the Rhein. Mus. 1839. vi. s. 679—91 , Gerhard iibcr die FlUgelgestalten
der a. K. 1840, in the Schr. der Berl, Akad.] On winged chariots R,
Rochette M, I. p, 215. On the winged shoes of Hermes §. 379. — In the
case of the giants the most ancient was certainly the heroic form, which
was almost superseded by the snake-footed.
3. In legend and poetry the satyrs {rirvqoi, rqxyoi) are often entirely
goats, Dionysus and the rivers altogether buUs, Io entirely a cow, Ac
tseon a stag, and so forth ; art is mostly satisfied with the addition of stag
and cow homs. In a like spirit the .ffisopian fables are represented in
PhUostratus as children with indications of the animals acting therein,
Thiersch, Kunstbl. 1827. No. 19. Animal heads on human bodies, as in
the Minotaur, were not relished by Grecian art, comp. §. 228. R. 9. — On
fabulous animal forms §. 435,

IHE BODY AND FEATURES IN ACTION,

335. As well as the permanent forms which determine the I
character, it is of course equally important to know in their
significance, the transient looks and gestures which produce
the EXPRESSION. If much in these is general to humanity
and seems to us necessary, on the other hand there are also
qualities of a positive nature, that is, derived from the par
ticular views and customs of the nation. Here there is very
much indeed to be learned and guessed at, as well by the
artist in life as by the science in works of art. In the coun- 2
tenance, besides the eyes, the brows, by which requests are
granted or denied {xaravvjerai, dvaveUrai, annuitur, renuitur),
appeared to the ancients especially expressive of earnestness
and pride, the nose of scorn and ridicule. Laying the arm 3
over the head denotes rest, still more completely if both are
clasped upon it; supporting the head on the hand calm, ear
nest reflection. A certain method of extending and raising 4
the right arm, indicates in general the orator ; a person in the
act of adoration, supplication, or violent lamentation {ko'jtto-
Ihivug, plangens), is also recognised by the motion of the hand
and arm. Clasping the hands upon the knee, in connexion 5
with the corresponding attitude of the rest of the body, ex
presses gloomy dejection. Extending the hand with the palm g
upwards (%e/f h'sria) [when asking], is the gesture of receiving;
with the palm reversed, of protecting {b'^i^x^l^iog) ; similar is
the pacifying, as it were down-pressing motion of the arm.
Arching the hand over the eyes, a very favourite gesture in 7
the ancient art of dancing as well as in sculpture, denotes
looking to a distance, or eager gazing. Crossing the feet over 8
one another, in a standing and leaning posture, appears in
general to denote rest and firmness. Those who pray for
protection, and the humble, are designated not merely by

396 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
prostration, but also by half-kneeling. Even the frequently
unbecoming and obscene gestures of ridicule (sannse), in which
the South was as rich in antiquity as in modern times, are
often very important for the understanding of works of art.
1. Permanence of expression. Hence the preponderance of sculpture,
the possibiUty of masks. (Feuerbach Vatic. ApoU. s. 342.)
2. On the eye-brows, Quintil, xi, 3 : ira contractis, tristitia deductis
hUaritas remissis ostenditur. The word supercilium itself as well as
iepqvovaiixi points at suUen pride. Pride is especiaUy indicated by the
dvxtrTTxv, xvxyeiv (Burip, Iphig. Aul, 379, xixv xva (She^xqx 'Trqog rdveiiig
dyxyitv) ; the trvvxyeiv denotes the cpqovriar'iig, PoUux U, 49. Winck. iv. s,
404, On the nose, Arist, Phys, p, 124 : oig oi pivxriiqeg dvxve'Trrxpi.ivoi (as
they are slightly in the ApoUo Belvedere), ^vpt,aleig. Thus also Polemon,
p, 299, If the nose is turned up and wrinkled it appears as aipi.'ri, and
thereby receives the expression of petulance (§, 329, R, 4) ; hence the
iixiTiptovv, aihXxivetv, the nasus aduncus, excussus, nares uncas in Horace
and Persius (Heindorf ad Hor, S, i, 6, 5.). Pressing the breath through
the contracted nose, pivx^l^eiv, pivxmqii^eiv, denotes the most bitter con
tempt united with rage ; it is the sauna qua aer sorbetur, in Juv. vi, 306
(comp, Ruperti), the rugosa sanna Pers, v, 91 (comp. Plum. Persius, as
an imitator of Sophron, is rich in such traits, and requires to be recited
with aretalogio mimicry). Pan's goat-nose is the seat of x^^'Si see espe
ciaUy Theocr. i, 18. oi del tqifieix ;^o7i« -s-ori pivi xxSnrxi, and PhUostr. ii,
11. The nasus is the critical member. The drawing back of the lips
whereby the teeth become visible is aeanqivxi, in a sUght degree a sign of
good-will (§, 375, Wiistemann ad Theocr, vii, 19), in a greater, of ridi
cule, R, 9,
3, Examples of tne attitude of rest §. 35» (Zeus), 361 (ApoUo), 383
(Dionysus), 388 (Ariadne), 397 (Hypnus), 406 (Securitas), 411 (Heracles)
and others. The attitude of meditation which Polymnia (§, 393)
presents, is described by Plautus, Mil, glor, ii, 2, 54, columnam mento
suffulsit suo, comp, Ter, cod. Vatic fig. 4. Kindred in nature is burying
the chin in the hand, a gesture of grief, for instance in the forsaken
Ariadne (§. 388), as in Walther von der Vogelweide 8, 4. Lachmann, that
of sequitas, deformata manus sinistra porrecta palmula, Appul. Metam.
xi. p. 775. ed. Oudendorp.
4. See the so-caUed Germanicus §. 160. R. 4. and the representations
of aUocutio on coins and in statues §. 199, 3, Manus leviter pandata
voventium Quintil, in loco, Ai^rxqeiv yvvxixopiipcoig v'Ttrixupcxuiv .^schyl.
6, On this axrif^t^ xviapi,evov (Paus, x, 31, 2,) [of SiebeUs p, 272.] R.
Rochette M. I. p. 59. 277. 414. comp. Letronne, Journ, des Sav, 1829, p,
531. Clasping the hands, besides grief, denotes also a magical fettering,
Bottiger Ilithyia, s, 38,
6, Aristoph, Eccles. 782. on the former gesture in images of the gods.
Xeiqx vveqixetv H, ix, 419, Theogn, 757, Hera Hypercheiria, Paus. iii,
13, 6, Thus ApoUo and Athena are seen on vases as i/veqxeiqioi for
Orestes, — The pacificator gestus, which Statius, S, i, 1, 37. describes in
Domitian by dextra vetat pugnas (comp, §, 199, R, 4, Schmieder, p, 7,),

DRAPERY, GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 397
Persius iv, 8, by majestas manus, QuintiUan in loco (where there is much
deserving of attention on the eloquence of the hands) more minutely by :
inclinato in humerum dextrum capito, brachio ab aure pretense, manum
infesto poUice (stretched downwards) extendero, is perhaps observable in
the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, Visconti M, PioCl, iii, p, 31,
R, Rochette M. I, p, 119,
7, On the d-rroaxo'jreveiv, the visus umbratus (especially in Satyrs and
Pans) Bottiger Archaol, der Mahlerei, s, 202, Welcker Zeitschr. i, 32.
On Zoega's Abh. s. 257. Appendix to the Tril. s. 141. see below §. 385.
R. 4. R. Rochette in the Journ. des Sav. 1837. p. 616., that axa-,^,
axapcevpcx as bird and dance (in Bustath. p. 1623 sq.) must bo completely
distinguished from the dance tixomg. — Abhandlung von den Fingern,
deren Verrichtung und symbolischer Bedeutung. Leipz. 1757. Concre-
pitare digitis. Satyr at Naples. Mus. Borbon. ii, 21, Sardanapalus,
8. Hence this posture in Providentia, Securitas, Pax Augusta, Less
ing CoUect, i, 408, Bd. Winck, iv, 368. On crossing the legs in sitting
(a sign of dejection, otherwise unseemly) the Same after Pea, s. 366,
On the posture of the ixirng Thorlacius de vasculo ant. Havnise 1826,
p, 15.
9, A Trojan ridiculing, with the digitus infamis, his countrymen
drawing the wooden horse, Bartoli Ant, sepolcri, t, 16, The sanna with
the tongue thrust out (Pers. i, 60.) and the teeth shown Qiixpi.xB&a'^xi)
is a principal feature in the gorgoneion. On some gestures of ridicule,
Bottiger, Wiener Jahrb, xUx, Anz, s. 7, Grysar, Rh, Mus, fiir Phil, ii, 1,
s. 42, On the pantomime of ancient comedy, T, Baden, Jahn's Jahrb.
Suppl. i, 3. s. 447. The comparison of the gesticular language of the
modern Neapolitans in Jorio's Mimica degli ant. investigata nel gestire
Napoletano. N. 1832. [with 12 plates] is interesting; the coincidences
however are not in detail very important. I would explain the gesture
on the vase in MilUngen Cogh. 19. from the putting on fillets. Comp. §.
344.

B. DRAPERY.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

336. That the human body, immediately placed before us, I
has become the chief form of the -plastic art, needs in reality
no explanation ; it is the natural body, and not some appen
dage superadded by human customs and regulations, that
sensibly and visibly represents mind and life to our eyes.
However, there was a tendency in the Hellenic mind, which 2
prompted to press forward to that point where the natural
limbs appear as the noblest costume of man ; this feeling was
fostered in an especial manner by gymnastics, to whose higher
aims all inconvenient shame was early sacrificed. The forma - 3
tive art followed in its train, while the costume of the stage,
originating in Dionysian pompal processions, struck into the

398 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
directly opposite path ; hence we must never entertain the
idea that stage figures were immediately taken from plastic
forms, or the reverse. Nevertheless, however widespread the
feeling and enthusiasm for corporeal beauty were in them
selves, and however much the artists sought opportunity for
such representation, yet this opportunity was seldom arbi
trarily brought about, and the artist deviated little from life,
whose particular customs and regulations required considera
tion in the production of artistic forms. Nakedness presented
itself as natural in all gymnastic and athletic figures; from
these it was easily transferred to the statues of male deities,
which had been very elegantly and copiously draped by the
piety of earlier times, and to heroes whom elder art exhibited
in complete armour; for here the noblest seemed to be the
most natural representation. Under-garments, which conceal
the form most, were here universally discarded, which answer
ed the more readily as it was the custom, among the early
Greeks, for men of healthy and vigorous frame to go abroad
in their upper dress without chiton: hence gods and heroes in
chitons are extremely seldom to be found in perfected Greek
art. But the upper garment is laid aside in art as well as
ordinary life, during any animated action or work; standing
figures of gods who were conceived as approaching with aid,
fighting, or otherwise active, might therefore appear entirely
without drapery. In sedent statues, on the other hand, the
upper garment is seldom laid aside ; it is then usually drawn
around the loins ; it denotes therefore rest and absence of
exertion. In this way the drapery, even in ideal figures, is
significant, and becomes an expressive attribute. Ancient art,
at the same time, loved a compendious and allusive treat
ment; the helmet denotes the whole armour, a piece of the
chlamys the entire dress of the ephebos. It was customary at
all times to represent children naked : on the other hand, the
unrobing of the developed female body was long unheard of
in art, and when this practice was introduced (§. 125. R. 3.
127. R, 4.) it required at first a connexion with life; here the
idea of the bath constantly presented itself, until the eyes- be
came accustomed to adopt the representation even without
this justification. The portrait statue retained the costume of
life, if it also was not raised above the common necessity, by
the form being rendered heroic or divine,
1. This paragraph deals with the same subject as Hirt's treatise " Ue
ber die BUdung des Nakten bei den Alten" Schriften der BerL Akad.
1820; but attempts to solve the problem differently,
2, Complete nakedness was first introduced in the gymnic exercises
in Crete and Laoedsmon, In the 15th Olympiad Orsippus of Megara lost
his girdle by accident in the stadium at Olympia, and thereby became

GRECIAN MALE COSTUME, 399
the victor. Acanthus of Lacedsemon now appeared at the very outset
naked in the Diaulos, and for the runners it became a law from that
time. But in the case of other athletes perfect nudity was not intro
duced tiU shortly before Thucydides, See Bockh C, I. i. p, 554, Among the
barbarians, especially of Asia, the girdle remained ; there it was even
disgraceful for men to be seen naked (Herod, i, 10,) ; of which traces are
stiU to be seen in the figures of the gods on the imperial coins of Asia
Minor, which have for the most part more drapery than the Grecian,
3, The stage costume took its origin, as Pollux and the PioClementi-
nian mosaic show, from the particoloured coats {ttoixiXoi comp. Welcker
ad Theogn. p. Ixxxix,) of the Dionysian processions ; according to which
Dionysus himself, in the ordinary popular notion, could not well be
imagined without his safl'ron robe and purple mantle. Among works
of art only a number of vase-paintings, especially Apulo-Lucanian, have
a theatrical style in the draperies, on account of their reference to Bac
chian processions. Comp. Feuerbach Vatic. Apoll. s. 354. f. and §. 346.
6. As in Ufe whoever was merely dressed with the chiton was called
yvpivoc, so art which could not combine the chiton with ideal forms re
presented him as reaUy yvpivog.
7. The draped Charites of Socrates have been often discussed ; they
were in relief on the waU behind Athene according to Schol. Aristoph.
Nub. 771, on the acropolis says Diogenes L. ii, 19, according to some by
Socrates. But was this group, which according to PUny xxxvi, 4, 10.
ranked among the best works of sculpture, reaUy produced by the son of
Sophroniscus, who surely had scarcely made such progress in art ? The
Athenians said so to Pausanias, but PUny evidently knew nothing about it.

2, GRECIAN MALE COSTUME.

337, The Grecian people, in contradistinction to all ancient 1
and modern barbarians, may be characterized as the eminently
artistic nation from the very chasteness and noble simplicity
of their draperies. These were all divided into iM/Lara,
those that were drawn over, and iml3Xri//,ara, those that were
thrown round the body. The male chiton was a woollen 2
shirt originally without sleeves; only that of Ionia, which
was also worn in Athens before the time of the Peloponnesian
war, was of linen, long and in many folds; it formed the
transition to the Lydian draperies which belonged to the Di
onysian festal pomps. Different ranks had the chiton of dif- 3
ferent fashion; but it received its character chiefly from the
method of girding. The himation was a large square gar- 4
ment, generaUy drawn round from the left arm which held it
fast, across the back, and then over the right arm, or else
through beneath it towards the left arm. The good breeding 5
of the free-born, and the manifold characters of life were re-

400 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART,
cognised, still more than in the girding of the chiton, by the
mode of wearing the himation. Essentially different from
both these articles of dress was the chlamys, also called the
Thessalian wings, the national costume of the Illyrian and
neighbouring North, which was adopted in Greece especially
by horsemen and ephebi. It was a mantle fastened on the
right shoulder with a buckle or clasp (te^oi/j), m^'jrri), and fall
ing down along the thigh in two lengthened skirts, often
richly and splendidly embroidered with gold and silver,
1, Chief sources on ancient costume: PoUux iv, vii.; Varro de L. L.
V. Nonius de vestimentis. Modern treatises : Octav. Perrarius and Ru-
benius de re vestiaria (Thes. Ant. Rom. vi.) and Riccius de veterum
vestibus reUquoque corporis ornatu (without much reference to art).
Montfaucon Ant. expl. iii, 1. (a coUection without correct principles),
Winck. W. V, 1 ff. Bottiger has rendered valuable services (Vasenge-
mahlde ; Raubder Cassandra ; Furienmaske ; Archaologie der Mahle
rei, s. 210 ff. ; Sabina). Mongez, sur les vetemens des anciens, M6m. de
I'lnstitut Roy. iv f Clarac, Mus6e de sculpt. U. p. 49. The works on
costume by Dandre Bardon, Costume des anc. peuples. P. 1772. 3 vols.
4to., Lens, Le costume de plus, peuples de I'antiqu. Lifege 1776. 4to. (In
German by Martini. 1784), Rocheggiani, Raccolta di oostumi. R. 1804.
f. 2 vols. obi. fo.. Maillot, Rech. sur les costumes des anc. peuples publ.
par. Martin. P. 1804. 3. vols. 4to., WiUemin, Rob. von Spalart, Dom.
Pronti, are aU unworthy of confidence, and little calculated for scientific
objects. Male costume Becker's GaUus ii. s. 77.
2. Historical details on the Ionic chiton, the present author's Minerva
Pol. p. 41. The Lydian chiton ¦nrolriqng is the ilxaadqx according to Pol
lux, comp. §. 383. Bxmxqxt of the Thracian Bacchse ttoixiXoi xxi Troiriqeig.
Bekker Anecd. p. 222. [The lonians are ixxixnaveg in the battle on the
frieze from Xanthos §. 128.*] The Pythian stola resembled much the
Dionysian costume; doubtless Asiatic musicians, such as Olympus, in
fluenced the perfecting of this garb. To it belong, among others, the
xeiqlieg, sleeves, with the border-stripe, ox^oi/3og (Btym. M. eyxopcfiapix. C.
I. 150). The chiton (kethoneth) of the Hebrews, Phoenicians and Car
thaginians was also long and provided with sleeves, Herodian v, 5.
Plant. Pcenul. v, 2, 15. 5, 19, 24., comp. TertuU. de paU. 1.
3. The chiton of the priests was 6q%arxho(, ungirded. The exomis,
worn by artisans, whUe it supplied at the same time the place of the
himation (Etym. M. Hesych.) left the right shoulder with the arm free
(§. 366.) So did the chiton of the slaves sreqopt.daxxf.og. Its opposite was
the xpi.^ifxx<!xixhog, which kept the body warm (Aristoph, Knights 882).
In GeUius vii, 12. the exomis is opposed to the x'twi* pcE/^/SisiTo'f. The ty
rant Aristodemus of Cumse compeUed rdg SieT^eixg •Tveqnqoxx'Kx xeiqeaSai
xxi (poqeiv 'eepn^ixdg xhxpivtxg xxi rav dvxxaXav xnaviaxav. Plut. do mul.
virtut. BENOKPITH, p. 366, ed. Hutten. The short military chiton,
reaching to tho middle of the thigh, of linen, is the xvnxaoig (PoUux) ; it
is often met with on vase paintings, but also elsewhere, for instance in
the ..ffiginetan statues, on the stele of Aristion at Athens, on a metope
from SeUnunte, on the Xanthian monument §. 90,* It occurs in Alcseus,]

GRECIAN MALE COSTUME, 401
Svart; was a long, parti-coloured, striped chiton, richly adorned, see
Schneider ad Plat, RP, i, p, 335, SchSne, De pers. in Eurip, Bacchabus,
p. 41, The titp^eqx of dressed hide, the aiavqx of goat-skin, the /3«/t» of
similar material, the xxravxxn with the eke or joint-piece of skin, are
peasants or shepherds' apparel, comp, §. 418, R, 3, 427. — The cinctura of
the tunica, without latus olavus, is defined by Quintil. xi, 3. so far as that
it reached in front somewhat over the knee, and behind ad medics pop-
lites ; nam infra muUerum est, supra centurionum. The Greeks thought
exactly in this manner. The boy oincticulo prsecintus — apud magistrum.
Plant, Bacch. iii, 3, 28.
4. The ifixriov, ipixriov'Exxnvixov (Lucian de mere. cond. 25.), paUium
Grseoanicum (Suet. Dom. 4.), is called in contradistinction to the toga
rerqdyavov, quadratum. See esp. Athen. v. p. 213 b., comp. the Bd. Winck,
V. s. 342. The short coarse rqi(iavtg, rqifiavix, liqxxeixi dva/ioT^xl of the
Spartans (Amalth. ui, 37), the poorer class of Athenians, Laconizing
Greeks, and philosophers (Jacobs ad PhUostr. Imagg. i, 16. p. 304) ; and
the chlsena, which was a kind of himation, also four-cornered (see Dor. ii.
p. 283. and Schol. II. ii, 183.), but particularly soft, wooUy and warm.
The xhxvlg was stiU more delicate. The Persian xxwxxn was likewise,
according to Aristoph., a sort of chlsena. The Punic paUium was also
quadrangular, but was fastened around the shoulders by a fibula (Ter
tuU. de pall. 1.) ; the same garment is to be seen on Babylonian cylinders.
At home the pallium, on a journey the chlamys, Plautus Mercat. v, 2,
70 sq. together with zona, machsera ampulla, of. Pseud, ii, 4, 26. Pers. i,
3, 77. the parasite uses ampuUam, strigilem, scaphium, soocos, paUium,
marsupium, Pers. i, 3, 44.
6. The Greeks xpi.iiinxvovvrxi im ie^id, that is, in the manner describ
ed in the text, the Thracians i-jr' dqiareqd, Arist. Birds 1568. with the
schol. The latter is also said of the parasites, see Beck in loco. 'Avxfid?.-
7^e(rSixi i'TTiii^ix 'e'Kev^eqiag Plat. Theset. p. 165 0. Athen. i. p. 21. Here the
garment must have reached at least to the knee; this belongs to the
eiiaxripioavvn of the dvx^o'hii, regarding which see especially Bottiger
Arch, der Mahlerei, s. 211. Vasengemahlde i, 2. s. 52 ff. Only in ra
pid motion is it tucked higher up (paUium in coUum conjicere, Plant.
Capt. iv, 1, 12.). On the Dorian and also early Roman custom of cohi-
bere brachia in young men (the mantle figures of vase-paintings) see also
Dor. ii. p. 286,, comp. Suid. s. v, e<pij/3of. On Orators §. 103. R, 3. [The
Italian and Spaniard also lay great stress on the proper mode of manag
ing the cloak.]
6. On the origin of the chlamys, xXXni, aUicula, Dor, ii, p, 283, Bois
sonade ad Philostr. Her, p, 381, One of its appurtenances is the Treqovn,
fibula, with one or two points or needles {ii/ioXog, Anth, Pal, vi, 282),
Strictly speaking, ¦xeqovn is the needle itself, 'jroq'Trn the ring, which toge
ther form the clasp. When the ¦s-ejoVn is loosened, it naturaUy falls alto
gether around the left arm, as it is so often seen in Hermes (§. 381.) It
can also serve as a shield to the arm ; thus Poseidon on ancient coins (§.
355.) chlamyde clupeat brachium (Pacuvius. comp. Caisar B. G. i, 75).
In this manner huntsmen wore the 'e^x'mrig on the stage, according to
PoUux iv, 18, 116., comp. v, 3, 18.; this hunting garb is also found in
vase-paintings.
2C .

402 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
1 338. Hats did not belong in antiquity to the ordinary cos
tume of life in cities ; they denote rural, equestrian, and some
times warlike occupations ; as the xw'eri, which had in Boeotia
the form of a fir-cone, in Thessalia rather than of an umbrella ;
the Arcadian hat with its very large flat brim; the petasus,
especiaUy worn by horsemen and eph'ebi with the chlamys, in
form of an umbellated flower reversed ; the kausia, which had
a very broad brim and a very low crown, and belonged to the
Macedonian, JEtolian, Illyrian, and also perhaps Thessalian
2 costume. We may also mention the semi-oval sailor's bonnet,
to which was given a very significant interpretation in Samo
thrace; the Phrygian cap also is not unfrequently met with
in Greek art, in its simpler as well as more complex form.
3 Coverings for the head and feet (which latter, however, in
Grecian works of art mostly appear as very simple leathern
4 sandals, x^ri'trTbig, when they are indicated at all) most espe
cially determined the varying national costume (ff;^^^/Aa), to
trace the shades of which must be of importance for the more
accurate determination of heroic figures.
1. Comp. on ancient hats Winck. v. s. 40. The xw^ Boiarix is de
scribed by Theophr. H. PI. iu, 9. ; Cadmus has it on vases (MiUingen Un.
Mon. i, 27., comp. the meeting of heroes pi. 18). On that of Thessalia
see especiaUy Soph. ffid. Col, 305, Reisig Bnarr, p. 68. ; it closely resem
bled the kausia. The 'Aqxdg xvvii, the mAof ' Aqxxiixog was usual at
Athens. PhUostratus v. Soph, ii, 5, 3. ; on the form SchoL Arist. Birds 1203.
On the form of the petasus Schneid. Lex. On the kausia, the present
author's work on the Macedonians, p. 48, together with Plut. Pyrrh. 11.
Polysen. v, 44. Suidas s. v. xxvairi. Jacobs ad Antip. Epigr, Anth. T. viii,
p. 294. Scilurus the Scythian has also the kausia on coins of Olbia. It
has often an enormous brim, hence. Plant, Trin, iv, 2, 10. Pol, hie quidem
fungino genere est; lUurica fades videtur hominis; this, and the
manner in which it is bound at the back of the head, make it very
easily known ; see especially the coin jBropus ui,, Mionn, Suppl, iii, pi.
10, -4. On the vase in MiUingen Div. coU, 51. the Thessalian Jason is
indicated by the chlamys (comp. PhUost. Her. ii, 2,) and a sort of kausia.
On a Megarian stele in Stackelb, Graber Tf 3, 2. a warrior has a dome-
shaped hat [Tydeus and Theseus have the same, MilUngen Anc, Mon, Vases
pi, 18.].
2. The dioscuri as gods of navigation and Cabiri, Odysseus (§. 416),
and also .ffineas wear the half-oval sailor's cap. It is likewise caUed
5r;Aof, inasmuch as it was of felt like the Uning of a helmet, comp. R.
Rochette M. I. p. 247. It belongs to the nauolericus ornatus. Soph. Phi-
loct. 128. Plant. MU. iv, 4, 41., who reckons as part of it a dark brown
kausia (in the more extended sense) and the exomis of simUar colour. On
the Phrygian cap in connexion with the Persian penom (comp. §, 246, R,
6) Bottiger, Vasengemahlde ui, 8, Amalthea i, s. 169. Kunstmyth. s. 47.
3. The bare feet of the Greeks (Voss, Mythol, Br. i, 21) forms in art
a striking contrast with the Etruscan richness in elegant shoe-work,

FEMALE COSTUME, 403
See Winck. v, s. 41, 81, Athen, xii, p. 543 sq. of Parrhasius : x^'^""''! «¦"»¦''•
TTXaroig i-Triatpiyye rotv ^"hxvrav roitg dvxyayiag.
4. TjoVof T^f oToX^s Aaqiog (comp, §, 337, R, 4) is mentioned in con
nexion with xix/*og riig xopcng, long hair hanging down in disorder {l^rxq-
rioxxirxi. Dor. ii. p. 287.), Philostr. Imagg. ii, 24. A (pxiog rqifiav and the
dvvTToiridix are ibid, i, 16 (in Dsedalus) reckoned as belonging to the
ax^pix 'Amxi^ov, comp. U, 31. On the Macedonian and Thessalian garb
§. 337, 6. 338, 1. To the .Stolian belong, according to the costume of
.^toUa herself, (§. 406. R. 1.) high shoes, similar to the Kqnnxx ¦mehiXx,
the kausia, a high-girded exomis, and a chlamys gathered round the left
arm (Ipaim's §. 337). According to the vase, MiUingen Div. coll. 33.,
narrow chitons of skins appear to have been common there. The Thes
saUan, as weU as the Armenian costume, a chiton reaching far down,
which is caUed in tragedy the .^toUan, a girdle around the breast, and
an i(px'?rrig which tragedy likewise adopts. Strabo xi. p. 530.

FEMALE COSTUME.

339. Among the chitons of the women, the Doric and 1
Ionic are easily distinguished. The former, the old Hellenic,
consisted of a piece of woollen cloth, not very large, without
sleeves and fastened on the shoulders by clasps, usually sewed
together on the left side in the middle, but left open down
wards according to the genuine Doric custom (as sx'srhg x''^<iiv),
so that both skirts {'xri^vyeg) either met and were held together
by points, or else fell apart and were pinned up for freer
movement. The latter, on the contrary, which the lonians 2
recei\ed from the Carians, and the Athenians again borrowed
from them, was of linen, all sewed, provided with sleeves {x6-
^ai), very long and in many folds. Both are frequent in works
of art and easily recognised. In both, for the ordinary 3
costume, the girdle {^uivri) is essential; it lies around the
loins, and by the gathering up of the garment foriris the
xiXitog. It is perhaps to be distinguished from the breast-
belt, which was usually worn under the dress, but sometimes
also above it, as well as from the broader girdle under the
breast {?,oisrY\i) which is met with particularly in warlike
forms. The double chiton arises most simply, when the upper 4
portion of the stuff which is to form the chiton is folded over,
so that this fold with its border reaches down beneath the
bosom and towards the hips, where, in works of early Greek
art, it usually forms a parallel arch with the xoXitog before
mentioned. As the cloth reaches further down on the left 5
side than on the right, a portion here hangs over in folds
(dffoVriiy/Aa), which was regarded as a principal ornament of
Grecian female costume; it was formed as ornately and regu-

404 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
larly by early art, as it was gracefully and agreeably by art in
its highest development.
1. Female costume, Becker's GaUus i. s. 318. On the difference of
the two chitons, Bottiger Raub der Cassandra, s. 60. The author's
iEginetica, p. 72. Dor. ii. p. 280 sq. The Doric is frequently found in
art (Schol. ad Clem. p. 129), in Artemis, Nike, Hebe, Iris (of the Parthe
non), and the Msenads. The Spartan virgins, as distinguished from
wives, were usually fiovoxiraveg (Dor. ii. p. 282., also Plut. Pyrrh. 17), and
in this light dress served as cupbearers (Pythsen. (fcc. ibid.) ; Hebe was
formed after them. Therefore also were the statues of Cleino the cup
bearer at Alexandria (Athen. x. p. 425) piovoxiraveg, pvrov xqxrovvreg 'ev
rxig ptjego-ftf.
2. The Ionic costume is seen especiaUy in the muses ; it does not
appear altogether pure in the Attic virgins of the Parthenon ; these have
mostly half- sleeves with clasps (comp. .Slian V. H. i, 18). The pc'™"
aToA;SaToV has a puckered border, flounces; avqpt,x, avqrig is the tragic
dress of stage queens, with the •nrxqx'Trnxv, projecting sleeves of a different
colour, and trains which were variously adorned in antiquity, especiaUy
with gold spangles.
3. Zavn, and •a-eql^apcx, ireqil^utnqx, PoUux. On l^avnv TiVirxi Schrader
ad Musseus v. 272. The large xih'jcog is in Homer characteristic of Asiatic
women (/3«&uxox?ro;), afterwards of the Ionic costume. The girdle round
the bosom is caUed xTroteapcog, pixaroherx, pLirqx, pi-riKovx^g, arri%oheapi.og,
arq6(pog, arqo/iog, arqotfliov, rxivix, rxivihiov, mostly in the Anthology, comp.
.Jlsch. Seven, 853, ' I xst. 460 with Stanley and Schiitz. The xearog, the
embroidered, is also a ribbon for the bosom, Anth. Pah vi, 88. comp. §.
377. R. 5. ; Winck. v. s. 24. confounds it with the zone. .^sch. Sept. c.
Theb. 571. oaxi arq6(pov -Treqi^xXhovrxi.
4, This costume is found in the sculptures of the Parthenon, but it is
seen in greatest beauty in the torso of Ceos, Brondsted Voy, i. pi. 9,,
then [in the Ceres Borghese No, 3, in BouiUon Musee des Ant, No. 6,], in
the five maidens among the Herculanean bronzes, one of whom is in the
act of putting on the dress. Ant. Ere. vi, 70 — 76,, M. Borb, ii, 4 — 7., also
in the vase-painting, Maisonn. pi, 16, 5, This half upper-chiton is evi
dently the TipcthiTTT^o'i^tov, xqoxarihiov {xqoxarov ti-TrXovv C, I, 155, p. 249),
'iyxvx'Aov {eyxvxXov ¦ttoixiTi.ov C. I. ibid,), which expressions seem pretty
nearly identical in Arist. Eccles. Comp, Bottiger, Furienmaske, s. 124.
Wiener Jahrb. xUx, Anz, s, 4. 'ET4)|M(f (Burip, Hec. 658. Athen. xiii. p.
608) seems to be only the skirt of the garment, which was fastened on
the shoulder with a fibula. Comp. however Bottiger, Vasengemahlde i,
2. s. 89. The name of the garment which, in Apollo Pythius, the muses,
and the Caryatides of the Brechtheum, merely hangs down on the back,
remains in that case undecided.
5. This is evidently the x-!i:6irrvypi,x, which was given as a third article
{pvpiog), with two ¦jreqovxi and the ¦rroiiiqrig %nav, to a golden Nike. C. 1. 150.
p. 235. A finely dressed woman goes rroXXd icoXXxxig 'eg oq^ov opcpixai axo-
¦TTovfiivri, Burip. Med. 1166. cf. Bacch. 895 sq. (935). Sappho eTixriv 'e'n-i
aipvqaa. — The inscription quoted C. I. 155. is rich in names for female
apparel. In respect of colour, it appears that garments were here ¦Trvq-

FEMALE COSTUME. 405
•yaroi (perhaps striped, comp. Athen. v. p. 196 e.), also with particoloured
borders, ¦a-T^xrvxXovqyeig, ¦neqiiroixixoi, both of which are very frequent on
vase-paintings. '£,« ¦ir'hxiiiia refer perhaps to the scutulatus textus in
PUny. 340. The himation of women Qp/jdrm yovaixtm) had in
general the same form as that worn by men ; a common use
therefore might have existed. The mode of wearing it like
wise followed mostly the same fundamental rule; only the en
velopment was generally more complete, and the arrangement
of the folds richer. The peplos, which was very much worn
in early times, but which in the flourishing period of Athens
had gone out of use, and was only to be seen on the tragic
stage, is recognised with certainty, in the statues of Pallas in
the early style, as a regularly folded, somewhat closely fitting
upper garment (§. 96. No. 7.) ; we see from other works of Greek
art where no aegis conceals the upper part, that it was twisted
across round the chest, and was there pinned together; it has
often also a kind of cape in the manner of the diplo'idion.
Women, for whom the himation generally speaking was more
essential than for maidens, often drew it over the head, al
though there were also separate veils for the head {fdom,
xaXxjvr^a, xgribep^vov, rica), as well as various kinds of fillets
(/i/Vga, STg6<piov, dvabie//,ri, vitta) and NETS {xix^v^aXog, reticulum)
for the hair.
1. ' Iptxriov is perhaps less usual than 'e7!-i^7<.npi.x, ¦jreqifi'Knpi.x, and espe
ciaUy dfi'Tcexovri, dpivexoviov, hence dvxmxovog is synonymous with pcovo-
xirav. The Herculanean matron §. 199. B. 7. is a model of fine «j/«/3o?u) ;
but many terracottas even from Greece are stiU more nobly and brilUantly
draped. 3. The figures of the Corinthian relief, §. 96. No. 15. especiaUy, and
in particular PaUas, Artemis and the first Charis, are to be compared
with one another in order to learn the mode of putting on the peplos.
Accordingly, in what is said in the Minerv. PoUad. p. 25 sqq. there are
some things that require more accurate determination. The tragic wri
ters seem to employ the word very indefinitely; in Soph. Trach. 921. the
peplos is a Doric chiton, and also elsewhere.
4. Here are also to be mentioned the fiUets for the forehead and hair,
with reference for information to Gerhard, Prodromus, s. 20 ff. Berlin's
Antike Denkm. S. 371 ff. Special dress of a matron xoptxg xxSteiaa,
Aristoph. Thesm. 841., on the contrary nxdepiov d'Troxexoqpi.ivn 838.
Jrs(pxvn is the metal plate rising high in the middle over the forehead,
on the contrary aricpxvog denotes the crown equaUy broad throughout the
circumference, as in the Argive Hera §, 120, R. 2. 'S,<pevl6vn is similar in
form to the sUng, artieyylg to the strigil. " Apiw^ seems to be rather a
metal ring which confines the hair, especiaUy at the back of the head,
comp, Bottiger, Vasengemahlde ii, 87, Aid'inpi.x is a fiUet which is
placed among the hair and of equal breadth all round the head ; to be
seen with especial distinctness on the heads of the Macedonian kings.

406 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
'Rxivix is usuaUy a broader fiUet with two narrower ones at each end,
weU known from representations of Nike (volans de cselo cum corona et
tsenus Ennius ap, Pestum) [comp, Welcker Griech. Trag, S, 467, 1682,] as
a gymnastic honorary ornament, also as an erotic ornament (Athen. xv.
p, 668 d. Welcker Schulzeit, 1831, N, 84), lastly as a decoration of tombs
(CseciUus ap. Post,), known especiaUy from vase-paintings. Comp, Welcker
Ann. d. Inst. 1832. p. 380 sq. The twisted fillet of the athletes and of
Hercules consists of several tsenise of different colours, [rxivix Mvxvi T^iqi
TM pierawoi, Luc. Navig. 39.] Mirqx, a piece of fine cloth, generaUy parti
coloured and twisted round the head, in Dionysus and women, especially
hetserse {erxlqx iixpterqog, PoUux, picta lupa barbara mitra Juven.). Ilo'-
Aoj appears to be a plain round disc, which eiicompassed the head, as in
the Bphesian Artemis (according to others the modius, Amalth. iii. s. 157) ;
on the contrary, the finviaxog was rather a round cover as a protection
against birds, from which many have derived the nimbus (the word in
this sense first in Isidore ; comp. Schlager dissert, ii. p. 191. Eckhel D.
N. viii. p. 603. Augusti Christb Alterth. s. 197.) of a later period. — To
these ornaments for the head may be added the weqiiiqxix of the neck,
the ¦\peXAix of the arms, called also o(peig from their form, (ir<piyxr^qeg (spin-
theres), xX'^'^i'^S, the ¦yreqmxeXiieg and i'7ria(pvqix (also serpent-formed,
Anth. Pal. vi, 206. 207.), the ear-rings ivarix, ixy^iliix, elenchi, uniones),
with which art almost universaUy adorned the images of female deities,
HaU. Bncycl. ui, ii. s. 333. and so forth, Th. BarthoUnus De armilUs
veterum 1675., Casp. BarthoUnus De inauribus. Scheffer De torquibus,
Thes, Ant. Bom, xu, 901.

4. ROMAN COSTUME.

1 341. The Roman national costume, which is only met with
in portrait figures and some beings belonging to the Italian
belief (as the Lares and Genii), sprang from the same founda-
2 tion as the Grecian. The tunica was very little different from
the chiton, and the toga {rri^iwog) was an Etruscan form of the
himation, which gradually received among the Romans an
ampler and more solemn, but also a clumsier development.
Destined at the beginning for appearance in public life, it lost
therewith its significance, and was forced to make way for
more convenient Grecian apparel of all kinds (Isena, peenula),
3 but which have little significance in art. The toga was dis
tinguished from the himation by its semicircular shape, and
its greater length, which caused its ends to fall on both sides
down to the ground in considerable masses (tubulata). The
curved sweep of the ampler toga under the right arm was the
sinus; a round pad was formed thereon by particular art (for-
4 cipibus). To this garb belonged the half-boot, calceus, which
5 completely enclosed the foot. It was also in early times the
military costume, in which the toga was made fast to the
body by the Gabinian girdle ; on the other hand the sagum.

ROMAN, MILITARY COSTUME. 407
which resembled the chlamys (together with the sagochlamys),
and paludamentum were afterwards introduced. It was a 6
female dress, but it only remained so among the lower orders,
whilst among the higher ranks a dress similar to the Ionic
came in fashion, to which belonged the stola, consisting of a
tunic with broad border (instita), the palla, a kind of upper-
tunic, and the amiculum, which was often very rich, and also
ornamented with fringes, and of which the ricinium was the
customary mode among the women of early Rome.
1. Por the history of the Roman costume, see the present author's
Etrusker i, s. 261 ; what has been said on the cinctus Gabinus has not
been correctly quoted by Thiersch, Berichte der Miinchner Akad, i.
2. Statuse psenulis indutse are mentioned by PUny xxxiv, 10. as a
novitinm inventum ; they have not yet been pointed out anywhere with
certainty. 3. On the toga, especiaUy Quintil. xi, 3. TertuUian de palUo 1.
' Hpuxiixf^iov, Dionys. iii, 61. rotunda. Quint. <&c. Bis trium ulnarum
toga, Horat. Veteribus nuUi sinus. Quint. Macrob. Sat. ii, 9. togam
corpori sic appUcabat, ut rugas non forte, sed industria looatas artifex
nodus constringeret et sinus ex composite defluons nodum lateris ambi-
ret. The broad band, consisting of several stripes, on the upper part of the
toga, on numerous statues and busts of the later Boman period, stiU re
quires explanation. Amalth. iii. s. 266. Is it the lorum, >,Zqog 1 See Du
Cange Lex. Gr. p. 837.
6. A pecuUarly Roman method of wearing the amiculum is to be seen
in the so-called Pudicitise. M. PioCl. u, 14. Cap. iii, 44. August, 118,
The apron of the servants of magistrates, which is to be seen on Roman
monuments, wa's caUed limum. Tiro in GeUius xii, 3, 3. [Lion Tironiana
p,8,]

5, military costume.

342. The military costume of the ancients is only met with
in any completeness in early Grecian vase-paintings, and in
Roman portrait statues (thoracatse §. 199. R. 3,) and historical
reliefs ; works of the most flourishing period of Greek art are
satisfied with indications. The helmet was either a leathern
cap, but which might also be covered with tin plate {xuieri,
xaraTru^, galea), Or the large equestrian helmet {xogug, x^dvog,
cassis). Here again we can distinguish the helmet used in the
Peloponnesus (the x^dvog Ko^iv^ioviyeg), having a visor with eye
holes, which could be raised or lowered at pleasure, and the
helmet worn in Attica and elsewhere with a short plate for
the forehead {nrKpdvrj) and side-flaps. The solid breast-plate,
{ffrddiog ^wjaf) contradistinguished from the ring-hauberk
{ar^i-rrhg), and consisting of two metal-plates {ydaXa), of which

408 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
the one in front was often very richly ornamented with reliefs,
was usually straight below, but in Roman works shaped to
the form of the body (a rule however which was by no means
universal) ; above, it was held together by shoulder-plates, and
below by a girdle round the loins (^w/ia) ; and it was suitably
5 lengthened by leathern stripes {itri^oyig) faced with metal. The
greaves also {xvYig^Tbeg, ocrese), wrought of elastic tin, and which
were clasped below by the ankle-ring {sirie<pv^iov), were often of
6 elegant and careful workmanship. The large brazen shield
of the Greeks {de'itlg, clypeus), very clearly distinguished from
the quadrangular-scutum i^xigehg) of the Romans, is either en
tirely circular like the Argolic, or provided with indentations
for holding lances like the Boeotian shield. The appearance
of the Homeric winged targets {Xaiehia irre^oivra) has become
known to us through vase-paintings, which also plainly show
us how the handles {oxdvai) were placed.
1, The Homeric (pdxoi (comp, Buttmann Lexil. ii. s, 240,) may perhaps
be recognised in the Uttle upright plates which are so often to be seen on
helmets in vase-paintings. On the parts of the ancient helmet, Olenine
Observations sur une note de Millin. Petersb. 1808. On the different
kinds of helmets Al, d'Olenine Essai sur le costume et les armes des gla
diateurs, St, Petersb. 1834, 4to.
3, The Corinthian helmet is usuaUy found on vase paintings of the
old style, for example MiUin i, 19, 33,, [GaU, Omer. ii, 130.] in the iBgi-
netan statues, the Corinthian PaUas, §. 369. R. 4. PoU. i, 149. xqdvog
Boiarovqyig by way of distinction, as other portions of armour from other
places. 4. Hauberks of elegant workmanship from the tombs of Canosa
(MiUin) ; helmets, greaves and other accoutrements with sculptures (§.
311. R. 3.), Neapels Ant. s. 213 ff. M. Borb. iii, 60. [The yvxT^x, breast
and back pieces, are the earUer kind of coat of mail, Paus. x, 26, 2 ; Bot
tiger Vasengem. ii. s. 73. Hr. Rittmeister, painter at Baden, has a pair in
his remarkable coUection of ancient armour.] Ornamented armour of
statues, Clarac, Mus6e, pi. 366. 356. — On zoma, mitra and zoster see esp.
Ii. iv, 134. together with Aristarchus; on the ¦Trriqvyeg Xenoph. de re
equ. 12. The arrangement of the whole accoutrements in early times
is clearly exhibited especially in vase-paintings, Tischb. i, 4. iv, 20.
MiUin i, 39.
6. AxKT. ¦Trrtq. for example Tischb. iv, 51. MiUingen Cogh. 10.
[Welcker ad PhUostr. p. 323. 756. If the reference of this appendage of
the shield to the ¦hxmriiov is correct, then MiUingen, S, Birch and others
are wrong in saying that it is nowhere mentioned. Something different
are the covers in Aristoph. Ach. 1136. rd urqapixr a ¦nrxi i^irov ix riig
xaTTiiog. Three giants have the Xxm^iov in the battle in Luynes' Vases,
pi. 19., also a trumpeter in Hancarville iv, 33. Paris ed., Theseus in MU
Ungen's Anc. Uned. Mon. i. pi. 19. where it likewise occurs pi. 20 and 21,
and in the Peint. de Vases pi. 49, Theseus also in Gerhard, Auserles.
Vasengem. Tf 165. and a warrior fighting against Scythians, ibid. 166.

TREATMENT OF THE DRAPERY. 409
In marble and in the Xanthian monument §. 128.*] — A minute explana
tion of the armour and dress of the Prsetorians {1 BouiU. iii, 63, 2), Le
gionaries, Socii, and so forth, on Roman triumphal monuments would of
course be out of place here.

6. TREATMENT OF THE DRAPERY.
343. A correct notion of the spirit in which ancient art 1
treated drapery in general, is still more important than the
knowledge of individual articles of dress. It did so, first, in a 2
thoroughly significant manner, so that the choice of the costume
and the manner of wearing it, constantly referred to the char
acter and activity of the person represented ; as can be shown
very distinctly in the diff'erent modes of dress among the
gods. Secondly, in the genuine times of art it was made 3
thoroughly subordinate to the body, folfilling the destination of
showing its form and motion, which the drapery is capable of
doing to a greater extent, as regards time, than the naked
figure, because, by the situation and arrangement of the folds,
it sometimes enables us to divine the moments preceding the
action represented, and sometimes even indicates the inten
tion of the person. The draperies of the Greeks, which from 4
their Simple, and, as it were, still undecided form, for the most
part only received a determinate character from the mode
of wearing, and at the same time furnished a great alternation
of smooth and folded parts, were especially calculated from
the outset for such purposes ; but it also became early an ar
tistic principle, to render the forms of the body everywhere
as prominent as possible, by drawing the garments close, and
loading the skirts with small weights (go/dxo; ?). The striving g
after clearness of representation dictated to the artists of the
best period a disposition into large masses, and subordination
of the details to the leading forms, precisely as in the muscu
lar development of the body.
4. HqooTrrvaaerxi 'jrXevqxiaiv dqrixo7\.Xog (uVte rexrovog x^'^^^ xttxv xxr
dq^qav, Soph. Trachin. 766, On the so-called wet draperies Feuerbach
Vatic, Ap, S, 198, 'Eyevero roii trapcxrog xxrO'Trrqov 6 x''''""' Ach, Tat, i, 1,
Jacobs, p, 404, " The thousandfold echo of the form," Gothe, The ves
tes lucidse of the early painters (above §, 134. R, 2.) are of this class,
The small weights are even seen on coins, Mionnet, Descr, PI, 65, 7,
5. Of the earlier style of drapery §, 93,; the improved 118, 4,; the
later 204, R, 2. The deep and stiff folds of the drapery in the JustinV
Vesta, the Barberini ApoUo and the muses of Venice might perhaps, as
hinted in §, 96, No, iT, be asoribable to architectonic conditions.

410 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.

C. OF ATTRIBUTES AND ATTRIBUTIVE ACTIONS.
344. By the term attributes we understand subordinate
substances of nature, or products of human workmanship,
which serve to designate the character and activity of the
principal figures. Substances and articles of this descrip
tion are not connected with spiritual life in so intimate and
natural a manner as the human body ; hence belief, custom,
positive institutions in general, were here necessarily laid by
art as the basis. However, on this side also the perception of
noble and simple form, which was inborn in the Grecian nation,
and the great simplicity of life came greatly to the aid of art ;
every occupation, situation and striving of life found a char
acteristic designation which was always easily recognised, in
certain objects derived from nature or formed by the hand of
man. In the creation also' of symbols — to which belonged the
animals sacred to the gods, as well as their utensils and wea
pons — a dawning perception of fitting, and in some sense ar
tistic forms had been manifested, along with a religious fancy
and a child-like na'ivet^ of thought, to which much bolder con
junctions were open, than to the reflexion of later times (§. 32.)
Now, not only did early art chiefiy distinguish its figures by
attributes, which were often very much multiplied (§. 68.), but
in the flourishing period of art also, the attribute was a much
wished for completion and closer determination of the idea
expressed by the human form in general; and allegorical sculp
ture (§. 406.) found here many a welcome expression for ab-
' stract notions. There is often united with the attribute a
reference to a definite transaction borrowed from religion and
life; in this also Greek art had the same facility of saying
much with little. The language of ancient art thence arising,
requires much study, as it cannot be divined by the natural
feeling in the same way as the purely human language of ges-
i tures. Great difficulty likewise is often thrown in the way
of the interpretation, by the principle which belonged to Greek
art (comp. §. 325.), of treating in a subordinate manner, dimin
ishing in size, and making less careful in workmanship every-
I thing that does not refer to the principal figure. This infe
riority of the accessories was generally carried so far, that in
figures of fighting gods and heroes, the adversaries, whether
merely monsters or ruder human figures, were frequently di
minished, — contrary to every requirement of modern art which
demands more real imitation and illusion, — because the noble
form of the god or hero was capable in itself of expressing
everything by its attitude and action.
1 — i. Schorn Umriss einer Theorie der bild. Kiinste s. 21.: "The

ATTRIBUTES. 411
idea cannot be always completely expressed in the sensible form ; sculp
ture therefore often makes use of allegory, inasmuch as it only indicates
the idea as far as possible in the form, denoting what is more special by
attributes." As the explanation of the attributes cannot be separated
from that of the subjects, the richness of them will be only indicated
here by a classified survey of the most important.
Flowers (Aphrodite, Horse, Zephyrs) ; fruits, apples, pomegranates,
poppy, vine, ears of corn ; boughs, oUves (appeasing), laurel (purifying),
palms (victory) ; garlands, especiaUy oak, poplar, ivy, vine, laurel, oUve.
Tsenise (honouring, distinguishing §. 340. R. 4.), infulse, i!ript,p(,xrx (sa
creduess), hiketeria (oUve branch and infulse), kerykeion (§. 379.).
Phialse (libation, symbols of prayers for plenty, and thanksgivings)
with prochus (§. 298. R. 3.); cups of different kinds; crater (banquet);
tripod (service of Apollo, prophecy, prizes at games) ; lekythos, alabas-
tron (gymnastic force, feminine grace §. 391. R. 4.) ; calathos and mo
dius (frnitfulness).
Skeptron (sovereign dignity) ; trident (dominion of the sea) ; knotted
stick (shepherd Ufe) ; thyrsus ; torch (iUumination by night, the flame
of Ufe, turning round denotes extinction, the two torches of a Persephone
at Paros are referred, in the Insor. C. I. no. 2388, V, 9, 10., the one to
Ught, for the friends of the place, the other to the conflagration of mis
chance for its enemies) ; lance ; arrow, bow (far-operating power) and
quiver (contrast between the open and the shut §, 364.) ; tropseon ; helm
(navigation ; more allegoricaUy guidance in general) ; aplustrum (navi
gation). Wheel (rapid movement, alteration) ; balance (§, 406,),
Cithern (peaceful serenity, contrast to the bow §. 359, 4,) ; flute (Bac
chian pleasure) ; syrinx (country life) ; cymbals, crotals, and so forth.
Mirror (female ornament, but also, aUegorioaUy, a symbol of memory
§, 398.), fan, casket ; bath-vessels ; strigUs.
Cornucopia §. 43^, segis (Zeus-like dominion over hostile elements) ;
Gorgoneion §. 65, 3, ; Ughtning (world-swaying power) ; crown of rays
(an appearing deity, apotheosis).
Eagle (augury of victory, of power, apotheosis); bull (fructifying
power of nature); serpent (healing and rejuvenating power of nature,
fearful might of Chthonic dsemons) ; panther (Bacchian tumult) ; dove
(marriage), and so on.
Grifiin (destroying power of the gods) ; sphinx (mysterious nature).
Winckelmann's Versuch einer AUegorie, W, ii. s. 427. contains the
chief materials for instruction in the attributes.
Speaking emblems, for example, names of magistrates indicated by
divine symbols, Visconti in the Cabinet Pourtalfes pi. 17, [Names denot
ed by things of similar sound, animals, plants, &c, Welcker's SyU.
Bpigr. Gr. p. 135. s. Annali del. Inst. xiv. p. 214. Animals allude to the
names of magistrates, BuUett. 1841. p. 187, Demeter to Demetrius on his
coins, and so forth.]

412 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART,

II. FORMS CREATED BY ART.
1 345. The conceptions of ancient art, in its period of splen
dour, stood in the closest connexion with the spaces which
they occupied and were intended to fill, and therefore for the
most part produced a satisfactory impression by the general
outlines, by their architectonics as it were, before the eye
2 could seize their internal connexion. The isolated statue was
historically developed from the pillar; the herma remained as
an intermediate step, inasmuch as it placed a human head on
a pillar having the proportions of the human form. As life
extended farther, the form became membered down to the loins :
a mode of representation which was especially practised in
wooden images of the gods, but has been often also preserved in
3 stone. Tbe bust, a representation of the head down to the
shoulders, sometimes also with the breast and waist, was derived
from the hermse; it fulfilled its aim and was also most used
4 where portrait-making was required. But even the completely
developed statue, which was destined to stand alone, did not
lose altogether its architectonic relation, and expressed the laws
of equilibrium by the posture and disposition of the limbs — the
antique temple image most simply, the works of perfected art
in manifold and living development. Different architectonic
destinations may have had more influence on the form of sta-
5 tues than is generally supposed. The group could likewise give
the solution as it were of a vehement and one-sided movement
of one figure, by a corresponding figure placed opposite, inas
much as it had its architectonic symmetry in the whole. The
middle point, in which the spiritual significance was concen
trated, was here rendered prominent by greater dimensions;
the figures were arranged on both sides of it in a corresponding
6 manner. This form was already used among the Greeks for
the pediments of temples, (§. 90. 11.8. 119.) with the figures
far apart; but even the more crowded groups of later art (§.
7 156. 157.) present this pyramidal fundamental form. In order
to attain the necessary unity, the principal figure was raised
in comparison to the subordinate, beyond the natural propor
tion. This is most strikingly seen in the divine statues of the
Greek temple-style, which carry on the palm of the hand
8 small figures of subordinate deities or sacred animals. The
symmetrical arrangement of the figures on the right and left,
was, in the antique style, mere stiff regularity (§. 90.) ; im
proved art admitted of freer alternations, and by combining
the individual figures into subordinate groups (§. 118. 126.),
9 introduced more variety of interest. In the group, especially
when it exceeded two figures, the statue approached the basso-
relievo, inasmuch as all the figures usually stood in a vertical

HERMA, BUST, STATUE, GROUP. 413
plane, in order to be unfolded in complete view for a particu
lar point; and at the same time that no considerable part of
the space was left vacant, they were nevertheless not conceal
ed by the limbs.
1. The pregnant aphorism : tout veritable ouv,rage de Part nalt avec
son cadre, holds true of ancient art especially. On the fine fiUing up of
space in ancient works of art, Gothe, Werke xxxviii. s. 38. xliv. s. 155.
2. Comp. §. 67. There were also hermse with bronze heads on marble
piUars, Cic. ad Att. i, 8. Hermathene, Hermerus and Hermeracles were
denoted by a herma of these deities, but the head of Hermes might also
at the same time be united with that of the other deity. So in the Her-
mathense of Cicero ad Att. i, 4. and that in the Capitol, Arditi, Mem.
d'Acc. Ercol. i. p. 1., and the Hermeracleis (Aristides i. p. 35 Jebb.) PCI.
vi, 13, 2. and on coins of the gens Rubria, MorelU no. 8. GurUtt, Archaol.
Schr, s. 218. gives a catalogue of double hermse, [Another Vinet Ueber
den Ursprung der doppelkopfigen Bildung Revue ArcheoL 1846. ui. p, 314.
There were also double hermse with the same head towards both sides,
Lucian de Jove trag, 43,] — The Hermes Tricephalus in the Vatican with
the heads of the old Bacchus, tho youthful Hermes, and Hecate, and the
small figures of Eros, ApoUo Aphrodite fixed on in relief (Gerhard, Ant,
BUdw. ui, 41.), has reference perhaps to the custom of using hermse at
the same time as shrines for finer images of the gods, Etym, M, p, 146.
[A triple hermse in ViUa Altieri at Rome, and a female one in the mu
seum at Venice, the three heads simUar, archaistic, with long braids of
hair, a dance of the horse around the herma. There are several ''Eqpixi
rerqxxe<pxXoi at Rome near Ponte quattro capi,] The Dionysus-hermse
had frequently arms in order to hold thyrsi and cups. The wooden
images of Priapus were usuaUy formed like men down to the phallos.
Comp. §. 383, R, 3.
3, Busts were caUed irqoropixi, am^xqix, thoraces, busti (a mediseval
expression, from the busta as sepulchral monuments). It is possible
that Imp, Cses, Nerv, Trajani — imagines argent, parastaticcs cum suis
ornamentis et regulis et concameratione ferrea (OrelU Inscr, 1696, 2518)
were busts fixed into pilasters. Busts are most usuaUy of emperors and
phUosophers (§. 420, 4.), but also of gods, especially those of Bgypt. See
GurUtt Biistenkunde, Archaol. Schr. s. 189. A. Wendt, HaU, Bncycl.
xiii. p, 389,
4, It appears that the contrast of xqxciii» i,6xvx and axoXid 'iqyx in
the much commented on passage Strab. xiv, p, 640. is to be referred hereto.
Similarly Brondsted Voy. ii, p, 163. N. [Tyrwhitt's emendation Iximx is
confirmed by F. Jacobs Verm. Schr. v. S. 465 ff. and in the Rhein. Mus.
1835. iu. S. 351 f ] In reUgious images it is a main point that they
should sit or stand conveniently for adoration {eve'hqoi 'Kirxiai jEsch. Seven
301). Hence also the holding out paterse (comp. Aristoph. EccL 782.
with Cic. de N. D. ui, 34,), and the heads somewhat incUned,
7, Examples of such statues of deities mostly colossal : Zeus Olympics
and Homagyrios (§. 350) with a Nike, Hera with the Uon (§, 352), Apollo
with the Charites (§, 86), the stag, Catharmos (? §, 359), Athena with a

414 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
Nike in her hand, Comp. R. Rochette M. I, p. 263", On coins of the
Roman period deities of cities carry their chief deities in this manner,
9, The theatre likewise accustomed the Greeks to the detached
position of the figures, as the grouping must have been there of the
basso-relievo character, from the sUght depth of the proscenium; only
ekkyklemes presented close and imposing groups, Comp. Feuerbach
Vatic, ApoU, s, 340 ff,, the author's Bumen, p. 91. Figures arranged in
a semicircle were an interesting secondary form, as the combat of AchiUes
and Memnon by Lycius (Zeus with the two mothers imploring him in
the middle, the two combatants at the corners, eight Greek and Trojan
heroes corresponding with one another between them, Paus. v, 22, 2.) and
the feet-washing of Odysseus, from Ithaca, consisting of Uttle bronze
figures. Thiersch, Epochen, s. 273. 445.
1 345.* This filling up of a regularly circumscribed space
was a law in relief. The mask was nearly the same in
raised work, that the herma was in regard to the round statue ;
here also it was an architectonic purpose,— the fixing of a
countenance on a surface, — that gave its origin to this form.
2 Of this description was the Gorgoneion fastened on walls and
shields (§. 65.), whose original fundamental form, a circle,
was even maintained in the free developments of the most
3 flourishing days of art. They also fixed masks of Dionysus
in this way on walls, and in this cycle of gods, from which
the mask system chiefly emanated, they knew how to produce
a regular oval form by suitable treatment of the hair, and all
4 kinds of ornaments. Next come the shields (clypei), which
it was a Greek custom, but especially cultivated at Rome, to
5 adorn with busts of celebrated men (en medallion). But
among the ancients the relief could never be introduced, unless
it received from tectonics an externally determined surface —
in architectural members, altars, grave-pillars and vessels —
which it should fill up ; and art always succeeded in accom
modating itself with naive indifference to these external con
ditions, and in obtaining therefrom peculiar kinds of grouping.
6 Such also was the case with the round surfaces of mirrors
and pateras, which were employed in the plastic art and
painting for gymnastic postures, but above all for groups of
sitting or reclining figures, wherein the projecting borders
were without scruple put in requisition as points of support.
7 Still more influence had the square compartments furnished
by metopes, cippi and votive tablets, as well as the long-drawn
stripes which friezes, thrones and sarcophagi presented. From
thence was developed a symmetrical opposition and juxta
position of figures (§, 93.), which only began in the time of
Phidias to give way to a more diversified arrangement ; but
still great regard was had to a uniform employment of space
(§. 118.), and, even later, an accurate correspondence of both
sides of the representation was observed (as in the monument

MASK, CLYPEUS, RELIEF FORMS, 415
of Lysicrates §, 128. R. 6.), A dense crowd of figures, difiicult 8
to disentangle, and divided into several grounds, first made
its appearance on the sarcophagi of the later Roman style (§,
207, 5.), while painting, which its means better enable to dis
tinguish distances, often condensed the groups more, at least
as early as the Macedonian period, although even here, a
composition not very different from the basso-relievo always
continued in general use.
1. On masks, Bottiger, N, Deutscher Mercur, 1795. St. 4. s. 337. by
Kohler, Masken, ibr Ursprung und neue Auslegung einiger der merk-
wurdigsten. Petersb. 1833. (Mem. de I'Acad. Imp. des Sciences T. ii,). In
reference to the Bacchian masks with the beard composed of leaves of
the ¦x-qoaamg and other plants, which are here ingeniously handled, round
ing off the oval by means of these is also to be taken into consideration,
Feuerbach Vatic, Apollo S. 351. [Serie di mascheroni cavati dai antico
la prima volta R, 1781, 4to, Six masks in terracotta, M. Borbon. vii, 44.]
3. On an image of the Dionysian Acratus at Athens, Paus. i, 2, 4. wqoa-
a-JTov iariv oi ptovov ivaxoiop^npiivov roixa. A Dionysus mask was taken for
a portrait of Pisistratus, Athen. xii, 533 c. In Naxos a -jvqog. of Dion.
Baccheus composed of vine, and one of Zeus Meilichius of beech-wood,
Athen. iii, 78 c. A mask of this kind as a Bacchian idol on the sarco
phagus PioCl. V, 18.
4. Clypei of Appius §. 181. R. 3. From statesmen they also trans
ferred them to Uterary men. Tacit. A. ii, 83. ; hence some of them are
to be found in marble copies, not merely of Cicero (Visconti Io. Rom.
pi. 12.) and Claudius (L. 274. Clarac. pi. 162.), but also of Demosthenes
and .ffischines (Vise. Ic. Gr. pi. 30.), as weU as Sophocles and Menander,
Vise. pi. 4. 6. comp. T. i. pi, 13. The ancient clypei were of metal,
especiaUy argentei cum imagine aurea (Marini, Atti ii. p. 408.), but at
the same time yqx'^roi, picti (Macrob. Sat. ii, 3.), according to the above
supposition §. 311, 3. in tausia. The xx'Kxeog iiaqxi, of Timomachus,
also caUed oitKov, which was exhibited at the Hyacinthia, was perhaps a
shield-image of this kind, Aristot, Schol, Pind. I. 6, 18. Comp. GurUtt,
Archaol, Schr, s, 199.
8. Comp, Gothe xliv. s. 154. Tolken, Ueber das Basrelief und den
Unterschied der mahlerischen und plastischen Composition. B. 1816.
345.** The internal principles of composition are, of all . 1
portions of art, the most difficult to express, as they are con
nected in the closest manner with the peculiar idea of each
work. It is true that the fulness of significance of the mythic
forms, the facility of completing it by personifications, the
great number and simplicity of attributive symbols, and the
fixed and precise signification of the attitudes and gestures
of ancient art, lend the capability of saying much by means
of few and simply grouped figures. As everything in this 2
world of art found its representation in human form, and
its simple expression in easily intelligible action, ancient art,

416 FORMS OF THE PLASTIC ART.
and especially sculpture, did not reqviire the representation
of masses of men ; even in battle -pictures of the Mace
donian, and in triumphal reliefs of the Roman period a
few figures stand for large armies. In like manner, great dis
tances in time and place are (as in the trilogies of JEschylus)
brought under view together, and the chief moments of a
chain of events, although far divided, are gathered, without
external separation, into one frame. Thus ancient art is placed
in a happy medium between the hieroglyphic picture-writing
of the East, and modern art, which is directed to the imme
diate rendering of the actual appearance; although many of
its productions, of the Macedono-Roman period, make a con
siderable approach to the latter tendency. But as regards the
general means whereby human feeling can be roused into
agreeable excitement, and this again made to subside, in a
satisfactory close, into the proper frame of the soul, Greek art
from an early period made itself master of these, and under
stood well how to employ especially the charm of contrast,
at first by mere juxtaposition, afterwards by a natural devel
opment of the fundamental idea.
1. 2. Comp. Winck. W. iv. s. 178. f [Rhein. Mus. 1834. u. s. 462 f.
466 f. H. Brunn on the parallelism of the compositions of early Greek
works of art, Neues Rhein. Mus. v. s. 321.]
3. See, on this point, besides numerous archseological notes to
ancient Sarcophagi and Philostratus' Pictures, Thiersch, Kunstblatt.
1827. N. 18. Tolken Ueber das verschiedne Verhaltniss der ant. und
modernen Mahlerei zur Poesie. B. 1821. Schorn Umriss s. 26. on Pelops
and Hippodamia after the description of ApoUonius with the note of the
scholiast. 5. The five stripes on the coffer of Cypselus (§. 67.) are filled up
with mythic groups in accordance with such motives. In the fourth
especiaUy (which with the exception of Dionysus contains, like the second,
12 groups) battle scenes always alternate with groups of lovers and simi
lar subjects. And if we arrange properly the shield of Hercules in Hesiod,
(the figure of the dragon in the innermost circle ; the bear and lion in
the second narrow stripe ; the battle of the centaurs, a choir of deities, a
harbour and fishing, Perseus and the Gorgons in the third ; in the fourth
stripe, the city of war above the Gorgons, the city of peace opposite,
therefore above the choir ; the ocean as a border) we shall see that the
two principal stripes are divided into one half with peaceful, and another
with martial representations, which are brought into beautiful contrast
with one another. Comp. on Polygnotus' pictures §. 134. R. 3.

MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 417

THIRD PART.
ON THE SUBJECTS OF THE FORMATIVE ART.
346. As the formative art has the imitation of nature as- 1
signed to it for its forms, so also it is referred for its subjects
to matters of positive existence ; neither can it create any-
spiritual beings from pure arbitrary will, but must be prompted
and sustained by presupposition and a certain belief in their
existence. Now, these positive subjects are either furnished 2
by external experience, or by a world of spiritual intuitions in
which the nation moves, that is, either historical forms or
beings of religion and mythology, which are alone capable of
supplying in a permanent manner the belief in a real exist
ence of their creations, poetry being in itself only enabled to
produce it transiently. The subjects of the latter kind will be 3
always the chief problem among a people endowed with a ¦
genius for art, because the artistic faculty can in them de
velope and test itself more freely and completely in all its
creative power.

I. MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
347. The Greeks were somehow so fortunate that long ere
art had arrived at external manifestation, the genius of the
people had prepared the way for the artist, and formed be
forehand the entire world of art. The mystical element, so
essential to religion, in which we augur and feel the divine
existence as something infinite, and absolutely different from
humanity, which never admits of representation but only of
indication (§. 31.), although never completely banished (a
thing not possible among a religious people), was however
thrust into the back -ground especially by poetry. The le
gends which depict the secret sway of universal powers of
nature, in images often intentionally strange and formless,
had, even in the Homeric times, become for the most part void
of significance; the festal usages, which were rooted in this
soil, continued to be practised as old traditional ceremonies ; but
poetry followed the path which was necessary to it, fashioning
everything more and more after the analogy of human life,
with which a cheerful and confiding piety, that conceived the
deity as a human guardian and counsellor, as a father and
friend in every trial, could be very well reconciled. The bards,
2D

418 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
who were themselves only organs of the general voice, gradual
ly developed these ideas in a more individual and stable man
ner, although indeed Homer had not in this way attained the
sensible definiteness which existed in the times when the
5 plastic art was in full splendour (§. 65.). Now, when sculp
ture, on its part, had improved so far as to seize the external
forms of life, in their truth and fulness of significance, there
was nothing more required than to express those already in
dividualized ideas in corresponding grandiose forms. Although
this could never take place without an altogether peculiar
conception, without inspiration and an effort of genius on the
part of the artists; the general national idea of the deity,
however, existed, and served as a touchstone of the correctness
6 of the representation. Now, if this established and definite
idea of the god, in connexion with the exquisite sense of the
Greeks for the character of forms, felt itself completely satisfied,
NORMAL IMAGES resulted, to which succeeding artists adhered
with lively freedom, and with that correct taste, peculiar to
the Hellenic nation, which was equally removed from Oriental
stiffness and modern egotism. There arose images of gods and
heroes, which possessed not less internal truth and stability,
7 than if the gods themselves had sat to the artists. All this
could take place in such a way only among the Greeks, be
cause in Greece only was art to such an extent a national
activity, the Greek nation only a great artist.
3. Therefore the images of the gods seemed to the Greeks, as it were,
a peculiar nation of nobler nature ; if they had made their appearance
in life, all others,- says Arist. Pol. i, 2,, would have looked Uke slaves be
side them, as the barbarians beside the Greeks,
5, The way in which the ideals of the gods were gradually estab
lished by faithful adherence to the popular notion, is not iU detaUed by
Dion, Chrysost. xu. p. 210.
6. Therefore the images of the gods, especially those which by fre
quent imitation had become canonical, are also monuments of the reli
gious notions prevaiUng at the time when they arose, and, on the other
hand, the knowledge of the latter assists in determining the time of the
former. Heyne's treatise De auctoribus formarum quibus dii in priscse
artis operibus eflScti sunt, Commentat. Gott. vui. p. xvi., is based on an
exceUent idea, which must be again taken up in a more enlarged appli
cation. Schorn Umrisse s. 20 : " These gods are human persons, but an
innocence exalted above all opposition pervades their essence and their
actions." Griineisen ueber das Sittliche der bild. Kunst bei den Griechen
in lUgen's Zeitschr. fiir die hist. Theol. iii, 2. s. 1. (a healthy corporeal
organisation bears in itself elements of morality.) Comp. Tholuck
Litt. Anzeiger 1834. No. 69. Griineisen Ueber bildUche Darstellung der
Gottheit, comp. Tholuck ibid. No. 68.
1 348. This activity was on the whole most completely devel-

IDEAL FORMS OF THE GODS, 419
oped in those gods Avho had been most idealized, that is, whose
whole essence could be least reduced to a fundamental notion.
We can certainly say of them: they do not signify, they are; !
but this has not its foundation in that they had ever been
objects of external experience, but only in the circumstance
that these ideal beings had so to speak lived through the
entire history of the Greek tribes which worshipped them,
and bore in their character the most diversified impressions
thereof Hence they are in art corporeal in the highest de
gree, they have the most energetic personality. These are ,
the Olympian gods, supreme Zeus with his brothers, sisters and
children. 1, For what foUows we have to mention as general aids : Montfau
con, Antiq. expl, i. (an extremely rude, but still indispensable collection),
A. Hirt's BUderbuoh fiir Mythologie, Archaologie und Kunst. 2 Hefte
text, the same quantity of engravings. B. 1806 and 1816 in 4to. A. L.
Millin, Galerie Mythologique. P. 1811. 2 vols, text, 2 vols, engravings
(190 plates), pubUshed in German at BerUn. Spence's Polymetis (a com
parison of works of art with passages in poets). L. 1774. fo. We pass by
the frivolous and uncritically prepared coUections of mythological figures,
with which the public is always imposed upon from time to time.
3. Groups of the Twelve Gods of Olympus (not always of the same)
in the old style, have been mentioned above, §. 96. N. 16; the most im
portant monument is the Borghese ara. A Borghese vase (Mon. Gab. 16.
17; now in the L. 381. Clarac, pi. 171.) exhibits the heads of the twelve
gods, arbitrarUy arranged as it appears, and their attributes as signs of
the months combined with zodiacal constellations. Aphrodite April,
ApoUo May, Hermes June, Zeus July, Demeter August, Hephsestus
September, Ares October, Artemis November, Hestia December, Hera
January, Poseidon February, Athena March. Eleven deities assembled
round Zeus, M. Cap. iv, 8. G. M. pi. 6, 19. [comp. Lersch, Jahrb. des
Vereins im Rheinlande iv. s. 150.] A Pompeian picture of the twelve
deities, in a row, above two genu loci, Gell. pi. 76. Heads of many gods
in medaUions, Pitt. Ere. iu, 50. [Gerhard Ueber die zwolf Gotter Griech
enlands with 4 pi. B. 1842.]

A. THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN DEITIES.
1. ZEUS.
349. Zeus, the god of heaven, was regarded by the ancient I
Greeks as the father of all life in nature. According to the
legend of the Argives he solemnized, in the genial rain of
spring, the sacred nuptials with Hera ; the nourishing oak and
the fruitful dove symbolized him at Dodona as a god of benign
influence ; and in Crete his youthful history was related pretty
nearly in the same way as that of Bacchus in other places.

420 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
2 In ancient symbolical representations, he was interpreted a;
a god having dominion in three kingdoms at the same time
in heaven, on earth, and under the earth. Zeus, however, die
not receive his artistic form, as a god of nature, but, in ethi(
development, as the not less gracious than powerful sovereigr
3 and governor of the worlds of gods and men. This union o:
attributes, after many less profoundly conceived notions oi
4 early art, was advanced by Phidias to the most intimate com
bination (§. 115.), and undoubtedly it was he also that estab
lished the external features which all succeeding artists, in
proportion to their artistic skill, endeavoured to reproduce
5 (comp. §. 140. R. 3. 158. R 1.). To these belonged the arrange
ment of the hair, which rose up from the centre of the fore
head, and then fell down on both sides like a mane (§. 330, 4.),
the brow clear and bright above, but greatly arching forward
beneath, the deep-sunk but wide-opened and rounded eyes,
the delicate, mild lineaments round the upper lip and cheeks,
the full rich beard descending in large wavy tresses, the
noble, ample and open chest, as well as a powerful, but not
unduly enlarged muscular development of the whole body.
6 From this character, which is stamped on the most and best
of the statues of Zeus, there are the following deviations : on
the one hand, the more youthful and softer form, with less
beard and masculine vigour in the countenance, which is
usually called, but without any sure ground, Zeus Meilichios;
7 on the other, there are heads of Zeus to be met with, which
bear a certain, though still very softened, expression of anger
and martial vehemence, in the more violently waving locks and
more excited features, and which represent the battling, aveng
ing, punishing god. According to Pausanias, Zeus Horkios,
the oath-avenger at Olympia, with a thunderbolt in each
hand, appeared the most terrible.
1. See for general information Bottiger's Kunstmythologie, s. 290 ff.
and the continuation in the sketch only circulated in manuscript among
his friends. On the ieqog yxptog of the Argives, Welcker, Appendix to
Sohwenk's Etymol.-Mythol. Andeutungen, s. 267. On the Dodonsean
Zeus, especially Volcker, Mythol. des Japet. Geschlechts, s. 83 ff., on the
Cretan, Hoeck's Kreta i. s. 234 ff.
2. On the ancient Z. rqt6(pStxy.piog, Paus. ii, 24, 6., who certainly ex
plains him correctly. The Triopian Zeus, who plays such a significant
part in the worship of the Chthonian gods, is probably the same [taken
from the same Zeus].
3. Ageladas' Zeus of Ithome is supposed by MilUngen (Ano. Coins 4,
20 , comp. Mionnet, Suppl. iv, pi, 6, 22,) to be the standing, naked figure,
with the thunderbolt in the right hand, and the eagle in the left, on
Messenian coins. In the Borghese relief Zeus appears with sceptre and
thunderbolt, the elegantly folded himation thrown around his breast

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ZEUS. 421
and loins, the beard pointed, and tresses falling on the shoulders. On the
antique reUef in Wilton house (Muratori Inscr. i. p. 35. Bockh. C. I. 34.)
Zeus, sedent and half-draped, bears an eagle on his left hand. In the ancient
vase-style, sitting, with pointed beard, holding the thunderbolt, for ex
ample §, 99, R, 3, 11,, comp, the birth of PaUas §, 371,, of Dionysus 384,
5, The most important statue — not a work however of the first rank
— is the Verospi Jupiter Race. 136. PCI. i, 1. [new article in the Opere
div. ii. p. 423 — 26.] comp. Gerhard, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 193. [The
Verospi Z. is according to Payne Knight far surpassed by a statue in tho
possession of Mr. Smith Barry, Marbrook HaU, Cheshire.] Colossus at
Ildefonso unknown. Colossal busts from Otriooli calculated for being
looked at from below. PCI. vi, 1. M. Prang, iii, 1. StUl more sublime
the colossal, but much mutilated bust in the Boboli garden at Florence,
Winck. iv. Tf 1 a. Another in the Florentine Gallery, Winok. iv, 316.
A fine bust at Naples, M. Borb, v, 9, A fine mask of Zeus, Bouillon i,
pi 67. Statuesof Zeus, Clarac pi. 665— 694. "'' > ¦ ¦
6. A fine bust of this description from the Townley collection, in the
British Museum, Spec. 31. The fine head also which stands on a trunk
composed of fragments, at Dresden 142., Augusteum 39., presents similar
youthful forms.
7. For instance, the torso which formerly belonged to the Medicean
coUection, and which has been at Paris, L. 682 [p. 3.], since the time of
Louis XIV. M. Nap. i, 3. BouiU. i, 1. Clarac, pi. 312. [A torso in the
Mus. del princ. Biscari p. 5. is highly praised by Sestini, Bartel's Br. iiber
Sicilien ii. S. 136. Body of a colossal Jupiter without head, MiUin Voy.
au Midi de la France pi. 69, 11. Colossal herma of Zeus, of the time of
the Cesars, in Sarskoezelo, Kohler in the Journal von Russland i. 8. 342.
Upper half figure of Zeus, Mus. Brescian. tv. 35.] The celebrated, but
also doubtful cameo in the Lib. of St. Mark with the head of Z. jEgiochus
(Treatises by Visconti and Bianconi, G. M. 11, 36.) exhibits love of battle,
pride of victory and clemency finely blended together. A Ufe-size statue
of Z. .^giochus in Leyden, Archaol. InteU. Bl. 1836. N. 47. The head of Z.
'S.rqxrnyog from Amastris, shows a similar bold disposition of the hair.
Combe N. M. Brit. 9, 9. 10. On deviations iu the form of the hair and
beard of Z. Visconti POl. vi. p. 1. 2.
350. The sitting posture of the statues of Zeus, in which
the himation, which is sunk down to the loins, forms the usual
drapery, is connected with the idea of tranquil power, victo
rious rest ; the standing posture {dydX/j^ara h^^d), in which the
himation is often entirely discarded, or only the back is cov
ered, carries with it the idea of activity; Zeus is then conceived
as protector, patron of political activity, or as the god who
punishes and guards with thunderbolts. Here also there is
sometimes found a youthful form, in regard to which we must
conceive Zeus as still contending, and not yet come to the
dominion of the world. However, there is much calm even
in the standing figures of Zeus; violent striding is not suited
to the form of this god. The patera as a sign of worship,
the sceptre as a symbol of sway, the goddess of victory in

422 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
his hand, the eagle, his messenger, and the thunderbolt, his
weapon, are his principal attributes. The wreath of wild
olive {xormg) distinguishes the Olympian from the Dodonaear
Jupiter, who has the crown of oak-leaves, and much also thai
is peculiar in the disposition of the hair as well as in configu
ration. Representations in which his significance as a god ol
nature, a mystical reference, or his relation to the system ol
the universe appear prominently, are comparatively rare, and.
for the most part, not earlier than the times of declining art.
or else they are borrowed from Asiatic regions. Essential
deviations are presented by the barbarian deities which were
merely Hellenized as Zeus.
1. A sedent Zeus at Olympia, also in other places, as iHixntpoqog, Victoi
(Combe N. Brit. 6, 24. G. M. 10, 43. 177 b, 673.) ; marble statuette at
Lyons, Zeus as Olympius, Clarac pi. 397. no. 665. [AnnaU d. Inst, xui,
p. 52, tv, D,]; Z, Ephesius, Mionnet Suppl, vi. pi. 4. no. 1. comp. T. iii,
p, 98. no. 282. Zeus Idseus, with Pallas on his left, on coins of Ilion.
M. I. d. Inst. 57. ; moreover the Zeus with the eagle on his hand, who.
according to the coins, belonged to a Macedonian sanctuary (probably
Dion) ; likewise the CapitoUne Zeus with the thunderbolt in his right
hand, the left on the sceptre, MoreUi N. Fam. Inc. tb. 1, 1. Impp,
Vitell. tb, 2, 8, The sitting Zeus has often, as the appeased thunderer,
the thunderbolt in his lap, Tassie, Cat, i, p, 86, 87, no. 941. 942. also a
victor's crown, G, M. 9, 44. An enthroned Zeus, which also expresses
rest by leaning his head on his right hand, in a Pompeian picture, Zahn
26. GeU, N. Pomp. pi. 66. M. Borb. vi, 52. The colossal statue of Zeus
from Solus completely draped, with elegant footstool, Serradifalco Cenni
sugli avanzi di Solunto tv. 3. [Antich. d. Sicilia T. v. tv. 38.] ; Z. sitting
on the eagle, bronze from Oberndorf, hist. Abhdl. der Miinchner Akad.
Bd. V. tf 7.
2. Standing (as the Z. Nemeios, Paus. ii, 20, 3.) and wrapped in the
himation, for example that of Laodicea having the sceptre in the left and
the eagle in the right hand, on coins of concord. Less enveloped the
statues of Jupiter, M. Cap. iii, 2. 3. Bouill. iii, 1, 1. Clarac, pi. 311. The
hierat. relief PCI. iv, 2. ZeusiEtnseus on coins, Bull. d. Inst. 1831. p. 199.
The standing Z. Homagyrios of the Aohseans entirely undraped, with
a Nike on the right, the sceptre in the left hand. N. M. Brit. 7, 15, 8, 6,
A standing Jupiter, with little drapery, with thunderbolt and sceptre,
bronze from Besangon, Cab. Pourtalfes pi, 3, Often on Roman coins, un
draped in front ; as J, Stator ; as Conservator hurling the thunderbolt,
with sceptre G, M, 9, 45, J. Imperator, with the right hand resting on a
lance, the thunderbolt in the left, with the left foot planted higher, on
coins of Commodus, Pedrusi v, 17, (comp. however Levezow Jupiter Im
per. B. 1826. s. 13.). [J. Imperator or Urius on a coin of Syracuse and
in a statue from Tyndaris, Abeken in the Annali xi. tv. A. p. 62. comp.
0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 31. Cavedoni Bull. 1840. p. 69. 110.] On the
gem of the supposed Onesimus, MiUin P. gr. 2., with sceptre, patera, and
an eagle beside him carrying a garland in its beak. Fine bronze from
Paramythia, entirely without drapery, with patera, Spec, i, 32. [another
from the same place, also naked, with chlamys however on the arm, ibid.

ZEUS, DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS. 423
52. 53.] ; such bronze figures are frequent, the thunderbolt is more usual
than the patera. Ant, Ere. vi, 1, 2. Athenian coins on which Zeus, with
thunderbolt and patera, steps slightly forward, N. Brit. 7, 1. Statue M.
Cap. iii, 4. BouiU. ui, 1, 3.
3. An unbearded Zeus standing, with thunderbolt and segis girded
round his left arm, with the inscription Nswou, Gemme SchUchtegroU
Pierr. grav. 20. G. M. 11, 38,, comp. Winok. W. v. s. 213. A youthful
Z. (Tinia) with the thunderbolt on the Ficoroni Etruscan mirror, Etrus
ker ii. s. 44. Unbearded statues of Zeus in Paus. vii, 24. v, 24. Zeus
HeUenius without beard on Syracusan coins ; on Roman (Stieglitz Distr.
num. fam. p. 35.) ; gems of this sort, Tassie, p. 84. no. 886.
4. On coins of EUs (MUlingen, Anc. coins, pi. 4, 21.) Z. lets the eagh
fly as his augury. On gems (Lippert ii, 4. 6. Tassie i. p. 87.) which treat
the subject sportively the eagle receives from Z. the garland which he is
to carry to a favourite ; he is also seen bearing the thunderbolt, with
garland or palm in his beak. The eagle kiUing the hare or the serpent,
on gems and coins, is an ancient augury of victory. Zeus as xxrxifixrng
holds the thunderbolt in his right, sitting on a rook, the eagle at his
feet, on coins of the Cyrrhestians, of the time of the Antonines, Mionnet
Descr. v. p. 135 sq. Burmann de Jove xxrxiiixryi. The thunderbolt lies
on a throne as an idol of worship on coins of Seleucia in Syria, comp.
Norisius, Ann. Syromac. p. 267. The thunderbolt is mostly formed as
xsqavvog xixp'.xrx;, often also with wings.
6. On Elean coins the head of Z. Olympius with the Kotinos garland,
on the reverse the eagle with the serpent or the hare. N. Brit. 7, 17 sqq.
Stanhope Olympia, pL 17. Descr. de I'Egypte v. pi. 59. The Olympian Z.
is also characterized by the sphinxes at the arms of the throne (Paus. v,
11, 2.), on the Parthenon, in the reUef in Zoega, Bass, i, 1. Hirt, Bild. ii.
s. 121. Tf 14, 1. (Zeus, Alpheus as man, .ffllian V. H. u, 33., Olympias,
Poseidon, Isthmias).
The Dodonoean Z. on coins of Pyrrhus in Mionnet, Descr. pi. 71, 8.
[B. Braun recognises him Dekaden i, 4, in a herma at Berlin, crowned
with oak-leaves] ; the female figure enthroned, with polos and sceptre,
with her drapery drawn over the shoulder in the manner of Aphrodite, is
certainly the Dodonsean Dione. Heads of Zeus and Dione are seen to
gether on coins of the Bpirotes ; behind, an Epirote /SoSj ^ovqiog >.xqiv6g,
N.-Brit. 6, 14., comp. 16, Mionnet Suppl, iii, pi, 13, AUier de Haute
roche 5, 18, The Capitoline Jove is without a wreath on the denarii of
the gens Petilia,
6, Z. <bi'Kiog, as Dionysus, but with the eagle on the thyrsos, sculptur
ed by Polyclitus, Paus, viii, 31, 2, On coins of Tarsus with sceptre or
thunderbolt in the right hand, ears of corn and grapes or a cup in the
left, Tolken, Berl. Kunstbl, i, s, 175, On Pergamenian coins, under this
name, with a. goblet in the right and sceptre in the left, Eckhel SyUoge,
p. 36. Z. ithyphaUic Boissard vi, 127, Clarac pi, 404. n, 692 c. ; Z. with
spring fiowers in his crown, Panofka Z, und .^gina s. 6, Z. "Opcfiqiog
showering upon the earth from a cornucopia, on an Bphesian coin of
Antoninus Pius, Seguin, Sel, Num. p. 154., Eckhel D. N. ii. p. 614. J. Plu-
vius from the Col. Anton. G, M. 9, 41. Z. with cornucopia often on later
coins. The Zeus Apomyios on gems (Winck. M. I. no. 13.) is now ex
plained more correctly by Kohler, Masken, s. 13.

424 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Zeus as central point of the universe, sitting with the thunderbolt, sur
rounded by the sun and moon, earth and sea and the zodiac, beautiful
coin max. mod, of Nicasa, under Anton. Pius, Mionnet Suppl. v, p. 78,
Similar coins of Alex, Severus, Pedrusi v, 21, 1, Zeus Serapis surround
ed by planets and the zodiac, on Egyptian coins under Antoninus Pius,
Mem, de PAc. des Inscr. xU. p. 522. pi. 1, 11. Gem in Lippert i, 6. Of
Zeus as planet §, 399,
J. Exsuperantius richly draped, with cornucopia and patera on later
reUefs ; on a gem of the archaising style, Millin Pierr, grav, 3, Here a
butterfiy sits upon the patera, Comp. Winck. v. s. 229. Veiled (as a
hidden deity?) in the Samian terracotta, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. i, 1.; PCI.
V, 2. ; Lippert i, 9; ; at the same time with chaplet of oak-leaves and
winged thunderbolt ? M. Odesc. 33. 'Winded, Winck. iu. s. 180. Of Zeus
Hades §. 397.
7. Z. l,rqxriog, Axfiqxvlei/g, of Mylasa and the neighbouring towns, an
antique idol with double axe and lance, entirely draped, see for example
Buonarroti, Medagl. tv. 10, 10. Z. Ammon on coins of Cyrene, Aphytis
and other Greek cities, Alexandria, and Rome, on gems. J. Axur or An
xur of Terracina, without beard, crowned with rays, enthroned, on coins,
G. M. pi. 9—11. J. Dolichenus §. 241. R. 2. Z. Casius §. 240. R. 1.
1 351. In larger compositions Zeus sometimes appears re
presented as a child, in accordance with the Cretan mythus,
which Hesiod had already blended and reconciled with the usual
2 Greek notions; sometimes as securing to himself the domi
nion of the world by his combat with the giants (the war with
the Titans, which was much earlier and much more frequently
sung, not being a subject for the plastic art), whom he usually
3 smites down with thunderbolts from his battle-chariot. Now,
since Zeus, after having attained sovereign sway, seldom in
terferes in the perplexities of life, there only remain as greater
representations his various amours, which sprang for the
4 most part from early natural religion. In Io, who sometimes
appears as a cow, and sometimes as a virgin with the horns of
a cow, and in the figure of Europa carried by the bull, with
her drapery fluttering round her in the form of an arch, art
adhered pretty faithfully to the ancient symbolical ideas;
however it brings Europa to Zeus in eagle's form, in a more
lascivious relation, which, in the love of Zeus as a swan for
Leda (a favourite subject of art, now become luxurious, in
the Macedono-Roman period), degenerates into an almost un-
5 disguised representation of drunken voluptuousness. The in
trigues of Zeus also furnished poetry and painting with materi-
6 als for comical representations. The rape of the beautiful boy
Ganymede forms a kind of counterpart to the story of Leda.
7 — Among the collocations of Zeus with other deities, the Capi-
' toline group, Juno on the left and Minerva on the right of
Jupiter, is of especial importance. Figures of Victories, Fates,
X Graces and Hours, as parerga of figures of Zeus, are as it were

ZEUS, DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS. 425
expositions of his sublime attributes and the different phases
of his being.
1. The infant Zeus under the goat Amalthea, Rhea present, the Cu-
retes making a din, on the four-sided altar, M. Cap. iv, 7. G. M. 6, 17.
[The child in the lap of the nymph, and the child lying on the ground
between and among the noisy Curetes M. d. I. iii, 17. Ann. xii. tv. k. p.
141. and Campana Opere di plastica tv. 1. 2.] The child beside the mo
ther in a grotto, Curetes (Corybantes) around, on coins of Apamea, Mion
net no. 270. (Bossifere Med. du Eoi, pi. 29.) ; the infant surrounded by
noisy Curetes on Imperial coins of Magnesia and Mseonia (Mon. d. Inst.
49 A 2.; comp. §. 396.). J. Crescens on Amalthea G. M. 10, 18. J. and
Juno as sucklings of Portuna at Prseneste, Cic. de div. ii, 41. comp. Ger
hard Ant. Bildw. Tf 2. Z. as a boy at .^gion.
2. Z. Gigantomachos in his chariot, on the famous cameo of Athenion,
in the Royal coUection at Naples (Bracci, Mem. degli ant. Incisori i, 30.
Tassie, pL 19, 986. Lipp. iu, 10. M. Borb. i, 53, 1. G. M. 9, 33.), of
which there is a copy at Vienna (Eckhel Pierr. Grav. 13, comp. Lipp. i,
13.) ; on a coin of Cornelius Sisenna (Morelli Corn. tb. 5, 6.) ; in a fine
vase-painting, Tischb. i, 31. [Elite ceramogr. i, 13.; Zeus with a hawk
on his left hand, advances against Porphyrion, with a thunderbolt in his
upUfted right hand, a vase from Vulci, engraved in Dubois Antiq. de M. le
C. Pourtalfes no. 123. p. 27.] ; on the peplos of the Dresden PaUas. Z. hand
to hand with a giant, on a paste, SchUchtegroU 23. ; thus also on a coin
of Diocletian, Walsh, Essay on Anc. Coins, p. 87. no. 19. On the giants,
from whom Typhceus is scarcely to be distinguished, comp. §. 396,
4, Zeus's love for Io the Argive priestess of Hera, and originally god
dess of the moon, interestingly represented in the vase-painting, MiUin
gen, CoU. de Cogh. pi, 46, ; we see the wooden image of Hera, Io as 'Ttxq-
iiivog fiovxeqag (Herod, ii, 41.), Z. stiU beardless, with the eagle-sceptre.
Comp. §. 363, 2. The lo-cow guarded by Argus, on gems, M. Flor. i, 67, 3.
Lipp. ii, 18. SohlichtegroU 30. comp. Moschos ii, 44. and §. 381. An in
teresting mural painting from Pompeu, M. Borb. x, 2. Io (as Ti-xq^ivog
liovxeqag) borne by the NUe and greeted by Bgypt, who holds the Urseus-
serpent in the hand, and Egyptians, brandishing sistra. Near them sits
the new-born Epaphus as Horus. [Harpocrates according to Quaranta.
The same representation repeated there.] Interesting ApuUan vase-paint
ing, Argus covered aU over with eyes. [Now in Panofka Argos Panoptes
B. 1835. Tf 3. Large vase-painting from Ruvo, with many other monu
ments. M. d. I. ii, 59. Ann. x. p. 263 — 66. by Cav. Gargallo Grimaldi,
together with a list of the monuments referring to the subject p. 328.,
comp. also p. 312 ss. and Minervini in the BuU. Napol. iii. p. 42 — 46., who
also gives p. 73. tv. 4. an Argos bifrons, who was only known from the
.aigimius, with eyes over his whole body. This subject appears twice on
archaic vases in the Revue Archeol. 1 846. iii. with explanation by Vi
net p. 309 — 20. The slaying of Argos also on a plate now in England,
Gerhard Archaol. Zeit. 1847. Tf 2. s. 18. See §. 381. R. 7.]
Love for Europa, a Cretan goddess of nigbt and the moon (Bottiger
Kunstmythol. s. 328. Hoeck, Kreta i. s. 83. Welcker, Kret. Kolonie,
s. 1 ff.). Buropa on Zeus as the Bull, ancient bronze statue by Pythago
ras (Varro de L. L. v, 6. §. 31.) On coins of Gortyna we see Buropa

426 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
borne by the bull (N. Brit. 8, 12. Bottiger Tf 4, 8.), then sitting on the
plane on the banks of the Lethseus, whose withered branches seem to bud
afresh, Z. as eagle beside her (N. Brit. 8, 10. 11.); the eagle also presses
close to her bosom (Mionnet Suppl. iv. pi. 10. 1 .) : the so-caUed Hebe, Lipp.
ii, 16. SchUchtegroU 38., is perhaps to be explained from this. B. stroking
the bull, ancient coins of Phsestus, Streber Munchner Denkschr. Philol. i.
Tf 2, 5 ; E. on the plane, coins of Myrine (V. M.), Streber ibid, 6, 7. She
is seen also on the bull with fluttering drapery, on later coins of Sidon
(SanClem, 16, 162. 153, 36, 6, 7. N, Brit, 12, 6,), and denaru of the gens
¦Volteia, MoreUi no, 6, Comp, the [fictitious] picture (Achil, Tat. i, 1,) in
the sepulchre of the Nasones in BartoU 17, ; the vase-paintings, Millin
gen Div, coU. 25, [EUte c6ramogr. i, 27, ; an unedited one, ibid, pi. 28.] ;
MiUin, Vas, ii, 6, ; Ann, d, Inst, iii, p 142, [Gerhard Auserl, Vas, ii, 90,
Vasi Feoli no. 3, B, on the buU repeated on both sides, one from .Sgi-
na, now in Munich, an amphora from Ruvo very fine, BuU. 1844, p, 94,
The Barberini mosaic in TurnbuU pi, 11, and in d' Agincourt pi, 13, 8, one
from Luoeria, Finati M, Borbon. p, 334, The Vatican group in Clarac pi.
406, no, 695, is a Nike fiov^vrovtrx. B. on the bull, Eros crowns her, a
dog leaps before her, a youth with a garland, one with a lance, and a
satyr at each side, SmaU amphora in B, Braun. In TurnbuU's Treatise
on anc, painting 1740, pi. 8, a painting in a large style, B, carried off,
with eight beholders, mostly maidens,] Gems, Beger, Thes, Brand, p,
195, ; Lipp, i, 14, (15, 1) ; SchUchtegroU 29,
Zeus as the swan embracing Zeda. C, Fea, Osserv, sulla Leda, 1802,
[ed. 2, 1821.], in which six similar statues are engraved. M. Flor. iii, 3. 4.
[MiUin Mag. encycl. 1803. v. p. 404.] In these statues the swan is often
more like a goose, perhaps not without aUusion to Priapian sacra (Bot
tiger Here, in bivio, p. 48.). Ad. Fabroni on this account referred these
statues to Lamia Glaucia who was beloved by a gander. Grandly con
ceived group St. di S. Marco ii, 5. ; a perfectly similar relief, from Argos,
is preserved in the Brit. Museum. [0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. Tf 1. s. 6.
To the statues of Leda with the swan ibid. s. 2. must be added three
more, — a pretty good copy in London in Lansdowne House, in the statue
galleiy, another at Oxford, and one from Spain Antiq. Pourtalfes, no. 37.]
Clarac pi. 411 — 13. [An injured lilosaic floor at Xanthus contains the
finest composition, of which there is a drawing in Sir C. Fellows, Leda
stands surprised by feeUng and shame, stretching out her arms, the
swan picks at her blue peplos.] On gems in very different postures
(Veneris figurse) Tassie, pL 21. ; Lipp. i, 16 ff. ii, 8 ff. ; Eckhel P. gr. 34.
—Pitt. Ere. ui, 89. M. Borbon. x, 3.
Zeus enclasping Antiope on an Etruscan mirror, Inghir. ii, 17. ; the
satyr in whose form he stole upon her stands by. Z. himself also as a
satyr, on gems, Lippert. i, 11. 12. Zeus as eagle carrying away .^^iraa (?),
Vaseng. Tischb. i, 26. Panofka Zeus und JEgina B. 1836. On the Ber
lin vase Tf i, 1. [Elite c6ramogr. i, 17.] .Slgina is confounded with Hebe
Ganymeda and cosmically interpreted, completely without foundation.
Tf ii, 6. [Elite i, 16.] from Tischbein i. 26. Panofka also refers thereto
the figure sitting on the floor with an eagle, " Sun and Fire eagles," above ;
these gems belong to the last period of antiquity, before the body-re
solving Psyche ; but see Tf ii, 4 ; Buropa on coins of Gortys D. A. K. i,
41, 186. is ThaUa-jSgina, mere sports. [Vase in the Mus. Gregor. with

ZEUS, DIFFEBENT REPRESENTATIONS. 427
the names by Melchiorri in the Atti doU' Accad. Rom. di Archeol. viii. p,
389 — 434, also in E, Braun Ant, Marmorwerke i, 6, together with a simi
lar one from the Durand coUection, Zeus in person, and together with
the fragment of a reUef of peculiar composition,] The golden shower of
Danae in a Pompeian picture, Zahn 68. M. Borb, ii, 36, [Vase of Cav,
Campana from Csere, of grand design. Danae under the golden shower,
Rv. D. enclosed in the chest, the child in her lap, Dictys and Polydectes
standing before her, to whom she speaks of the feeUngs of a mother in a
fragment of Euripides. BuU, 1846, p, 214—18,] On Semele §, 384.
6. Zeus and Hermes entering the house of Alcmenet, after a farce of
Lower Italy, Winck. M. I, 190, HancarviUe iv, 105. Comp, the author's
Dorians ii, 367, The same scene, but without the attributes of the gods,
on the variegated vase M, Pourtalfes pi, 10,, Zeus mounting the ladder.
On the coffer of Cypselus was to be seen the winning of Alcmena by
means of a cup,
6, On Ganymedes §. 128. 1. Separate statues POl. ii, 35. Piranesi
21. ; M. Flor. 5, (much restored). The rape, St, di S, Marco ii, 7, Caylus
ii, 47, 3, SchUchtegroU Pierr. grav, 31. Giving drink to the eagle,
PCI, V, 16,, frequently on gems, Lipp. i, 21 ff. Thes. Ant. Grec. i, v.
Zeus kissing Ganymede on a Herculanean painting (or one substituted
by Mengs), Winck. v. Tf 7., comp. Luc. Dial. Deor. 5. Gan. instructed
by Aphrodite, G. M. 146, 533. Clarac pi. 107—110. M. Borbon. v, 37.
Impr. d. Inst. Cent, iu, 4. [0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 12 — 46. Statue of
Ganymede or Paris, leaning, with thick staff, Bouill. ii, 13. The ravish
ing eagle of colossal size, d' Agincourt Fragm. en t. cuite pi. 6. Vase-
painting, M. Gregor. u, 14, 2. from Passeri in the Elite ceramogr. i, 18,
G. with trochus, as in the fine judgment of Paris an amphora in Berlin
and on the vase with Pelops and CEnomaus in Naples, Zeus running after
him ; BuU. Napol. v, tv. 2. p. 17. Vase from Guathia, Zeus seizing G. with
trochus. Eros, Hermes, crowning the unwinged Nike ; other vase-paint
ings are also there referred to ; Gerhard Auserles. Vasen i, 7. G. winged
pouring out, Zeus and Hera enthroned, Athena, Poseidon, Hermes ; Bull.
1847. p. 90. G. serving as cupbearer on a cylix. On a large and beautiful
amphora in the possession of Baron Lotzbeck [now of the Cav, Campana in
Rome], Zeus, who is striding after G, has, like an Asiatic monarch, a
sceptre and a broad magnificent talar. G, with trochus and a favourite
bird half concealed under his cloak, is restored after another vase. On a
large crater at Rome the boy fleeing, a swan eagerly pursuing him, the
father with warning finger opposite ; above them Zeus, Bros, Aphrodite
(Rv, Dionysus, A small fragment contains PANTMHAHS and the neck
of a swan,]
7, The three Cap, gods on coins of Trajan, VaiUant Med, de Camps.
p. 13. In a pediment (after a relief?) Piranesi, Magnificenza, p. cxcviii.
On lamps in BartoU ii, 9. (where the Capitoline deities are conceived as
governors of the universe) ; Passeri, i, 29, Gems in Tassie i, p, 83, The
reUef BouiU, iu, 62, exhibits a sacrifice before the Capitoline temple in its
later Corinthian architecture. The symbols of the three gods together
on gems, Impr, d, Inst, ii, 66,
8, The throne of the Olympian Zeus was supported by Victories, the

428 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
benign head surrounded by Graces and Hours placed on the back ; in
the Megarian Z, (Paus i, 40, 3,) the Hours and Fates stood in the same
place, [Zeus andNike Stackelb. Graber tf 18, 'EUte ceramogr. i, 15,
23, or Hebe 20, 21. Z. and Hera enthroned, Hermes and Dionysus be
hind. Hestia and Ariadne standing before them, ibid. pi. 22. Childhood
of Z. terracotta in Canina Tusculo tv. 53.]

2. HERA.
1 352. In several sanctuaries of Greece, which all however
seem to have been derived from Argos, Hera was the female
being corresponding to Zeus, the spouse of the god of heaven.
2 The marriage with him, which is the source of nature's bounty,
constitutes her essence ; in reference to it, Hera is conceived
in the legends as in different stages, as virgin, bride, and spouse,
also as separated from her consort and resisting him ; the god-
3 dess even becomes thereby the goddess of marriage. As a
genuine married wife {xov^i&iri aXo^og) in contrast to concubines,
and, at the same time, as powerful queen of the gods, she re
ceived a proud and stern character in the ancient poets; this
the formative art, which did not venture to adopt the harsher
features of antique poesy, retained only so far as -was recon-
4 cileable with the noblest idea of the consort of Zeus, The
principal attribute of Hera, from the earliest times, was the
VEIL which the betrothed virgin {vufL(peuo/jbetri) draws around her
as the symbol of her separation from the rest of the world ; in
old wooden statues it often concealed the entire figure ; Phidias
also characterizes Hera in the frieze of the Parthenon, by the
5 throwing back of the veil (the bridal dvaxaXwrrii^ia). Add to
this the disc, more circular in ancient idols, afterwards cut
away more deeply at the sides; the former was called joofos, the
latter stephane; the colossal statue by Polyclitus and other older
temple-statues had, instead, a sort of crown called Stephanos,
with figures of the Hours and Graces in relief This statue
held, in the one hand, a pomegranate, as an indication of the
great deity of nature, in the other, a sceptre with a cuckoo on
6 the point. The countenance of Hera, as it was established
probably by Polyclitus, presents forms qf unfading bloom and
ripened beauty, softly rounded without too much plumpness,
awe-inspiring, but free from ruggedness. The forehead; en
compassed with hair flowing obliquely down, forms a gently
arched triangle; the rounded and open eyes look straight for-
7 ward. The figure is blooming, completely developed, altoge
ther without defect, that of a matron who always continues
to bathe, as is related of Hera, in the fountain of virginity.
8 The costume is a chiton, which merely leaves the neck and
arms bare, and an himation, which lies around the middle of

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HERA. 429
the figure ; in statues of improved art the veil is for the most
part thrown towards the back of the head, or omitted alto
gether. 1. Bottiger, Grundriss der Kunstmythol. Abschn. 2. ['Elite ceramogr.
i, 29 — 36, wherein most of the ideas are doubtful or undefined.]
4. Homer, II. xiv, 176., besides the braided hair and the ixvov with
the ^iovn, speciaUy mentions also the Argive idol §. 68. R. 2. 351. R. 3.
and the white, sun-bright Kredemnon of Hera. Of the Samian Hera of
Smilis §. 69. ; according to the early Greek form, Hera is a well enveloped
figure, whose himation at the same time covers the head, and is elegantly
held and drawn close with the hands. Thus also in the hieratic style
(with Zeus and Aphrodite) on the relief in the L. 324. M. Frang. ii, 1.
M. Nap. i, 4. Clarac, pi. 200. Libanius also "Ex(f>q. 22. (comp. Petersen,
De Libanio ii. p. 8.) speaks of the veil of a statue of Hera, in reference to
the goddess of marriage. [The Hera of the CapitoUne weU with the 12
gods, Mus. iv, 22. Meyer and Winck. W. iii. Tf 4.] The Sirens which
the ancient image of Hera of Coronea, by Pythodorus, held in its hand
(Paus. ix, 34, 2.), had also perhaps reference to Hymenasus. Hera car
ries a lion on her hand on a Nolan vase, probably after a religious idol,
Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. i, 33. In other instances she has an apple or a
pomegranate in her hand (on vases from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 147,),
also on the sceptre, on the vase §, 99, No, 6.
6, The step/tane of Hera, Athen, v, 201 c, ; whence perhaps evirre^xvog
in Tyrtseus ; on the form comp, above §, 340, B. 4, It has always a re
semblance to the front-plate of the helmet which was likewise so caUed,
The polos in the Samian terracotta figure in Gerhard Ant, Bildw, i, 1.
On the Stephanos of the Polyclitan Hera §, 120, R, 2,
6. Here the colossal head of the viUa Ludovisi especiaUy constitutes the
basis ; see Winck. iv. tf 7 b. Meyer tf 20. Hirt 2, 5. Similar the bust at
Versailles, M. Nap. T. i. pi. 5. A head in a more pleasing style from paL
Pal. Pontini now in the Vatican M. d. Inst. ii. tav. 52. Abeken, Ann. x. p.
20. A colossal head at Florence in a sterner manner (probably for distant
view) with very prominent sharp-angled eyeUds, Winck, iv, s. 336, The
stephane has here the round excisions and knobs on the points, as is
often the case ; it is adorned with roses. Head of Hera from PrEeneste
with high stephane, similar to the polos in Guattani M. 1. 1787. p. xxxiii.
Two fine busts at Naples, M, Borb, v, 9, [On one of these, extremely
beautiful, see H. Brunn in the BuUett. 1846, p, 122 — 28,] A bust in
Sarsko-Selo, [colossal, is placed above the Ludovisi one by Kohler in the
Journal von Russland i. s, 342 sq, probably the head, which was found at
PantaneUo and was sent to Russia, DaUaway Anecdotes of the Arts in
Engl, p, 370. Two other heads in VUla Ludovisi, Meyer on Winck, iv, s,
334, One with the sphendone Spec, i, 24, taken for Atys in the Prelim,
Dissert, s. 73, Heads of Hera from coins, Clarac pi, 1002.]
7. As to statues there are none of the highest order of excellence. In
Clarac pi, 414 — 423, there are many things that have no relation to Hera.
The Barberini statue, PCI. i, 2, [Opere div, ii, p, 426,] Piranesi, Statue
22, (the head in Morghen tv, 2. 3.), has a mild expression, and a striking-
freedom of costume. Similar that of Otriooli PCI. ii, 20, From the ruins

430 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
of Loriuin, with stephane and veU POl, i, 3, M, Chiaram, i, 7, with crown
on the forehead, veil behind. A head Impr. gemmar. Cent, iv, 6. The
CapitoUne, not perfectly certain, from the viUa Cesi, in Maffei Race. 129,
M, Cap. iu, 8. M, Frang, u, 3. BouiU. i, 2. The Farnesian, M. Borb. ii,
61. [A colossal statue, not perfectly preserved, completely corresponding
with this one, found in the neighbourhood of Ephesus. It wa& taken to
Vienna, Kunstbl. 1838. no. 35.] That in the M. Flor. is very much re
stored. Bronze figure with the pomegranate and the indented stephane.
Ant. Bro. vi, 3. (no. 67. can hardly be Juno). A relief figure noble in style
PCI. iv, 3. A sedent Juno on coins of Chalcis under L, Verus, HPA,
Eckhel N. Anecd, tb, x, 20.
1 353. The representation of Hera exercising the duties of
a mother is very rare; the queenly matron has banished the
2 mother in the conception of the goddess. In Italy the idea of
Juno passed over into that of the genius of marriageable
3 women, which Juno was likewise called. Altogether Juno
was a leading personage in the Italian mythology; a quite
peculiar mode of representing her, the Lanuvian or Sospita,
could not be expelled even among the Romans by Greek art
4 and mythology. In representations of human life, Hera ap
pears constantly interfering as the protectress of the marriage
bond, as Zeuxia or Pronuba giving away the wife to the
husband. 1. A Hera giving suck (she is recognised by the stephane) in Winck.
M. I. 14. PCI. i, 4. ; according to Visconti her suckling is Mars, as on a
coin of Julia Mammsea. [Vase with Hera suckling Hercules, Bull. Na
pol. i. p. 6.]
2. Thus the bronze. Ant. Ere. vi, 4. with high stephane, patera and
cornucopia, of a certain individual expression, appears to represent the
Juno of a particular matron. On this account also the peacock, which
was perhaps first consecrated to Hera in Samos, bears the empresses (Ju
no Augustse) up to heaven on Roman Imperial coins, as the eagle does
the emperors.
3. The costume of Juno Sospita is a goat skin around the body, a
double tunica, calceoli repandi, lance and shield. The form was very
well known to the Romans, Cic. N. D. i, 29., and frequently occurs on
family coins, see above §. 196. R. 4. and Stieglitz N. fam. Rom. p. 39.,
often with the virgin feeding the Lanuvian serpent. Statue POl. ii, 21.
G, M, 12, 50, comp. Gerhard Beschr. Roms ii, u. s, 229, [Mus. Capit. iii,
5., Lor. R6, Scult. del Mus. Capit. Scala tv. 2. T. i. p. 207. where the in
scription on the socle, left out by Bottari, and the goat skin converted
by him into a veU, are restored. Also on the large round ara in ViUa
PamfiU, Winck. W. v. S. 283.] Head of J. Moneta, with the instruments
for coining on the reverse, on denarii of the gens Carisia. — H. as queen of
heaven encircled with stars, sitting on a throne, Lipp. i, 25. Tassie, pi.
21. So-caUed heads of Juno on gems are rarely so in reality.
4. Hera as goddess of marriage on vases from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. iii.
p. 38. On Roman monuments J. Pronuba stands frequently in the back-

POSEIDON; DIFFERENT FORMS. 431
ground between the bride and bridegroom, bringing them together, §.
429. Groupings with other deities : beautiful relief from Chios which
represents Zeus and Hera enthroned, together with a third figure (Se
mele ?), Ant. of Ionia i. p. iv. With Zeus and Athena §. 361. R. 7. My
thic collocations §. 367. R. 3. 378. R. 4. Dione, the goddess of Dodona, %
Specim, ii, 23,, bronze figure, with a bird, which rather resembles a Nu-
midian hen than a dove, on her head.

o, POSEIDON,

354. Poseidon was originally the god of water in general, 1
in so far as it could be conceived as a masculine, active prin
ciple; he was also the god of rivers and fountains, and, there
fore, the horse, which from the earliest times stood among the
Greeks in close relation to fountains, was his symbol. This 2
idea of the god, however, although it gave rise to individual
representations in art, did not become the basis of the artistic
form of Poseidon in general ; for even in the Homeric poesy, 3
in regard to him the idea of sea-god prevails, and therefore,
that of a deity who, although lofty and powerful, yet wants
the tranquil majesty of Zeus, has rather something abrupt and
violent both in his mental and corporeal movements, and is
accustomed to manifest a certain wilfulness and ill-humour,
which sometimes degenerate in his sons (Neptuni filii) into
insolence and rage. Art however, from its dependence on 4
the religious worship, must necessarily revert to the common
fundamental character of all gods, and soften and moderate
the poetical conception accordingly ; in earlier times especially,
Poseidon was for the most part represented in lofty repose,
and carefully draped even in combat; although, however, he
was even at that time also sculptured entirely naked, and in
violent action. The flourishing period of Greek art unfolded 5
the idea more characteristically (by what artists is unknown,
probably in an especial manner at Corinth); it gave to Po- 6
seidon, with a somewhat more slender structure of body, a
stronger muscular development than to Zeus, which is gen
erally rendered very prominent by the posture, and to the
countenance more angular forms, and less clearness and repose
in the features; his hair also is less flowing, more bristling
and disordered, and the pine-wreath forms for it a fitting, al
though not frequently used, ornament. A dark-blue, black- 7
ish colour {xodnov) is usually ascribed to his hair, often even
to the entire form of Poseidon.
2. A Poseidon yeaqyog, standing with a plough, yoke and prora in a
picture in Philostr. ii, 17.
4. P. draped, very similar to Zeus, on the altar of the twelve gods ;

432 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
on the vase from Volci §. 356. R. 4. ; also in the combat with Ephialtes
§. 143, 1. ; on the contrary the Poseidon of Poseidonia was naked §.
355, 3.
6. The grandest figure in the west pediment of the Parthenon, from
the studio of Phidias, standing, according to Carrey's drawing, with out
spread feet, with swelUng veins on the breast, §. 118. [Marbr. du C,
Elgin p. 20 sq,] Of two Corinthian figures of P, on the Isthmus and at
Cenchrese §, 262, R, 3, A P. found together with a Hera at Corinth,
Winck. vi. s. 199., at Ildefonso, according to Heyne's Vorles. s. 202. In
Tenos there were statues of P. and Amphitrite nine cubits high, by Te-
lesias the Athenian, according to Philochorus p. 96.
6. A head of P. which shows the disordered hair, perhaps from Ostia,
M. Chiar, 24. The P. on the arch of Augustus at Ariminum of distin
guished merit (§. 190, 1, ii.). The bronze of a P. standing and leaning
on a kontos, of a particularly savage appearance, has very raised and
wildly disordered hair. Ant. Ere. vi, 9. The head of a Medicean statue^
has also a very fierce character, Winck. W. iv. s. 324. Tf. 8 a. On the
other hand most of the heads on coins, for example that of the Bruttii
(Nohden 1.), where P. has a diadem as often occurs (Tassie, p. 180.), have
a milder expression (plaoidum caput, in the beautiful and expressive pas
sage in VirgU). [Looking over the sea on coins of Solus.] The head on
the coin of Antigonus has the sublimest form, D. A. K. 52, 231. [Clarac
pi. 1002. no. 2723. A mask in variegated alabaster at Parma, resembling
Zeus, haughty, with reed-leaves in his hair, M. d. I. iii. tv. 15, 4. Ann.
xii. p. 120. Head of P. d'Agincourt Fragm. en terre cuite pi. 3., Guattani
1784, p. xiv. tv. 3. A herma of the M. Borbonico Clarac pi. 749. B.]
355. Yet the modifications of the fundamental character,
are in Poseidon of all others so considerable, even in works of
early Greek art, that it is not always easy to hold fast what
is general. They are in close connexion with the different
postures of the body. The following are the principal forms,
besides the general attitudes usual in all gods: 1st, that of
the god standing erect; 2d, enthroned; 3d, the naked, vio
lently striding Poseidon, with brandished trident, the rock-
splitter and earth-shaker, iwoalyaiog, enei-^^m; 4th, the deity
draped, and swiftly but softly striding over the surface of the
sea, a peaceful ruler of the realm of billows; 5th, naked,
planting the right leg on a rock, a prora or a dolphin, leaning
thereon and looking abroad, a victor in combat and ruling
over the vanquished ; 6th, half-draped, with slighter elevation
of the foot, standing in tranquil dignity inclined backwards a
little, perhaps an establisher and tranquillizer, ds(pdXiog.
1) That of Cenchrese with the dolphin in the right and the tri
dent in the left hand was a P. oqBog, as was also the P. Heliconius with
the Hippocampon in the right hand, Strab. viii. p. 384. Statue PCI. i.
33. G. M. 91. not restored in a perfectly certain manner. [Clarac. pi.
743. no. 1796. Another of the Coke collection, pi. 744. no, 1796, A, pi,
749, B, from the Bronzi d'Ercol,]

POSEIDON, AND HIS CIRCLE, 433
2) P, sitting, on coins of the Boeotians with dolphin on the right,
trident in the left hand; crowned, Mionnet PI, 72, 7, Meyer Tf 30 D,
Also on coins of Demetrius Pol, with aplustre, Mionn, PI. 70, 9,
3) ' Pij^s/ yoiJv 6 n. TJi rqixlvfi rd oqn, Philostr, ii, 14. " Here the
right side was drawn in and pushed forward at the same time ; not the
hand merely but the whole body threatened the thrust." The bursting
of the mountains was in the spirit of ancient art anticipated in this
picture. Comp. Claud, R, P. ii, 179. Poseidon appears exactly so, in
antique style, on the numi incusi of Poseidonia, PaoU R. di Pesto tv.
68—62. G. M. 62, 293.
4) P. marching thus, with trident and dolphin in his hands, on the
base of the candelabra, in hieratic style, PCI. iv, 32. G. M. 62, 297.
(Similar in other hieratic works, Winck. M. I. no. 6.). [The trident on
his shoulder, Mon. Matth. iu. tv. 10, 1.] Perhaps the n. "E^toVthj, which
Paus. mentions.
5) P. with his right foot planted on a rook, a small statue in Lord
GuUdford's coUection ; in Dresden 312. Aug. 47. [on a dolphin, another
Leplat 61, August. 40, in Clarac pi. 743, 1798. 1795. and in the Vatican
pi. 744, 1797.] ; in the reUef Zoega 1. ; on the coins of -Demetrius, Mion
net, PI. 70, 10. ; often on gems (Tassie 2640 sqq. Lipp. i, 119.). On a
prora, on Roman coins, for example those of Sextus Pompeius (§, 196, R,
4.), where he holds the aplustre in his right hand ; also on gems. On a
coin of Titus, G. M, 56, 296,, P, as a ruler of the world has the globe
as a pedestal. The statue of Anticyra haa, also this posture ; here the
foot rested on the dolphin ; the opposite hand held the triasna, Paus. x,
36, 4, Lastly the chief statue of the Isthmus (Eckhel P, gr, 14.) had this
attitude ; here P. raises with the left hand a piece of drapery which falls
upon the left thigh ; a fountain flows from a rock.
6) A P. of this kind with a Zeus-like character, late indeed, but
wrought after a good model, in Dresden 135. Aug. 40. P. with sea
horses, attacking in proud attitude. Coins Morelli N. Cons. tb. 24, 14.
A head of P. with elegantly braided hair, ibid. — The P. Satrapes of the
Eleans was an oriental figure, Paus. vi, 25, 6. ; perhaps identical with
HeUos-Satrapes, Libanius, p. 293. R.
356. Poseidon has around him his own circle of beings, 1
his Olympus, in the centre of which he stands as Dionysus in
that of the Satyrs and Maanads, Zeus in that of all the upper
world of deities (comp. §. 402.). He was to be seen in groups 2
of statues, and he is now seen especially on smaller works of
art, with Amphitrite, his spouse for the realm of waters (for
his marriage properly so-called was according to ancient belief
solemnized with the Earth), and all his wanton and fantasti
cally formed chorus. The lover of Poseidon, who gave occa- 3
sion to the most beautiful conceptions of art, was the Argive
daughter of Danaos, and fountain nymph Amymone, through
whom the god caused the thirsting Argos to abound in waters.
In the battle with the giants he shoAvs the earth-shaking and 4
overturning might of his triasna; which appears to have been 5
2 E

434 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
originally nothing more than a harpoon for the tunny fish
ing, a very considerable branch of sustenance for Greece.
2. Work of Soopas at Corinth §. 126, 5. Large group in the Isthmian
temple, consecrated by Herodes, P. and Amphitrite in the chorus of Sea-
dsemons, Paus. ii, 1. Qu, de Quincy Jup, 01. p. 372, P. with Amphitrite
in the chariot drawn by sea-horses, escorted by Tritons, on bronze coins
of Corinth. P, and Amph, on a car of Tritons ; the ocean nymph Doris
with marriage torches, and Nereids with female ornaments come to meet
them: a beautiful reUef at Munich 116, Amph. sits behind P. on the
pediment of the Parthenon; on the goblet of Sosias (§. 143, 3) ), beside
him, holding a sceptre with sea-weed. Her head with naked shoulder
and dishevelled hair (Neptune on the reverse driving with sea-horses)
on denarii of the gens Crepereia, Patin p. 95. to which correspond gems,
M. Flor. i, 85, 1 — 4. Also on the arch at Ariminum. P. in a chariot
yoked with sea-horses, encircled by Tritons, frequently on gems (many
of them new), Lipp. i, 120—122. Tassie i. p. 182. Hirt Tf 2. P. in his
sea-chariot, a splendid stone, SemUasso in Afrika ui. S. 213. On the sea
horses Voss. Mythol. Br. ii. s. 184. 221 ff. — A very fine bronze of P. in
the possession of Lord Egremont seemed to me to have held the trident
in the left and the reins in the right hand. Amalth. iii. s. 259. [P. and
Amphitrite with the names on a quadriga, 'Elite ceramogr. iii, 15.; P.
guiding winged horses, Hermes, a goddess, Gerhard Auserles. Vas, i. 10,
'Elite iu, 16; P, in a quadriga, around him Tritons, Nereids, Erotes on
sea-horses and dolphins, a mosaic fioor, Montfaucon Supplem, i. 27 ; P.
and Amphitrite, Zoega Bassir. tv, 1, ; P. with trident and a fish, Gerhard
ibid, tf 11, 'Bute iii, 4. P, also thus, Athene, Hermes iii, 13; P, handing
the fish to a youth (Pelops ?) 'Elite iii, 6. 7, 8. P. Amphitrite, with names,
and . . . nNH, sitting on a vase, a nymph, ibid. pi. 27. P. with tripod
and fish and Dionysus, both riding on buUs, Gerhard Tf 47,]
3, P, and Amymone, a group of statues at Byzantium, Christod. 65,,
in which Amym. sat and P, presented to her as a bridal gift the dolphin,
the symbol of water. Picture, PhUostr. i, 8. where P. drawn by sea
horses comes and surprises her, similarly as in gems, Bracci tv. 100. comp.
Welcker, p. 251. On others he presents her with the rock-fountain itself,
Impr. dell' Inst, i, 64. On the mural painting M. Borb. vi, 18. Amymone,
scared by the Satyr, takes refuge in the arms of P. Differently again
on vase-paintings, MiUin ii, 20. G. M. 62, 294. ; Bottiger, Amalth. ii. s.
286. ; Laborde i, 25. [M. d. I, iv, 14. 15, Cav. Gargallo-Grimaldi, Ann.
xvii. p. 38. P. pursuing xAmymone Gerh. Auserl. V. i, 11, 3. 65, 2. 'EUte
c6ramogr. iii, 20 — 22. P. stands before her and presents a fish to her
25, she has received it, 23. 24., he speaks to her as she sits on a vase, 26.
P. Amymone, Aphrodite, Eros with names, 27. Two vases with P. pursu
ing Amymone, in Barone's coll. Naples, described by Minervini Bull.
Napol. ii. p. 61. Ibid, there is p. 57. tv. 3. a remarkable vase from Basi
Ucata, P. and Amymone as it were enthroned under a water arch, a tha
lamus as Philostratus describes it Im. ii, 8. P. and Amymone Gerhard
Etr. Spiegel i, 64.] Amym. with trident and pitcher, a gem in Wicar 6.
de Flor. i, 91. P. also appears as a ravisher of virgins on coins of Cyme
(Cab. d'AlUer de Hauteroche, pi. 13, 27.) and Adramyttion (Eckhel SyU.
tb. 4, 3.). [P. pursues AI0PA, who carries a basket, M. Gregor. ii, 14, 1.

DEMETER. 435
Gerhard Auserl. V. i, ] 2., Elite iii, 5. ; ibid. pi. 19 ; the basket standing on
the ground ; she is surprised at her household work.]
4. P,'8 combat with Ephialtes (§, 143, 1), [The vase in Millingen
Anc, Mon. i, 7. 8, also D, A, K. i, 44, 208, 'Elite ceramogr. i, 5. Another
in MilUngen pi, 9, 'EUte i, 6,] Neptune, NBDVNVS, spUtting moun
tains. Cornelian from Volci, Cent, iii, 3. P. on horseback fighting with
the giant Polybotes, Paus. i, 2, 4. P, pursuing Laomedon, an Etruscan
bronze-work, Inghir. Mon, Etr, ui, 1. 17, Ragion, 6. — P, as a subordinate
figure with Buropa (§, 351. R. 3.), and at the killing of the Gorgons by
Perseus (§. 414,), Contest with Pallas §, 371. P. enthroned in his
empire, and welcoming Theseus, presents a crown to Amphitrite (Paus,
i, 17, 3.). Vase from Volci, M, I. d, Inst, 52. Explained in the same
way after Brondsted, Ann. v. p. 363. Panofka. [Luynes Vases p. 21, 22,
cf. Ann, xii, p, 253. AchiUes taking leave of his grandfather Nereus,
'Bute ceramogr. iu, 9, 10,] At the combat with Pityokamptes §, 412,
6. On the trisena, fuscina, Bottiger Amalth, ii, s, 306, ^.oyxxg in So-
phron's Thynnotheras Btym, M. p. 572, The trisena appears on coins of
Tarentum (R, Rochette's Lettre ^ Luynes, pi, 4, 37.) as a tunny harpoon.
P, as guard of the tunny-fishing, sitting on a rock, on Byzantine coins.
P., Hercules and Hermes, as protectors of a tunny watch-tower, in the
antique vase-picture in Christie, Gr, Vases, pi, 12, p, 81. [G, M, no, 466.
'Elite ceramogr. i, 14. Rathgeber in the Zeitschr, f A, W, 1839, S, 333 ff.
mostly after the sitting Hermes on coins of the sea-port Carteia, De
Witte saw on a vase of Sir B, Lyon's at Athens, an angUng Hermes, and
stated that he knew also of another vase with this representation. A
singular sardonyx in the Engr, of the princ, statues, busts, &o, of A,
BlundeU ii. pi, 151. with the subscription Merourius piscator manium.
The supposed Mercury, naked, with chlamys, without any attributes,
holds by a band round his outstretched arm, a man of equal size, half
risen out of the earth ; another similar figure rises out of the ground,]
The tunny which P, here holds in his hands he presented to Zeus giving
birth to Athena, in an ancient painting in the temple of Artemis Alpheioa
at Pisatis, Athen, vui, p, 346,, comp, with Strab. viii. p, 343,^Throne of
P. on a reUef in S, Vitale at Ravenna, Treatise by Belgrade, Cesena 1766.
Montf Suppl, i, 26, G, M, 73, 296,

4. DEMETER,

357. Demeter, who is connected with Poseidon in the sys
tem of the twelve deities here followed, as well as in several
mystical forrns of worship, is nourishing nature conceived as
a mother. The essential, fundamental feature of her wor
ship and mythus is, that she is imagined in relation to a child
whose loss and recovery are completely calculated to unfold
every phase of the maternal feeling. This character and this
relation, conceived in a purely human fashion, were laid by
improved art as the basis of its representations, after early art

436 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
had attempted to express mystical notions of natural relations
4 in sometimes very singular shapes. Although there were also
in Sicily famous statues of the goddess, the development of the
ideal of the mother and daughter probably belonged prin
cipally to the Attic school of art, and may have been partly
5 as late as that of Praxiteles. In the temple of initiation at
Eleusis, there was probably a chryselephantine statue of the
6 former goddess. Demeter appears more matronly and mother
like than Hera, the expression of the countenance, the back
part of which is concealed by an upper garment or a veil, is
7 softer and milder; the form appears, in completely envelop
ing drapery, broader and fuller, as becomes the mother of all
(¦jra/i/i^Twg, 'Tiayyevereioa). The crown of corn-ears, poppy and
ears of corn in her hands, the torches, the fruit-basket, also
8 the swine beside her, are the most certain attributes. The
goddess is not unfrequently seen enthroned, alone or with
her daughter; yet we are equally accustomed to see the fruit-
scattering deity striding along over the earth.
1. Creuzer, SymboUk Th. iv. The great antagonism in the history
of Greek reUgion, between the worship of the Chthonian and the Olym
pian gods, is reconciled in the plastic art so as that the peculiar feeUngs
of the former have found therein no correct expression,
3. Of the black D. at PhigaUa §. 83. R. 3. Early aUusive representa
tions : D. (or Cora 1) with Zeus as serpent, on coins of Selinus, Torre
muzza tb. 66, 6 — 9. D. encoiled by a serpent, her feet on a dolphin,
coins of Parion in MiUingen, Anc, Coins, pi, 5, 10. (where there is a dif
ferent explanation ; according to R. Rochette p, 412. the figure is Thetis.)
4. According to Cic. Ver. iv, 49. there were at Enna several statues
of D. together with Cora and Triptolemus. Plin. xxxvi, 4, 6. : Romse
Praxiteles opera sunt Flora (i. e. Hora), Triptolemus, Ceres in hortis
ServiUi. D. with Persephone and lacchus at Athens by Prax., Paus. i,
2, 4. In the archaising reUefs D. wears above her chiton and peplos a
wide himation and a veil, a chaplet of corn-ears, corn-ears and poppies
in her right, and the sceptre in her left hand. Strong xqmrihg distinguish
the wandering goddess.
6. The descriptions of the mystic <parxyayix and 'e-TroTrreix point at such
a statue, especiaUy Themistius in obit, patr, p. 235. Petav. A fragment
of a marble statue, head and breast, but very much restored, was brought
to Cambridge from the inner propylsea at Eleusis (Un. Ant. of Att.
ch. 3.), where it originally stood leaning against a piUar ; it is provided
with a calathos and gorgoneion (Od. xi, 632.), and has the hair slung be
hind through a ring. Copied before in Spon (Voy. ii. pL 216 sqq.) and in
Fourmont's Papers, now in Clarke, Greek marbles dep. in the publ. Ubr.
of Cambridge, pi. 4. 5. (comp. Lord Aberdeen, p. 67.) and M. Worsl. i. p.
95. According to Hirt a canephoros 1, according to Gerhard Prodr. s. 87.
Demeter-Cora. Comp. CoU. Torlonia iu, 23. Clarac pi. 443, 812. [Tes
timonies of different authors resp. the col. st. of Ceres, Cambr. 1803. 8vo.
Tliere is a Medusa on the breast of a painted figurette in Stackelberg

DEMETER; CHARACTER OF HER FORM. 437
Graber Tf 67, 1, which he erroneously caUs Athene, The goddess has a
high head-dress Uke Demeter in Panofka's Terracotten des Berl, Mus.
Tf. 53, here adorned with plants.] With an inscription of the time of
Hadrian, 0, I, 389. Kunstbl. 1831. No, 86,
6. The distinction between D. and Cora in the heads of coins is diffi
cult. It is certainly D. (as U.vT.xix) on the coins of the Amphiotyons
with the back of the head enveUed, Mionnet, PI, 72, 5. Cadalvfene, pi. 2,
18,, perhaps also the one on coins of Metapontum [Winck. W. iv. S. 119.],
with the veU, Mionnet, PI. 64, 6. Empr. 152. comp. B. Bochette, Lettre
k Luynes, pi. 34. 35. Cora is certain from the legend on coins of Aga
thocles (Empr. 332.) with hair flowing down, and as Koqn laretqx on large
bronze coins of Cyzicus (Descr. 191 sqq.), with very slender neck, neck
laces and ear-rings, hair gathered into a knot over the neck, and a gar
land of ivy and corn-ears. The fine heads on coins of Opus (Empr. 570.)
and Pheneus (662 sqq.) are doubtful, likewise the head on coins of Syra
cuse (300.) with the hair pinned up behind, as well as the head on coins
of Segeste, Nohden 8., with the hair-net round the back of the head, and
the ear of corn. [Clarac. pi, 1002, 1003. no. 2726—2736,]
7. [Theocritus vu, 167, ^qxypcxrx xxi fixxavog iv xpc0oreqfiiriv 'ix""""'-]
Clarac pi. 424 — 438, The St, Petersburg statue pi, 431, 779 is interesting,
Cora ? Certain statues of D, are rare, A colossal one with restored attri
butes PCL u, 27. M. Frang. iv, 11. BouUl. i, 3. M. Nap. i, 69. Hirt 3, 6.
That in M. Cap. iii, 9,, as weU as G, Giust, i, 29, 30, very much restored.
The one in the Louvre 235., certain, but perhaps a portrait. Perrier 70.
Borgh. St. 9, 10. BouiU. i, 6. Clarac, pi. 279. Two other Borghese sta
tues BouiU. 4. 5. comp. iu, 5, 5. Statue in BerUn, Cavac. Race, i, 53.
Amalth. u. s. 357. In Naples, Gerhard N. Ant. s. 28. Roman ladies as
Demeter and Cora §. 199. R. 7. 205. R. 4. A standing Demeter of noble
form on coins of Sardis, N. Brit, ii, 10. — In terracottas from Magna Grse
cia, particularly at Berlin, Demeter has the modius on her head, the un-
veUed cista in her left, a pig in her right hand, sometimes also a part of
her drapery Uke Triptolemus. Comp. Gothe xliv. s. 211. R. Rochette
M. I. p. 336. D, in magnificent costume, standing with large torch and
fruit-basket, WaU-painting, M. Borbon. ix, 35.
8. D, enthroned, with serpent at her feet, torch and corn-ears in her
hand, on a denarius of Memmius Quirinus who introduced the Grsecia
sacra Cereris into Rome, D. enthroned with small torch and corn-ears,
if not a restoration, Guattani 1787, Clarac' pi, 433. no. 786. ReUef in the
M. Pourtalfes pi. 18. Procession to D. with modius and flowing hair and
Cora with hair gathered up. The enthroned D. in a picture from Pom
peu is richly furnished with attributes, Zahn 25. M. Borb. vi, 54. D.
with corn-ears, serpent, ant, moon, enthroned, Gori Gemmse astrif i, 109,
comp. 107, Statue of D. enthroned with swine and cow, Mon, Matth, i,
71. Terracotta figures of both the goddesses {ra ^ea), also with lacchus
in the middle, from Prseneste, in Gerhard Ant. BUdw, 2—4,
D, striding along, holding two torches before her, with fluttering dra
pery, on imperial coins of Cyzicus. In the same way on denarii of the
gens Yibia, with the sow beside her. D. with torches and corn-ears,
rapidly borne along by a buU, Lippert. Suppl. 68.
[AEMETEP in a quadriga, guided by Apollo and Artemis, Hermes and

438 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
perhaps Athene, in a manner which characterises numerous representa
tions and which stiU requires explanation ; they refer as it seems rather
to the worship than the mythus, vase from Volci, Gerhard's Auserles. V.
i, 40. SimUar tf 53, taken for Cora, and tf 76.]
1 358. The further development of the character of Demeter,
as well in art as in the worship, depends on the relation in
which she is conceived to her daughter. In the rape of Cora
she is imagined as an enraged and heavily afflicted deity, who
pursues the ravisher with torches in her hands, and flying
drapery, in a chariot yoked sometimes with horses, generally
2 with dragons. From this violent carrying off is to be distin
guished the annually renewed leading down of Persephone,
3 and her separation from her mother. In contrast to these
scenes stand the rising up of Cora from the earth, and her
ascent to Olympus, usually under the escort of the Hora of
4 spring. The distribution of the blessings of Demeter is con
ceived as contemporaneous and closely connected with the
ascent of Cora; Triptolemus receives them from the now
appeased and gracious goddess, and on his dragon-car he scat-
5 ters them over the earth. Buzyges, a hero of agriculture
closely related to Triptolemus, also appears in connexion with
6 the goddess. The daughter of Demeter, Cora, has attained
little individuality in art, but is for the most part determined
by the more clearly characterized beings with whom she
7 stands in relation. On the one hand she is only a Demeter
in tender youth and virgin attire ; on the other she is, as the
consort of Hades, the stern empress of the nether world, a
Stygian Hera; but after her return to the upper world she is
in mystic religion the bride of Dionysus (Liber et Libera),
from whom the crowning with ivy and the Bacchian escort
8 pass over to her. The mystic Iacchus, the child of dark ori
gin, at the breast of Demeter, was a strange conception of an
cient art.
1. Numerous sarcophagi (in which the subject is taken as hope of
immortality) exhibit, either in three groups, the flower-gathering, the
rape and the pursuit, or merely two of them. See Welcker Zeitschr. i, 1.
with the appendix, Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 146. Sarcophagus at Barcelona,
Laborde Voy. Pitt. T. i, 2. Welcker Tf i, 1. 2. 3. A fine sarcophagus of
this description at Mazzara, in Houel i. pi. 14. (Buzyges also present as a
ploughman). PCI. v, 5. G. M. 86, 339. (much restored) ; M. Cap. iv, 55.
Hirt 9. 6.; Zoega Bass. 97. Creuzer. Tf 12.; G. Giust, ii, 79, 106. 118,;
BouiU, ui, 36. Clarac pi. 214. from the Villa Borghese (D. here sits on the
stone Agelastos) ; Amalth. ui. s. 247. [The sarcophagus at Aix-la-Chapelle
Jahrb. des Alterthumsverein in Bonn. v. Tf 9. UrUchs s. 373 ; that in Cat-
tajo in E. Braun's Ant. Marmorwerken ii, 4. There is one also in Raffa-
dale, eight migUe from Girgenti, in the principal church ; a fore side fixed
in with other reliefs on the front of the palace of the V. Massimo near the
Lateran, and another in London in the possession of the architest Soane,

DEMETER; CORA. 439
Descr. of the House and Museum — of Sir J. Soane L. p. 43. In painted
vases the subject is represented by that of the Hope gaUery in MUlingen
Anc. mon. pi. 16. Dubois Maisonn. pi, 20, agreeing, if not the same, with
Tischbein iu, 1 ; one in the M. Etr, du Prince de Canino no, 1690. (Pluto
carrying off Persephone, Rv, Heracles) ; the cylix from Vulci M, Gregor,
ii, 83, 2, the rape inside, with Pluto on both sides without, to whom a
pomegranate blossom is presented by a youth on the one, and a pomegra
nate on the other, Ann, xvi, p. 141 ; Cav, G;irgaUo in 1842 saw the rape
on two vases at Anzi in BasiUcata; behind Pluto Demeter with the torch
crossed-formed above, beside him a winged charioteer. Pluto pursues three
goddesses on a Biscari vase, BerUner Kunstbl. 1829, s, 68, On an Etr. vase
the rape and scenes in the infernal world, Archaol, Zeit, 1846. s, 360,]
The Homeric hymn which represents the Eleusinian legend, forms the
basis in great measure. Subordinate parts are played by Pallas and Arte
mis (V. 426,), Hecate, Helios, Hermes, the nymph of the xxXhixoqog Trnyii,
of the ipqexq xv^ivov (Cyane from Sicily according to others), Gsea, Styx,
Acheron, different Erotes (according to others Hesperus and Phosphorus).
On coins of Enna (HENNAION) Demeter is seen kindling the torch, and
then pursuing Hades in a car with horses (the earlier representation), N.
Brit. pi. 4, 5. The pursuing, torch-bearing D. in the dragon-chariot is to
be seen on coins of Athens, Stuart, Ant. ii, 2 vign., imperial coins of Cyzi
cus, Nicsea and Magnesia (where she is in very wild agitation) ; also on
denarii of the gentes Vibia and Volteia. In a Borghese statue (?) Clarac
pi. 433. no. 787. Hades and the struggUng Cora in the quadriga, a ser
pent darting its tongue from the ground, on imperial coins of Sardis and
other Asiatic cities. Picture of the descent, Bartoli Nason. 12.
2. According to PUny Prax. sculptured Proserpinse raptum, item Cat-
agusam, that is, Demeter attending Persephone to the nether world and
dismissing her. [Bringing back her daughter, so that there is no other
difference than between mythus and signification.] This is evidently the
subject of the vase-painting in Tischbein iii, 1., more complete, MiUingen
Un. Mon. i, 16., where the separation is perfectly tranquU and friendly.
3. On the reUef, BartoU Adm. 53. 2d Bd. Hirt 9, 6. G. M. 87, 341.
the caUing her out of Hades stands opposed to the rape as commence
ment- of the xvolog; the Hora of Spring is present, for it is the time of
' Av^tarviqix. [Ibid. M. di Mantova i. tv. 3. cf H. Brunn in the Rhein.
Mus. iv. s. 471 sqq.] So Ukewise on the splendid vase R. 4. Hora is with
Persephone in the «2i/o3os. On a coin of Lampsacus Cora rises out of the
earth, crowned with ears of corn and vine-leaves, MUUngen Anc. Coins 5,
7. ; in like manner she ascends in presence of Hecate, Hermes and Deme
ter, whose names stand beside them on a vase in Naples, Millingen p. 70.
ReUefs which represent the bringing back of Cora (?), Gerhard, Ant.
Bildw. i, 13. Neapels BUdw. s. 110. [The reliefs certainly not; perhaps
the archaic painting. Gerh. Auserl. V. i, 73, and the more modern one i,
76, but to which Triptol. i, 75. does not belong as tbe reverse, but Her
cules crowned by Nike, Roulez M61anges iv, 7. p. 572.] Volcentine vase-
paintings, Gerhard Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 37. Reunion of the two goddesses
on coins of Anton. Pius (Lsetitia) G. M. 48, 340.
4. The sending forth of Triptolemus appears particularly beautiful
[on a metope of the Parthenon according to Carrey's design. Brondsted

440 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Reise ii. s. 209. Tf 47, 13.], on the Poniatowsky vase, see Visconti, Le pit
ture di un antico vaso. 1794. MiUin Vases ii, 31. G. M. 62, 219. Creuzer
tf 13. Bottiger, Vasengem. viu. and ix. : at the top Zeus, to whom Hermes
announces the completion of the event ; then Cora in the avoSof ; below,
the plenty-showering D., Tript. resembUng Dionysus, and the daughter of
Celeus. Other vase-paintings represent the expedition of Tript. more
simply (wherein the attributes point more to ApoUo's return from the
Hyperboreans [this is rightly contradicted by Panofka Cab. Pourtal^s p.
86.] ). See Tischb, i, 8, 9. iv, 8, 9, Hancarv, ui, 128, Laborde 31, 40, 63.
MiUingen Un, Mon, i, 24, Panofka M, Bartold. p, 131, especiaUy the
Nolan vase, M. I. d. Inst, 4, Ann, i. p, 261, with the names Aripinrnq, Tqnr-
roXeptog, 'Exxrn, and the Volcentine one, Inghir. Pitt, di vasi fittiU 35.;
with Aepiersq, TqmroXepiog, 'neqo(pxrx (that is TJeqo-i(pxrrx). Among the
magnificent vases of Tript, we may refer to that in the M, Pourtalfes from
S, Agata de' Goti pi, 16, Demeter, Tript,, Kora, Artemis and Hecate, ac
cording to Panofka, Phoebe, Hilaira, Rv, Dionysus [as occurs frequently],
the Gualtieri vase in the Louvre, Tr, at a roe-chase, combat between
Brechtheus and Bumolpus ?, an oxybaphon from Armentum at Naples,
[Volcentine vases in Gerhard Auserl. Vas, i, 43. Tr. alone, pi. 46. 75. be
tween Demeter, Cora, Dionysus-Hades, in black figures, pL 41. Tr. guided
by Hermes, pi. 42. 44. with Dem. Cora, Hades, pi. 43 between two mor
tals. Among the surrounding goddesses perhaps here and there such as
Theoria, Mystis, Telete, (fee. A fine Triptolemus vase also Vasi FeoU no.
1. Second. Campanari Descriz. dei Vasi rinvenuti neU' isola Parnese (ant.
Veil) 1839. tv. 4, p. 25. Before the temple of Eleusis, indicated by two
Doric columns, Demeter, with 4 poppy stalks in her hand, pours out a
farewell draught to Triptolemus, who has received six corn ears; the
chariot winged, the figures finely draped, Tr. with a look of feminine
grace, the drawing singularly beautiful. There is a fine Tript. vase in the
Campana collection at Rome, perhaps the same. An archaic one in Ba
seggio (1847). Tr. with a corn-ear stands between Dem. and Cora, each
with a blossom. Campana Op. di plastica tv. 17,, Demeter sitting, with
serpent, torch, cista, Cora and Tript, standing, both with torches,] The
giving of the grain to Tript, (who is here a kind of Hermes), under the
superintendence of Zeus, is very simply but ingeniously conceived, on the
round ara from the Colonna palace, Welcker Zeitschr. i, 1, Tf 2j 1, s.
96 ff. Creuzer Tf 37, together with the different explanation s. 16,
[Guigniaut R61, de 1' Antiq, pi, 84, no. 651 b. ExpUc, p, 226.] Tript, with
the petasus of Hermes, riding in the dragon-car, coins of Athens, N, Brit.
pi. 7, 3. comp. Haym i, 21. Tript. in the car of winged dragons, scat
tering grain from his chlamys, on imperial coins of Nicsea (beautiful,
Descr. no. 233.). Hunter tb. 9, 4. The same figure appears as a Lydian
hero, Tylos, on coins of Sardis (Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 157.) (at Xanthus Thylos
kiUed by the dragon, restored by an herb. PUn. xxv, 6.) ; and also a Tript.
with Punic legend is to be found on a gem, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 37. D.
enthroned, Tript. departing in the dragon-chariot, Lipp. i. 111. The Man
tuan vase (§. 264. B. 1.) represents D., as goddess of fertiUty, issuing with
Cora from a grotto, then in the chariot with Tript, and greeted by the
Horse, [H. R, G, in the Kunstbl, 1827. s, 375,] On Germanious-Tript.
§, 200. R, 2, c, [Brondsted Reise u. s, 212,]
5, D, and Buzyges (or else Triptolemus) on a paste, SchUchtegroU

OLYMPIAN DEITIES, APOLLO, 441
39. D, head, on the reverse a yoke of oxen, on denarii of the gens Cas
sia, 6, 7. Heads of Cora §. 357. R. 6. [The sedent colossal figure of black
marble, with the modius on her head, known as Cybele, of whom it has
not the slightest indication, seems to be Cora. Cora sitting, in life size,
a pomegranate in her left hand, a flower in her right, a wall painting
from a tomb at Nola, forwarded by D. Schulz to Berlin. Heads from
coins Clarac pL 1003. no. 2737 — 2747. Among the small clay figures
from tombs, such as Pallas, Aphrodite, Demeter, we often also find Cora,
holding an apple on her breast, or sitting with a goblet in which there
are apples, for example in the fine collection of the Duca di Sperlinga at
Naples. Comp. Gerhard Ant. Bildw. Tf 96 — 99.] Persephone beside
Hades §. 397. With Dionysus in double hermae §. 383. R. 3. On a con
cord-coin of Cyzicus with Smyrna, Mionnet, Desor. 195., Cora, crowned
with ivy, holding a torch, on a oar drawn by centaurs in Bacchian pro
cession. The large Vatican cameo (§. 315. B. 5.) likewise represents
Cora, with ivy crown and ears of corn, beside Dionysus in the centaur-
chariot. A vase from Volci represents Dionysus in the early style, be
tween two burning altars, beside which stand Demeter making a Ubation,
and Cora with torches, Inghir. Pitt, di vasi fitt. 37. Another, Micali tv.
86, 4. Cora crowned with ivy, in a chariot, attended by Hermes, Dionysus
in advance, satyrs froUcking around. The Athenian sarcophagus, Montf
i, 45, 1. exhibits D. sitting between Dionysus and the restored Cora, and
the departure of Triptolemus at the same time [by De Boze in the Mem. de
PAcad. des Inscr. iv. p. 608, now in Wilton House Gerhard Ant. Bildw.
Tf 310, 1. Return of Cora -hevxiirmg ibid. Tf 316. 317.]. Comp. §. 384.
R. 3. The Horse are Persephone's playfellows, when the Moirse and
Charites escort her up. Orph. Hymn. 43. (42), 6.
8. D. with a child, lacchus or Demophon, at her breast, Athenian
coins. N. Brit. 7, 7, comp. Gerhard Prodr. s. 80. lacchus as a boy be
side her §. 357. R. 8. [Demeter, Cora and lacchus in the posterior tym
panum of the Parthenon. lacchus as a boy Gerhard Tf. 312, as a youth
Tf. 313. lacchus in the lap of his mother, in the small frieze figures
from the temple of Athene PoUas at Athens.]
Symbols of Demeter, torches and ears of corn, gracefully united on
coins of Thebes, N. Brit. pi. 6, 9. On the cross-wood of torches, AveUino,
Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 255. Torches entwisted with serpents on coins of Cy
zicus, G. M. 106, 421. Sunk and raised torches in the service of Deme
ter, on coins of Faustina i. Vaillant de Camps, p. 29. Thrones of Deme
ter and Dionysus, BouUl. iii, 75. [M. PioCl. vii, 45, 44.]

5. APOLLO.
359. Phoebus Apollo was, in the fundamental notion of I
his essence, a god of health and order, who was imagined as
in antagonism to a hostile nature and world. In reference to
nature, he is the god of the joyous season, who drives away
winter with its terrors; in human life, a deity who brings the

4i2 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
oppressor to nought, and protects the good; he was conceived
as purifying by propitiatory sacrifices, tranquillizing the mind
by music, and directing by prophecies to a higher order of
2 things. In the earliest times, a conic pillar placed in the street,
and called Apollo Agyieus, sufficed to keep in remembrance
the protecting and health-bringing power of the god (§. 66.
3 R. 1.) An expressive symbolism, which rested especially on the
contrast between arms and the lyre, — an instrument which to
the Greeks suggested a peaceful frame of the soul, — and, among
arms, betAveen the bent and the unbent bow, the open and the
shut quiver, rendered it already possible for nascent art to ex-
4 press the various phases of the idea of Apollo. If an antique
pillar-statue was accoutred with arms, something like which
occurred in the Amyclaean Apollo (§. 67.), the notion of the
terrible, punishing, avenging god preponderated, which was
5 the case in several ancient idols; but the lyre also was certain
ly at an early period suspended on old wooden images, as an
emblem of the tranquillized and tranquillizing deity ; and from
the Cretan school, which made itself especially famous by its
representations of Apollo, emanated the Delian Apollo-colossus,
which bore on its hand the Graces with musical instruments,
6 the lyre, the flute, and the syrinx. Apollo was a favourite
subject of the great artists who immediately preceded Phidias,
one of whom, Onatas, represented the god as a boy ripening
7 into a youth of majestic beauty. On the whole, however,
Apollo was then formed more mature and manly than after
wards, with limbs stronger and broader, countenance rounder
and shorter; the expression more serious and stern than ami
able and attractive ; for the most part undraped when he was
not imagined as the Pythian Citharcedus. He is shown thus
in numerous statues, the reliefs of the theft of the tripod, many
8 vase-paintings and also coins. On these we find the elder form
of the head of Apollo often very gracefully developed, but still
the same on the whole until down to the time of Philip. The
laurel wreath, and the hair parted at the crown, shaded to the
side along the forehead, usually waving down the neck, some
times however also taken up and pinned together {dx£^i!e-/.6/j.rig),
here serve particularly to designate the god.
1. Here the author's Dorians vol. ii. is taken as the basis, slightly
modified from late investigations. [Almost the whole of the 2d vol. of the
Elite c6ramographique presents abundant, but indifferently arranged, ma
terials, and according to a peculiar method of explanation. A. pi. 1 — 6, 29,
with Artemis 10—14. 25. 28. 31—35. with Artemis and Leto 23 B. 26. 27.
29. 36. with other gods, Dionysus, Athene, Poseidon, Hermes up to 97, at
the same time that there is much that is foreign introduced. In Gerhard's
Auserl V. i, 21— 30. 80. A. Art. Leto, 13— 17. 68. A. with other gods. In
Gerhard's Etr. Spiegeln i, 78. A. Art. Leto, 77. the same and Moira.
Clarac pi. 476-^96. 644.]

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APOLLO. 443
3. Of the contrast between the bow and the lyre, Horat. C. ii, 10, 13.
Paneg. in Pison. 130. Serv. ad Mn. iii, 138. Pausias transferred it to
Eros, Paus. u, 27, 3. On the condita tela, Carm. sec. 34., and the closed
quiver comp. Ant. di Ere. ii. p. 107.
4. Apollo four-armed among the Lacedsemonians (comp. Libanius, p.
340. B.) ; in Tenedos with the double axe (frequently so on coins of Asia
Minor) ; with golden armour, ^^ji/ffamg, in Homer. Dorians i. p, 377, —
A. bearded, on a vase from Tarquinii, Ann, d, Inst, iu. p. 146., on coins
of Alsesa, Torrem. tb. 12. [The vase is copied in Gerhard's Trinkschalen
tf 4. 6. A. is also bearded at a birth of Athene in Gerh. Auserl. Vas. i, 1.
comp. s. 117. Anm. 64, where two other examples are also cited; the
beard of A., however, is smaller than that of Zeus, Hermes or Poseidon,
his youth therefore is not mistakeable. Add to these Elite ceramogr. ii,
15, hardly 16.]
5. Tho works undertaken for Sicyon by the Cretans Dipoenus and
ScyUis were, according to Pliny, simulacra ApoUinis, Dianse, HercuUs,
Minervse, probably in reference to the robbery of the tripod, or the re-
concUiation afterwards. There was a gilded wooden statue of ApoUo at
Tegea by Cheirisophus the Cretan. Of the DeUan A. §. 86. B. 2. 3. Ac
cording to the Schol. Pind. 0. 14, 16, a Delphian A, also held the Chari
tes. This subject generaUy, Macrob. Sat. i, 17,: Ap. simulacra manu
dextra Gratias gestant, arcum cum sagittis sinistra, PhUo Leg. 14.
6, Of Canachus' Didymsean A, §, 86, [The fine bronze statue at Paris
§. 422. R. 7. The A. holding a bow before him, and to whom Menelaus
is handing a hehnet, M. PioCl. v. 23. G. M, 613,] By Calamis an 'A.
' A'hei,ixxxog at Athens (Pans,), an A, in hortis Servilianis (Plin,), a colos
sal ApoUo at ApoUonia on the Pontus, 30 cubits high, executed for 600
talents, transported by M, LucuUus to the Capitol (Str. vii, p, 319. PUn.
iv, 27. xxxiv, 18.), or Palatine (Appian lUyr. 30. ' AmJO^avix, "I tig 'eg
'Papirjv 'K.x'Xxpt.ihog pcer^veyxe rov piiyxv AiroKKava rov dvxxeiptevov iv TlaXx-
ria). By Oiiatas 'A. Kxxxirexvog for the Pergamenians (who worshipped
him under this name, Aristid. in Mai N. CoU. i, 3. p, 41,) [the citation is
false], a colossal (Paus. viii, 42, 4,) /SovTi-xig, in whom Zeus and Leto's
beauty was shown in very youthful state, Anth, Pal, ix, 238, Of Phi
dias' ApoUos, Comm. de Phid, i. p. 16 sq. Myron's A. Cic. Verr. iv, 43.
7. Antique statues of A. (often caUed Bonus Bventus) M. Cap. iii, 14.
with falsely restored arms [M. Napol. iv, 61. Visconti opere var. iv. p.
417.] ; in the Pitti pal., Winok. W. v. s. 648. ; in the L. 298. M. Nap. iv,
61. Add to these the imitations of the Milesian A. §. 86. and the one
mentioned §. 96. No. 16. [also the Herma, Specim. i, 28.] To this class
also belongs the Etruscan Aplu, §. 172. R. 3 e. Etruscan A. draped, with
griffin on the tripod, from V. Borghese, Clarac pi. 480. no. 922. An an
tique colossal statue of A. waving the laurel branch as purifying deity, is
represented on the coins of Caulonia, Mionnet, PI. 69, 2. ; he bears on his
left arm a smaU figure, perhaps that of Orestes, who was purified in that
neighbourhood, or (according to R. Rochette) a personification of Ka-
tharmos, [R, Rochette Mem, de Numism, et d, antiq, p, 31, Cavedoni
in the BuU. Napol, iu, p. 58, Panofka Archaol, Zeit, i, s, 165—175, The
interpretation of the small figure on the arm of ApoUo, on tho coins of

444 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
Caulonia, as Aulon,is strangely defended by Panofka Archaol, Zeit. iv. s.
312. Not more successful was that by Rathgeber (AnnaU 1846.) as
Deimos, or that by Minervini BuU. Napol. iv. p. 130. Cavedoni and Birch
conjectured it to be the cattle theft, as the figure has talaria in same
copies.] Of A. as Pythian Citharcedus §. 361.
8. The head on coins of the Leontines (Mionnet, Empr. 248.) with the
tresses bound up over the neck is very antique. The head appears with
hair waving down and laurel-crown, in a very consistently observed form,
on coins of Chalcis §, 132. R, 1., Mionnet, Suppl, ui, pi, 5, 8. Empr, 709
sq. Landon i, 11,, of Cales, Nola, Suessa, PeUa, Leucas, N, Brit, 2, 7, 3, 4.
6, 6, 1. 22,, of Megara, Mitylene, Croton, Land, 7, 35, 80,, of Syracuse,
Nohden 16, Similar heads on gems, Lipp. i, 49. With hair gathered
up on coins of Catana, Nohden 9. The Phoolan coins, Empr. 577. Land.
i, 14., probably of the last period, before the destruction, already exhibit
more the forms usual in later times, as also do most gems. Comp. the
Argive coins N. Brit. 8, 2. The head in front view, with the waving
hair on coins of Amphipolis (the torch refers to Lampadedromia) has an
angry look, Mionn. Suppl. iii. pi, 5, 1, Land, i, 20. ; Ukewise the simi
lar head on coins of Catana, Nohden 10. Empr. 226. Here ApoUo also
appears crowned with oak leaves, on a beautiful coin in the Imperial
cabinet at Vienna. [Specim. ii. p. liii. A. is distinguished from ancient
Macedonian coins, finer on many later ones, that on Rhodian coins with
eagle-nose, perhaps after the colossus, the Belvedere and similar others.
Clarac pi. 1006. no. 2776—2785.]
Busts of Apollo with rounded forms, much resembUng many heads on
coins, L. 133., [different from the colossal one no. 135, with the usual
physiognomy of ApoUo,] Several of the kind Bouill, iii, 23, The head
Chiaram, 10, also appears to be an Apollo,
I 360. The more slender shape, the more lengthened oval of
the head, and the more animated expression, Apollo doubtless
received especially from the younger Attic school by which
he was very frequently sculptured. Scopas' lyre-playing Apollo
in long drapery, indeed, still adhered more to the elder forms,
but yet it already constituted the transition to the mode of
2 representation which afterwards prevailed. The god was now
conceived altogether younger, without any sign of manly ripe
ness, as a youth not yet developed into manhood {/j,ei^axiov),
in whose forms however the tenderness of youth seemed won-
3 derfully combined with massive strength. The longish oval
countenance, which the crobylus (§, 330. R. 5,) above the fore
head often lengthened still more, and which served as apex to
the entire up-striving form, has at the same time a soft full
ness and massive firmness; in every feature is manifested a
lofty, proud and clear intelligence, whatever the modifications
may be. The forms of the body are slender and supple ; the
hips high, the thighs lengthy ; the muscles without individual
prominence, rather fused into one another, are still so marked
as that agility, elasticity of form, and energy of movement
4 become evident. However, the configuration here inclines

OLYMPIAN DEITIES, APOLLO. 445
sometimes more to the gymnastic strength of Hermes, some
times to the effeminate fullness of Dionysus.
1. Of Scopas' A. §. 126. R. 4. Of Praxiteles' statues of A. 127, 7. An
A, Citharoedos by Timarchides (Plin,) Leochares' Apollo (Paus,) Artists
who sculptured A,, Feuerbach 'Vatic. A. s. 414 f.
2, Max, Tyr. diss. 14, p. 261, R, finely describes him as a pieiqdxiov
yvpivov ix x^»/^tjliov (that is, that the chlamys falls back, as in the A,
Belvedere) ro^orng, lixlie^nxag roig ¦TToolv aaveq ?iiav. A, as the swift god
was also the patron of runners in Crete and Sparta, Plut. Qu, Symp, viii,
4, [Very youthful and of somewhat girlish countenance, the bow-bend
ing A, .- A, bronze figurette from Epirus, Spec, i, 43Aomp. 64,]
3. See Hirt Tf 3. The mosaic, PCI. vii, 49,, gives the difference of
the hair very well in a mask of ApoUo and Dionysus, Comp, Passeri
Luc, i, 69 sqq. Christod. 73. mentions an A. which has the hair tigoiriaa
(!(piy^xg like the statue §. 361, R. 6. The hair flowing down upon the
shoulders {elx^ yxq dfiiporeqotui xopirig pcepceqiapiivov apioig fioarqvxov xvroe'Aix-
TOB, ibid. 268. and 284.), belongs more to earUer statues, [TibuU, ii, 3,
25. Quisquis inornatumque caput crinesque solutos Adspiceret, Phoebi
qusereret iUe comas.]
361. In entire conformity to the original character of Apollo,
the artistic representations of the deity which have a peculiar
significance in art, are also divided into those of the contend
ing and of the appeased and reposing god. We distinguish:
1st, an Apollo Callinicos striding away from his subdued ad
versary (Python, Tityos or whomsoever it may be) with anger
not altogether subsided from the strife, and noble pride of
conquest; 2d, the god reposing from battle, his right arm
resting on his head, and the quiver with closed lid hanging
beside him. As he has already taken in his left hand the
lyre, the symbol of peaceful serenity, while the right still rests
from the bow upon his head, this class of statues of Apollo
forms the transition to; 3d, the lyre-playing Apollo who appears
variously costumed ; although a complete envelopment in the
chlamys here prevails. In (4th) the Pythian Agonistes this
drapery is perfected into the solemn and gorgeous costume of
the Pythian stola; at the same time there was here in use a
particularly soft, roundish, almost feminine form which ren
dered it possible to take such statues of Apollo for a Bathyl-
lus or a Muse; from the time of Scopas art combined there
with a dreamy exaltation in the countenance and a dance
like movement of the person. Other attitudes of Apollo
have less that is significant and characteristic, and therefore
exercise less influence on the formation of the entire figure.
1. ApoUo in the cortUe di Belvedere, drawing of M. Anton engraved
by Agostino Veneto. Race. 2. PCI. i. t, 14. 15. M. Frang, iv, 6, BouUl,
i, 17. Discovered near the harbour of Antium (comp. §, 259,), Is it of
Luna marble ? According to Dolomieu, M. Nap, i. p, 44. it is ; Visconti
expresses himself otherwise in the PCL, BouiUon also differs. According

446 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
to Hirt and Wagner it belongs to the Niobids ; according to Visconti
an imitation of A. Alexikakos by Calamis at Athens ; according to Winck,
the slayer of Python ; according to Missirini (Diss, d. Aoc. Rom. ii. p, 201.)
an Apollo-Augustus. According to A. Feuerbach (Der Vaticanische
ApoUo. Niirnberg 1833,) ApoUo driving away the Furies. Certain it is
that he is after the achievement of a victory, and his anger excited by
the combat (comp, §. 336. R. 2.) is just passing into, happy serenity.
Probably the copy of a cast work; the chlamys is decidedly adjusted for
a metal statue. However the original was certainly not ante-Lysippia^,
see §. 332. R, 2, Winckelmann's love for the statue is expressed most
ardently vi, 1, s, 259. The left arm is restored (by MontorsoU) almost
to the elbow, and the fingers of the right hand ; other parts were bro
ken, hence some places on the legs appear awkward. — On a bronze found
at Argos in the attitude and form of the A. Belvedere, PouqueviUe Voy.
iv, p, 161, Heads of the same description sometimes still more grandly
and finely formed, at Venice (according to Vise.) ; in the Giustiniani
palace (Hirt 4, 1,), now in Count Pourtal^s' possession, M. Pourt. pi. 14.
(very noble and refined in expression) ; [Bust in the M. Chiaram. ii, 6.] ;
in the possession of Prince Poniatowsky. — At Naples a youthful ApoUo
in bronze from Herculanum, drawing the string of his bow, of great grace
and naivete of form, engraved M, Borb, viii, 60,
2, To this class belongs the A, in the Lyceum at Athens, who, placing
his right hand upon his head, held down the bow in his left, and re
clined against a column, Lucian Anach. 7. ; hence this figure is called
A. Lycien. But the same is found on coins of Thessalonica as Pythius,
Dor. i, p, 382. Statues of this kind : the ApoUino at Florence, slender
but soft in forms, which accords well with the notion of rest. Maffei
Race. 39, Piranesi St, 1, Morghen Princ, del disegno tv, 12 — 17, The
statue in the L, 188, (M. Nap. i, 16. Frang. iv, 13. Bouill. i, 18. comp.
iii, 3, 1.) and the more hardly executed one no. 197. exhibit broad pow
erful forms. A similar statue from the Giustiniani collection in Wilton
house (Creed 36.) ; St. di S. Marco ii, 22..; Maffei Race. 102. [also ViUa
Borgh. ix, 6, Maffei St, di Roma 39,] — The powerful and energetically
formed A, M, Cap, iu, 13, M. Nap. i, 17. BouiU, ui, 3, 2. which has
the grifiin beside it, holds the lyre in his left while the right hand is
placed over his head. On gems, laying the right hand on his head,
he leans the left, which holds a lyre, on a piUar, or instead of it
on a smaU antique statue of doubtful interpretation (Nike, Moera,
' Atfqoiirn dqx'xie^'i)- Caylus, Beo. v, 62, 1. 56, 1. Lipp. i, 65, 57. In the
same posture in the picture. GeU, N, Pomp, pi, 72, The supporting the
lyre on a pillar or tree perhaps indicates, according to the inscription of
the reUef in Stuart i. p, 25, C. I. 465,, the Agyieus and Prostaterius, the
peaceful protector, — The holding down the arrow, likewise in the Apollo
on the coins of the Seleucidse, appears to be a sign of appeased wrath.
An antique gem which formerly adorned the reliquary of Saint Elisabeth
at Marburg, exhibits a head of Apollo crowned with laurel, with a laurel
branch before it, and a cygnet behind, together with the inscription
IIAIAN, which characterizes the victorious and appeased god. See Creu
zer Zur Gemmenkunde ; Ant. geschnittene Steine vom Grabmal der H,
Elis, zu Marb. Lpz, 1834, S, 105. Tf 5, 31,
3, The lyre-playing A, [after Pythagoras and Timarchides] with the

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APOLLO. 447
swan, M. Cap. iii, 15. is most tenderly and gracefully formed, with very
expressive features, the hair arranged almost in a feminine fashion. The
chlamys, loosened as it seems from the right shoulder, is here faUen down
on the left arm, and covered the trunk of a tree or a pUlar, on which A.
placed the lyre. Three similar Medic, statues, Winck, W, iv. s. 307. ;
another M. Borb. iv, 22. The A. Citharodos of the Delphian coins is
wrapped in a long and stately chlamys (not yvpivog ix xXxpcvilov,) Millin
gen, Med. In6d. pi. 2, 10. 11., exactly so Ukewise in the excellent statue in
Lord Egremont's possession. Spec, i, 62, ii, 46. comp, Cavaler, ii, 35. The
countenance is here serious and reflecting, not inspired. A, sitting, playing
on the lute, in the Pythian stola, early Greek statue in the Vatican Mu
seum, Gerhard Ant, BUdw. i, 84. A. playing on the lyre with the Muses
Staokelb, Graber Tf 19, A, engaged in a contest of skill, Tf 20, vases
from Athens.
4. A. in the Pythian stola (ima videbatur talis iUudere paUa, TibuU.
iii, 4, 35,) : 1, In the earUer tranquil manner, the so-called BathyUus of
Samos, §. 96. N, 23,, and the anathematio reliefs there mentioned. Very
similar, only more grandly treated, the so-caUed Barberini muse, now
recognised as an A, Citharodos, of which the unfinished back points at
a temple image, in Munich 82, Bracci, M6m. i, 24. Winck, W, vii, 5 A,
2. In the more excited, animated manner, the model of which was esta
blished by Scopas in the A, which was afterwards worshipped as Palati
nus, see §. 126, 4. (On the coins of Commodus however the A, Palatinus
leans the lyre on a piUar or a Victory,) Copy in the Vatican, see §, 125,
R. 4. SimUar the A, of the Stockholm group of muses, Guattani M, I,
1784. p. xUx, A. Kitharodos in stola Pythia sitting before the tripod,
Impr. Cent, iv, 21. 3, In exaggerated movement the Berlin Musagetes
(Levezow Fam, des Lykom. Tf 1,) and the entirely corresponding figure
restored as Dionysus PCI. vii, 2. Daphnsean A, §. 158. R. 1. ; the latter is
also caUed on coins of Antioch A. Sanctus. Mionnet Desor. v. p. 214.
5. I would call the statue PCI. vii, 1. ApoUo marching at the Psean
(as in the Homeric Hymn to the Pyth. Ap.). A. in the Pythian costume,
sitting, a porphyry statue, M. Borb. iii, 8. A. with the lyre, sitting,
badly restored, in the pal. Mattel. A. sitting, coins of Colophon, Rv. Ar
temis and Nemesis (?), Streber Munchner Denkschr. Philol. i. Tf 3, 10,
A. supporting the lyre on his left knee, St, di S, Marco ii, 12. A. with the
lyre, in a recUning posture, a very graceful picture, GeU. N. Pomp. i. p.
130. A. with the syrinx, (?), formerly in ViUa Medicis. A, dancing round
tho tripod, coins of Cos, Mionnet SuppL vi, pi. 8. no, 2, A Curetes ? xxrx-
xoqevaig according to Brondsted Reise ii, s, 315, Vign. 56, Streber, Miinch,
Denkschr. Philol. i, Tf 4, 7. Cavedoni Ann, vii. p. 259.
A. as possessor of the Pythian tripod (§, 299.), sitting between the
wTot, in a vase-painting from Volci (§. 143, 2.). He sits in the same man
ner, R. Rochette M. I. 36. comp. 37. A. sitting on the tripod and with
his feet on the omphalos, a sacrificial hide is spread over both, in a statue,
Maffei Ricerche sopra un ApoUino d. V. Albani. 1772. fo. Ville de Rome
i, pi. 49. [D. A. K. ii, no. 137.] The same, it appears, Gerh, Neapels Ant.
S. 29. [Clarac pi, 486, no. 937, from which the difference between the
two statues is proved. The former is still in V, Albani,] A. placing the
cithern on the omphalos, M. Borbon, x, 20, A. sitting on the omphalos
on coins of the Seleucidse, A. on the omphalos, playing on the lyre, coins

448 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
of Chersonesus in Crete, Landon 66. On the omphalos, Brondsted Voy. i.
p. 120. Passow, Archaol. u. Kunst. s. 158, E, Rochette M. I. p. 188.
Zander, Bncycl. i, xxxiii. p. 401. The author's Bumenides, p. 89. He is
for the most part enwreathed in a net of infulse, perhaps the xyqnvov.
Gerhard Ant. BUdw. i, 84, 3. Ho is seen on Etr. sarcophagi (Gori M. i,
170.) encoUed by a serpent, in the Pythian adytum. A. standing beside
the tripod, resting his hand on his haunch, Lipp. i. 64. MiUin P. gr. 4.,
probably after a Delphian statue, comp. Tischbein, Vasen. i, 33. A. and
Artemis as deities of pestilence, purification of Selinus, the author on
coins of SeUnus Ann. vii. p. 265, A, Smintheus with the mouse under
his foot, by Scopas ; with the mouse in his hand, on coins of Alexandria
Troas, Chois, Gouff. Voy. ii. pi. 67. Ibid, an A. Smintheus clad in the
himation, with the arrow in his bow. A. Sauroctonus §. 127, 7.
A, Nomius with the pedum, in ViUa Ludovisi, Hirt 4, 6, G, M, 14,
97. Winck, iv. s. 82. A. eiXnpi,pi,ivog riig Ixaipoi/, Paus. X, 13, 3, MiUin P,
gr, 6, 7. — A, as guardian of ships on coins of Antigonus, Winck. vi. s.
127. Mionn. Suppl, iii. pi, 11, 2. ''Exfixaiag, ' Axrxiog, Dorians i. p, 255. —
A, enthroned, with bow in his right hand, on coins of the Acarnanians,
Mionn, Suppl, iu, pi. 14, 4. Landon i, 33. A. supporting himself on a
pUlar with the left hand which holds a bow, Lipp. i, 48.
Altars of ApoUo with his attributes, Bouill. iii. pi. 68. Tripods (§.
299. No. 12.) pi. 67. A painted one M. Borb. vi, 13. 14,, which finely ex
plains Eurip. Ion. 221. xpi.<pl Se Toqyoveg. Laurel boughs growing from
ApoUo's arrows, M. Chiaram. i, 18. A. in the worship of Cybele, Gerh.
Ant. Bildw. i, 82, 2. A. playing on the lyre, a panther under him, two
women with sacred vessels, relief in V. PanfiU, Gerh. ibid. Tf 82, 1.
[Text s. 321. The relief in Boissard v. tb. 83, Montfaucon i. pi. 13, 1.
Winok. Mon. Ined. 60. Zoega understood it to be Orpheus teaching
the Thracian women the Bacchian mysteries, which the panther typi
fied ; Bottiger de Anagl. in fronte Longini clxii. Apollo Citharcedus, to
whom two women are bringing a Ubation. The reference to Orpheus
is also rejected Philostr. Imag. p. 611. In the same semicircle of the
V. PanfiU an ApoUo among the shepherds has also a panther beside him.
This still unpublished composition is in a similar spirit to that with the
satyr child drinking §. 386. R. 6, ; a panisca at the music of A. opens
her mouth wide and lays her hand on a short branch of a tree ; a rabbit
under her rock-seat, and a dragon coiled round the tree beside her.]
Griffins, on coins (often very beautiful, Mionn. Suppl. ii. pi. 6.) of Abdera,
Teos and Panticapseon ; in later times often in arabesques ; comp. §. 362.
R. 1. Griffin and cithern finely combined M. Borb. viii, 33. Griffin
iSqvig xT^xaraq with Nemesis Nonnus xlvui, 383. [Eckhel D. N. ii. p. 252.]
A Siren? fighting with two griffins, Impr. d. Inst, iii, 60.
I 362. The representations of the god in more important
situations, may be divided into such as celebrate his appear
ance or epiphany at the places where he was worshipped, as
when he comes to Delphi from the country of the Hyper
boreans in a chariot drawn by swans, or arrives at Delos
2 borne by a swan ; and into the battle scenes with the dragon
Typhon, which, however, were much less frequently treated
than the subject of the contest for the tripod, which was so

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APOLLO. 449
etirly a favourite theme with sculptors. Next to these come 3
the expiations, wherein the laurel, which was originally alto
gether a symbol of propitiation and purification, must not be
wanting; Apollo is here seen in an exceedingly dignified and
solemn attitude, the upper part of his body uncovered, the
lower enveloped in a himation. The musical supremacy of 4
the god is glorified by his contest with Marsyas, which was
properly speaking nothing else than a competition of the Hel
lenic lyre with the Phrygian fiute. At the contest, itself we
see him, in vase-paintings, robed in the costume of the Pythian
agonistes, or else undraped; as stern victor and punisher, he
appears on gems with proud bearing, advancing his beautiful
body out of the drapery, and turning away his knee from
Olympus, who endeavours to embrace it in humble interces
sion. He is similarly represented in several bas-reliefs, which
in themselves possess little merit, but have enabled us to dis
cover the fragments of an excellent group of statues — not
produced, however, until the Alexandrine period— in which
are exhibited the preparations for the fiaying of Marsyas, by
the order of Apollo.
1, ApoUo's 'e'xthnpt.ixi, i'7iri(pxveixi (on which Istros wrote). He returns
to Delphi from the Hyperboreans at the beginning of harvest, hence
with the corn-ear {xqvuoiv ^eqog on coins of Metapontum) in his hand. In
vase-paintings see §, 368, 6., especiaUy Tischb, iv, 8., where the tripod
refers to this subject. Beside the Hyperboreans dwell the Arimaspians
who fight, in Scytho-Phrygian costume, with the griffins about the gold
(Tischb. u, 9. MiUin. M. I. ii. p. 129. Combe Terrac. 4. 6. d'Agincourt
Fragm. en terre cuite, pi. 11, 2. comp. Bottiger N. Teutsoher Mercur.
1792, ii, vi, s, 143,), and one of whom accompanies A, Daphnephorus,
MiUin, Vases i, 46, Battle with the Arimaspians ; a gem Impr. d, Inst,
i, 13, Epiphany in Delos, on the swan {i-jtivevaev 6 Aii'kiag iihv n (poivii,
'E^x-^ivng, 6 Ss xiixvog iv iiiqi xx'Kov deihi, Callim, to ApoU, 4,) Tischb, ii,
12, A, on the swan, also resting and flying on a griffin, on coins of
Chaloedon. Comp, Laborde Vases ii, 26, Ann, d. Inst, iii, p, 149,
2, Combat with Python. First, Leto with the two children fleeing
before Python, who rushes out of his cavern (Clearch, in Athen. xv, 701,
Schol, Eur, Phon. 239,) in the Delphian vd'^rn. The mother with the chil
dren in a metal group at Delphi (Clearch,) ; on coins of Ephesus, Neu
mann N. V, u. tb. i. 14., Streber, Miinch. Denkschr. f Philol. i. Tf 3, 12.
TripoUs in Caria, Mionn. Descr. No. 540. ; the entire scene Tischb. iii, 4.
The slaying of Python at the tripod on a coin of Crotona, best in M. Borb.
vi, 32. 6. The relief in Friedenheim M. Suecise (if genuine) represents
Augustus as an Apollo vanquishing the Bruti genius, comp. Schol. Horat.
Bp. i, 3, 17. Propert. ii, 23, 5. A. slaying Tityus, vase from Volci, M. I.
d. Inst, 23, Ann, u, p. 225,, from Agrigentum, tv. agg. h. [Elite ceramogr.
ii, 55 — 58.] A, as a griffin fighting with giants, gem G, M, 20, 52, P, gr.
8. [or ApoUo's griffin, and §. 365. R. 5. ApoUo's stag (instead of A. as
stag) assisting him.] Niobids §. 126. 417. Combat with Hercules in an
cient groups of statues (§. 89. R. 3.) and in preserved reliefs, gems and
2F

450 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
vase-paintings of the antique style, §. 96. No. 20. comp. 99. No. 6., also in
Volcentine (Micali tv. 88, 8.) and later vase-paintings. M. I. d. Inst. 9.
Ann. ii. p. 205. The reconciliation on the Corinthian relief §, 96. No. 21.
MiUingen Cogh. 11.
3. A. as purifier on coins of Chalcedon, Perinthus, singeing a laurel
over an altar. Planting (?) the laurel on coins of Metapontum, N. Brit.
3, 14. On coins of Myrina, with a himation around the loins, a laurel
branch with wooUen fillets in his hand. Expiation of Orestes, who sits
at the omphalos, vase-painting in Tischb. ii, 16. ; Millin Vases ii, 68. M.
I. i, 29. G. M. 171, 623. ; a third pubUshed by Thorlacius, Programm
von Kopenhagen, 1826. ; a fourth by R. Rochette M. I. pi. 35. (on the vase
pi. 37. Apollo himself sits on the omphalos and Pythia on the tripod).
4. Apollo's contest with Marsyas {Tslxnang, yixavng) a Phrygian demon
(SUenus in Herodotus), whose symbol was a wine-skin (a^xoV) which the
Hellenic legend transformed into a trophy of the victory in lyre-playing.
Comp. Bottiger, Att. Mus. i. s. 286., and MiUin Vases i. at pi. 6. The
contest on vase-paintings, Tischb. i, 33 (at Delphi) ; iii, 5. (A. in the Py
thian stola) 12. ; MUUngen Cogh. 4. ; Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 27, 2, [The last
is the judgment or the punishment.] In Tischb. i, 33. [Elite ceramogr.
ii, 62, Inghirami. tv. 327.] the fiute-player is called Mo'Axof, as in Plut.
Qu. Gr. 28. a hostile auletes occurs called Molpos ; comp. Welcker Ann.
iv. p. 390. The punishment painted by Zeuxis ; Marsyas religatus, Plin.,
comp. Philostr. the yr. 2. After it perhaps the painting Ant. di Ercol.
ii, 19. M. Borb. viii, 19. [Ternite i. pi. 7. ; another BuU. 1841. p. 106. ;
a remarkable one in TurnbuU A treat, on anc. painting pi. 18, Ap, sitting
with a lute on a rock, the vanquished Marsyas kneeling before him for
mercy, an attendant dragging back by the neck, another standing ready,
and lastly the Scythian with the knife waiting the decision. Vases from
Palermo and Malta Gerh. Archaol. Zeit. iii. s, 87 — 93, Vase-painting in
Inghirami Vasi fittiU iv, 325—31, of which 326—329 from Tischbein,
330 from MiUingen Peint. de V, 4, and in the EUte ceramogr. ii, 62. 63.
65 — 71 the contest, 64 and 76 the punishment. The secchia pi. 63 is
still uned., where M. listens to Ap. whom Nike crowns ; above sits Arte
mis, and Olympus, dejected, behind Ap. (Ev. Silenus as wineskin-bearer, a
thyrsus-swinger and a Baccha). The text is stUl in arrear. On a vase from
Ruvo in the Borbon. Mus. (Rv. theft of the palladium), mentioned BuU.
1841, p, 107, and in the Archaol, InteU, Bl, 1837. S, 52 f BuUett. Napol.
anno vi. p. 25 sq. Above, Zeus enthroned, Artemis standing beside him
in long drapery, with bow and two spears. Towards Ap., who is seated
beneath, a genius fioating with a crown and accompanied by a female
figure with a patera. MAP2TA2 supports his head, while a Muse reads
the sentence to him ; two other Muses with flutes and lyre ; a youth with
a goat. A vase Santangelo from Grumentum in the Rev, ArohSol, 1845.
ii, p, 631, pi. 42, Nike handing the crown to Ap,, Marsyas seated, A
smaU Nike also crowns the victorious god in the costume of the Citharce
dus Elite pi, 65, and a larger one pi, 63, In the Elite i. p, 95, there is a
vase referred to with Ap,, Marsyas, Nike and Midas, Rv, Hera Uberated by
Hephsestus,] A, also in vase paintings as tortor, Tischb, iv, 6. G. M. 26,
79, Frequently on gems, Lipp. i, 66. ii, 51 — 53, iii, 48. Gemm* Flor.
i, tb. 66, 9. Wicar ii, 7. of M. Anton. Pius, of Alexandria, Apollo sitting
on a rock, Marsyas suspended, Olympus or the Scythian kneeling, Mionnet

OLYMPIAN DEITIES; APOLLO. 451
Suppl. T. ix. at p. 24. Overcharged representations on sarcophagi, from
VUla Borghese L, 769 b, Winck, M, I, 42. BouiU, iii, 34, Clarac pi. 123,
p, 273, G. M, 25, 78. [D, A. K. u, no, 162.] (simUar fragment, R. Rochette
M, i, 47, 3.) ; on the newly discovered sarcophagus of the Doria collection,
Gerh. Hyp. Rom. Studien s. 110. and Ant. Bildw. Tf 85, 1. [Bottiger's
Amalth. ui. s. 364 — 371. 375. An engraving of it in the Mem. de beUe
arti Roma 1S24 i, 49—77. Kunstblatt 1824. No. 38. A relief similar
to the Borghese one in the court of the pal. Mattel (Mon. Matth. T. iv. tv.
13, as metropolis, cum diis tiitelaribus\ ; more simple from S, Paolo fuora
di mura (Heeren in Welcker's Zeitschr. i, s, 137, Historiche Werke ui.
s. 185.). Barberini Sarcoph. in Gerh. A. B. Tf 86, 2. CardinaU in the
Mem. Rom. di Antich. vol. i. p. 401 (49), Minerva looking at herself in a
shield and Mar. bound for flaying. [Earthen vase from Armento with
relief, an important representation, Bull. 1824. p. 34. Bull. Napol. 1844.
p. 76. A coarse fragment in the M. Chiaram., Gerh. Vatic. S. 64. Pecu
Uar treatment in a relief in the Mus. at Aries.] The idea on the base of
a candelabra PCI. v, 4. is different. From those reUefs we recognise the
pieces of a large group of statues, perhaps the same which adorned the
Roman forum (Marsyas causidicus, A. juris peritus in Horat., Mart.,
Juv. ; was the tortor the same ?). To these belong the Marsyas suspended
on the pine-tree, an anatomical study, twice in Florence (M. Flor. ui.
13. Maffei Race, 31, G, di Fir, iv, 35, 36, Wicar u, 7, iv, 17,) and else
where (in the L, 230, Clarac pi, 313, ; G, Giust. i, 60 (?) to be met with.
[In VUla Albani, the torso very good ; in the casino of ViUa PamfiU, V.
Pamphyl. tb. 30, these two only half the size of those at Florence ; in
BerUn, Amalthea ii. s. 366 ; a torso of the best Greek workmanship, ex
cavated in 1844 by VescovaU in the Palatine, and purchased for Berlin.
Cosmo di Medici received from Rome a very fine suspended Marsyas of
white marble, Lorenzo had one much finer still of red marble, Vasari in
the life of A. Verrochio.] Also on gems, Lipp. SuppL i, 119. The figure of
Marsyas was even in favour as a doU, Achill. Tat. iii, 15. Farther the
knife-grinder recognised by Agostini, Arotino, M. Flor. iu, 95. 96. San
drart u, 1, 9. Maff. 41. Piranesi St. 3. G. di Fir. 37. Clarac pi. 543., a Scy
thian servant of police. For Agostini's explanation Winck. M. I. in loco.
Visconti PCI. v, 3. 4., Heeren in Welcker's Zeitschr. S. 136. ; opposed to it,
(without sufficient grounds,) FioriUo, Kl. Schriften i. s. 252. The skull si
milar to that of a Cossack, according to Blumenbach (Spec, histor. natur. p.
12.) ; the figure of ordinary build and expression, which Philostr. very well
describes. The triumphant A, of this group still remains to be pointed
out, as the group at Dresden (Le Plat. 65. August, ii. Si, §9.) is very much ^£
patched. A. leaning his lyre on Marsyas in the Mus. Chiaram. Gerh.
A. B. Tf 84, 5.
On an Apollo and Hyacinthus with discus found at Tivoli 1790, Effem.
Rom. 1823. Maio. Schorn's Kunstbl. 1824. No. 23. A. and Hyacinthus
in Hope's collection. Spec, ii, 51. The kilUng of Hyacinthus, Wall-paint
ing in Pompeu, Archaol. Int. Bl. 1834. no. 53. S. 453. [The Hope group,
also in Clarac pi. 494 B. no. 966 A. and D. A. K. ii, 12, 139., is not essen
tially different from one at BerUn, Archaol. Zeit. ii. Tf 16. S, 257, The
poet Linus, who contended with A,, could not be represented as a youth or
a boy.] A. in the service of Admetus and Alcestis, §, 413. R. 1. [ApoUo
and Cyparissus, Pompeian wall-painting, Avellino II mito di Ciparisso,
Nap, 1841, 4to. Also on a Barberini statue, now in the Sciarra palace..

452 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Cyparissus with his dead stag in his arms, crowned with laurel. A. and
Daphne, on vases, already made known and one uned. in the Mus. at
Arezzo, from Valdichiana, of singular composition and beautiful style.
A laurel tree, A. crowned with laurel, with streaming hair, guides a
quadriga, in which he is carrying off a lofty and noble female form. The
quadriga, over which two doves are bilUng, is met by a sister with out
stretched arms, and another is speaking to the father, who stands looking
away, as in other abductions. In Villa Borghese a statue of Daphne at
the instant of her metamorphosis, found in Via Salona iii, 4, of the Cata
logue of 1840. Daphne was painted as half-tree, and still half-maiden,
according to Lucian. Ver. Hist, i, 8. A. Idas and Marpessa, Gerhard
Etr. Spiegel, i, 80, with the names. Idas is carrying off Marpessa, A.
withdrawing, Gerhard Auserl. V. i, 46, recognised by 0. Jahn Archaol.
Aufs. S. 54, who also S. 47 ff. conjectures that the contest between A.
and Idas and the settlement of it are represented on the famous Agrigen
tine Vase in Munich, wherein he agrees with the author §. 143. E. 2,
although the latter also refers, Ann. iv. p. 393., to this" explanation as
doubtful. Thiersch on painted Vases, Munchner Denschr. Philol. iv, 1.
S. 41. prefers the explanation which assumes the contest, after Pindar, of
Hercules with Apollo and two other gods.]

6. ARTEMIS.
1 363. The character of Artemis, like that of her brother
Apollo, has two phases, inasmuch as she is sometimes con
ceived as a contending, slaying deity, although this agency
was in the ordinary conception limited more and more to the
business of the chase ; sometimes as a life-giving, light-bring
ing goddess (notions which are very closely allied in Greek
symbolism), as one who pours out for man and animals the
fresh, blooming life of nature — a fundamental idea to which
2 even the name of the goddess alludes. The bow, and the
torch, the symbol of light and life, were therefore the usual
3 attributes even among the most ancient religious idols. On
further development of the Artemis ideal, art made the no
tion of youthful vigour and freshness of life the basis, and in
the earlier style, in which the goddess invariably appears in
long and elegant drapery (in stola), the principal aim was to
exhibit the full, blooming, and powerful forms even through
4 the dress. In later times, when Scopas, Praxiteles, Timotheus
and others had perfected the ideal, Artemis like Apollo was
formed slender and light-footed, her hips and breast without
the fulness of womanhood; the still undeveloped forms of
both sexes before puberty, here seem as it were arrested, and
5 only unfolded into greater size. The countenance is that of
Apollo, only with less prominent forms, more tender and
rounded; the hair is often bound up over the forehead into
a corymbos (crobylos), but still oftener gathered together into

OLYMPIAN DEITIES; AETEMIS. 463
a bow at the back or on the crown of the head, in a fashion
which was in use especially among the Dorians; not unfre
quently both are even found together. The dress is a Doric 6
chiton (§. 393, 1.), either girt high, or flowing down to the
feet, often also turned over as a hemidiplo'idion ; the shoes of
the huntress were those of Crete which protected the foot all
round. 1. There is much useful matter on Artemis given in Voss Mythol. Br.
iii, 1. [Vases in the EUte ciramogr. u, 7 — 9. 17 — 19. 90. 92. and many
others where she appears together with Apollo and other gods.]
2. Old religious images §. 69. R. A. Lusia is also perhaps to be re
cognised in the idol with the polos and torch and bow on the vase-paint
ing at BerUn (Hirt, die Brautschau. B. 1825.). Melampus cures the
Proetides, especially his beloved Iphianassa ; the small cow-horns to be
explained from Virgil B 6, 48. [of Panofka Argos Panoptes, 1838. s, 26,
Bute c6ramogr. i, 25.] Others refer it to Ariadne [Hirt] and Io [Ger
hard, Zeus and Io, Ant. Bildw. Tf 115 ; unmistakeable cf MilUngen 'Vases
de CoghiU pi. 46, Peint, de V, pi, 62. EUte cSramogr, i, 26, Thoas and
Iphianassa according to AvelUno OpuscoU div. ii, tv. 6.], — A, winged,
on the ark of Cypselus [cf Rhein, Mus. vi. S, 587,], with panther and
Uon in her hands, Paus. v, 19, 1 ; simUar figures on Clusinian and so-
caUed Egyptian vases. With panther's skin at Volci, Ann. ui. p. 149.
3. In the anathematio reliefs §. 96. No. 23. A. carries torches in her
hands, with the bow and quiver on her back. In other antique works
she holds the bow and drags the stag after her, ibid. No. 21. comp. 22.
and the vase of Sosibius L. 332. BouiU. iii, 79. Clarac pi. 126. Hercu
lanean A. §. 96. No. 15. A. in a griffin-car. No. 30.
4. An A. as an 'eqyov IxoTxieiov, Luc. Lex. 12. By Prax. §. 127 R. 7.
Timoth. §. 125. R. 4.
6. On the hair, comp. §. 330. R. 6. Ko'^ni/ ¦jrxqxpi.Trvxtiisiv, Arist. Lys.
1350. [xqvaix xpi'TTv^, Eurip. Hec. 467.] The sphendone surrounded with
rays, Pompeian painting M. Borb. x, 20. comp. §. 340. R. 4. With the
hair-bow on coins of Athens and jEgion (N. Brit. 7, 12. 14.), of Bretria
(Landon 10.), Stymphalus {ibid. 45. Mionn. Descr, PI, 73, 8.), Syracuse
' (Nohden 18,), Capua (N, Brit, 2, 13,), On coins of Stymphalus as well
as SicUian coins the head is laureUed, with hair pinned up behind, Mionn.
PI. 63, 2. [Clarac pi. 1006. 1007. nos. 2788—2793.] A. on vases of Volci
with high fiUet, MicaU tv. 84.
6. Nuda genu nodoque sinus coUeota fluentis (as in the Versailles
statue) Ma., i, 320, Crispatur gemino vestis Gortynia cinctu popUte
fusa tenus, Claud, Rapt. Pros, ii, 33, comp. Cons. StU. ui, 247, 'Ef yow
piixqi x'"''""* ^avvva^ai Xeyvurov, CaU, Art. 11, Comp, Christod. 308.
The Anth. Plan. iv. 253. (App, Palat.) mentions the Avxxareiav 'evlqopilg
dqfiv'Kihav (the 'Kqrrrixd wehi>,x) and the irqog dxqnv iyvvnv tpoivi^ ivi-Tc'Kog
i'Kiaaopt.evog, ' Evhqopiiheg of Artemis, PoUux. [draped down to the feet, the
quiver slung behind. A, xvvnysrig according to the inscription, reUef
in 'Paciaudi Mon, Peloponn, i, p, 163,, like the later statues Clarac pi.
671, 1220. 672, 1222, <fec,].

454 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
I 364. Artemis the huntress {dy^or'e^a), but who may often,
with equal justice, be conceived as a combating deity, is often
represented, in excellent statues, in very animated movement,
sometimes in the act of taking the arrow from the quiver
in order to discharge it, sometimes on the point of shooting
2 it. When, in long drapery, she moves her hand towards the
quiver, without any sign of violent action,- and with mild and
gracious mien, the idea is rather suggested that she will shut
than open it, and we may probably apply the name of 'Siiini^a
3 to this Artemis. We see the quiver shut, and the bow slung
behind her, in reliefs where Artemis speeds along as life-lend
ing goddess of light ((Bwnpogos, aiXaspo^og) with torches in both
hands, which might also be supplied by restoration, in many
4 statues which have been preserved in a defective state. In
temple-images, Artemis carried not unfrequently the bow as
well as the torch in her hands, giving life and death at the
5 same time. The huntress Artemis is likewise a nourisher
and cherisher of game ; she often appears dragging a sacred
doe along with her; her crown is even formed of roe-bucks in
6 an interesting statue. The' following can only be discovered
in small works of art: Artemis Upis, a deity demanding sa
crifices and propitiatory hymns, who is characterised by the
7 gesture of Nemesis; and the Syracusan Potamia, the river-
goddess brought across by Alpheus, who indicates her relation
to water by the reeds in her hair, and the fish that surround
8 her. The sea-ruling Artemis is known at least in the form
which she had in Leucadia.
1, The first movement in the A. of VersaiUes, L. 178, Very slender
and elegant, but stiU powerfully built. Beside her the eXxipog xtqoeaax.
On the head a stephane, M. Pranj. i, 2. Nap. i, 51. Bouill. i, 20. Clarac
pi. 284. G. M. 34, 115. Thus also, MiUin P. gr. 10. Coins of PhUadel-
phia, N. Brit. 11, 6. So also the A. at PheUoe, ^'hog 'ex (pxqirqxg 'Kxpi.^d-
vovaa, Paus. vii, 27, 4. So likewise as slayer of Niobe's daughters, PCI.
iv, 17. [aud Elite ceramogr. ii, 90.] The second is shown in the PCI. i,
31. (Hirt 6, 2. 5.) ; similar BouUl. iii, 5, 3. ; also the bronze. Ant. Ere.
¦vi, 11. 12., the gem Lipp. i, 71., and lamp in Bartoli ii, 33. As huntress
with a dog on Syracusan coins, Mionn. Descr. PI. 67, 6. <fec. As repos
ing huntress, leaning on a column, Lipp. i, 63. <fcc. ; with outspread legs,
at Paris, in the royal Library, Clarac 566, 1266. Fine torso at Mantua
pi. 668 B. no. 1239 A. [cf Clarac pL 1561- 1577. 1579. no. 1237. pi. 1580.
A statue of Artemis in Lord Egremont's collection, different from Clarac
pi. 564 D., no. 1248 B., is distinguished by the lynx-skin, which partially
covers the garment gathered up round the loins with a girdle, as the
author remarks Amalth. iii. s, 250. From a similar skin over the shoulder
and breast the Artemis in E. Braun's Marmorwerke Tf 2. is pronounced
to be A. Lukeias Zeitschr. f A. W. 1844. s. 1070.]
2. So in the beautiful, often recurring figure, at Dresden 147. Aug. 46.
A simUar one at Cassel ; also the fine one putting back the arrow. Spec, ii,
36. M. Cap. iii, 17. comp. Maffei Race. 145. The closed quiver denotes "A.

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARTEMIS. 456
2OT£ig« on Syracusan coins, Nohden 16, Mionn. PI. 68. 4., where a lyre is
also added, as in the case of Apollo on the other side. Probably struck
at a time when the Syraousans, freed from great famine, sang pasans to
ApoUo and Artemis. On the contrary the A., M. Flor. iii, 19., appears
actuaUy to draw out the arrow, as weU as the Diana Sicula in violent ac
tion and long drapery on coins of Augustus. (Here there occurs also a
high-girded A., as Sicula, standing, with lance and bow, Morelli tb. 11,
33 — 39. Eckhel vi. p. 93. 108. The Capuan A. has likewise a lance [a
hunting spear] in the reUef Winck. W. i. Tf 11. G. M. 38, 139.), [as weU
as perhaps also the statue Stoppani-Vidoni, in tranquil attitude, B. Braun
Ant. Marmorwerke i, 2. and certainly the one in the battle of Amazons
G. M. 136, 499.] A. holding down the arrow — also a sign of being ap
peased — a torch as sceptre, beside her a stag, on coins of Bizya. SClem.
33, 356. Comp. the gem Impr. d. Inst, ii, 9.
3. The Pythian A. also carried torches, as is shown by the reUefs
mentioned §. 96. No. 23. and HeUodorus' beautiful description (iu, 3.) of
the Delphian priestess in the Artemis costume, who held a torch in the
right hand and a bow in the left. One of the principal statues from Villa
PanfiU PCI. i, 30. Hirt 5, 6. Similar BouUL iii, 6, 1. Comp. Cap. Ui, 16.
[18.] ; Mon. Matth. i, 44. A. from the Colonna palace, in Berlin 31. with
fine head, probably with torches in both hands, hastening along. Also
the supposed Terpsichore, Clarac pi. 354. I consider the so-called Zin-
gareUa in the L. 462. (Winck. W. ui, xiv. Race. 79. V. Borgh. 8. 5.
BouiU. iii, 5, 4. Clarac pi. 287.) and the statue putting on a sort of peplos,
from Gabu in the L. (Mon, Gab, 32, M, Roy, u, 17. BouiU. i, 21, Clarac
pi. 285,) to be nymphs of Artemis,
4, A. Laphria on coins, high-girt, with torch and bow, N. Brit, 6, 23.
(The same, but as huntress, without torch, on coins of Domitian, Morelli
tb. 20, 7.). So also the A. of Segesta, cum stola, Cic. Verr. iv. 34. A.
with two torches as sceptres, the quiver at her back, in long drapery,
MoreUi G. Claudia tb. 2, 1.
5. So in the archaising statue from Gabii, in Munich 85. Sickler's
Almanach u. s. 141. Tf 12. Clarac pi. 666. no. 124. [The crown alter
nately of stags and quivers, as that of the goddess of Rhamnus is of stags
and victories, Paus. i, 33, 3, the crown of Pandora of all sorts of animals,
Theogn. 678, that of Hera of Horse and Charites Paus, ii, 17, 4,] A, as
religious idol with a roe on her shoulder and roe-skin, in the relief in
Gerhard, Ant. BUdw, i, 42, 1, A. often holds a stag by the horns or fore
feet, on coins and gems, for example the antique one, Lipp, i, 70, ii, 60,
iii, 59 s, ; on the reUef in BartoU Adm, 33, (with Hippolytus) and others,
§, 363, R. 3, KneeUng on the doe, coins of Ephesus SClem, 23, 193,,
Cherson, Taur,, AlUer de Haut, 2, 3 — 9, In a chariot drawn by stags,
Claud, Cons. Stil. iu, 286., on denarii of the gentes .^Ua and Axia, comp.
§, 119. R. 2. Artemis with torches, borne by a stag, coins of Faustina.
Pedrusi v, 13, 3. VaiUant De Camps, p. 36. On the denarii of the gens
HostUia, her head encircled with rays, holding in her right hand a stag,
in her left a spear. Diana Planciana, Eckhel D. N. v, 275., with a hat ;
a chamois on the reverse. Head of A., surrounded by goats, silver me
daUion from Herculanum. M. I, d. Inst. 14 a. Ann. ii. p. 176.

456 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
6. So I explain the gem MilUn P. gr. 11. Comp. Hirt Tf 12, 10.
7. I am of opinion that the head surrounded with fish and having
hair interwoven with reeds, simply arranged and pinned up behind, on
Syracusan medallions (§. 132. R. 1, Nohden Frontisp,, comp. 13, Mionn,
Descr. PI. 67, 3, 5. Empr. 317. 318.), is Artemis Potamia, and distinguish
from it the one Ukewise encircled with fish, having a hair-net and ele
gantly disposed hair, of less noble and divine forms of countenance which
we sometimes see in profile (Empr. 316.) and sometimes in front view
(302. 303.), in which the inscription Aqs^oax (Desor. PI. 67, 4.) leaves no
doubt as to the signification. — This A. Potamia was, like aU water dei
ties, also a goddess of horses, Pind. P. iii, 7., therefore we see her also, on
Syracusan coins (Nohden 16.) guiding a quadriga and provided with
quiver and torch. Beside a water-spouting lion-head, on the obverse a
female head crowned with sea-weed. Streber Miinch. Denkschr. Philol.
i. Tf 2, 1. s. 134. on the Water-Artemis in detail. A. riding with
torches on coins of Phorse, Eckhel u. p. 147. Voss ibid. s. 71. On coins
of SeUnus, Empr. 296., she guides the horses for ApoUo who is shooting.
Artemis-Silene with horses. Pan sitting on a rock, on coins of the Col.
Patrensis, Streber Tf 2, 3. s. 155. On a reUef from Crannon in Thessaly,
Millingen Un. Mon. ii, 16., A. stands torch-bearing between a horse and
a greyhound. 8. Antique statue of Leucadian Artemis on a pedestal with a moon
on her head, aplustre in her hand, and a stag beside her, N. Brit. 5, 21. ,
AlUer de Haut. pi. 5, 21. A ship on the reverse. — Artemis Bendis
oiAoyxog. Virbius of Aricia as a male Diana, see on a statue of this description
found near Aricia, Uhden, Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1818. s. 189. Of like
significance is the archaising statue in Guattani M. I. 1786. p. Ixxvi.
PCI. iii, 39. comp. Zoega Bass. i. p. 236. An antique relief was found
with the former statue which is explained by Uhden and Sickler (Alma
nach i. s. 85. Tf ) as the bloody choice of rex Nemorensis, and by Hirt,
Gesch. 8. 123. as the murder of Pyrrhus by Orestes. [So also by Zoega
who declares this relief to be the oldest hitherto discovered in Italy, of
greater hardness and originality than any other, in a letter of 7th May
1791. It was already shown in the Heidelb. Jahrb. 1810. u. s. 5,. that
the murder of iEgisthus by Orestes was represented: ¦Trqori o; l"eKxfi
'ivreqx xH"'^ 'hxaiieig II. XX, 418. Quint. Sm. xiii, 91. This very important
monument was taken by the possessor Despuig to Majorca. Noticia
de los Museos del Cardenal Despuig por J. M. Bover, Palma 1846. p. 107.
no. 77.]
365. As protectress of the Ephesian temple, which was
founded by the Amazons, according to the legend, Artemis
herself appears in an Asiatic Amazon-costume. Her widely-
diffused religious image, which was indefinitely multiplied on
coins and in statues during the later period of the emperors,
is not connected by any visible bond with the Hellenic notions
of Artemis ; but the Artemis Leucophryne of Magnesia was
similar in form, and the Pergaic Artemis in Pamphylia was
still more rude and unsightly. Altogether, Asia Minor was

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARTEMIS. 457
full of strange and peculiar representations of this deity, which
came nearer to the Anaitis of the East than to the Grecian
Artemis. The little image of the Taurian or Orthic Artemis, ,
the same that the Spartan priestess carried in her hand at the
ceremony of boy-scourging, appears in the mythus of Iphi
genia (§. 416, R.) in the form of an ordinary antique idol;
Artemis Tauropolos borne by a bull presents itself in a more
widely different shape. In her more important relations we ,
are accustomed to see Artemis with her mother and her brother,
in whose love of music she also participates, then in the fight
with the giants, and also in the representation of the mythus
of Actason, which however was first employed as a bathing-
scene by later art.
1, See the vase painting, Millin, Vases ii, 25, G, M, 136, 499,, where
Athena and Heracles seem to conclude an agreement regarding the
Bphesian temple (Paus, vii, 2, 5.). [In like manner on a vase with Apol
lo, Hermes and a youth with a lance. Elite ceramogr. ii, pi, 88 A,] A.
in Phrygian costume on the vase Tischb, iv, 6, [with Marsyas and ApoUo,]
2, Above §, 69, R, Menetreius, Diana Bphesia, PCI, i, 32, M. Borb,
vu, 11, G. M. 30, 108. 109. 111. [August, i, 13. Clarac pi. 661. 562 B, 563,
564 C] Lipp. ii, 62 — 68. Impr. d. Inst, ii, 1. 2. Often on coins of con
cord and lamps. These figures resembling the Ephesian Artemis are
also to be found on Syrian coins ; on the coins of Demetrius III. sur
rounded with ears of corn. — Leucophryne G. M. 112.
3. Of A. Priapine on Cilician coins of MaUos, Tolken, Kunstbl. i. s,
174. 4. See §. 416. R. 2. The T xvqoTcoT^og on coins of Icaria and Amphi
polis (where she appears with a modius and a half-moon at the back of
her head, Sestini, Fontana tv. 2, 11.), Bottiger, Kunstmythol. s. 330. Tf
4. Diptycha G. M. 34, 121. A. riding in a car with cattle, Tassie, pi. 28,
2039. Comp. Voss s. 66.
6. A. pours out a libation to her brother, vase-p. Gerh. Ant. Bildw. i,
9. A. with the lyre on vases from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 24 ; and frequent
ly as taking part in the Hymenseus. Comp. Ann. v. p. 149. Artemis and
ApoUo at the leading in of the bride. Vaseng. Panofka sur les verit.
noms des Vases pi. 8. no. 1. The Delian A. with her arrows on her back,
and with phial and prochus, stands beside Apollo, on the beautiful vase-
painting Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 59., comp. §. 384. A. Angeles? Ann. v. p.
172. — A. as a stag fighting with giants, Lipp. u, 111. G. M. 20, 114. As
an archer, Hecate at the same time with torches, relief, M. Chiaram. i,
17. Mon. Matth. iii, 19. G. M. 35, 113. — Actaeon, metope from Selinus,
§. 119. R. 4. Vases from Volci, Micali tv. 100, 1., and EboU, Ann. d.
Inst. ui. p. 407. tv. agg. d. A. devoured by his dogs, vase-painting. M.
Pourtalfes pi. 21, Panofka p. 53. on the mythus (defective) and the artis
tic representations, Etr. vase-painting. M. d. I. ii, 8. Ann. vi. p. 265 —
273. [Elite ceramogr. ii, 99 — 103. Vase in the possession of S. Angelo
at Naples, Archaol, Zeit, 1848, s, 231, engraved in Revue Archeol, 1848.
p, 460 — 65, by Viret,] Etr, mirror, Inghir, ii, 46,, and sarcophagi, Inghir.

458 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
i, 66, 70. [M. Gregor. i, 94, 2. Campana Opere di plastica tv, v,] Accord
ing to later conception, the fable in four acts, sarcophagus in the L. 315.
BouiU. iii, 49, Clarac pi, 113 sq, G. M. 100, 405 sq. Gems in Lipp. i.
72, (fee. Picture from Pompeii, Goro pi. 11, comp. Appulei. Met. ii. p, 27.
Statue of Actseon, Brit. M. u. 45, [Clarac pi, 579. 680.] On coins of
Orchomenus (comp. Orch. s. 348.) Sestini Lett. iv. tv. 1, 27. (1818.)
Altar of the A. of Laconico-Tegeatic Caryse, L. 523. (comp. 631.) V,
Borgh. 4, 21 sqq. Bouill. iii, 70. Clarac pi. 168, (comp. Zoega Bass, i, 20.)
with the figures of the Dymsense and Caryaades (Pratinas), or Thyades
and Caryatides, which Praxiteles sculptured according to Pliny. Comp.
Meineke ad Euphor. Fr. 42. Dorians i. p. 391. ii. p. 363. with Bottiger
Amalth. ui. s. 144. 154. and Welcker Ann. v. p. 151., who see here hiero-
dulse of Aphrodite. On that altar, and Ukewise on the archaising relief
of Sosibius, there is a mixture of the worships of Artemis and Dionysus.
A female Spartan of the same description with similar head-dress and
torch, Impr. d. I. iv, 48. — Altar of A. Phosphorus with a fine head of Ar
temis resting on that of Oceanus ; beside them the heads of Phosphorus
and Hesperus, BouUl. iii, 69. (A. Phosphorus, before Bos, Vase-painting,
G. M. 30. 93.). Altar of Diana with symbols of the chase [and others],
Gerhard Ant, Bildw, i, 83, Chariot of Artemis with her insignia, M, Cap.
iv, 30. G, M, 2, 32.

7. HEPHiESTUS.
1 366. The god of fire, a powerfully creative being in the
ancient faith of the Greeks, the companion of Artemis in the
Attic worship, and, therefore, also in this twelve-god system,
has had the fate of being able to maintain the high dignity
here assigned him, neither in the poetry nor in the plastic art
2 of the Greeks. The former represents him on the whole as an
active and ingenious smith, but interweaves therewith features
of a strange symbolism, inasmuch as it depicts him monstrous,
misshapen, limping, and in his whole character ridiculous, as
3 a cuckold at hoine and a buffoon in Olympus. The formative
art seems in earlier times to have represented him in the
shape of a dwarf; from the tendency, which has its foundation
deep in human nature, to conceive precisely that which pos-
4 sesses innate power as dwarfish in form. When perfected,
however, it was satisfied with exhibiting him as a vigorous
and industrious man, who, unlike other gods, was in early
times for the most part conceived as youthful, and afterwards
5 as a bearded and mature man. Yet there is sometimes united
therewith, as in the celebrated statue by Alcamenes, an indi
cation of his lameness, which did not deform the powerful
6 figure, but only made it more interesting. He is more clearly
recognised in the few works of art which remain of him, by
the exomis of the artisan (§. 337. R. 3.), the semi-oval cap.

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HEPHiESTUS. 459
which he probably received at Lemnos (§. 338. R. 2), and the
implements of the smith.
1. On the Attico-Lemnian fire-worship, Welcker Prometh. s. 277 ff.
3. Comp. SchelUng, Gottheiten von Samothrace s. 33. 93.
4. H. beardless on coins of Lemnos, Lipara, .^sernia (VOLKANOM,
M. SCI. 6, 5.), on the CapitoUne puteal, on Etruscan paterse and a relief,
at the bii-th of Athena, and vase-paintings. Grouped with Hermes ? §.
381. Already bearded however on vases from Volci, as in those referred
to §. 367. R. 3., even on archaistic ones. So on a herma head, Gerhard
Ant. Bildw. Tf i, 81, 3. The head mostly bearded on coins of the gens
AureUa, MoreUi 3., also without beard however, ibid. 4.
5, On Alcamenes' H,, in quo stante in utroque vestigio atque vestito
leviter apparet claudicatio non deformis, Cic. N, D, i, 30, Yal, Max. viii,
11. ext, 3, I also think I recognise H. on the frieze of the Parthenon
(comp. §. 118, 2 b.) by the attitude and the supporting of the knee with
the skeptron. Euphranor's H. without lameness, Dion Chrys. Or. 37.
p. 566 c. Mor. 125. E. dqrimvg.
6. Bronze in Hirt 6, 1. 2. ; Borghese statue. Gem in MUlin P. gr.
48. Also on coins of Methana, on account of the volcanic nature of the
peninsula. [Coins of Lipari and .^sernia. Bronze figurette, if it is not
Odysseus, Spec, i, 47.]
367. In more important connexion we see him for ex- 1
ample in his smithy on gems, where Aphrodite visits him,
and together with the Cyclopes on reliefs, where he forges
fetters for Prometheus. We see him as injured husband 2
exposing his own shame at the adultery of Aphrodite. Ele- 3
gant works, but of which only vase-paintings are preserved,
have been especially produced by the mythus of Ares' quarrel
with Hephaestus on account of the crafty fettering of Hera,
and Dionysus' bringing the fugitive from Olympus back again
in triumph. Scenes of Sicilian comedy are sometimes closely
connected with these representations.
1. Vulcan's fall, relief in the Mus. at Berlin, Gerh. Ant. Bildw. i, 81,
6. [H., a goddess crowned with corn-ears, a trident, an enigmatical ' ':
fragment, M. PioCl, iv, 11. Kunstmuseum zu Bonn s. 119.] Lipp, i, 73,
74, ii, 71, 72. Inghir, G, Omer, 161. In Lipp, i, 75, H, furnishes aU the
gods with his works,— M, Cap, iv, 25 Hirt 6, 3, G, M, 93, 383,; V,
Borgh, i, 17, in the L, 433,, comp, Winck, W, u, s. 606, 693, The relief
L. 239. Clarac pi, 181, the workshop of H, is conceived in the spirit of
the Satyr-drama. Welcker, Ann, d, Inst, v, p, 154. — H. working at the
shield of Athena, MiUin P. gr. 49. H. working at the shield of Achilles
for Thetis, Capitol, relief, Inghir. G. Omer. 159. 163. H. forming Pan
dora? relief in the Louvre 217. Winck. M. I. 82. Clarac pi. 215., comp.
Welcker p. 145. Thetis in mournful attitude beside H. who is working
at the armour of Achilles, Pama sounding her trumpet (as with the
daughters of Lycomedes), a gem from Pompeii M. Borb. x, 18. [Vulcan
forging weapons for Venus aud two Amors, a mural painting with Ufe

460 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
size figures, excellent in style, in Villa Altieri, Eome, from the tomb of
the Nasones.]
2. Winck. M. I. 27. (from V. Albani) G. M. 38, 168.* Hirt 7, 5. This
mythus is very ingeniously represented on the ara of the temple of Clau
dius Faventinus, BartoU Adm. 3.
3. On the connexion of the Epicharmian piece 'A(pxwrog xxi oi Ka-
fixarxi, Dorians u. p. 365. On Achseus Hephaestus, Welcker Nachtrag s.
300. — First scene, Dsedalus, for Hephsestus, and Bneualius in combat be^
fore the throne to which Hera is fettered, vase from Bari in the Brit.
Mus. Mazocchi Tb. Heracl. ad p. 138. Hanc. iu. pi. 108. G. M. 13, 48.
[EUte ceramogr. i, 36.] (To this Ukewise refers Sappho Fr. 88 New : 6 S'
"Aqevg (pxig i xev"A(pxiarov dyeiv fiiif). /Second: Dionysus bringing back
Hephsestus in the thiasus (at which are also Marsyas and Comoedia).
Painting in the temple of the Anthesteria, Pans, i, 20, 2. Tischb. iii, 9. ;
iv, 38. ; MUUn, Vases i, 9. G. M. 83, 336. MUUngen Cogh. 6. ; MilUn u,
66. G. M. 85, 338. ; M. Borb. in, 53. ; Laborde i, 52. Stackelb. Graber
Taf 40, sublime. [Welcker Kl. Schr. i, s, 294, A subUme representation
also on a vase in the possession of St. Angelo, Naples, another on a oyUx
with Prometheus reconciled on the bottom. Bull. 1846. p. 116. Elite
ceramogr. i, 41 — 49 A. Also H. with hammer and cantharus in a winged
chariot, in a cylix from Volci, ibid, tf 38 from Gerhard's Auserl. V. i, 57,
1. is connected with these representations.] On an Etruscan mirror
Hera embraces Dionysus (Phuphluns), Dorow, Voy. pi. 16. At Volci
Hera with a cup on a winged chariot, Ann. iii. p. 142. — Third : H.
liberating his mother in the temple of Chaloiceoos, Paus. iii, 17, 3. The
CapitoUne puteal, §. 96. No. 22. also represents a bringing back and re
conciliation of H. but through Poseidon [certainly not. See 0. Jahn
ArchaoL Aufs. s. 108.].— Comp. besides §. 371. (Athena) 412. 413. (Brich
thonius, marriage of Cadmus and Peleus.)

8. PALLAS ATHENA.

368. The character of Pallas Athena, which is difficult to as
certain completely, has its central point especially in this, that
she is conceived as a, pure and exalted being closely related to
the god of heaven,-^s a virgin from the ethereal heights, who
sometimes appears in this world diffusing light and warmth
and vigorous life^ut who sometimes also destroys hostile beings
(especially the wonderful Gorgon connected with herself). But
if physical and spiritual are already intimately combined in this
earliest manner of contemplation, and the ethereal virgin was
at the same time conceived as the intellect of Zeus, as Metis
absorbed into Zeus and born again (according to Hesiod), the
latter notion completely preponderated in the Homeric period,
in conformity with the general law of development of Grecian
life; and Athena became the goddess of energetic industry,
of clear intellect, a protectress of every profession and every
person who undertakes and executes with discretion things

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ATHENA. 461
of utilityA Art, which in early times directed its attention 3
to Pallas almost before any other deity, represented espe
cially the foremost-fighting goddess {dXaXxofiivri) in the an
cient Palladia (§. 68.), which were formed with raised shield
and brandished spear; yet there were also statues in a tran- 4
quil and sitting posture ; and, besides the weapons, a spindle
and distaff were placed in her hand as emblems of peaceful
industry; the lamp also seems to have been an ancient
attribute of the goddess. 'x In the statues of early Greek art, 5
in its more advanced state, Athena always appears in martial
posture, stepping forward more or less, clad over the chiton
with a stiffly folded peplos, and a large segis which sometimes
also lay over the left arm serving as a shield, or, besides the
breast, covered also the whole back: in later times, on the
contrary, it became more and more contracted.^ The out- 6
lines of the body have less feminine fulness in the hips and
breast, at the same time that the forms of the legs, arms,
and back are developed in a more masculine manner. The 7
countenance has already the peculiar cast which improved
art further unfolded, but at the same time very harsh and
ungraceful features.
1. Comp. Creuzer's Symbol, ii, 640. The author's Minervse Poliad.
ffid. p. 1 sqq. Welcker's Prometh. s. 277. Gerhard's Prodrom. s. 121.
143. Heffter Gotterdienste auf Khodos ii. B. Eiickert, Dienst der Athena.
[Gerhard Minervenidole B. 1844. with 5 pi. in the memoirs of the Acad.
EUte ceramogr. i, 54 — 90.]
3. On the Trojan (also in the painting Ant. Ere, iii, 40,) and the
Athenian Palladium §. 68, E. 1, Procop. describes . very minutely (B.
Goth, i, 13.) the Eoman PaUadium after a relief in the temple of
Fortuna ; in the long chiton, brandishing the lance, with archaic form
of countenance supposed to be Egyptian. A. Lacedsemonian PaUadium
almost looks like a herma on coins of GaUienus, Cadalvfene, EecueU pi. 2,
36. (with a dyxv'Karov dxovriov'). A. Chalcioecos with Dorian maidens dan
cing around her, is seen more developed as an ornament of hauberks,
and on the terracotta, d'Agincourt Fragm. en terre cuite pi. 12, 9. On
this subject Papazzurri, Lettera. E. 1794. 4to. Aristoph. Lys. 1300. M.lix
Axxxivx — x'Keux Xx'Kxioixov Aadvxv.
4. Sitting statues of the A. of Endoeus at Athens and Erythrse (§.
70. E. 2.) ; this one according to Paus. held the distaff with both hands
and had the polos on her head. The Trojan PaUadium according to §.
68. E. 1. besides the lance held the distaff and spindle, and had on a
inKog according to Bustath. p. 627, 6. [Sedent marble images at Athens §.
96. no. 9. Sueton. CaUg. 25. infantem autem — Minervse gremio imposuit.]
The ancient wooden image of A. Polias is presented, in the monuments
mentioned §. 96. No. 24., as a figure in the peplos, standing tranquiUy
and holding the lance as a skeptron in its right hand. It is doubtful,
from the gem M. Odesc. 16. whether it held up the shield, as it would
appear to have done from Winck. M. I. 120. The A. lUas has the lance

462 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
on her shoulder and a lamp in her hand. She is seen thus, in the herma
form, receiving a buU in sacrifice, on coins. Cab. d' AUier de Haut, pi. 13,
9., in more developed form on others, Chois, Gouff, ii. pi. 38, The lamp
in the hands of A, also Od. xix, 34. The half-moon on the ancient coins
of Athens to be compared.
6. Statues of A. in the early Grecian style §. 90. R. 3. 96. Nos. 11. 13. 14.
In reliefs §. 96. Nos. 21. 22. On the prize-vases §. 99, 3. No. 1., comp. Nos.
3. 6. 11. Often in early vase-paintings with Hercules, Etruscan statues
§, 172, R, 3, The coins of Antigonus Gonnatas also point to an ancient
reUgious idol (Empr, 489, 490.) : A., clothed in the peplos, the upper part
of which falls over the arms in two skirts, raises the shield with her left
and hurls the thunderbolt with her right. The segis corresponds, espe
cially in the Herculanean statue, to the Homeric idea; it is thrown
around the shoulder, and raised up and shaken with the hands. The
Sivdxvoi of the segis represent the serpents, Herod, iv, 189, It often hangs
very far down behind, Millin P. gr, 13, Impr, d, Inst, i, 2. .^gis with
Gorgoneion on coins of the gens Cordia. Comp. Facius CoUektaneen s.
124. Buttmann Ueber die Sternen-Namen s. 22. R. Rochette M. I. p.
191. pi. 35. The author's Eumen. s. 112.
7. The cameo, Millin P. gr. 14., corresponds to the heads on the most
ancient coins of Athens. The Florentine head is of a sternly subUme
form, Winck. W. v. s. 627. Meyer Gesch. Ann. s. 32.
369. Since Phidias perfected the Ideal of Athena (§. 114.
116.), tranquil seriousness, self-conscious power, and clearness
of intellect always remained the fundamental character of
Pallas. Her virginity is nothing else than exaltation above
all feminine weakness, she is too masculine herself to be capa-
! ble of surrendering herself to man. The pure forehead, the
long and finely shaped nose, the somewhat stern cast of the
mouth and cheeks (torva genis), the large and almost an
gular chin, the eyes not fully opened and rather downcast,
the hair artlessly shaded back along the brow and flowing
down upon the neck — all features in which early harshness
appears transformed into grandeur,-— are in complete accord-
i ance with this wonderful ideal creation. Later attempts to
resolve this earnestness entirely into grace could only end in
t rendering her characterless. The helmet is the chief indica
tion for the origin of the statues of Pallas, as we can easily by
the aid of coins distinguish the high Corinthian (§, 342, 3.)
from the close-fitting Attic helm,
2, Comp, Winck, W. iv, s, 116, vu, s. 119 sq. The Albani bust at
Munich 84,, MUlin M, I, u, 24, p, 196, M. Nap. i, 8. Meyer Tf 20 A.
especiaUy forms the basis of the description in the text. Similar in the
excellent, although doubtful gem by Onesimus, Millin P, gr. 68, comp,
Lipp. i, 34, The bust with the rams' heads on the helmet, also on a
bronze head Specimens ii, 47, (which perhaps here refer to poliorcetic)
from the tomb of Hadrian, seems of a somewhat harder expression, PCI.
vi, 2. M, Nap, i, 13. Hirt 6, 5. The bust M. Chiar. i, 16. has a wild ex-

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ATHENA, 463
pression, Gerhard, Beschr, Roms s. 53. The bust of sublime form in the
British Museum, Spec, i, 22. is interesting on account of the empty eye-
sockets, and metal-locks which were fixed on. A subUme colossal head of
A. among the plaster oasts of Mengs ; comp. Winck, W. v. s. 662, vi, s.
76, notes. Meyer Tf 21 B, [Coins Clarac pi, 1005. No, 2764—2775,]
3. So on coins of Pyrrhus, Empr. 545,, of Agathocles, 331, Gem of
Aspasius, simUar to the later Athenian coins (and thereby to the A.
Parthenos), only stiU more richly decorated, Bracci i, 29. Stosch P. gr,
Eckhel, P. gr. 18. G. M. 37. 132. Hirt 6, 6. comp. Lipp. i, 29. 30. 31. ii,
27. [The Albani A. "in the lofty style," Cavaceppi Race, di stat. tv. 1,
Pea's Winck. i. tv, 13,, the head in Winck, W. iv. Tf 6 A,]
4, The coins of Corinth and its colonies (§, 132, R. 1,) have the high
vizor-heUnet with the Pegasus (in reference to A, Chalinitis), also those
of Syracuse (with few exceptions), of Agathocles, Alexander, Pyrrhus.
On the contrary the coins of Athens, as well as those of VeUa, Thurii
and other places, have in almost aU forms the low close-fittiiig helmet,
with merely a shade (comp. M, Hunter, tb. 8 — 10. Tychsen Commentt.
rec. Gott. V. tb. 2.). It may be thence inferred that the Albani bust and
the VeUetri statue cannot be copies taken immediately from Phidias.
370. The modifications of this form stand in intimate I
connexion with the drapery. Athena, in the first place, has,
in many statues of the perfected style, a himation thrown
about her, either so as that falling over in front, it lies
merely around the lower part of the body, and thus heightens
the majestic impression of the form, or so as to conceal the
left arm and a portion of the aagis, whereby the goddess re
ceives a peculiarly peaceful character. This Athena has 2
always the shield resting on the ground, or wants it alto
gether; she is accordingly conceived as a victorious (hence
also the Nike in her hand) and peacefully ruling goddess. In 3
contrast to it stand the statues of Pallas in the Doric chiton
with the hemidiplo'idion, but without himation: a costume
which is immediately adapted for combat, for engaging in
which the upper garment also in Homer, whether it was
chlaina or peplos, was constantly laid aside. With this dra- 4
pery agrees very well an uplifted shield, which characterized
(§. 116. R. 3.) the Pallas Promachos of Phidias, and is proba
bly to be restored in many statues of Pallas executed after a
sublime model, which exhibit a somewhat more combative
action than usual in the bold sweep of the eegis, and the whole
bearing of the body, and are distinguished by the particularly
powerful and athletic form of the limbs. Where, therefore, 5
Athena appears, in smaller works of art, hastening to battle
or already engaged in combat, uplifting the lance or hurl
ing the thunderbolt, she has always this drapery. However, 6
she is also to be found in the same garb as a politically
active, as an oratorical {dyo^ala), and, without helmet or tegis,
as a peace-establishing goddess; and this more lightly clad 7

464 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Athena is also to be found on coins with shield laid down
and a patera in the hand, especially in reference to conquests
just achieved.
1. Statues of Athene Clarac pi. 457 — 474. The probable copies of the
A. Parthenos with Attic helmet, §. 114. R,, have the himation thrown
back. A. Parthenos on coins of Antiochus VII., Mionnet Suppl. T. viii.
pi, 14, 1, Similarly draped that in M, Frang. iv, 6. Nap, i, 11, Bouill.
iii, 3, 2, Clarac pi. 320, Also the grand statue 9^ feet high found at
Velletri in 1797, now in the Louvre 310, MiUin M. I. ii, 23. p. 189. M,
Fran?, ii, 2. Nap. i, 7, BouUl. i, 23, Clarac pi, 320, Meyer Tf 21 c. Also
the one PCI, i, 9, ; August. 98, Comp, Liban, "Excpq. 30, The A. with
the serpent, G, Giust, 3, has the himation covering the arm. comp, Meyer
in the Horen St, ii, s, 42,, in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican ; one en
tirely simUar, from Velletri, opposite, Gerhard, Beschr. Eoms ii, ii. s. 91.
104. [M. Chiaram. ii. tv. 4. 5.] The bust of this A. on gems, Lipp. ii,
31. by Butyches, Stosch P. gr. pi. 34. — A. with closely enveloped left arm,
in several statues, Bracci ii. tv. agg. 9. Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 1, 8 (where she
is called Alea). [EospigUgsi in §.larac pi. 462 P. no. 848 C. The star-be
sprinkled .^gis is the characteristic, the name Alea cannot be pointed out.
To the four repetitions a fifth is added. Bull. 1842. p. 169. A. with star-
bespangled drapery, a smaU bronze in Vienna, Arneth. Beschr. des k.
Miinzcabinets s. 33., thus also in ancient vase-paintings. Bull. 1830. p.
193.] Min. of Arezzo §. 172. E, 3.
2. Pallas Victrix in the himation, Bartoli Lucern. ii, 37. comp. Ger
hard, Ant. Bildw. s. 146. No. 11.
3. To these belongs the fine statue in Dresden 187 and 206. Aug. 14t/J"
comp. Schorn in the Amalth. ii. s. 206., and the exactly corresponding
one at Cassel. BouiU. i, 24. M. Roy. ii, 7. comp. Volkel in Welcker's
Zeitschr. i. s. 156. The sinking of the left knee, and the elevation of the
left shoulder which clearly shows that the left arm was much raised,
lead to the conclusion that this Pallas was one accoutred for immediate
defence. Therewith are to be ranked the A. in Dresden 214. Aug. 48.
(Areia according to Hase, Verzeichniss s. 62.) ; the Etruscan one, as it
seems, from Modena in the Louvre 398. Bouill. iii, 3, 6. M. Nap. i, 9.
Clarac pi. 319. ; the Etr. one of terracotta, from Capua ?, in Vienna,
Clarac 857. no. 847. ; that of VersaiUes M. Prang, iv, 2. Nap. i. 10. ; the
Min. au collier in the Louvre 622., with a somewhat arohaicaUy handled
Doric chiton and diploidion, M. Roy. ii, 1. Bouill. i, 25. Clarac pi. 319. ;
also that in BouUl. iii, 3, 1. 3. ; M. Cap. iii, 10. 11. To these add also the
Medicean torso, Winck. W, v. s. 550. Tf 4. C. [M. d. I. iii, 13. Annali
xu, p, 87—93, B, Braun,]
4, Perhaps the figure on the gem Tassie pi, 25, 1731, Lipp, Suppl. 69.
especially resembles the A. Promachos. (The same figure in front view
92.). An onyx found near Aliphera presents in a simUar form the A.
' Aynamo'Aix, perhaps after Hypatodorus' statue, Leake, Morea ii. p. 80.
Of the same description was the A. Kransea iaxevxapcivn <if ig ptdxriv,
Paus. X, 34, 4.
5. So the one with the serpent hastening to battle on gems, Millin
P. gr. 16. Lipp. ii, 34., A. attacking with serpents, as on gems, MorelU
gens Clovia 1.; the coins of Antiochus Philopator N. Brit. 12, 13., of

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ATHENA. 466
Athens, Stuart ii. vign. N. Brit. 6, 14. — Hurling thunderbolts on coins of
Athens, as guardian of her temples, N. Brit. 6, 13., of Macedonia (§. 368.
R. 5.), of Domitian, G. M. 37, 136, The numerous Minervas on Domi-
tian's coins (MoreUi Dom, tb. 6 sqq,) especially make the contrast very
evident between the one fighting (even downwards from the ship) in the
chiton, and the one standing tranquiUy in the himation. A, on vase-
paintings, short segis with veil, a long hemidiploidion underneath, M,
Pourtalfes pi, 6.
6, That in the Louvre 192. is an A. Agoresa. Bouill, iii, Suppl, Clarac
pi, 320, in the Doric ungirded chiton with cape, with a small segis, the
right hand resting upon the haunch, the left extended oratorioally, the
head incUned with a peculiar expression. The gesture of the colossal A,
at Constantinople was perhaps similar, Nicetas p, 359, P. A, in oratori
cal attitude, clad in the himation, the shield at her feet, Passeri Luc, i,
62. [The Pallas of Antiochus of Athens in VUla Ludovisi, M, d, I, iii,
27. Ann. xiii. p. 54. That pubUshed as Agorsea, in the palace Stoppani-
Vidoni at Rome, B. Braun Ant. Marmorwerke i, 1. Similar that of Cas
sel D. A. K. ii, 20, 210. A. with small narrow segis, marble, Specim. ii,
38. Small bronze busf of a whole figure, of the time of the Cesars, peace-
• ful expression, ibid, ii, 48.] The Pacifi^a (comp. Luc. de domo 27.) is de
signated by the want of the helmet, M. Chiar. 14., as well as of the segis,
ibid. 12, 14., also by the inverted torch M. Nanian. 18. 6. M. 37, 137.
comp. 138. [Stat. reg. Suec. tb. 1.] On early reliefs (§. 96. No. 20. Winck.
W. V. s. 527.) and vase-paintings, such as the one mentioned §. 365. R. 1.
A. holds the helmet in her hand as a peacemaker. The fine bust of A.
with the right shoulder uncovered, and having nothing of the ?egis but
the snakes, and of the helmet but the crest, on a sardonyx in Florence,
Gori ii, 55, 1. Tassie pi. 25, 1647., recalls the appalling beauty of many
Gorgonea. 7. A. in the chiton with the shield set down and patera on coins
of Cyme N. Brit. 9, 20., in like manner with a Nike in the hand;
10, 21. 12, 12. MorelU Dom. 9, 22. 32. Lipp. ii, 33. Suppl. 95. As
tfixnepoqog in the double chiton, with the shield set down, and the serpent
beside her, on coins of Athens, Stuart ii, 1. vign., comp. the Victrix G.
M. 36, 135. [Hesiod Scut. 339. N/xnj/ d^xvxr'rjg xH"'" 'ex'^vax. The A, in
Hope's coll, with Nike on her right hand^Spec. j,^5, Clarac pi, 469, no,
850, the helmet after Phidias,] x j'-T^.^^/iT'':., ^ f/"/-'-^ <'
A. Nike, winged, Ulp, ad Demosth. ag. Tim. p. 738. C. I. 150. Eurip.
Ion 460. 1545. comp. Cie. N. D. iii, 23. and §. 334, 2., is also to be found
on old Etruscan gems, Impr. d. Inst, i, 1, 4,, likewise on coins of Domitian,
MorelU tb. 7, 37. According to HeUodorus, in Photius' Lex., the wooden
statu/e of A. Nike was not winged, and held in the right hand a pomegra
nate, in the left a helmet (read xqxvog). A. as a sovereign, with her foot on
a globe, bronze in Grivaud de la Vine. Ant. Gaul. pi. 24. A. as goddess
of navigation spreading her segis as a sail, on coins of Phaselis, Eckhel
SyU. 4, 11. A. in a quadriga, coins of the gens Vibia, <feo. A. Arche
getis (of Athens), with the owl in her hand, Schol. Arist. Birds 515., as
well as in a bronze at Vienna, also Ant. Ere. vi, 7, 8. Comp. M. Chiar.
p. 38. So also the Attic A. on vases, Tischb. iii, 33. [Gerhard Trinkscha
len xui, 1. M. Gregor, i, 43, 1. M. d. I. u, 35. Gerh. Prodr. s. 147.] A, as
Mrqane with the owl in her hand, borne by a ram, MiUin P. gr. 18. Tassie
2G

466 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
pi. 26, 1762. [D. A. K. u, 21, 223.] Impr. d. Inst, u, 6, PaUas with a goat
beside her in a peculiar style, on coins of Cleomenes of Lacedsemon, Mionn ,
Suppl, iv, pi, 6, 3, [A bronze figure 8 inches high in Florence, the helmet •
flat, instead of the segis a sort of under- vest with leather-apron, in her
hands a kind of small ship and skeins of wool, explained as Ergane also by
Wicar Gal, de Florence Cah, x. The three Charites made by A, for Cyzi
cus as first work of art, according to an epigram, see N, Rhein. Mus. iii.
p, 273, Ergane buUds the first ship §, 371, R, 6, helps Dsedalus to make
wings and Epeus the horse.] With panther, roe, on vases from Volci.
A. Polias feeding her sacred serpent, in the relief PCI. iv, 6. Hirt 6, 9,
G, M, 36, 134, A, Hygieia (doubtful) G. M. 36, 140, Paciaudi Mon, Pe
lop, ii, 155, [A. Hygieia had a temple on the acropoUs of Athens. A,
Pseonia Paus, i, 2, 4. 34, 2,] A, enveiled in a small statue in Villa Al
bani, as the statue of the city-goddess was veiled at Athens on one of the
days of the Plunteria, Clarac pi, 457, no. 903,
I 371. Several mythi of Pallas occupied advancing art more
2 than can be indicated in the extant works of a later period. The
issuing of the virgin in complete armour from the head of Zeus,
must have been a favourite subject of elder art, whose groups,
of statues we can figure to ourselves from vase-paintings and a
3 design on an Etruscan mirror, A view of the battle with the
giants, represented on the Panathenaic peplos, wherein the
goddess rode in the quadriga invented by her, as well as of the
contest of Athena with Poseidon for the tutelar sovereignty of
4 Athens, is now almost only furnished by coins and gems. By
her mystical relation to Erichthonius, the goddess receives a
trait of maternal character, which forms a very interesting
and attractive combination with her virgin severity ; probably
genial creations of an Athenian artist form the basis of what
5 has been preserved thereof in works of art. The destruction of
her terrific antitype, the Gorgon, by means of Perseus, a closely
allied dtemon, belongs to the first mythic subjects, in which,
art, still rude and delighting in the grotesque, tried its
skill ; the gift of Gorgonian locks or drops of blood, by which
Athena communicated to her proteges the power of life and
death, could not be so easily expressed in a plastic manner.
6<^She is more frequently seen in actions where she is per
sonally less interested, as Ergane in ship-building and other
architectonic undertakings, as well as advising and aiding in
female occupations; the invention also, as well as her disdain
7 of the flute, is the subject of thoughtful compositions. As the
general helper of heroes she has her place everywhere in the
8 representations from these cycles of mythi. Besides the much-
adored Attic Athena, the Athena Chryse, a Lemno-Dardanian
goddess, especially occurs as an object of worship. Like the
goddess of Athens she has also a serpent for the protection of her
9 sanctuary. Of more importance however than these serpents
for the symbolism of art, are the owl and the cock, the former
of which, without regard to its original reference to nature,

OLYMPIAN DEITIES, ATHENA, 407
denotes the serious meditation, the latter the stirring activity
and combative energy of the goddess.V
2. Birth of A. On the ancient works of art referring to the ' A^nvxg
yovxi Welcker ad PhUostr. ii, 27. p. 643. [Vase-painting M. d. I. iii, 44.
45. Ann. xiv. p, 90 — 103 by W, Henzen. Gerhard Auserl. V, i, 1 — 4,
Elite ceramogr. i, 64 — 66,, whore a second mirror is also described p. 222,
mentioned BuU. 1841. p, 177,], a group on the acropolis of Athens, Paus,
i, 34, 2., probably archaic. Comp. §. 118. R. 2 c. Very rude representa
tion on a Clusinian vase, Dorow Notizie tv. 10. Micali tv. 79. The Vol
centine vase §. 99. No. 3. The infant A. on the knoes of Zeus, MicaU tv.
80. Quite simUar in Laborde pi. 83. Etruscan patera in Schiassi De
patera Cospiana. R. 1818. and Inghir. u, 10. with Zeus (Tina), Hephss-
tus (Sethlans), Aphrodite (? Thalna), and BUeitbyia. (Thana seems to
me to stand here for A^xvx, others however interpret differently.) [Ger
hard Etr. Spieg. i, 66.] Gem, MUlin P. gr. 56. Lamp, Passeri i, 52.
Rondanini reUef, Winok. M. I. ii. vign. G. M. 36, 125. Picture by
Cleanthes of Corinth, §. 356. R. 5. Large historical tableau, PhUostr. u,
27. [PhUodemos Tceql svaejieixg : xxi rav dqxtxlav rivig hripiiovqyav rovrov
{rov Eg^sjv) ¦T^-xqiqwovrit ra Ail Troiovaiv 'TriXexvv s;^o»t« xxiix-Treq ev r^ riig
XxXxiolxov (of Gitiadas), in AveUino Casa Pompeiana 1837. p. 58, who
also p. 78. refers to the Berlin vase no. 686., where, behind Zeus sitting,
Gerhard perceives Hephsestus, but Levezow Hermes with petasus, cadu-
ceus and chlamys.]
3. A.'s battle wiHi the giants on the Dresden statue §, 96. No. 13, comp,
SchoL Aristid. p. 115. Fr. Relief on the bronze helmet, M. Borb. x, 31.
Gem, MilUn P. gr. 19. G. M. 36, 128. ; Tassie pi. 26. No. 1753. Coins of
Seleucia in CiUcia G. M. 37, 129. Statuette with the vanquished giant
at her feet, M. Fran§. iv, 8. BouiU. iu, 3, 7. [M. Nap. i, 12. §. 396. R. 1.
Pallas slaying a giant, Stackelberg Tf 13. A. and Typhceus, a group in
the French Mus. Visconti Op. Var. iv. p. 14. A. and Bnceladus with the
names, EUte ceramogr. pi. 8, the same pi. 9 and many others, also Antiq.
Pourtalls, no. 131, A. against two giants ibid. no. 132. 133. Judica
Antich. d. Acre tv. 22. Elite pi. 11. A. and Enceladus, Gerhard, Etr.
Spiegel i, 67. A. and Acraos Tf 68. — Also contest of A. with Marsyas
ibid. Tf. 69. 70. A. and Bnceladus with three names, amphora from Vulci,
Gerhard Auserl. Vas. i, 6. Elite ceramogr. i, 8. Another representation
ibid. 9. A. against two giants 10, in her chariot against one 11.] Con.-
test xoith Poseidon §. 118. R. 2 c. Tho group of statues at Athens, Paus.
i, 24, 3., probably occurs again on coins of Athens, Stuart ii, 2. vign. G.
M. 37, 127. N. Brit. 6, 11. Cameo in Paris, Cabinet pi. 15., in Naples,
Tassie pi. 26. 1768. Relief on a fibula from Pompeii, M. Borb. vii, 48.
The sacred oUve-tree (ixxix ¦7rxyxv<pog) N. Brit.. 6, 12. 13. 15.
4. A. warding off Hephaestus, fragment of a painted clay-plinth
from Athens, Brondsted Voy. ii. p. 299. pi. 62. comp. Luc. de domo 27.
(otherwise explained by Panofka, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 292.) A. receiving
in hor segis the infant Erichthonius whom Gsea holds up to her, He
phsestus standing by, vase-painting from Volci M. I. d. Inst, 10, [Two
from Clusium, M, d, I, iii, 30, Ann. xiii. p. 91. and Gerhard Auserl. V.
iii, 151, Elite ceramogr. i, 85. with interesting variations. 0. Jahn
Archaol. Aufs. s. 60 ff.] ReUef representations of the same subject ? M.

468 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
I. 12. Ann. i. p. 298. comp. Clarac, Melanges p. 43. Statue of A. with
Bricth. in the ffigis, in Berlin, Rot. 12. S. Lange Ilgenio. 1831. [Hirt's
Bilderbuch, Tf 22. no. 236. Clarac pi. 462 C. no, 888 E, Bottiger's Amal
thea iii, 367,] Brichthonius with the shield of A, on coins of Magnesia
M, d. I. i. i. pi 49 A, no, 1, R, Rochette, Tantalus according to Panofka.
Ann. V, p. 117—125,
5. On the Gorgoneia §, 397, 6, Perseus §, 414, R. 2, A, deUvering to
Cepheus the protecting hairs of the Gorgon which Cepheus' daughter
Sterope receives in a vase (see Paus, viii, 47, 4, ApoUod, ii, 7, 3,), on
coins of Tegea, Mionnet, Empr, 666, M, SClem, 12, 120. MiUingen Med.
In. 3, 9. comp. Cadalvfene Rec. p. 209. Correctly explained in Bckhel's
N. V. anecd. p. 142. D. N. ii, 298. MiUingen refers the representation to
A. and Orestes.
6. A, at the building of the Argo, Winok, M. I. vign. G, M, 130. 417. ;
Terrac. of the Br. M. 16. ; G, M, 105, 418, [D, A, K. ii, 21, 238. Cam
pana Ant. opere di plastica tv. 5, who understands it to be A, Ergane as
inventress of the ship at the voyage of Danaus Marm, Par. ep. 9. Plin.
Epist, vii, 56. Hyg, 168.] At the building of the theatre of Capua,
Winck. W. i, Tf 11. With Hephsestus §. 367. G. M. 82, 338**, Dseda
lus §. 418. As patroness of female work, in the forum Nervse §. 198. R.
3. Invention of the flute, a picture, Winck. M. I. 8. G. M. 83, 130.
Myron fecit Satyrum admirantem tibias et Minervam, Plin. comp. Paus.
i, 24, 1. The reUef in Stuart ii, 3. vign., and the J!thea. coin, Brondsted
Voy. u, p, 189, agree therewith,
7. A. fighting with Ares? a vase-painting, Inghir. G, Omer, 197.
Often beside heroes in their chariot, or at the equipment, Ann, d, Inst,
iu, p, 135, A, with Hercules §. 410, 411., Theseus 412., BeUerophon 414.
(G, M, 92, 393,), the battle of the Amazons 417,, before Paris 378,, at the
Trojan battles 415,, with Odysseus, Orestes, 416 (on Asiatic coins, Artemis
giving the voting-stone is a symbol of the xoiuo,iov'Xiov, Heyne Virg. T. vi.
p. 785. (1800.) ; also at the rape of Cora 368., the punishment of Marsyas
362., Cadmus' and Peleus' marriage 412. 413. ; with Prometheus giving
life to man 396.
8. A. Chryse preventing Philoctetos, by her oixovqog o(pig, from cap
turing Troy before the time (a fundamental idea of the Philoctetos of
Sophocles), on the vase-painting MiUingen Div. pi. 50. comp. Philostr. the
younger 17. Earlier sacrifice of the Argonauts, ibid. pi. 51. Laborde pi.
23. Comp. Uhden in the Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1815. PhiL Cl. s. 63.
Welcker in Dissen Expl. Pind. p. 512. [Sacrifice to the goddess Chryse,
four vase-pictures, Gerhard's Archaol, Zeit, iii. Tf 35.] Panathenaic sa
crifice on vases from Volci, Levezow, Verz. 626. Scenes from the Attic
worship of PaUas, as it seems, on metopes from the Parthenon. Sacrifice
of a cow to PaUas on vases from Volci, also processions of lyre and flute
players, Gerhard, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 134. comp. Prodr. s. 137. A. re
ceiving the peplos [as at Troy in Homer], on coins of Tegea, as on vases
fi-om Volci according to Gerhard. Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 134. The rqxTre^x
with the prizes of the Panathensea, coins in Stuart u, 1. vign. On the
seat iu, 3. There are stiU to be mentioned ^. Itonia, sitting beside Hades
(Strab. ix, 411.), Florent. gem in Gori ii, 72, 1. Wicar iv, 3. The Capito
line Minerva §. 361. R. 7. Combination of A. with Hermes §. 346. R. 2.

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARES. 469
9. Minerva's owl (strix passerina, Blumenbach Specim. i. p. 20.
Bottiger Amalth. iii. s. 263.), the ancient emblem of the rxxvxa^ng, given
to her also by Phidias together with the serpent (to which likewise re
fers Demosthenes' witticism in Plut. 26. see however Gerh. Prodr, s, 147,),
sometimes on Minerva's helmet (on denarii of Cordius), as well as in her
hand §. 370, R. 7,, on the pole of her chariot M, Borbon. viii, 14, On the
owl as mouse-killer (comp. Batrachomyom, 185 sqq,), Bottiger Amalth,
iu. s. 260. Gott. G. A. 1831. s. 554. comp. Tassie pi. 23, 1585. . Often on
gems (M. Odesc. 30., Tassie p. 137.) the owl itself with the head and at
tributes of Minerva; also A. drawn by owls (Tassie pi. 26, 1756.). The
cock, as an emblem of contest for honour, is to be found almost always,
and that too in pairs, on the Attic prize-vases, §. 99. No. 1. Also on coins
of Himera, Cales, Suessa. Comp. Pausan. vi, 26, 2. [Peculiar to these
works of art is an amatory relation of A. to Hercules, which has been
gradually brought more clearly out. Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 479. E. Braun
Tages und des Heracles und der Minerva heUige Hochzeit, Miinchen
1839 f Gerhard Trinkschalen s. 11. 30. Tf C, especially the Fontana
vase Gerh. Auserl. V. ii, 149. s. 182. 0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 83—127.
H. Brunn Berl. Jahrb. 1845. i. s. 692—96. There is, exactly Uke the
Fauvel jug in Stackelb. Graber Tf 13, 2. 3. another in the Brit. Mus. in
the Burgon coUection from Athens, if indeed it be not the same, which
only seems to be not the case, from the form of the opening.]

9. ARES.
372. Ares, the god of battle, who is in a significant man- I
ner placed along with Aphrodite in the twelve-god system,
was, however, in his essence, too much a mere idea to become
a leading subject of the plastic art. Neither did any Hellenic
state worship him as a cardinal and tutelar deity, which he
became in later times at Rome. Hence it is, that although a 2
few remarkable statues of the god by Alcamenes and Scopas
are mentioned, yet many doubts still prevail as to his plastic
character. However, a compact and muscular development, 3
a thick fieshy neck, and short, disordered hair (§. 330, 2.)
seem to belong universally to the conception of the god. Ares
has smaller eyes, somewhat more widely distended nostrils (§.
335, 2.), a less serene forehead than other sons of Zeus. With 4
regard to age, he appears more manly than Apollo, the melle-
phebos, and even than Hermes, the ephebos among the gods,
— as a youthful man, whom, like almost all heroes, early art
formed with a beard, improved art, on the contrary, without
beard ; the former representation, however, was also preserved
in many districts and for many purposes. The drapery of 5
Ares, where he does not appear entirely undraped, is a
chlamys (a sagum). On reliefs in the archaic style he is seen in
armour, in later times he retained merely the helmet. He 6
usually stands; a vigorous stride marks the Gradivus on Ro-

470 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
man coins ; the legionary eagle and other signa the Stator and
Ultor (who recovered them) ; victories, trophies, and the olive-
branch the Victor and Pacifer. Scopas sculptured a sitting
Ares; he was doubtless conceived as reposing in a mild mood,
which seems also to be the meaning of one of the chief sta
tues extant, in which a copy after Scopas is perhaps preserved
to us.
3. 4. Beautiful head of Ares on the gem, MiUin P. gr. 20. Lipp. i, 32.
Bust of basalt in ViUa Giustiniani, see Hirt s. 62. Ares is often assumed
on coins without foundation ; for instance the helmeted and bearded head
on coins of Metapontum (G. M. 40, 160. Magnani Misc. Num. iii, 26 — 28.)
is, according to an inscription, Leuoippus, an Achaian founder of the city
(Strabo). §. 418. R. 2. [Coins of Metapontum and a Campanian one, Clarac
pi. 1007. no. 2795. 2796. Mars bearded on coins of the Romans in Sicily,
Neumann N. Ined. i. p. 67 ss. tb. 2, 12.] On the coins of the Mamertines
an unbearded laurel-crowned head has tho inscription "Aqeog, Torremuzza
48, 12 — 14. A bearded head of A. on coins of the Bruttii, Magnani ii,
4 — 10., if it also is not a tribe-hero. Ares' head unbearded on the Ro
man coins, only on those of the gentes Ponteia and Junia with sprouting
beard, Patinus p. 114. 144. [Eckhel, D. N. i, 224.] A. bearded, crowned
by a Nike, Aphrodite beside him with Bros on her shoulder, on the cor
responding altar the three Graces ? Serradifalco gli avanzi deU' ant. Sol-
ionto tv. 4.
5. A. bearded and in armour on the Borghese altar. A. as a young
man, with the chlamys, on the reUef POl. iv, 7 ; [with armour, helmet and
shield on the Capitoline ara, Winok. Mon, Ined, Tf 6,] Bearded and in
armour among the eight gods of the ara, M, Chiar. 19. A bearded Mars-
Hadrianus, statue in the M. Cap. iii, 21. Other statues, such as that in
the M. Cap. iii, 48., Race. /30. cf Clarac pi. 636. no. 1440. from M. Bor
bon., which many call A. are more than doubtful. The statue of Hera-
cleides (§. 157.* No. 3.) and Harmatius also, BouiU. i, 7., is only an A. by
restoration. On the Mars Borghese §. 413. (Achilles) ; a statue found
near Ostia in 1800 with the inscription Marti is said to be very like this
one. Hirt s. 52. Bight statues Clarac 634 A. 635. [A Mars 16 palmi
high, brought to ViUa d'Este in TivoU, is mentioned Flam. Vacca b. Fea
MisceU. p, 56.
6. See the coUooation in MiUin G, M, pi, 39, 40, M, Ultor appears
very characteristic, Morelli N. Impp. 4, 18, Fine A, with Nike and laurel
branch, MUlin P. gr, 21, As Poliorcetes G. M, 39, 162, Passeri Luc, ii,
29. [Mars Gradivus, bearing trophies on his shoulder, Hirt Bilderb, s.
60.] 7. Ludovisi Mars, Perrier 38, Maffei Race, 66, 67. Piranesi Stat. 10.
R. Rochette M, I, pi, 11, According to R, R, p, 37, 413, a mourning
AchUles; according to Hirt BUderbuoh s, 61, a hero [on the canon s. 31,
Theseus], If an A. it is one peacefully reposing, wherein the posture, the
want of the helmet, and the Amor beneath his feet agree. [From traces
of something having been broken off from the left shoulder a figure seems
to have stood beside it, Meyer in Winck, iv, s, 301,]
373, In groups the god of war seldom figures as a com-

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. ARES, 471
batant ; precisely because he is himself nothing else than war
and strife, he gave no opportunity for the celebration of par
ticular exploits by him. He only figures on gems as giant-slayer.
On the other hand we see him together with Aphrodite in :
groups of statues, which, in the posture of the bodies and dis
position of the drapery, indicate a famous original. As this
union of war and love was not always taken as a frivolous
adultery, but was viewed in the more serious sense, Roman
imperial consorts could also be glorified by such groups in
statues and coins. The Romans liked to see the love of
Ares for Ilia or Rea Silvia represented. In the treatment,
Greek representations, especially the surprisal of Ariadne by
Dionysus, were often laid as the ground work.
1. A. Gigantomachos, MUUn P, gr, 22, G. M, 36, 143, [EUte ceramogr,
i, 7, vase of the prince of Canine]
2. A, and Aphrodite, a statue-group M. Flor. iii, 36. Wicar iii, 12.
Clarac Venus de MUo pi, 2. Draped, with the heads of Marcus Aurelius (?)
and Faustina the younger in the Louvre 272, V. Borgh, 6, 3. Bouill.
i, 8. Clarac pi. 326. SimUar group M. Cap. ui, 20. Reliefs, R, Rochette,
M. I. 7, 2. G. Giust. ii, 103. Gems also in the old style, MiUin P. gr.
24 sqq. Lipp. i, 89. 91. ii, 79. Painting from Pompeii, M, Borb, iii, 35,
(A. in the himation) ; M. Borb. ix, 9, ; GeU N, Pomp, pi. 82, (Bros takes
off his helmet). The surprisal of the lovers by Hephsestus §, 367, R, 2.
An A. in the net, drawing his sword, on a coin of archaic style, Winck.
M. I. 166. Raponi 21, 15. 36, 1. Tassie pi. 63, 10127. A. as defender of
Hera against Hephsestus §. 367. R. 3.
3. Mars descending to Rea Silvia (pendens as in Juvenal) on the
pediment of the T. Urbis, §. 191. R. 1. Similar the picture, Terme di Tito
31. Mars appearing to lUa, Impr. d. Inst, iv, 87. on a medaUion of Anton.
Pius and other imperial coins. Also the Ara of Claudius Faventinus,
BartoU Adm. 5, 1. Vase in Bonn. [Crater of bronze, found in the neigh
bourhood in the best style ; on the reverse Mars fighting with Hercules
over the dead body of Cycnus, Alterthumsverein Bonn i. Tf 1. s. 45.
Wieseler Zeitschr. i. A. W. 1843. s. 484 ff'.] The two chief figures in the
relief in R. Rochette M. I. 7, 2. and on a Roman vase, G. M. 178, 653.,
also Ficoroni Gemmse 3, 6. Mars leading Rea as his bride, entirely
draped, ReUef PCI. v, 25. G. M. 180, 654. The relief, Gerh. Ant. Bildw.
40., also seems to make A. and Rea correspond to Selene with Endymion.
[Wieseler Die Ara CasaU 1844. s. 57 f In Guattani 1788. Febr. tv. 2.
On a sarcophagus at Amalfi in the church of S. Andrea there is the same
representation as in two in the pal- Mattel, one of which is in Winck.
M. Ined. tv. 110. Gal. Mythol. 133, 650. Inghir. Gal. Omer. tv. 225. 231.
Winckelman explained it as Peleus and Thetis, but Zoega (correctly) as
Mars and Rea, so also Lessing in the Laocoon §. 7. s. 86. and R. Rochette
Mon. Ined. p. 31 sqq]
A.'s throne. Ant. Ere, i, 29, G, M, 42, 147, A,'s arms borne by boys,
on a three-sided ara, S, Marco ii, 33, M, Nap, iv, 15, G, M, 40,, corre
sponding to one very similar Brit, M, i, 6, and others.

k ¦¦'¦

472 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

10, APHEODITE.

374. The Syrian worship of Astarte, by meeting in Greece
indigenous beginnings, seems to have produced the wide
spread and important worship of Aphrodite. The fundamen
tal notion of the great goddess of nature was never entirely
lost ; the watery element, her peculiar dominion in the East
(§. 241. R. 2.), always remained under the sway of this deity,
who was worshipped on coasts and harbours; the calm sea, re
flecting the heavens in the smooth mirror of its waves, seemed
in particular an expression of her nature. When art, in the
cycle of Aphrodite, soared above rude stones and shapeless
idols, it suggested the idea of a goddess powerfully swaying and
everywhere prevailing; it was usual to represent her enthroned,
with symbols of blooming nature and luxuriant fertility ; her
drapery was complete, only that perhaps the chiton partly dis
closed her left breast, and elegant, as an affected grace in drapery
and motion belonged of all others to the character of Aphro
dite. Art, in the Phidian period, also represented in Aphrodite
the sexual relation in its sacredness and dignity, and, in refer
ence thereto, thought more on permanent unions for the pur
poses of public weal, than on transient connections entered
into for sensual enjoyment. Later Attic art (§. 127) first
treated the idea of Aphrodite with a purely sensual enthusi
asm, and deified in her no longer a world-swaying power, but
the individual embodiment of the most charming womanhood ;
nay it even placed this ideal, released from moral relations,
in decided contrast therewith.
1, Comp, Laroher, Mem, sur Venus, P, 1775, Manso Versuche iiber
einige Gegenstande der Mythol, Leipz, 1794, De la Chau Sur les At
tributs de Venus, P. 1776, Heyne, Antiq, Aufs. i, s, 115 ff, [Gerhard
Venusidole B, 1845, with 5 Tf in the Schriften der Akad,]— On the Pa-
phian worship, §, 239. R. 2., 240. R. 1.
3. Xoanon of an Aphrodite-Hera in Sparta, to which mothers offered
sacrifice at the marriage of their daughters. A. of gold and ivory at Si
cyon by Canachus, enthroned, with polos, poppy-stalk and apple. A.
on mount Bryx, enthroned, with dove, Eros beside her, on coins. G.
M. 44, 181. cf 47, 182. A. enthroned, with a hare under the seat,
Plros beside her, on coins of Nagidos, Neumann N. V. ii. tb. 2, 8. N.
Brit. 10, 16. Very similar in Zoega Bass, ii, 112. — A. standing, with a
dove in her hand, on the Borgh. Ara, with a flower (afterwards used as
Spes §. 406. R. 5.) M. Cap. iv. 22. ; PCI. iv. 8. ; Chiar. i, 20. Similar on
vases from Volci. In the archaic style, a shell in her hand, in the relief
M. Borb. vi, 10. A. with Proserpine as a support (according to Gerhard),
a small marble statue from Pompeii, M. Borb. iv, 64, An archaic A,
whose hair is arranged by an Eros on wing, among Msenads. M. Chiar. i,
36. Gerhard, Venere Proserpina, 1826. 8. (comp. Kunstbl. 1825. No. 16

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APHRODITE. 473
ff. 1827. No. 42 f) mentions by this name the archaic idol with the mo
dius, which often occurs especially as a support, having the one hand on
the breast and tucking up the drapery with the other. Maffei Race. 121.
comp. 134., above §. 361. R.
4. ApoUon. Rh. i, 743. describes this as the main feature in an
Aphrodite, and Visconti, PCI. iii. p. 7. has caused it to be adopted as an
important criterion of the statues of Venus. Thus A. has in the beauti
ful relief at Naples §. 378. R. 4. a veil over the head, and yet one breast
is uncovered.
6. 6. Phidias' A. Urania at Elis, with her foot on the tortoise, as
oixovqog according to Plutarch ; and A. Urania at Athens. A. by Aloame
nes §. 117. Scopas' Aphrodites, among which the Pandemos on the goat
§. 126. R. 3. Praxiteles' 127, 4. Others by Cephissodorus, son of Praxi
teles, PhiUscus and others. A. Anadyomene by Apelles §. 141, 3.
375. The forms which improved art gave to Aphrodite are I
mostly those natural to the sex. She is altogether a woman,
in a much fuller sense of the word than Athena and Artemis.
The ripened bloom of the virgin is, in many modifications, the
stage of physical advancement which is adhered to in the
forms of the body. The shoulders are narrow, the bosom has 2
a maidenly development, the fulness of the hips tapers away
into elegantly shaped feet, which, little adapted for standing
or treading firmly, seem to betray a hurried and tender gait
(ai8gov fSd&iefia). The countenance, of Junonian fulness and 3
grand development of features, in the elder representations,
appears afterwards more delicate and lengthened; the lan
guishing eye {rh vy^hv §. 329, 6.) and smiling mouth {rh
sian^ivai §. 335. R. 2.) are combined with the general expression
of grace and sweetness. The hair is arranged with elegance, 4
usually encircled by a diadem and gathered into it in the
earlier representations, but knotted together into a krobylos
in the undraped statues of Venus produced by later art.
3. Not a few of the busts to be met with singly exhibit the more lofty
character. Thus the evare(pxvog in the L. 221. V. Borgh. 6, 17. Bouill. i,
69, 2. ; the head in Lord Egremont's, Specim. i, 45. 46. ; the Dresden
head (Wacker s. 163. ; also that s. 203. according to the Bd. Winok. iv. s.
332.). On a head at Mantua and Cassel, Winck. iv. s. 331. 332, 439. The
fine head, M. Chiar. i, 27. Sickler AUnan, ii, Tf U,, is in conformity with
the later Ideal, On coins it is often difficult to recognise the head of A, ;
the female head on Cnidian coins is certainly an A,, it has a fiUet twisted
round the hair like the copies of the Praxitelian statue §, 127, R, 4, On
coins of the gens Considia (which have Mount Bryx on the reverse) the
head of A, has a laurel wreath over the diadem, perhaps as victrix, Mo
reUi Cons, 6, comp, Vibia 2,
376, Here also the essential modifications of the form are 1
closely connected with the drapery. The entirely draped 2
Aphrodite, who, however, for the most part wears only a thin

474 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
chiton which but slightly conceals the body, and with a graceful
movement of the left arm merely draws forward a little the
upper garment, which is falling down behind, is derived from
the Urania of the early artists ; she was worshipped in Roman
times as Mother-Apheodite, Venus Genitrix, and honoured
by numerous representations, partly as the progenitrix of the
Julian family, partly as the goddess, of lawful, wedded love,
founded on desire for offspring, in times when there was a ne-
3 cessity for such a stimulus. The style of the period in which
this manner of representation originated, and the purpose itself,
combined to give to this class of statues of Aphrodite, rounder
and stronger forms, shorter proportions of figure, and a more
matronly character than was otherwise the custom in regard
4 to this goddess. Very clearly distinguished from these is a
second class of statues of Venus, which, without the chiton,
have only an upper garment thrown round the lower portion
of the body, and are characterized at the same time by the
5 placing of one foot on a slight elevation. In these the god
dess approaches a heroine in aspect; the forms of the body
are remarkably firm, and, though slender, powerful, the bosom
less rounded than in others, and the countenance furnished
with more prominent features, not without the expression of
6 pride and self-consciousness. Early wooden images at Sparta
exhibited Aphrodite in armour as a deity triumphant over all
might and strength; in this class of statues, therefore, we
must recognise a Venus victorious, whether she embraced
Ares himself, or held in her hands his helmet and shield, or a
palm, or the apple [?] as a sign of victory,
1, Clarac pi. 591, [—632 H, 634, 634 B, 640,]
2. The movement of the left arm is weU described in Aristsen, i, 15.
by T^f xfiTcex'vrig xxqoig ixxru7\oig i(pxvropt,ivn rav xqoaaav, and is given as
a sign of shame,
3, Probably of this description was the Venus Genitrix of Arcesilaus
(§, 196, R, 2,) in Csesar's forum. A, with the disposition of drapery here
described on coins of Sabina, Pedrusi vi, 29, 6, comp. PCI. iii, 8, On
other coins more richly draped, with sceptre and baU, a child before her,
with legend, G. M, 44, 185, V, FeUx in Uke costume, a child in her
arms, 186,; however, she also appears half-draped, girding herself with
the cestus on coins of Domitian, Pedrusi -vii, 27, 4. [A. girding herself
with the cestus, a beautiful little bronze Ann. d. I. xiv. tv. F. p. 50.
The V. Genitrix Xvovux ^avxv Pindar 0. vi, 39, ptirqriv xvx'hverxi, CaUim.
in Delum 222.] She often also carries the apple, likewise a spear, as
mother of the Romans, and a Victory when she passes over into the
victrix. But the V. coelestis of coins has also the same attributes, see
the examples from Gessner and Pedrusi in Gerh. Neap. Ant. s. 5 ff. ' Aipj.
¦jrajayaSosdrapedBoissardiv, 116. Statues: That of Versailles in the Louvre
46. proportions, handUng of hair and drapery archaic, with bored ears, M.
Frang. ii, 6. BouiU. i, 12. M. Nap. i, 61. Clarac pi. 339. In the Louvre

OLYMPIAN DEITIES, APHRODITE, 475
185. clothed in a thin chiton with zone, an Amor beside her, formerly
the name of Praxiteles was on it. M. Nap. i, 62. Bouill, iii, 7, 3. Clarac
pi, 341. In Florence, Galleria iv, 1, 18. Clarac pi. 592, 1288, Uke the Gius
tiniani one 594, 1288 A., that in the Coke coUection 594, 1449 A., and ¦?-
that in the PioCl. 592, 1289. In Lord Egremont's possession, doubtful,
Cavac, i, 5. Winck. W, iv, s, 115, v. s. 24, Dancing and crowned with
ivy, PCI, ui, 30. (according to Hirt). [Gerhard Vat, Mus. s. 203,] In the
L, 420. V. Borgh. 4, 1, M. Roy. i, 18. BouiU. iu, 8, 3. In England,
Specimens U. pi., 54. The counterpart to her, her foe, the lewd miscarry- /
ing Venus, L. 427. V. Borgh, 4, 13. BouUb iii, 8, 1. Clarac pi. 341. [Visconti
Mon. scelti Borghes. 1821. tv. 30, as Peribasia, very erroneously explained
by Zannoni in the Giorn. de' letterati, Pisa 1823. iv. p. 19. Ovid Amor ii,
14.] The statuette at Dresden 119., Aug. 66., beside the Priapus, seems
to be an ex veto for frnitfulness in marriage ; the drapery always remains
in such circumstances. In Lipp. ii, 94. A. leans on a column on which
there is a Priapus, and at the same time singes a butterfly with the torch
taken from Cupid, therefore a goddess of life and death, V. Libitina. Comp.
Gerhard, Ueber Venus Libitina on gems and glass-pastes, Kunstbl. 1827,
No. 69 f A. in the Coan drapery, at Dresden 246. Aug. 105. ; Marm. Oxon.
5. Archaic Venus and Juno, Fama between them ? Collect, de Peintures
ant. qui ornaient le palais, <fec. 1781. pi. 10. — On vase-paintings A. always
appears at Volci (Ann. iii. p. 44.) and elsewhere perhaps always draped,
as naked figures can only be regarded as women bathing, as in Hancar,
iii. pi. 123. Often also sitting, with the mirror, drawing her garment
over tho shoulder, Millingen Un. Mon. i, 10. Comp. §. 374, R, 3,— On the
other hand the Etruscan mirror-drawings represent A. naked under the
name of Turan, Dempster Etr. reg. 4,, but also half-draped, M. I. d. Inst.
ii, 6,, draped likewise, Inghir. Etr. Mon, ii, 15 sq. 47. On an inedited
mirror Turan, undraped, embraces Eros as a youth. Thalna also, who
appears half-naked and with a dove, was perhaps related to A. Inghir ii,
10. 4. An A, of this description in bronze, simUar to the marble one of
Aries, with the (pxqog around the thigh, x?"''£h •'I'Xoxxpiiixg i^oo-ip/yjao-a
xx7,v7i-rq>i, is described by Christod, v, 78. ; the kind of drapery also Ar
temid, On. u. 37.
6. 6. On the A, in armour, Paus. Plut. Nonnus and others. A victori
ous and martial-looking Venus; a consecrated gift of the sophist Hero
des, is described by Damascius ap. Photius 242. p. 342, Bekk, ; one look
ing at her reflection in the shield of Ares, ApoUon, Rh, i, 745. A figure
of this kind is to be found on coins of the colony of Corinth, probably of
the time of Julius Ca?sar, who worshipped V. victrix. The statue from
the amphitheatre of Capua, which has the left foot placed on a helmet,
agrees exaot]iy therewith. Clarac pi, 595, 596, 598. MiUingen, Un, Mon, ii.
4, 5. M, Borb. iii, 54, Gerh. Ant, Bildw. 10, comp. Winck. W, iv, s. 114,
(The torso caUed Psyche, found in the same place, presents a similar
character of forms, MUlingen ii, 8. Gerhard 62, comp, B, Wolf, Bull, d.
Inst. 1833. p. 132.). The Venus of Melos in the L, 232 b. (§. 253. R, 2,)
approaches this one in drapery ; it is the work of an artist of Antioch on
the Mseander, if the inscription belongs to it. Restored in antiquity
twice (if the hand with the |K^ao» is also later), the second time barba
rously. The A. in Dresden draped, Lo Plat pi. 124, Clarac pi. 595, 1301.

476 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Of majestic beauty, although not without defects. M. Roy. i, 19. BouUl.
1,11. Clarac pi. 340. Attempts at explanation: Qu. de Quincy, Sur la
statue antique de V; decouverte dans Pile de Miles en 1820. 1821. Clarac,
Sur la st. ant. de V. victrix etc. 1821. MiUingen ibid. The same figure of
Venus, exactly in the same posture and drapery, is also grouped with Ares
(as his conqueror) §. 373. R. 2. At the same time she often, as governor
of the world, has her foot on a globe, M. Flor. i, 73, 5. Lipp. SuppL 175.
A. looking down on a helmet, which she holds in her right hand, whUe she
holds a palm or a weapon with the left arm which is supported, on gems,
MUlin P. gr. 23. Hirt 11. Lipp. i, 93—95. ii, 80—84. M. Flor. i, 72, 2—6.
(instead of the helmet also an apple or a dove). Perhaps the yT^vpipix' A(pq.
'ivoTTT^ov of Csesar, Dio C. xUii, 43. A gem of this description in the Vienna
cabinet bears the inscription Atpqoiurn rri xveixnra and Veneri victrici.
Comp. coins of Augustus. In similar attitude the V, of Aries, L, 282,,
with particularly flat breast, restored by Girardon with mirror and apple.
Delineated unrestored in Terrin La V. et I'obelisque d' Aries, Aries 1680,
12, ; correctly restored Clarac pi, 342, Besides M. Frang, i, 3, Nap. i, 60.
BouiU. i, 13. Meyer Tf 7, 6. The statue found by Hamilton near Ostia
is a copy of the same original, Brit. M. i, 8. Specim. i, 41. ; also that in
BouUl. iii, 7, 1. [comp. also V. Borg. v, 7.] A Pompeian picture exhibits
an Aphrodite in the costume of the victrix here described, laying aside
her dress and seizing the lance, M. Borb. viii, 6. [The head of another
Venus found at Aries at the excavation of the theatre, a oast in the Mu
seum at Bonn No. 157 b,] Half-draped statues of A, of different charac
ter and activity as portrait-statues, above §, 205, R, 4, The Florentine
so-called Urania M, Flor, iii, 30, Meyer Tf He, Comp. the A, with a
very beautiful head, Aug, 104, The drapery is modern on the small ele
gant statue, Aug. 43. The Hope Venus, Cavac i, 22,, is very doubtful,
Comp, §, 402, R, 1,
377. Less powerful, of greater fulness and roundness, are
the forms of several statues of Aphrodite, which represent her
at the bath, -covering her bosom with a piece of the drapery
which hangs round behind her; there was a celebrated one
of this kind in Alexandria Troas which was often copied in
antiquity. Forms intentionally over delicate and flowing are
observable in the meretricious statue of Aphrodite Callipygos.
On the other hand, ancient art felt itself challenged to the
observance of the purest proportions, the most faultless repre
sentation of beautiful forms, when the goddess appeared com
pletely unveiled. The unsullied bloom of the virgin forms,
then holds the perfect medium between the more womanly
forms of the matronly, and the somewhat more 'severe and
powerful contours of the conquering Aphrodite; art here
attains the last and highest goal in the representation of fe
male beauty. Although the bath was originally imagined as
the occasion of this unveiling, here all reference to action dis
appears; the statue is entirely a symbol of female loveliness,
heightened by the manifestation of natural shame, and of
womanhood in general. Other attitudes which indicate more

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APHRODITE. 477
movement and action, notwithstanding the particular charms
which they unfold, have not the same pervading and uniform
fulness of beauty as the chief statues before described. To
this class belong those crouching in the bath, girding them
selves with the cestus, putting on a shoulder-belt or sandals.
The Anadyomene, in the strict sense, is not a subject for the
plastic art.
1. An A. covering her bosom in the pal. Chigi, found at Rome on
Mount Cselius, in which the eyes, forehead, and the arrangement of the
hair are particularly fine, has the inscription: a-jro rng iv Tqax'ii' Atfqo-
'hirrig Mnvoipxvrog i'Troiei. M. Cap. iv. 352. with engr. Winck. 'W. iv. s. 329.
With this one agrees that in the L. 190. from the Gal. de Versailles. M.
Roy. i, 11. Nap. i, 57. BouiU. iii, 6, 4. Clarac pi. 343. Comp. BouiU. iii, 7.
Clarac pi. 344. The Dresden one with a bathing towel, Maffei Race.
144., Le Plat 133 , the head Aug. 61. The fine A. M. Chiar. i, 26. Clarac
pi. 610, 1356, with borrowed head, has the drapery knotted together
under the bosom. [There is a repetition in the smaU back court of the
pal. Borghese at Rome. The same composition in bronze, Antich, d'Er
col. vi, 17, strictly speaking an Anadyomene, see Rem, 5. That in the
Mus, Borb, Clarac pi, 600, 1323, wringing her hair, corresponds. The one
at Syracuse similarly half draped, but with the hands held downwards,
C. Grass Reise nach Sicilien ii. s. 356. Clarac pi, 608. no. 1344. PoUti
sul simulaoro di Venere trov. in Siracusa, Palermo 1826. The one in the
M. Chiaram. i, 25 only holds her hair with one hand.] — A. entirely un
veiled in front, enveloped behind, G. di Fir. St. 39. Amalth. i. s. 288.
Comp. Clarac pi. 625, 1403. 1406.
2. On the KxX>,iTrvyog the legend of the maidens in Syracuse, Athen.
xii. p. 654. comp. Alciph. i, 39. with Bergler's notes. The ythxaivoi, ibid.
p. 265. Wagn. correspond to the 'ev roig iGxtoig yixag §. 127. R. 4. Farne
sian statue in Naples with modern head (Finati M. Borb. ii, 255.) in
Piran. St. 7. MaiFei 55. Clarac pi. 611. [one of the bronze figurettes
from Pompeii, only slightly different, at Arolsen. The same posture in
a vase-painting, of which R. Rochette possesses a drawing. Canova de
clined to restore the leg of the famous statue at Naples, which had been
badly done by Albaccini, just as the painters of ancient Rome would not
venture to supply the destroyed leg of the Venus of ApeUes.] On another
at VersaiUes. Winck. W. u. s. 404. [SimUar statues in CavaU. St. ii, 66
and in Syracuse.]
3. Here we must distinguish: 1. The genuine copies of the Cnidian
A. §. 127. R. 4. 2. The Medicean A. of Cleomenes §. 160. R. 3., which is
also not rare on Roman coins of the time of the emperors. The Dresden
torso with head, Aug. 27 — 30, resembles it, as does also the torso, Woburn
Marbl, 22, 3. The Capitoline, with the same posture of the hands, but
less inclined, and formed in a more womanly manner, the features more
individual, high head-dress ; beside her an ointment-vase (alabastron)
with bathing-towel. Well-preserved, even to the fingers, M, Cap, iii, 1 9,
M, Franj, iv, 14, Nap, i, 56, BouiU. i, 10, G, M, 44, 180, Clarac 621, 1384.
Gothe's Propylaen iu, 1. s. 161. One in the same attitude dug by G. Ha
mUton in 1764 from the vault of the Barberini palace, afterwards in

478 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
Jenkins', Weddel's, Lord Grantham's hands;^ Winck, W, ii, s, 205, Heyne,
Vorles, s, 313. Other undraped statues of A,, M, Flor. iii, 34. ; an exoeUont
one in Hope's collection ; a Labicanian one, Winck. W. ii, s, 299. Num
bers of them in all museums, often destitute of grace, and only the ugUer
from the pretension which they make. Similar to the CapitoUne L. 171 and
380., BouiU. iii, 6, 2. 4. V. Borgh. 5, 2. 5. Clarac pi. 343. ; also L. 174. BouiU.
iii, 6, 3. V. Borgh. 5, 9. Clarac pi. 344., only that a Dolphin with an Amor
serves as trunk ; in Dresden 279. Aug. 86. ExceUent torso dug up at
Capo d'Anzo, after passing through very various hands, now in the Brit.
Mus., of luxuriant forms, Nohden Amalth. iii. s. 3. Tf 2. The attitude
was evidently quite different from that of the Medicean, and corresponds
more to the Cnidian Aphrodite. [One of the finest torsi was brought
from Florence in 1843 to the Museum at Berlin.]
5. The crouching A., Venus accroupie, perhaps after Polycharmus' V.
lavans se, Clarac pi. 627—631., is finest in PCI. i, 10. Piranesi St. 28. M.
Nap. i, 58. M. Roy. ii, 13. Bou-raAos 'e'Koiei on the pedestal found beside
it, comp. Archaol. u. Kunst. s. 169. Another L. 681., V. Borgh. 2, 4. M.
Nap. i, 69. Roy. ii, 10. Bouill, iii, 7, 2. Clarac pi. 346., with the right arm
lifted up, restored as Artemis. Another, ibid. No, 698, Clarac pi, 346. ;
G, Giust. i, 38. With Eros behind her, Guattani M, I, 1788, p, 57,— Si
mUar on gems, an Eros rubbing her dry whUe another stiU pours water
over her, Impr. d. Inst, Cent, iv, 22, drawing the drapery over, Lipp, i,
82 — 86, ; on vases, sprinkled behind with water (if it is A, here).
In Christod, 99, a naked A, and 288. one veiled around the bosom,
girds the cestus, §, 339. R. 3., round her breast (S's-i ariqvuv, dpc0i fix^oig).
So the bronze Ant. Ere. vi, 17, 3. G. di Fir, Stat. 27, Wicar i, 65, Cl, pi,
626, 1207, [A, with the cestus around her, sitting, as hetaira, an elegant
little bronze in Holland, Jahrb, des Alterth. Vereins in Bonn viii. Tf 1,
s. 140. On a bas relief (Lancelotti) Amor holds the cestus in his hands
beside Venus.]
A. putting on her sandals, on gems and graceful bronzes ; Ant. Ere.
vi, 14. (with i^ixxix and ¦xeqiaxt'Kile;), there was a particularly fine one
in Payne Knight's coUection. The one in Clarac pi. 610. no. 1364 (Odes
calchi) was originally like the Herculanean one. [A very fine torso in
the Brit. Mus. x, 20 ; several bronzes.] A. seated and putting on her
sandals, Clarac pi. 604, 1320. Another graceful figure in Borioni tb. 7.
M. Odesc. 35. A very graceful little torso in the Brit. Mus. R. X. No. 5.
engaged in a similar act. The one sitting and putting on her sandals, M.
Flor. iii, 33. is very much restored.
A. naked, equipping herself with Ares' armour ; Eros sporting with
the heavy helmet, beside her. Of strong round limbs. L. 180. V. Borgh.
5, 7. BouiU. i, 16. Clarac pi. 343.
A. Anadyomene §. 141, 3. A bronze figure, MUUn M. I. ii, 28.
[Magaz. encycl. 1803. iv. p. 240.] ; G. di Fir. St. 89. Clar. pi. 626, 1408,
[nobile signum, Nuda Venus madidas exprimit imbre comas. Ovid H. A.
iii, 223. This suggests an imitation of the Anadyomene of ApeUes. An
Anadyomene in perfect preservation found at Syracuse, Mag. encycl.
1805. ii. p. 167.] A reUef of the kind in WUton House. Statue of the
Colonna palace, Winck. W. vi, 2. s. 216. Gems, Lipp. i, 89. 90. In terra
cotta A. often kneels undraped before a sheU-fish which forms her wings
as it were. Clarac pi. 605. no. 1343. [Dubois Voy. en Crimie iv. pi. 16,

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. APHRODITE. 479
where there is also a standing and a sitting A. in terracotta.] Tho purple
shell-fish murex was sacred to A. at Cnidus, Plin. ix, 41.
Naked A. with a flower, in the Hungarian museum. Cattaneo, Os
servazioni sopra un frammento ant, di bronzo rappr, Venere, Milano 1819.
A.-HermcB, Paus. i, 19, 2. Were the veUed statues of Aspasia, as they
were called, of this description, as Payne Knight supposes? Comp.
Amalth. iii. s. 364. The veiUng of A. (Morpho) is proved by Paus. iii,
15, 8.; but the Architis (Atergatis?) of Assyria, Macrob. i, 21. does not
belong to this class. The supposed V. Archytis in the Brit. Mus. iii, 30
is according to Clarac pi. 691, 1286. a young Hercules or Theseus.
378. In groups Aphrodite frequently appears with her child 1
Eros in fondling representations, after the manner of the
later erotic poetry; and with the Charites, when she is adorned
by them, according to the ancient poetic notions. More full 2
of significance are the numerous representations of Aphrodite
as a sea-deity, in which the loveliest product of the watery
deep is usually combined and placed in contrast with the gro
tesque beings, which are destined to express the wild and
changeful nature of the ocean. Among the proper love-in- 3
trigues of Aphrodite (of which that with Ares is already men
tioned §. 373. R. 2.) the legend of Adonis, which always re
tained much of the foreign colouring of its origin, gave but
little occupation to Greek art in the good times. More works 4
of art relate to the Trojan mythus; the competition for the
prize of beauty gave to artists of different kinds occasion for
manifold representations, seldom however to any of a lasci
vious nature. A very excellent work of sculpture, Aphrodite
persuading Helen to fulfil her promise to Paris, forms the basis
of numerous reliefs still preserved. The goddess is frequently 5
seen aiding lovers, for instance Peleus in the obtainment of
Thetis, especially in vase-paintings, either enthroned or stand
ing, but always completely draped, for the naked Aphrodite of
later art is foreign to the vase style. Here we only recognise
her by her elegant drapery and her manner of holding it, and
also by the attributes (dove, lynx, hare, mirror, fiower).
1. A. grouped with Eros §, 376, 377. [Terracotta, probably A, with
Bros in her arms, Gerh. Ant, Bildw, i, 20.] A. and two Erotes, Clarac pi.
620, 1406. Borne through the air by Erotes, on vases, MUlingen Un. Mon,
i, 13, Taking the weapons from Amors, often on gems, M. Flor. i, 73, 1 ,
With Eros and Pysche, in a group, Aug, 62, A. adorned by the Charites,
a celebrated gem, M. Flor. i, 82, 3. Another, Winck. M. I. 31. This
adornment is represented as a domestic scene, in the taste of declining
art, on the cameo in Lipp. Suppl. 140. Tassie 6424. A splendid [not yet
well explained] representation is that of Aphrodite with Bros in the circle
of Cleopatra, Eunomia, Paidia, Peitho and Eudaimonia, Stackelb. Tf 29,
on an Athenian vase.
2. The sea-born A.-s,9 a maiden held up by Thalassa, in a relief in
Paus. ii, 1, 7. Up-borne by Tritons, on gems, Hirt 7, 10, On a sea-bull

480 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
among Erotes, cameo of Glycon, G, M, 42, 177, On a sea-horse, draped,
with Bros, coins of the Bruttii, N6hden 1, On a Triton-car, coins of
Agrippina, G, M, 43, 178. A. guiding Poseidon's chariot, vase-painting
from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 375. As central point of a troop of Nereids
and Tritons, V. Borgh, i, 12, G, M. 42, 147. Clarac pi. 224. On a casket
§. 311. R. 6. (For the explanation especially Claudian Nupt. Hon. 144.),
Among Nereids in a sheU held by Tritons, L. 384. BouiU. iii, 33, 1.
(comp. 2.) Clarac pi. 224. A. as Buploea on a chair with a sail extended
before her, which she continues to spread, vase-painting in Stackelb. Tf.
28. A. in a shell on the sea, a fan in her hand, waU-painting, M. Borb.
V, 33. A. as a fisher with Bros, picture from Pompeii, M. Borb. ii, 18.
and iv, 4, Zahn 18, GeU N, Pomp. 42, Gem, Tassie pi, 41, 6316.
There is frequently met with in ancient art a woman borne by a
swan through the air and over water. On vase-paintings, Millin ii, 64, ;
Inghir, Mon. Etr. v, 38. ; Millingen, Cogh. 21. ; Laborde i, 27. (at Delphi
as the omphalos shows), particularly fine in Count Ingenheim's collec
tion, Gerh, Ant, Bildw. 44, ; Terracottas, Combe 72, [Bottiger Kl. Schr.
ii. s. 184. Tf. 3.] (a similar one in Berlin, where Amor is beside A.) ; Mir
rors, Inghir. ii, 32. ; Gems, BraccJJi ii, 84. Stosch, Gemmse 43. Tassie pi.
21, 1187. A. according to Creuzer Abbild. s. 23. A. ; a Cora-A. according
to Gerhard, Kunstbl. 1825. s, 66, Prodrom, s. 93; according to others
Leda, also Cyrene, [who is carried off to Africa, like .^gina by the eagle,
Europa by the bull, Ehein. Mus. 1834. s. 498. comp. 0. Jahn Ann. d. I. xvii.
p. 363 — 372. 404.] ; according to Bottiger (Urania 1824.) one of the many
ways of showing honour to a beautiful woman. An A. with naked bo
som, otherwise draped, her foot on a swan, is given in Clarac pi. 345.
from the L. 415, 4. A. with a swan in her lap, on vase-paintings, for ex
ample M. Blacas pi. 7.
3. A. in relation to Ares and Hephsestus §. 367, 2. 37^, 2. Adonis go
ing to the chase, a picture, Terme di Tito 43. Thrown to the ground by
the boar and wounded in the thigh, distinct in the reliefs G. Giust. ii, 116.;
L. 424. BouiU. iii, 51, 3. Clarac pi. 116., comp. Welcker Ann. d. Inst, v,
p. 155. Dying in the arms of A,, picture in Mengs, §. 210. E. 4. G. M.
49, 170; M. Borb. iv, 17. (with two weeping Erotes). M. Borb. ix, 37.
Statue of the wounded Adonis? PCI. ii, 31. [§. 391. E. 1. 0. Jahn u. de
Witte iiber die VorsteUungen des A. Ann. xvii. p. 347. 387. M. d. I. iv,
23. 24 bis. Bngel Kypros u. s. 626—643. A. and Adonis Gerhard Etr.
Spiegel i, 111 — 117. The mortally wounded Adonis E. Braun Zwolf
Basrel. aus Palast Spada Tf 2, BuU. 1846. p. 56.] Fine terracotta from
a tomb in Nisyrus, A. and Adonis (?), A. with Phrygian cap and garment
over the back. Thiersch Vet. Artif op. veterum poet, carmin. optime
explicari 1835. tb. 6. Visit of A. to Anchises, relief from Paramythia, §.
311. E. 5. (according to others A. and Paris). On coins of Ilion, Pelle-
rin Eec. iii, 134, 7. In a picture from Pompeii, Zahn Ornam. 28.
4. On the contest before Paris, E. Bochette M. I. p. 260. The three
goddesses with Hermes, goblet from Volci, E. Eoch, pi. 49, 1. The pro
cession to Mount Ida, on archaic vases, §. 99. No. 5., from Volci Ann. d.
Inst. iii. p. 143. 153. ; the judgment on later ones (at Volci with the names
inscribed), Gerh, Ant, BUdw, i, 26, (also E, Rochette pi, 49, 2, A, with
iynx and dove), 32, (comp, Hyperb, Rom. Studien s. 156.) 33. (A. with

OLYMPIAN DEITIES, HERMES, 481
veil and Bros), certainly also 43, Ann, d. Inst, v, tv. B. On the vases of
Lower Italy the subject loses itself entirely in the indefinite and arbi
trary, 66tt. G. A. 1830. s, 2020. 1831. s. 1483. The vase M. I, d. Inst.
67. A, also belongs hereto (Artemis Astratia and ApoUon Amazonius ac
cording to Ann. V. p. 255, where there are also strange explanations, p.
339, totav. d'agg. E. P.). Sometimes A, only presents herself to Paris,
for example MilUngen Un, Mon, i, 17. The judgment of Paris in mural
paintings G, M. 147, 537. ; Etruscan sarcophagi, Inghir. G. Omer. 9, [is
from the Roman ara of Faventius ; there is no example in Etr, sarcopha
gi] and other reUefs, L. 506, Clarac pi, 214; R. Rochette pi, 60. 1.; Bar
toU Adm. 4. ; Etruscan Mirrors, Gori ii, 129 ? ; Ann, d, Inst, v, tv, F, ;
lamps, Passeri ii, 17, ; Coins of Alexandria, G. M. 151, 538, ; Gems, G. di
Fir. Int. 22, 1. 2. (where the subject is handled in the way of travesty),
[Vase with the equipment of the goddesses for the judgment in the BuU.
Napol. i. tv, 5, 6. and in the Mon. d, I. iv, 18. 19, Ann. xvu. p, 132—215,
where 68 vases, altogether 116 monuments are described. Gerhard Etr,
Spiegel u, 182 — 222.] A, (with Peitho) uniting Paris and Helen on the
Duke of Caraffa-Noja's beautiful relief, now in the Royal Museum at
Naples, Winck. M. I. 115. W. ii. s. 520. vU. s. 417. G. M. 173, 540. Neap.
BUdw. s. 69. M. Borb. iii, 40. Inghir. G. Omer 10. With it correponds
the reUef in Guattani M. I. 1786. p. xU. ex hortis Asinii PoU. in the Va
tican (with the statue of ApoUo). Partly also the vase-relief, where only
the muses performing the hymenseus are added, (Jenkins) Le Nozzi de
Paride ed Elena. R. 1775, Tischb. Homer v. s. 11. [Spec, ii, 16.]
5. See Welcker ad Philostr. p. 622., especiaUy Millingen Un. Mon.
i, 10. and A. 1. (also here together with Peitho).
6. Throne of A., elegantly adorned, with her attributes (also the
spindle), a picture Ant. Ere. i. 29.

11. HERMES.
379. In the religion of the aboriginal inhabitants of 1
Greece, Hermes stood in the cycle of the Chthonian gods, the
powers that send up fruits and bounteous blessing from below ;
ancient Greece placed this benign god on all streets and roads,
in fields and gardens as the giver of all good {biiiTM^ iduv,
s^io-oviog, axaxrirng) in the form of a stake provided with a bearded
head and a phallus. But the tellurian god of bounty was 2
gradually converted into an economical and mercantile deity
of gain and traffic {xi^biiog) ; he was now honoured of all others
by heralds who were the medium of intercourse in the ancient
world, and were skilled in many of the affairs of life. Through 3
them he received the form in which we must on the whole
conceive him even in early poesy: that of an active, powerful
man with thick, pointed beard, and long tresses, in a chlamys
thrown back — the dress best adapted for rapid movement —
with a travelling hat, talaria and the kerykeion (caducous) in 4
2H

482 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
his hand which is often like a sceptre. He is thus exhibited
universally in works of early art.
1. Above §, 67, R, 345. R. 2, The piUar-form of H. is probably as
old as the god himself, for 'Eqpiiig is evidently connected with eqpi.x, sqpixi ;
whence it is clear that the beginnings of reUgion and sculpture here en
tirely coincide. PhaUic hermse of simplest kind ; often standing before
Demeter; then with Hermes with caducous and petasus on coins of
Sestos 2H2TI, 2H, 2A Schreiber Miinchner Abhandl. PhUol. i. Tf. 1,
6 — 14. p. 106. Tyrrheni Pelasgi (RR,) The greatest part of the hermte
now mostly ascribed to Bacchus must (according to Zoega De obel. p. 221.
and MilUngen Un. Mon. ii. p. 18.) be restored to Hermes [comp. Visconti
M. PioCl. vii. p. 101.] ; for example the head M. Nap.^, 6., where neither
a great abundance of soft hair, nor a fiUet, nor ivy -wreath, characterize
Dionysus, the head with the cuneiform beard and the athletic fillet,
Guattani, Mem. v. p. 139., the Brit. Mus. ii, 19. Sacrifice of a goat be
fore a herma of this sort, a vase-painting from Volci, Micali 96, 2. [Herma
of H. DoUos, bearded, with the hat, Paus. vii, 27, 1,] A herma placed
upon a throne, coins of Mnos, AlUer de Haut, pi. 3, 3, (not correctly ex
plained). Hermse also stood on graves in designation of the Chthonian
god, Cic. de legg, ii, 26. Antiquity employed such hermas on aU occa
sions, even as distaffs, called yiqav, PoUux -vii, 16, 73,, on bedsteads,
Btym. M. p. 376. comp. Ant. Bro, vi, 65., for suspending curtains, PCI. v,
22, Triple hermse §. 67, R, [The Chablais herma, Dionysus, Hermes,
Cora or Liber, Libera and Mercury, Gerh, Ant, BUdw, i, 41. Beschr. Roms
ii, 2. s, 258.]
3. In Homer H. is xqxrvg, ouxoc, but Trqarov VTcrivvirng, roii ireq x^^qieo--
rxrn 'Jijin only in a metamorphosis ; this passage however had great in
fluence on later art, see Luc. de Sacrif. 11. According to Pollux iv, 138.
even the messengers on the stage had the wedge-form beard. Flying
with the TtiliXx is at least II. xxiv, 346. 347. put in the most distinct
manner in opposition to walking ; and the winged sandals of Perseus who
was aUied to Hermes are certainly in the Hesiodic shield 220. comp. §.
334. R. 1. H. with large wings from his shoulders, vase-painting from
Volci, MicaU 85. The head wings are later. The caducous was origi
naUy the oUve-branoh with the arepipixrx, which were afterwards devel
oped into serpents. Bottiger, Amalth. i. §. 104. Passages on H.-Serpents
(first in Sophocles, according to Hesych. s. v. Iqxxovrx) in Plum ad Pers.
i, 113. p. 160. H. has often merely a rod on vases from Volci.
4. So on the ara Borghese, the circular Capitoline ara (§. 96. No. 22.
the Capitoline puteal has adopted a younger figure of H.), on the vase of
Sosibius (§. 363. E. 3.), on the gem of jBtion, G. M. 50, 205. and others,
Lipp. U, 117., on vases §. 99, 3, 5. MiUin Vases i, 70. Tischb. iv, 3. So
in aU from Volci, Ann. iu. p. 44. The head of the bearded H. on coins
of Gaulos (with the caducous) ; the head with pointed beard and wings
attached on coins of the gens Titia is also to be noticed, MoreUi 1.
1 380. The higher development of the form of Hermes ori
ginated however with theGymnasia, overwhich the god had pre
sided from early times in phallic pillar-busts as he from whom
2 flows corporeal vigour. It is probably to be ascribed to the later

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HERMES. 483
Attic school, after the Peloponnesian war. He now became 3
the gymnastically perfected ephebos, with large, expanded chest,
slender but powerful limbs which had received their develop
ment especially through the exercises of the Pentathlon (run
ning, leaping and the discus) ; his dress that of the Attic ephebi,
a chlamys, which appears for the most part much abridged,
and not unfrequently the petasos as a covering for the head,
the hair of which, according to the custom of young men at
that age, appears cut short away, and not much curled {irxa-
ip'm §. 330, 1.) The features indicate a calm and acute in- 4
tellect, and a friendly benevolent disposition, which is also
expressed in the gentle inclination of the head; they do
not pretend to the noble and proud look of Apollo, but with
broader and flatter forms, have still something uncommonly
fine and graceful. Among the statues we distinguish, first, a 5
class on which the Hermes Ideal evidently soared to its highest
point : figures of ripened youth, and full of solid strength, the
expression of whose countenance melts into a gentle smile, in
firm tranquil posture, the chlamys thrown back from the
beautifully turned limbs and wrapped round the left arm ; in
these Hermes was evidently conceived as patron of gymnic
exercises and bestower of liodily strength, as the palm-tree
beside him also indicates. Next to these come statues simi- 6
larly draped, on which, however, the gesture of the uplifted
right hand shows that Hermes is to be conceived as the god
of eloquence, as Hermes Logics: a conception which was
very easily and naturally formed out of that of the god of gain
and herald of the gods. As executor of the commands of Zeus, 7
we see him half-sitting, and already half-springing up again,
in order to hasten away; sometimes in bronzes winging his
flight gayly through the air; also reposing after a long jour
ney, when he leans his arm merely on a pillar, and does not
double it over his head: an attitude which would be too effemi
nate and careless for Hermes. The purse was undoubtedly a 8
main attribute of Hermes in later times ; although gener
ally restored in statues, it is found, however, very frequently in
bronzes which may have come from the Lararia of Roman
merchants and from the worship of the god which was widely
diffused in Gaul and the neighbouring tithe-land.
1. Hermse in PalsBstr^, PCI. v, 35. 36. and often. Hence gymnastic
inscriptions frequently on Hermse. Youthful Hermse also hold the re
gula vix'n-Xrii, in the Hippodrome, Anth. PaL vi, 259. Cassiod. Var. ui, 51.
Schol. Juven. viu, 63. Suidas s. v. u'ittX. Mosaic in Laborde, Mos. d'ltal.
pi. 9. 15, 7. Two bearded Hermse in BerUn seem to have had exactly
this destination. Statues Clarac pi. 666 — 666.
2. That Praxiteles sculptured Hermes in young and graceful form is
clear from the sculptures quoted §. 127. R. 2. at the end. The Etruscan
mirrors regularly present H. under the name of Turms in this phase. See

484 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
especiaUy that in which a youthful Zeus, Tinia, stands between Hermes
and Apollo, Dempster Etr. reg. i, 3. H. archaic, of a good period, carrying
a ram round his neck, Clarac pi. 658. no. 1645 B. from the Pembroke
collection. 3. H. as discobolus, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 12., as a runner R. 7. — Beautiful
descriptions of the Hermes-costume in Ovid M. ii, 734. (chlamydemque
ut pendeat apte, coUocat, ut limbus totumque appareat aurum) and
AppuL de Magia p. 68. Bip. (facies palsestrici succi plena — ^in capito
crispatus capiUus sub imo pilei umbraoulo apparet — festive circa humoros
vestis constricta). On the petasos of H. Arnob. adv. gent, vi, 12. H.
with chlamys hanging down, on gems, Lipp. i, 137. 138, 142, 143, ii, 127.
6, M. 51, 206.
4. [Galen Protr. ad litt. addisc. 3. iari li (pxilqog pt,ev rdg o-^eig, li'ioqxs
li Iqipi.v.'] H.-head with the petasus (which has an arched form' and no
brim) on the coin (of Siris ?) N. Brit. 3, 18., and those of .dilnos, ibid. 4,
15. Mionn. Suppl, ii. pi. 5, 4., of Catana, with ears of corn around the pe
tasus, Torremuzza 22, 15., of the gentes Mamilia, Papia, SepulUa. Fine
head of H., of youthful softness, in Lord Lansdowne's coUection, Spec.
61. Riper, of a particularly shrewd appearance, Brit, M. ii, 21. On
another head in England, comp, Winck. W. iv. Tf 7 a, Hirt 8, 1. Heads
on gems, Lipp. i, 129—132. M. Flor. i, 69.
6. For example the so-caUed Antinous of Belvedere (Lantin), recog
nised by Visconti to be Hermes, from the Farnesian statue and the gem-
figure, Lipp. i, 133. Hirt 8, 4. See Race. 3. PCI. i, 7. comp. tv. agg. M.
Frang. iv, 16. Nap. i, 52. BouiU. i, 27. Very similar a H. from Tor-Co-
lombaro in Lord Lansdowne's ; also the one from the RicheUeu coUection
L. 297., M. Fran?, ii, 8. Nap. i, 53. BouiU. i, 26. ; also the torso in Dres
den 97. Aug. 54., (fee, comp. Gerhard, Beschr. Eoms ii, ii. s. 142. In Uke
manner on coins of Adana, N. Brit. 10, 14. Comp. also PCI. i, 6. G. M.
88, 209. [Four repetitions have been recently sent to England according
to Petit Eadel in the Mus. Napol. i, p. 123, the discovery of two is testi
fied by the Mus. PioCl. vi, 29. Visconti confirms his explanation, in op
position to Zoega Bassir. tv. 2. not. 30. (comp. the Uebers. by Welcker s.
38 f ) PioCl. vu. p. 92. and in the Mus. Frang, where he also refers to a
gem copied from the statue, in Fr. Dolce no. 34. There is also a bronze
figurette like it in Caylus i. pi, 68,] H, as athlete, according to others
Meleager Spec, ii. pi, 37.. H. bringing in haste palm and garland.
Impr. d. Inst. Cent, iv, 17. ' ' ^ ' ' -" • '^ -''^- -' ' '¦"¦-J^-rr.

--rrAtV I

6. So the Ludovisi H., Maffei 58. 69., similar to the so-called Germa
nicus, on which §. 160. E. 4. The bronze H. of the Vienna cabinet, from
Klagenfurt, raises the right hand, of heroic size ; it is indeed without
attributes (which were perhaps superadded of sUver), but has quite the
figure of the god. Comp. the Bd. Winck. v. s. 461. On gems H. often
raises the hand significantly towards his face, M. Flor. i, 70, 2. Lipp. i,
134. He also holds a roU, M. Flor. i, 69, 4.
7. Of the first kind is the excellent statue. Ant. Ere. vi, 29 — 32. M.
Borb. iu, 41. G. M. 51, 207., with very long thighs, as indeed oi Iqopcixoi
rav ' Eqpiav (Philostr. Her. ii, 2.) were generaUy formed. H. sits in a si
milar way often in bronzes as if just about to spring up. [comp. Facius

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HEEMES. 485
Collect, s. 183. The fine statue also in Piroli v, 14. 15. Clarac pi. 665,
1522. D. A. K, ii. Tf 28 (" in expectation of a commission"), Winck, W, v,
s. 142. Rathgeber Notte NapoUt. Gotha 1842 refers the statue to fishing
as on the vase §. 356. R, 5, to which 0, Jahn Ztschr. f. A. W, 1844. s, 183,
too rashly assents. The movement of both hands has the expression of rest,
not of angling ; and the composition is often repeated, as in the bronze
figurette from Paramythia Spec, ii, 21, in one in the CoUegium Romanum
at Rome, in one with attributes, BuU, Napol. 1844, p. 121. wherein Miner
vini dissents from Rathgeber's explanation, in one in the Mus, Bresc. tv.
41, 1. p. 142 s. also in engraved stones, for example, three in the posses
sion of Mr. Herz, London. On a vase in Munich H. receives sitting, the
draught, as speedy messenger.] H. sitting on a rock, with his usual at
tributes, beside him a he-goat and a ram with a winged genius upon it,
who holds a bunch of grapes, a tortoise and a lizard, god of dreams ;
bronze figurette, pubUshed by Orti, Verona 1834. Bull. 1835. p. 13.
Christod. 297. describes a H. with the right foot raised, and drawing on
his sandal with the right hand, while the left rests on his knee, his look
turned upwards, in order to catch the commands of Zeus ; therefore en
tirely in the posture of the so-caUed Jason.
A very slender H. of an extraordinary description, swinging through
the air, in Dorow, Denkm. der Rhenish-Westph. Pr. 7. [in the Bonn mu
seum ; but it is evidently modern.] A running H. very completely draped
as servant of Portuna, waU-painting M, Borb. vi, 2, comp, Petron. 29. A
reposing H. of deUcate form, standing and leaning with the legs crossed,
M. Flor. iii, 38. GaUer. 130. AmaUh. iU. s. 206. Thiersch Vet. artif
opera cet. tb. 6. p. 28 ; a fine satyr Ampelos, the hat is modern. H. in
the same posture, of boyish form, in the Magazine of the Louvre. Clarac
pL 349.
8. See Ant. J!rc. vi, 33. 34. and especiaUy the exquisitely beautiful
(and certainly genuine) bronze with the chlamys hanging down on the
left, in Payne Knight's Spec, i, 33. [Hirt merely doubted whether it
reached back as far as the Polycleitan age.] Statue in the Louvre 263.
V. Borgh. i, 2. Clarac pi. 317. Lipp. i, 135. u, 123. 124. H, similar to
Poseidon standing on a prora, Lipp, ii, 125. 126. Suppl, 200,, is perhaps
the god of maritime commerce,
381. Hermes, the performer of sacrifices (which also be- 1
longed to the ancient office of the Kerykes) ; the protector of 2
cattle, and especially of sheep, an office closely connected with
the former; the inventor of the lyre, to whom therefore the 3
tortoise is sacred; lastly the guide of souls and restorer of 4
the dead to life, is seen chiefly in works of slighter compass.
But a sculptor has succeeded in enduing the thievish child 5
with the same roguery, and mischievous delight in his own
cunning, which the Homeric hymn so matchlessly describes.
In his amorous intrigues, of which some remarkable represen- 6
tations, which are difficult to explain, have come down to
us, Hermes displays much of that strong sensuality of nature
which was always peculiar to him. Everywhere serviceable 7
and always obliging, Hermes is also, in larger compositions.

486 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
althougn he seldom plays a leading part, a very usual and
always agreeable appearance, as guide, attendant, messenger,
(especially intrusted with babes for their nurses,) sometimes
also as a playful and comical companion,
1, H. as institutor of sacrifices, bringing the ram along, with aUusion
to the 'E. xqio(p6qog, at the same time holding a patera (as in Aristoph.
Peace 431. and Cic. de div. i, 23. as a-Trevlav), Belief PCI. iv, 4. The up
per part of this figure in lapis lazuli with the legend, bonus Bventus, in
the cabinet of coins Brit. Mus. (is it antique?). Similarly conceived is
the vase-painting, MiUin, Vases i, 61 a. G. M. 50, 212. comp. §. 300. No.
1. H. with caduceus and a roe? Scarabseus, Impr. d. Inst. Cent, iii, 6.
H. also leads a ram on the Capitoline puteal, Winok. M. I. 5., he carries it
on the goblet of Sosias, §. 143, No. 3. Fine H. carrying a ram's head on
a goblet, Lipp. ii, 122. As god of sacrifice H. precedes the train of other
deities and stands nearest to the altar, in the reliefs in Zoega ii, 100.
M. Cap. iv, 56. BouiU. iii, 79. At sacrifices also on vases from 'Voloi,
Ann. iii. p. 140.
2. H. sitting on a ram, a beautiful statue, Guattani M. I. 1786. p.
xiv. Clarac pi. 666, 1529. ; Lipp. i, 140. M. Flor. i, 71, 8. (where ears of
corn rise before H.). Drawn by rams, Lipp. i, 139. H. lying, a ram at
his feet, on Volcian vases, Ann. iii. p. 147. H. with goats' horns, a goat
beside him, in a silver work, Dorow Eom. Denkm. von Neuwied Tf 14.
3. Constructing the lyre on a bronze mirror, Mazois Pompeii ii. p. 2.
With the tortoise, as inventor of the lyre, M. Nap. i, 54. Mercury, in
the same character, a statue, sitting with lute and plectrum, Nibby Mon.
scelti di V. Borgh. tv. 38. p. 128. Doubtful? Bearing the tortoise on a
patera, P. M. Paciaudi, On a Statuette in the Cabinet of the Marchese
deU' Ospital. N. 1747.; Impr. d. Inst, ii, 11. Contest wjth Apollo about
the lyre ?, vase-painting. Panofka Ann. ii. p. 185. [II. with lute and a
satyr 'Oqsiptxxog, amphora from Volci, Gerhard Etr. u. Campan. V. Tf 8.
H. playing on the lute between dancing Pans, M. d. I. iv, 34. comp. Ann.
xviii. tv. N. a cylix. H. with the lute ibid. tv. 33. with tv. d'agg. L. M.
H. playing on the lute, Ternite Pompei. Gem. (Reimer) Hoffc 3, Tf 3,]
4, Psychopompus, carrying Psyche over the Styx, Millin P, gr. ,30,
G, M, 51, 211,, and bringing her up from the nether world, Winck. M. I,
39. (where a tortoise forms the petasus), also M. Flor, i, 69, 1.; H.
evoking a shade Impr. d, Inst, iii, 7, 8, with the skeleton issuing from
the earth or from an urn, Impr. d. Inst, i, 12. 36. Lipp. Suppl. 204-6.
Wicar G. de Flor. u, 19. M. Flor. i, 70, 6. Tassie pi. 30, 2398-2402. Comp.
G. M. 343. 561. There is a pecuUar representation of Hermes Psycho
pompus on a Grecian grave-stele, M. Veron. 51, 9., in which EPMH2
hands the purse, which is here taken as a symbol of vital power, to the
enveloped figure of PH. The Pomp, painting M. Borb. ix, 38. represents
precisely the same transaction. H. gives the purse to Fortuna (I. M. I.
r. d. I. iv, 14. cf Petron. 2 a.) ; simUar a Hermes-purse, Panofka M.
Blacas p. 77. Guiding Persephone, §. 358. Among the deities of the
lower world, §. 397. In the representation of the destinies of men, §. 396.
6. Finely designed but not so well executed statue of H. as a boy,
PCI. i, 6. Clarac pi. 665, 1607. A repetition L, 284, V. Borgh. Port. 7.

OLYMPIAN DEITIES. HESTIA. 487
Clarac pi. 317. Similar on a gem, Lipp. Suppl. i, 186. Por the explana
tion PhUostr. i, 26. [H. as a child, wrapped in swaddling clothes, de
fending himself on account of the theft, according to the H. in Mercur.
305, statue in the Spada palace at Rome. H. as cattle stealer in the
cradle, cyUx in the Mus. Greg, ii, 81, 1. 2. Gerhai-d Archaol. Zeit. iii. Tf
20.] H. with Mala on a Volcian vase, Ann. iu. p. 143.
6. H. caressing a young maiden (perhaps Herse) in the manner al
luded to, a beautiful group of statues, Cavaler u, 30, Guattani Mem. v.
p. 66. comp. Winok. iv. s. 84. The group in Clarac pi. 667, 1545 A.
hardly represents H. H. unveUing a beautiful nymph in a wild rocky
region, a wall-painting, Pitt, di Ere, iii, 12. Guattani p. 67, H, approach
ing a half-naked maiden beside a Priapus-herma, a Pompeian picture, M,
Borb, i, 32. (Mercuric et Venere), [0. Jahn Spec, epigraph, p. 64 sq,]
H. pursuing a maiden, on vases, Millin Vases i, 70,, also from Volci,
Ann, ui. p. 143. Comp. the reUef L. 338, Clarac pi, 202.
7, H, grouped with Hephsestus (according to Visconti) L. 488. V.
Borgh, 6, 6. BouiU. i, 22. Clarac pi. 317. G. M, 84, 338,* Very doubt
ful; according to R, Rochette M. I, p. 173. pi. 33, 2. Orestes and Pylades.
H. with the infant Dionysus (after Praxiteles), §, 384, R, 2, ; with the in
fant Hercules in an interesting vase-painting from Volci, Micali tv. 76, 2.,
Relief, PCI. iv, 37. ; with the young Areas on coins of Pheneus, Landon pi.
44. Steinbuohel, Alterthumskunde s. 105. Welcker Zeitschr. f. a. K. S.
518. In a Pompei. wall-painting, H. gives to Argus? the syrinx, Io
present in the form of a cow ? [without doubt], M. Borbon. viii, 26. See
§. 351. E. 4. H. as slayer of Argus on a vase from Volci, Brondsted
Vases found by Campanary 1. Argos IIANOns. comp. Moschus ii, 44.
Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 366. comp. ui. p. 44, At the adultery of Ares, as a jester,
§, 367, 2. With Paris, §, 378, 4. With Alcmene, §, 351. E. 5. As mpixxiog,
with Apollo, Hercules, Orestes, Odysseus, <fec. At the -^vxoarxaix, §. 415.
E. 1. In larger groups of deities.
H.'s insignia drawn and carried by Erotes, relief in ivory, Buonarroti
Medagl. ant. 1. G. M. 61, 214. (The cock denotes the 'evxyaviog, Lipp. i,
135. u, 123. BartoU Luc. u, 18.). United on the altar in Griv. de la
Vine. Antiq. Gaul. pi. 35,, where also the phaUus is not wanting, Her
mes' sacrifices, Passeri Luc. i, 101,

1 2. HESTIA.
382. The hearth, with which are connected settled resi- 1
dence, domestic life, and regular worship of the gods [§. 286,
6,1, was among the ancients a symbol of the peaceful central
point round which life moves hither and thither in its mani
fold forms and vicissitudes. It is represented by Hestia, the
necessary key-stone of the twelve-god system, in which she
was very fittingly grouped with Hermes, the god of sacrifice.
The form of this goddess, who was sculptured by excellent 2
artists [such as Scopas], is that of a woman in matronly cos-

488 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
tume, yet without the character of motherliness, standing at
rest or enthroned, with broad, powerful forms, and a serious
expression in her clear and simple features.
1. Miffii otxu xxr dq e^ero, Hom. Hymn to Aphrod. 30. United with
Hermes, Hymn to Hest. 7. comp, Paus, v, 11, 3,
2. The statue, G. Giust, i. 17., with the drapery treated in a pillar-Uke
manner, has been rightly caUed Hestia by Hirt, Comp. Bd. Winck. vii.
Tf 4 a. [by Zoega Hera : Basrel. Synopsis of the contents of the Brit.
Mus. p. 120, a young man crowned by Hestia and Athene. Among sev
eral statues found at Velleia in June 1816, there were according to the
Journals two of Vesta. Hestia among the twelve gods on the large
three -sided Borghese candelabrum -base, and on the Capitolian altar.]
Bust of the M. Capit, Hirt 8, 9. Two hermse in the Casino Rospigliosi,
Gerh, A, Bildw, i, 81, 1. 2. On the goblet of Sosias §. 143. she sits veiled
beside Amphitrite ; besides at Volci, Ann. iii. p. 141. On Roman coins
with PaUadium and simpulum, Pedrusi vi, 29, 7. 8. Hirt 8, 11. 12. The
VESTALIS Claudia is also represented in the same manner, Morelli
Claud. 3. Head of Vesta on coins of the gens Cassia, Morelli 1. 3 sqq.
G. M. 334,, <fec. Temple 335.

B. THE OTHER DEITIES.
1. DIONYSIAN CYCLE.
Ji. DIONYSUS.
383. The worship of Dionysus preserved, more than those
hitherto mentioned, the character of a nature-worship, and that
too an orgiastic one (§. 389, 1). Nature overpowering the mind,
and hurrying it out of the repose of a clear self-consciousness
(wherein its most perfect symbol is wine), lies at the basis of
all Dionysian creations. The cycle of Dionysian forms, which
constitute as it were a peculiar and distinct Olympus, repre
sents this nature-life, with its effects on the human mind, con
ceived in different stages, sometimes in nobler and sometimes
in less noble shapes; in Dionysus himself the purest blossom
is unfolded, combined with an afflatus which gladdens the
soul without destroying the tranquil play of the feelings.
The eldest Grecian world was satisfied in the representation
of this god of nature with a phallic herma ; and the separate
erection of heads of Dionysus or even mere masks (§. 345*,
3.) always continued a custom in Greek art. From these was
developed the stately and majestic form of the old Dionysus,
with a magnificent luxuriance of curling hair restrained by
the mitra, gently flowing beard, clear and blooming features.

DIONYSIAN CYCLE. DIONYSUS. 489
and the oriental richness of an almost feminine drapery, with
usually, at the same time, the drinking-horn, or karchesion,
and a vine-shoot in his hands. It was not till afterwards, 5
— at the time of Praxiteles (§. 125, 2, 127, 2.), — that the
youthful Dionysus, conceived as at the age of the ephebos or
mellephebos, was modified therefrom; in him also the cor
poreal forms, which flow softly into one another without any
prominent muscular development, bespeak the half feminine
nature of the god, and the features of the countenance present
a peculiar blending of happy intoxication with a dark and
undefined longing, in which the Bacchian frame of feeling
appears in its most refined form. Yet even these forms and
features admit of a grand and powerfully impressive develop
ment, in which Dionysus is revealed as son of the lightning,
as the god of irresistible power. The mitra around the fore- f
head (§. 340. R. 4.), and the vine or ivy-crown throwing its
shade from above, produce a very advantageous effect in the
Bacchian expression ; the hair flows down softly and in long
ringlets on the shoulders; the body, with the exception of a
roe-skin (v£/3g;s) thrown round it, is usually quite naked, only
the feet are sometimes covered with high, ornamented boots,
the Dionysian cothurni ; the light, ivy-entwined staff with the
pine-cone (narthex, thyrsus) serves as a supporting sceptre.
However, a himation falling down to the loins is also suitable
to the character of Dionysus; sometimes too in later art he
is dressed completely in female fashion. The posture of the
statues of Dionysus is generally that of reclining comfortably,
or lying; he is seldom enthroned; on gems and in pictures
we see him walking with tottering steps, and riding on his
favourite animals or drawn by them. A favoured satyr is
often given him as a support; Methe is his cup-bearer. The
bull-Dionysus naturally gave less occupation to the formative
art than to the mystic Ceremonies.
[There is a very copious selection from the sculptures of the Diony
sian cycle in Wieseler's continuation of the D. A. K, ii. Heft 3. pi. 31 — 45.
Gerh. Auserl. V. i, 31-39. 47—60 sq. 67. 77. Clarac pi. 673— 7i«. A
series of the most animated Bacchian reliefs, Campana Opere di plastica
tv. 26 — 54. ; and in Uke manner of paintings in Temite's Pompejan-
ischen Wandgemahlden Heft 2. and 3 of the first series (Reimer).]
3. On D. PhaUen see §. 67. comp. §. 345. R. 2. From these wooden
images ^dyqoixixov dyx'hpA.x) originated Phales {^i,vyxupi,og Bxxxlov, Aris
toph.) as a distinct deity, see especiaUy Sophron. Frgm. 112 Blomf
ColumeUa x, 31. Zoega de obel. p. 213. Bottiger Archaol. der Mahlerei s.
186. Erection and washing of such a D. Phales in the relief M. Wors
ley. i, 15. The decking out of a Dionysus-idol, in the manner of a trophy,
by a Msenad AIXINH, Panofka Recherch. sur les v6ritables noms des
vases pi. 7, 2. A female painter copying a D.-herma, Pompeian picture,
M. Borb. vii, 3. D. hermse and others BouiU. i, 70. M. Nap. ii, 5, 7. ;

490 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Spec, i, 39. [perhaps the one praised by Winck. K. G. v, 2, 25. in Cavaceppi ;
others Spec, i, 8. 16.] M. Borb. iii, 39.; Combe Terrac. 75. comp. Impr.
d. Inst, ii, 18. Liber cum Libera (or Hermes and Hecate) Brit. M. ii, 17.
Chiar. i, 32. and elsewhere [comp. §. 379. R. 1.].
4. D. on the ark of Cypselus is so described by Paus. v, 19, 1 : ev &v-
rqa xxrxxeipcevog yivetx gp^wy xxi ex'Trapia x^'^^^^^ 'ei^^vxug 'Ttohifiqri xiravx.
D. appeared in this oroTi^ {{ixaaxqa §. 337. R. 2.) in the theatre, for ex
ample in .^sohylus' Lycurgeia, in his hand a thyrsus or vine-shoots ; such
x'Kxloi were called fixxxoi according to Schol. Aristoph. Equ. 406. Lobeck
Aglaoph. p. 308; over it he wears the purple peplos (woven by the
Charites in Naxos, ApoUon. iv, 424. comp. Athen. v, 198 c). On a statue
of D. which bad a Nebrid-chlamys over the purple peplos, Proclus,
Brunck Anal. ii. p. 446. A. iruyavimg, xxrxirayav in Died., Briseus, Bas-
sareus, Hebon in Macrob., reXeiog Ath. xi, 484., on a vase in Berl. as
"Ixxxog. Fine heads of this D. on coins of Naxos, N. Brit. 4, 8. (the
beard very pointed, Torrem. 53, 10. 11.), Thebes, Mionnet Suppl. iii. pi. 17,
3., Thasos, Mionnet Descr. pi. 55, 5. [Meyer in Winck. iv. Tf 4 C. s. 436.]
on gems, M, Flor, i, 84, 11, Enthroned, with sceptre and cup, on Athe
nian coins, N, Brit. 7, 8, ; standing on coins of Galarina, 4, 6,, Nagidos,
10, 16,; on gems, Tassie pi. 37, 4193, 4202. Resting on an ass, with
drinking horn, on the early coins of Mende, Mionnet Empr, 446 c, and
Nacoleia, Suppl. i. pi, 11, 1. A chief statue of the so-called CAPA.'VNA-
ItAAAOC. PCI. u, 41. M. Fran9. iii, 8. Nap. ii, 4. BouUl. i, 28. comp.
Gerhard, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 239. Zoega in Welcker's Zeitschr. i. a.
K. s. 343, [Fea in Winck. iii, p. 612, tv, 21. Cavac. Race, iii, 27,] On
reliefs with Icarios, PCI, iv, 25, ; M, Nap. ii, 3. BouiU. iu, 38, 1. 2. Clarac
pi. 133. (L. 121.) ; Brit. M. ii, 4. As to the sepulchral reference, Gerhard
ibid. s. 98. On vase-paintings at the recaU of Hephsestus (§. 367. R. 3.),
in the xaptog, Millin i, 7., and elsewhere frequently; at Volci always
bearded with slight exceptions, Ann. iii. p. 146. In religious idols also
this old D. always remained customary, see Pitt. Ere. iii, 36, 1. 38., and
the rural sacrifice of the goat on the pretty gem, M. Worsl. ii, 22., also
PCI. V, 8. However, in reliefs and indeed also in statues of a later period
(Munich 57. Sickler Alman. ii. s. 131. Tf 9. 10.) an archaic figure of
this sort, draped with especial care, serves at the same time as an initi
ating priest of D.
5. [Zoega Abhandl. s. 23,] A. yvwig, membris moUibus et Uquoris
foeminei dissolutissimus laxitate, Arnob. vi, 12. Nenn'i) dvlql ioixag
¦^rqaH'^/iij Hom. H. vii, 8. So M. Borb. ix, 11. Aiovvain vnlvg Anacreont.
29, 33. Winck. iv. s. 91. D.'s hair §. 330. R. 3. Visconti PCI. u. p. 56.
Somewhat of the lixarqocpoi xoqxi of the Msenads, Bur. Bacch. 11-14. is also
transferred to D. Statue of D. in female drapery (Cora?) receiving a
sacrifice. M. Borb, viu, 12, — A colossal head of D. in Leyden (plaster cast
in the possession of Schorn) M, d, I, ii, 41. Ann, ix, 2, p. 151. [where there
is more praised than is to be found in the original], and a mask in oblique
view, which is known through casts in plaster, produce the impression last
described in the text. — The Etrurian Phuphluns of the mirror designs is
the youthful one. Youthful head of D. crowned with ivy, on coins of
Thasos, Neumann N, V, ii, tb, 4, 18,, of the gens Vibia, <fec. [Clarac pi.
1004. no, 2755 — 2762, A particularly fine head found a few years ago was
stiU at Rome last year in the possession of Maldura, An almost colossal

DIONYSIAN CYCLE, DIONYSUS, 491
one, with the hand on the head, very fine, at Sarskoe Solo, Kflhler in the
Journ. von Russland i, s, 351 ; another 352.]
6, 7. Chief statues in V. Ludovisi; L. 154. from palace Richelieu
M. Frang. i, 1. Nap. i, 78. Bouill. i, Z(^J- Splendid statue of Bacchus,
standing, with his thighs enveloped, in V, Albani, Gerhard Ant, BUdw.
Tf 105, 1, The Versailles statue in the attitude of the Ap. Lycien L.
148, BouiU, i, ^."'Clarac pi, 276. (comp. L, 203, Clarac pi, 272.); [Vis
conti M, Frang. iv, 3, 7. pronounces the half-drunk B. of tho Louvre, the
value of which has not hitherto been fully recognised, to be the finest
figure.] Woburn Marbles 17. 18. Handing a bunch of grapes to the pan
ther, often, M. Chiar. 28. (Lipp. i, 160. ii, 139.140.; pouring wine from the
karchesion, M. Flor. i, 87. 88.). With an himation round the lower part of
the body. Race. 146. Aug. 18. comp. Lipp. i, 140. The very femininely
formed torso is remarkably beautiful, PCI. ii, 28. Splendid Farnesian colos
sal torso of a sedent D. at Naples, Gargiulo Race, de' Mon. di. R. M. Borb.
Gerhard Tf 105, 2. [Meyer in Winck. v. s. 570. Schweickle the sculptor has
brought this magnificent torso into notice.] In a lying posture (on the
monument of Lysicrates) PCI. i, 43. ; in the L, 74. V. Borgh. 3, 1 . Bouill.
iii, 9, 2. Clarac pi. 273. Enthroned (§. 358. R. 7.) on the Pomp, picture,
Zahn 24. M. Borb. vi, 53. ; on the monument of Thrasyllus, in female
dress, Stuart u, 4, 6, ; in the baths of Titus (Sickler Alman, ii. Tf 3,).
Walking with drunken step {oivaptevog, Athen. x, p, 428 e,), on gems, Lipp.
i, 158. ii, 141. Suppl. 220. M. Worsl. ii, 10. 11. Riding on a panther,
drawn by panther and Uons, Lipp. i, 156. 167, 161. MiUin Vases i, 60
Tischb. u, 43. and often. Lying on an ass, ibid, ii, 42. Riding in a
hamaxa drawn by panthers, on coins of Catana, Torrem, 22, 7. 8. ; with
panther and goat on coins of TraUes, Mionnet 1114.
8. D. leaning on a satyr in the same way as in the group of Ariadne,
§. 384. PCI. i, 42. Group in the V. Borghese Salone no. 11. [Canina
L'antica cittk di Veil 1847. tv. 43. p. 94, the god draped below.] In a
more striding posture and drawn by the satyr, in the group of the pal.
Mattel, Cavaleriis i, 74. comp. M. Flor. i, 88, 8. Nearly the same group,
excavated at Megara, in the possession of a private individual at Cam
bridge, has a lying Ariadne in relief on the pUnth (comp. Welcker ad
PhUostr. p. 297.). Similar St. di S. Marco ii, 26. ; M. Flor. ui, 48.
GaUer. St. 41. Small bronze group, D. and Pan. M. Pourtalfes pi. 19.
WaU-painting, GeU N. Pomp. pi. 78. — Leaning on Ampelos, who is chang
ing into a vine, Brit. M. iii, 11. Spec, ii, 50. Bacchus squeezing grapes
into a vase, very elegant, W. GeU. N. Pomp. i. p. 191 vign. Leaning on a
SUenus with a lyre, M. Borb. ii, 35., holding a lyre on the Archemorus
vase, comp. Gerh. s. 8, with a pitcher, in the L. 326. Clarac pi. 274.
[Group in BerUn formed of D., a satyr and a Pan, M. d. I. iv, 36. Ann.
xvui. tv. K. Canina Tusculo tv. 34.] Grouped with Eros, in Hope's
coUection ; in Naples, M. Borb. v, 8. Gerh. Ant. BUdw. 19. With a Bac
chian Eros as it seems, M. Worsl. I, iii, 1. With an arohaicaUy draped
idol of a goddess beside him, in the chiton and cothurni, Guattani M. I.
1785. p. Ixxi. Race. 134. [also in Montfauc. i, 2, 151, now in Hope's coll.
Spec, ii, 53, Canina Tusculo tv. 35. D. A. K. ii, 33, 372. comp. Rhein.
Mus. 1836. iv. s. 460, a similar group in Sarskoe Selo, Kohler Journal von
Russland ii. s. 6.] Leaning on a kitharistria (if they belong to one an-

492 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
other), M. Chiar. 29. A D. into whose cup Methe is pouring from a rhy
ton (see C. I. i. p. 248.) L. 285. BouiU. iii, 70. Clarac pi. 134. 135. The
Athenian reUef, Stuart, Ant. ii, 2. vign., similar. Bacchus with Amor
and the Muse, fine round bronze reUef in Berlin, Gerh. Ant. BUdw. Tf.

9. Keqxro^viig (Athen. xi, 476. TibuU. ii, 1. 3.), with a mitra round the
hair, a head of almost satyric features, PCL vi, 6, 1. Hirt 10, 3. comp.
the Vign. 23, 2. and the coins of Nicsea in Creuzer's Dion. 3, 2. [§. 388.
E. 1. herma of a youthful horned D. M. PioCl. vi, 6. 1. Descr. of the
Vatican p. 282. No. 66.] Txvqoptoqcpog (in Cyzicus according to Athen.,
frequently Plut. Is. 35.), entwined with ivy on gems, Lipp. i, 231. 6. M.
256. ; but Lipp. Suppl. 285. is merely a bull driven furious by the oestrus.
Comp. below §. 403. (river-gods) and §. 399. R. 2. (the sign of the Bull).
[ Kunst vorstellungen des gefliigelten Dionysos von E. Braun Miinchen
1839. fol. Ehein. Mus, s. 592 sqq. Several other representations have
been since discovered, as weU as a Methe with outspread wings, a col
oured terracotta, which is at Munich since 1841. There are for in
stance three heads of D. Psilax, four in double hermse in the room of the
statues of Venus in the Museum at Naples ; one by Cleomenes of Athens,
son of ApoUodorus, found on Mount Cselius is designed and taken for
Amor by Pirrho Ligorio in the Vaticana in the vol. of the Antichi heroi
ed uomini illustri p. 6,]
I 384. The whole of the wondrous life of Dionysus — at least
so far as it did not withdraw itself from representation by a
decidedly mystical tendency — admits of being traced in works
2 of art. First, the significant double-birth from Semele's dead
body and the thigh of Zeus, then how Hermes carries, the
child, carefully wrapped up, to his nurses, the august form of
the Earth receives it, the nymphs and satyrs cherish it, and
his divine and wondrous nature is unfolded amid joyous
3 sports. Then how, surrounded by the noise and tumult of his
thiasos, he finds the gracious bride Ariadne (a Cora of the
Naxian worship), at the same time however without active
participation, and as it were rapt in a pleasing dream, and
then rides to meet her, or with her, in a bridal chariot (where
in the leading of Ariadne up to Olympus may suggest itself
4 to the mind). The Naxian solemnization of the nuptials be
comes itself a representation of the gayest and happiest life,
5 in all abundance of the gifts of nature. But Dionysus also
appears, in a work of the best period of art, in a gracefully
tender relation to his mother, who is restored from the nether
6 world. Lastly, we see him in the circle of frenzied Msenads,
subduing and punishing Pentheus and Lycurgus, the insulters
and foes of his worship, and also the piratical Tyrrhenians,
by means of his bold satyrs, and in rich relievo representa
tions (in which the victorious expeditions of later Macedonia
were mythically typified) celebrating the triumphs of the con
quest of India.

DIONYSIAN CYCLE. DIONYSUS. 493
2. Zeus appearing to Semele, ou gems, winged, with the thunderbolt
(Thanatos according to R. Rochette M. I. p. 218.), Winok, M. I. 1. 2.
Tassie pi. 22, 1147. 1148. SchUchtegroU 26. [Zeus and S. kissing, Ger
hard Etr. Spiegel i, 81, 1. 2.] Semele kiUed by the lightning in the re
Uef §. 363. R. 4. ? D. issuing from the body of Semele, in a waU-painting
in the possession of the prince Greg. Gagarin at Rome, Mem. Rom. di
Ant. iii. p. 327. tv. 13. Gerh. Hyperb. Rom. Stud. s. 105 i. comp. PhUostr.
i, 14. The destruction of Semele, the birth of D. from the thigh of Zeus,
and Hermes receiving him, on a sarcophagus in Venice, M. I. d. Inst. 45.
BuU. 1831. p. 67. Ann. v. p. 210. The birth from the thigh in the Etr.
mirror, Inghir. u, 1, 16. [Etr. Sp, i, 82.] with Hermes as receiver and
three goddesses (Bileithyia, Themis?, Demeter), PCI. iv, 19. G. M. 222.
223. Fragment, Welcker, Kunstmus. s. 102. [115, Bileithyia winged
deUvers Zeus also in the relief at Venice Bull, 1831. p, 67,, M. d, I. i, 45
a. D. A. K, ii, 34, 392, On two small gold plates Cab. Durand no. 2166 sq,
Nouv. Ann. de 1' I. 1837, pi, A. Pallas takes her place, winged on one of
them, and, as de Witte p, 370 states, provided with the gorgoneion and a
flame issuing from her head. The earliest evidence for this mythus gen
eraUy is the very remarkable vase-painting of great antiquity, and at least
as rude as possible, in the possession of Prokesch at Athens in R. Rochette
Peint. de Pompei p. 73. comp. p. 76,] Hermes carrying the infant D,
(after Praxiteles) in fine reliefs and gems, MiUin, G. M. 226 ; [D, A. K.
u, 34, 396,] P. gr. 31,, consigning him to the nymphs (Nysa, Hyads) or
daughters of Cadmus (Ino), in the beautiful crater of Salpion, §, 257. R,
4, Neapels Bildw. s, 76,, on vases, G, M, 227. 228. Cab. Pourtalfes pi. 27.
Zeus holding a chUd, with a she-goat, on coins of Laodicea, G. M. 225.
Gsea receiving the infant D, (Erichthonius ? §, 371, E. 4,), M, Nap, i, 76,
G. M. 224. ; M. Chiar. 44. [M. d. I. i. i, 12, 2. The rich vase-painting,
M. d. I. iu, 30. Ann. xiii. p. 91. decidedly represents the birth of Brich
thonius, to which Gerhard also refers another Auserl. V. iii, 51. D. A. K.
ii, 34, 401, together with several monuments, whilst 0. Jahn Archaol.
Aufs. s. 60 ff. Athene Kurotrophos, Briohthonios, Dionysos, interprets
the latter, and therefore also M. d. I. i, 10. to be Dionysus-Iacchus.] Ino-
Leucothea with the infant D. in her arras, exceUent statue from the Al
bani collection, at Munich 97. Winck. M. I. 54. M. Frang. u, 9. BouiU. U,
6. [Cavaceppi Eacc. i, 2.] Education and youthful sports of D., M. Cap.
iv, 60. ; Winck. M. I. 52. G. M, 229, (in Munich 117,), Under the guid
ance of Silenus, Painting Ant. Ere. ii, 12. [Ternite Pomp, Wandgem.
(Eeimer) iii, 3, where many monuments are referred to,] Hermes con
signing the infant Dionysus to APIAPNE, vase from Agrigentum M, d. I,
ii, 17. Ann. vu. p. 82. Impr, d. I. iv, 37. Silenus rocking the infant D. to
whom a nymph hands a bunch of grapes. M. Borbon, x, 25, [On the fine
vase from Agrigentum Vases Luynes pi, 28. Nouv. Ann, de 1' I. i, 9. T. i, p.
367. Zeus himself delivers the chUd to the nymph. In the Mus, Gregor.
ii, 26, 1. D. A. K- ii, 34, 397, on a small crater from Volci in the finest
style, the figures with light and shade on a, whitish ground, which does
not otherwise occur, Hermes consigns the infant Bacchus to Silenus —
two nymphs present, Ev. three muses, one of them with the lute in Uke
manner as Mercury plays it in the mural painting, and the new-born child
at the same time straightway shows his love of this art. On a vase in
the museum at Palermo, Hermes gives the child to a Msenad with thyr-

494 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
sus and panther, she presents to it a garland, towards which it reaches,
an altar between them to indicate the divinity of the child, then a
Baccha, a satyr, Rv. Midai. On a fine puteal from S. CaUisto at Eome
stUl inedited, in W. Von Humboldt's collection at Tegel, Hermes as child-
eonveyer between three satyrs, the centre one with a wine-vase, the others
with thyrsus, and on the other side a Msenad between a satyr on wine
skin and torches and another playing the flute.] D. Liknites cradled by
a satyr and a nymph on the mystic van (Plut. Is. 35. Nonnus 48, 959.)
Winck. M. I. 53. G. M. 232.; Combe Terrac. 44. The infant Bacchus
danced around by Corybants, Pan opening the cista with his foot, Silenus,
relief in the Vatican Gerh. Ant. Bildw. Tf 104, 1. [Guigniaut pi. 148, 564.
D. A. K, ii, 35, 412.] Nursing of Bacchus, reUef in the Vatican, Gerh. pi.
104, 2. Fine head of the infant Bacchus in the Mus. Chiaram., a similar
one found in Pompeii Bull. 1837. p. 183. [The infant Zagrseus slain by
Titans Zoega Bassir, 81,]
3, D. approaching the forsaken Ariadne. A main group on coins of
Perinthus under Severus Alexander, to which belonged the so-called
Cleopatra of the Vatican (PCI. ii, 44. Eacc. 8. Piranesi St. 33. M. Frang.
iii, 9. Nap. ii, 8. BouiU. ii, 9.), as Jacobs has shown, Miinchner Denkschr.
V. Phil. Verm. Schriften v. s. 403. whereby all doubts (Gerhard, Beschr.
Eoms ii, ii. s. 174.) are removed. [The same figure in a differently com
posed relief, .now in the Vatican, de Fabris Intorno ad un bassor. rappr.
Arianna abandonnata E. 1845. 4to. Group of a young Dionysus, his one
arm ou the shoulders of a satyr, the other on his own head, with a sleep
ing Ariadne on tho pedestal in relief, taken from Megara to England,
Hughes Trav. i. p. 224.] Anthol. Pal. iv, 145., ReUefs PCL v. 8. G, M.
241. ReUefs, PCI. v, 8, G, M, 241, Beschr. Eoms ii, 2. s. 262. Bacchanal
and the sleeping Ariadne, very rich, from the Vatican, Gerh. pi. 110. 2. ;
L, 421. Clarac pi, 127. BouiU. iii, 38, 3. 39. 1. Fragment of an earthen
goblet from Athens, Brondsted Voy. ii. p. 276. pi. 60. Pitt. Ere. ii, 16.
comp. Philostr. i, 15. Gems, M. Flor. i, 92, 1. 93. 3. Mantuan cameo,
M. Worsl. ii, 1. — D. in the lap of Ariadne, in a marriage chariot, guided
by Aphrodite (?) Semele? PCI. iv, 24. G. M. 244. comp. Gerh., Beschr.
Eoms ii, ii. s. 128. ; similar, only that D. is bearded and Ariadne in his
bosom, in Munich 101. Sickler Alman. ii. s. 107. Tf 8. D,, Ariadne,
Hermes, (fee, vase from Casre, BuU, 1835, p. 150, [The counterpart in the
forsaken Hypsipyle seems only imaginary,] D. and Ariadne meeting
one another in cars drawn by centaurs, L, 4, BouiU, 39, 2. Clarac pi. 124. ;
with centaurs amid the music of citherns, driving along, while Zephyr
blows, over the ocean which is smoothed by Galene into summer calm
(comp. Addseus, Brunck Anal, ii, 242.), G. M. 245., not so complete, M.
Flor. i, 92, 2. Cora (with ears of corn) in the same situation, §. 358. E.
6. ; the beautiful Casali sarcophagus, PCI. v. c. G. M. 242. D. A. K. ii, 37,
432., appears also to represent D. united with Cora, on account of the pre
sence of Hermes (according to Vise. Semele led up from the lower
world). Welcker Zeitschr. f a K. s. 476. [B. Braun in the Beschr. Roms
iii, 1, 683.]
4. The vase-painting, MUUngen Un. Mon. 26. represents (according
to the inscription) the ieqog yxpiog of D. and Ariadne (from the Naxian
worship) in a sacred arbour. Naxian worship on the hinder side of the vase
Pourtalfes with Demeter pi. 16., M. Pourt. pi. 17., D. Ariadne, Eros, with

DIONYSIAN CYCLE, DIONYSUS. 495
Hephaestus, Comus, Marsyas. D. in Naxian grotto, with Ariadne, beside
them Bros and Bacchian nymphs (Chryse, Philomele), on the other side
Apollo with Artemis and Leto at the Delian palm-tree, and worshipped
by DeUan virgins : a beautiful vase-painting in Palermo, Gerh. Ant.
BUdw. 59. (comp. PhUostr. ii, 17. p. 80. below §. 436,). Impr, iv, 46, On
the Bacchian grotto §. 390. R. 5. Dionysian possession, in the early man
ner, Stackelb. tf 12.
5. D. leading up Semele, Epigr. Cyzic. 1. D. embracing Semele after
she is led up, in presence of Apollo, in reference to the Delphian festival
Herois, in the mirror drawing §. 173. R. 3. [Gerh. Etr. Sp. i, 63.] Ac
cordingly the female figure which D. embraces whUe leaning backwards,
in vase -paintings (MilUn, Vases ii, 49. G. M. 60, 233.) is also perhaps
Semele. D. lies in the samg manner in the lap of a woman, surrounded
by satyrs, on the glass-cameo. Buonarroti, Med. p. 437. [Introduction of
S. among the gods, 0. Jahn Vasenbilder Tf. 3. Rhein. Mus. vi. s. 634.]
D. also appears to be enthroned beside his mother, Eckhel P. gr. 23. ; an
archaic D. stands near as a religious idol, Coins of Smyrna, D. and
Semele enthroned, the former reclining on the bosom of the latter, an
archaic idol of Dionysus beside them, correctly explained by Streber
Miinch. Abhandl. PhUol. i. tf 4, 3.
6. Battles of D. : with Pentheus, PhUostr. i, 18. G. Giust. ii, 104. G. M.
236. ; MiUingen Div. 5. ; also R. R. M. I. 4, 1. (Pentheus is indicated by
the Boeotian hat). [0. Jahn Pentheus und die Manaden Kiel 1841.
4to.] With Lycurgus, a Borghese relief, Zo6ga's Abhandl. i. comp.
Welcker s. 353. (beside them the muses, who were also maltreated by
Lycurgus, according to Zoega, according to Welcker the Pates). [D. A.
K. ii, 37, 441.] A Corsini crater [now in the Corsini palace at Flo
rence], Zannoni, IUustr. di un ant. vaso in jnarmo. F. 1826., rectified by
Welcker in Schorn's Kunstbl. 1829. No. 15. Vase-paintings, Vases de
Canosa 13. ; MilUngen Div. 1. ; Maisonneuve 63, also Neapels Ant. s. 347.
[M. Borb. xiii, 29. A large vase from Ruvo, M. d. I. iv, 16, 17. Roulez
Ann. xvu. p. 111. A. crater from Ruvo BuU. 1846, p. 88. A cylix, Ly
curgus with sword, hard pressed by three Msenads, one with sword, two
with thyrsi ; on the other side, celebration of victory, Dionysus surround
ed by the thiasus. On a large crater in the possession of B. Braun [now
of Cav. Campana] Lycurgus, who has slain a nymph, another is carried
away dead by two persons, a youth and his psedagogue stand by terror-
struck. Rv. Pelops and MyrtUos.] Mosaic, Neapels Ant. s. 143. With
Perseus (Deriades), Hirt s. 83. MiUingen Un. Mon. i, 26. With the Tyr
rhenians §. 99. No. 12. 128. R. 6. PhUostr. i, 19., hence dolphins with
thyrsi on gems, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 17. D. attacking with the panther's
hide on his arm, vase from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 27, 35. — Triumph,
Thriambos, of D. over the Bast, Zoega 7. 8. 76. ; PCI. i, 34. iv, 23. ; Cap.
iv, 63.; L. 362. BouiU. iii, 37, 3. Clarac pL 126, ; L. 725, BouiU. 38, 1,
Clarac pi. 144. Sarcophagus from Crete, Aow in Cambridge, Waagen,
Kunstw. in England ii. s, 629, [Pashley Travels in Crete ii. p, 7 sqq,,
with engr, triumphal procession. There is a cast in the Akad, der
Kiinste in BerUn,] D, as conqueror of India, giving judgment from his
throne. Pan with a shield beside him, sarcophagus in the Mus. Chiaram.
and a simUar one in the cathedral at Salerno, Gerh, Ant, Bildw, Tf 109,
1, 2, For the explanation especially Lucian's Dionys, 1 — 4, D, in orien-

496 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
tal costume and accompaniment, triumphing, on a dromedary, vase-paint
ing M. I. d. Inst. 60. Ann. v. p. 99. [Gerhard Archaol. Zeit. ii. Tf 24, 1.
s. 395, where a nocturnal musical procession of king Midas is assumed, from
Polysen. vii, 5.] — D. equipped with the panther's skin in a procession of
deities, Winck. M. I. 6. D. armed with arrows on coins of Maroneia, arm
ed with a bundle of arrows and crowned by Pallas on coins of CorneUus
Blasius, Morelli Corn, i, 1., and on a gem, Eckhel P. gr. 19. Bacchian
quiver on the Kistophori. [D. fighting with giants in the gigantoma-
chies §. 396, 4 and in single groups as in Gerhard's Auserl. V. i, 64.
(Durand no. 121.), on a Volcentine amphora Bull. 1847. p. 102 ; Millingen
Un. Mon. pi. 26., where the latter correctly puts Eurytus in the place of
Deriades. To the oracle that the battle with the giants must be com
pleted by Hercules, in Pind. N. i, 100, the scholiast superadds Dionysus.
There is an inexhaustible store of sculptures representing D. and his
escort in connexion with Apollo (N. Ehein. Mus. i. s. 3 ff,), with Posei
don (Panofka Poseidon u, D. B. 1845. with 2 pi. from vases), Hephsestus
(§, 367. E, 3,), Aphrodite, Cybele, Hercules, ifcc. Bacchus institutes
comedy, Temite's Vasengem. 1st. series (Eeimer) pi, 2.]

D. SATYRS.

385. The natural life, whose purest blossom we observe in
Dionysus, now appears in lower cycles, especially in the race
of "good for nothing and wanton satyrs" (Sarugo;, Tlru^oi), as
Hesiod called them. Limbs powerfully built, but not ennobled
by gymnastics, sometimes flabby, sometimes firm ; snub-nosed
and otherwise unnobly formed countenances, with pointed
goat-like ears; sometimes also protuberances (pjjgEa) on the
neck, and in old figures baldness of the forehead; the hair
bristly and often erect; moreover a scanty tail, and some
times sexual organs of bestial form; — these are the marks,
in very manifold gradations, however, of the figures which
were called satyrs in the genuine language of Greek poetry
and art, from which the Roman poets first ventured to
depart. Sometimes, however, the satyrs rise into very noble
slender shapes, which are scarcely betrayed by anything but the
pointed ears ; the name of Ampelus, the cupbearer of Dionysus,
may be here fittingly referred to. The more decided satyric
forms may be classified as follows: a. The gracefully reclining
flute-players, with indolence, and a slight dash of petulance,
but without rudeness, in the. expression, b. The sturdy and
joyous figure of the cymbalists, c. Dancers, d. The wild,
enthusiastic, inspired by Bacchus, e. Slender and powerfully
built hunters, _ f Satyrs lying at ease, often with pretension
to the completion of some great work. g. Sleepers stretched
out comfortably, also in a coarse and indecent manner, exhal
ing the fumes of wine. h. Lascivious satyrs drawing the gar
ments from the persons of Bacchantes, and Hermaphrodites,

DIONYSIAN CYCLE, SATYES. 497
and struggling with them. i. Satyrs occupied with the pro
cesses of preparing wine, in the earliest and simplest manner,
and exhibiting their rude efforts with a sort of pride, whereby
a great variety of forms are presented to view. k. Carousing
figures, pouring out wine for themselves. 1. The combatants
of the Tyrrhenians, amid whose wildness there gleams through
nevertheless an insolent joviality. Earlier antiquity formed 5
satyrs more as bug-bears and caricatures, and loved to repre
sent them as ravishers of nymphs; art also in its improved
state long adhered to these bearded and mature forms of satyrs,
which are represented with magnificent sauciness especially
on the coins of Naxos in Sicily ; the more tender and youthful
forms, in which there is combined with the satyric character
an exceedingly graceful figure and an amiable roguishness,
first made their appearance in the later Attic school. Plump, 6
sturdy satyr -children also, in whom their nature betrays itself
by a prodigious love of drinking, were favourite subjects of
sculpture, and were even made the central point of a cele
brated composition. The application, in a wider sphere, of 7
all sorts of special appellations which occur on vase-paintings
in reference to individual satyr-figures (Reveller, Snub-nose,
Sweet-wine), has proved hitherto a fruitless undertaking.
1. Gesner de Sileno et Silenis, Commentar. Gott. iv. p. 36. Heyne
Antiq. Aufs. u. Voss Mythol. Br. ii, 30—32. Lanzi §. 301, 3. Welcker,
Nachtrag zur Trilogie s, 211 — 219, Gerhard, Del dio Fauno e de' suoi
seguaci, N, 1825. Kunstblatt 1825. No. 104,
2, Their peculiarities of form are very weU described by Philostr, i, 22,
{xoiXol ro iax'ov). The finest head is that from ViUa Albani in Munich
100. Faune k la tache, it is doubted whether it be genuine. BouiU. i, 72,
M. Nap. ii, 18., quite similar Lipp. i, 204, Tassie pi. 39, 4510. A fine
bronze head with eyeless sockets in Munich 294, A very evident ipqi^oxoptng
or 6q%Sq4 (Btym, M, p, 764,) BouiU, iii, 59, 11, comp, Winck. iv. s. 220.
Double herma of a satyr and a satyra, she with long and he short hair,
she with ivy-crown, hewith pine-crown and goat-horns, both with pointed
ears, M. Borb. x, 13.
3. Of this form the excellent statue in Dresden 219. (Copies 162.
178. 193.) Aug. 25. 26. A graceful figure in Lord Egremont's, but in
which the taU is not wanting, has the same posture of the o/i/o;(;o'of ( AtoX-
Xaviog i'jroiei). See also the satyr of Cossutius, Brit. Mus. ii, 43. Ampelos
intonsus Ovid F. iii, 49. Ampelos, Creuzer zur Gemmenkunde s. 125. [§.
383. R. 8.]
4. a. To this class belongs the supposed S. of Praxiteles §. 127. R.
2. and the boyish one which is as often to be met with, Maff. 84. V.
Borgh. 5, 8. BouUl. i, 63. ; M. Cap. iii, 31. ; Lipp. i, 212., comp. Agathias
Anthol. Pal. Plan, 244, [The fine satyr of bronze in the Biscari Museum,
with his hands iu the posture for playing the double flute,] A muse
teaching a satyr to play the syrinx, Impr, d, Inst, u, 21, A satyr sitting
tranquUly, with flute between his knees, denarii of the gens Petronio,
MoreUi tb, 2, 4. Engraved stones Lipp, iu, 182, Stosch P, gr, b, M.
21

498 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Flor. iii, 68 (with restored head). Maffei Race. 35. comp. Winck. W. iv. s.
281. In the L. 383 from V. Borgh. 2, 8. M. Roy. i, 17. Lipp. i. 211. c.
Of greatest beauty the small dancing satyr in bronze from the casa del
Fauno in Pompeu. BuU. d. Inst. 1831. p. 19., engraved in M. Borb. ix, 42.
[BuU. 1831. p. 19. Finati M. Borb. p. 154. The old dancing satyr
of V. Borghese M. d. I. iii, 59. BuU. 1845. p, 105, Indicaz. d. V.
Borghese viii, 1, p, 24, Another much smaller dancing satyr among the
bronzes from Pompeii,] d. Ant. Bro. vi, 38, 39, Lipp, i, 186 ff. Suppl.
246. Particularly fine on the gem by Pergamos, Stosch 49. Wicar iii,
35. e. Satyr with syrinx and pedum, statue in the Brit. Mus. Spec. ii.
pi. 26. The satyr holding the leveret to the panther and teasing it (comp.
Luc. de domo 24.), splendid reUef L. 477. BouiU. i, 79^ M. Prang, ii, 13.
Clarac pi. 178. The satyr carrying a roe (or a goat) on his shoulders; a
beautiful statue in Ildefonso, Maffei Race. 122. f A beautiful satyr sit
ting and resting his chin on his hand, on gems, Stosch 44. Lipp. iii, 182.
A satyr imitating the wearied Hercules §. 129. R. 2., M. Flor. i, 92, 8. A
smiling satyr wrapped in a cloak, bronze herma in the Bedford coUection,
from Pompeii, Spec, ii, 28. g. Satyrus somno gravatus by Stratonicus, Plin.
comp. Anthol. Pal. vi, 56. Plan. 248. The Barberini satyr, one of the
grandest statues, in Munich 96. ; Piranesi St. 5. Race, 94, [Tetii Mies
Barber. 215. Montfauc, i, 147. Le Chausse i, 2, 6,] Morghen Princ, 27.
The bronze one, Ant, Ere, vi, 40, M, Borb. ii, 21, Guattani M, I, 1787. p.
Ivi, h, Comp. PUn, xxxv, 36, 22. Nonn. xii, 82, ReUef, Brit, M, ii, 1.,
M. Borb. V, 53. Gems, M, Flor, i, 89, 8, Lascivious wall-painting, Pitt, di
Ere, i, 15. 16. Satyrs with Hermaphrodites on gems ; group of statues
in Dresden 317. Aug. 95 and elsewhere. Bott, Archaol, u, Kunst, i. s. 165.
In the group at Berlin 88. the hermaphrodite teases the satyr. Groups
in Dresden and in the possession of BlundeU. Clarac. pi. 672. Herma
phrodite and satyr, group at Florence, ibid, pi, 670, 1550, Pan and her
maphr. The d'rroaxo-Treveiv also expresses the lechery of the satyrs, Plin.
xxxv, 40, 32,, one of this kind on the relief PCI, v c, comp, §, 335, 7. On
a vase de Witte CoUeot, de Vases p, 1837, no, 96. 2K0IIA[j], a satyr with
a club in his right hand makes with his left un geste de moquerie, axa^ij/,
[cf 0, Jahn Vasenbilder s. 24. Silius xiii, 341 sq, describes the xtto-
axo'Ti-eiieiv.] i, 6, M. 269, 271. St. di S, Marco ii, 31. Nothing finer than
the relief at Naples, Welcker Zeitschr. s. 523. M, Borb. ii, 11. Neapels
Ant. s. 88., with which corresponds the reUef of the vase in England
( ? Piranesi, Vasi 56. 56). k. S. scyphum tenens PI. xxxv, 36, 23. 'Sxrvqog
cpxXxxqog iv rri It^ioi xaSiavx xqxrav, in Athen. xi, 484. completely as in
vase-paintings. Satyrs in various postures of wine-pouring and drink
ing, arabesques M. Borb, vii, 50 — 52. 1, See §, 128. E, 6. An old satyr.
putting on greaves, helmeted, M, Pourtalfes pi, 9, cf R. Rochette M, ined,
p, 94. Vase-painting,
6, See the groups on the Thasian coins, §. 98. R. 3., and comp. the
vase-painting MiUingen Cogh. i, 16. 18., the gem Impr. d. Inst, i, 10. A
satyr, in animated movement, a bacchante in tranquil attitude, with the roe
and Trqoxoog, statues belonging to one another, to be found among dealers
in works of art, Gerh. Ant. Bildw. Tf 102, I. 2. Two hermse, satyr and
bacchante, companion works ibid. 3. 4. Satyr and infant satyr, fine
group at Rome and Naples ibid. 103, 1. 2. [That at Naples, with the in
fant Bacchus, a bunch of grapes in his hand, resting on his neck, also in

DIONYSIAN CYCLE. SILENI. 499
V. Albani p. 10. no. 94 of tho Indicazione.] Satyr and female bacchante,
a charming group in the Vatican, Gerhard Tf 103, 3. The satyr becomes
a centaur on the coins of the Thracian towns, Lete and Orrhescus, §. 98.
R. 3. "iT^-a-ovqig according to Bekker is the name of the satyr-tail. An.
Gr. p. 44. comp. Welcker ibid. s. 217. The Naxian satyr, N. Brit. 4, 8.
Exactly the same, Tassie pi. 38, 4649, Only bearded satyrs on the vases
of Volci, Ann. d. Inst, iii. p, 41, The yeveiuv and ¦itoXiog in Pollux iv, 142.
are older satyrs of this sort. [Marriages of satyrs or sileni and nymphs,]
6, .PCI. iv, 31. ; Ant, Bro. vi. p. 47. A boy-satyr giving drink to D.
who is leaning on Ariadne, Zahn, Wandgem. 35. The education of a little
satyr, in the much discussed Giustiniani relief, Amalth. i, 1. [ui. s. vi. D.
A. K. ii, 40, 482,] ; the satyrio ears of the boy no longer seem doubtful,
Visconti PCI. iv, p. 61, No. 6. comp, Gerhard, Beschr, Eoms u, ii, BeU, 1.
Lange Schriften i. s. 282. [M. Chiaram. ii, 261. Zeus nursed by Amalthea,
a completely erroneous explanation. B. Braun, who likewise testifies to
the satyric ears, compares a Vidoni cornelian with an exactly similar re
presentation. Ant. Marmorwerke i. s. 7. The horn from which the infant
satyr drinks is out of all proportion to Amalthea. It is a scene from
mythic forest Ufe.] Also the head, Lipp. i, 203.
7. Kapiog (Dor. Kxpiog with the lyre, M. Borb. ii, 45.), OTvog, ' Hlvoivoc,
'S.ipiog, as satyrs, Tischb. ii, 44. ; Laborde 65. Maisonn. 22 ; Lab. 64. Mais.
33, ; M, Borb, u, 45, ; MUUngen Cogh. 19. E. Rochette Journ. des Sav.
1826. p. 89. Neapels Ant. s. 264. Welcker ad PhUostr, p. 214, Ann. d,
Inst. i. p. 398. Ai^iiqxpi/iog playing on the lyre, tv. E, 3, Kapiog, Kiaaig,
Xoqog, Xoqi-T^xig, Bqi'xxog on the Volcian vases. On the Acratos §. 346*.
R. 3. Zoega Bassir. i. p. 32 sqq, Abhandl. s. 26 f [0. Jahn Vasenbilder
1839. s. 17 ff. BuU. 1836. p. 122.]

C. SILENI.

386. Those older and bearded satyrs are often also called 1
Sileni (snub-nosed) when works of art are in question, so that
an established and sure distinction between the two can
scarcely be pointed out in art. However, this name attaches 2
particularly to one older satyr-form, which, usually united with
the wine-skin, has itself somewhat of the appearance of one
(hence it was also a favourite subject in the decoration of
fountains), and its drunken unwieldiness has greater need of
something to lean on for support than the other attendants of
the god. This is sometimes afforded him by an ass on which he 3
is borne, and sometimes by satyr-boys eagerly busied about him.
Yet is this happy daemon, in a deeper mode of thinking which 4
was unfolded especially by the Orphici, at the same time full
of a wisdom to which all the restless bustle of mankind ap
pears folly; the plastic art also represents him in nobler and
grander forms as the fosterer and instructor of the young
Dionysus. Among the figures of the old satyr-drama, Pappo- 5
sileni was the name given to the satyric forms all covered
with hair and bearded.

500 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
2. See Heyne Commentatt. Soc, Gott, x, p, 88, Impr. d, Inst, Cent, iv.
39 — 45. 56. On coins of Himera or Thermse, Torrem. 35, 2 — 6., as weU
as on the bronze cista of Novius, §. 173. R. 3., Silenus stands or sits be
side a spring indicated by a lion's head. Heron also, Spirit, p. 190. 205.,
mentions Satyrisks with wine-skins beside fountains, and also Panisks as
scaring figures, p. 183. (comp. Torrem. 36, 1.) I think it was on this
account that fountains were caUed Silani at Rome (from Doric Sicily).
3. Wine-skin Sileni of this sort, standing, in Dresden 122. Aug. 71.
[where three classes of statues of Silenus are referred to p. 71.] ; in Munich
99. ; the Ludovisi one lying, Perrier 99. Astride on the skin. Ant. Bro,
vi, 44. M. Borb, iii, 28. On the wine-pitcher as a lamp, Amalth, iii, 168.
Squeezing a bunch of grapes, PCI, i, 46, [holding one before him iv, 26,]
Stretched on the ass, sometimes a flinging one, often on gems and reliefs.
Clinging to a goat, Impr, d, Inst, i, 9. The drunken S. supported by satyrs,
PCI. iv, 28. ; Zoega 4, ; Guattani 1786, p, xxiv, (if not Hercules) ; by Bros,
Zoega 79, Combe Terrac. 6. Erotes also entertain Silenus with music,
Bracci ii, 71. ; on a corneUan in the Wiczay cabinet SUenus, playing on
the lyre, is wounded by Eros in a go-cart. Playing on the lyre, often at
Volci. Luc. loaromen. 27. describes S. as a cordax-danoer, comp. Hirt.
22, 7. MiUin, Vases i, 6. Kuptog of Sileni §. 127. R. 2. On the Silenus
Marsyas §. 362. R. 4. 367. R. 3. This Marsyas with wine-skin on the left
shoulder, raising the right hand, on coins of Roman cities as an emblem
of libertas, comp. Serv. Mu. iii, 20. iv, 58. (A dwarf Silenus as fifer
among the nymphs of Diana. Zoega Bassir. tv. 120.)
4. [Silenus bound before king Midas, vases, M. d. I. iv, 10. Ann. xvi.
tv. D. H. p. 200, vase in Palermo, tv. D. H., others in tho M. Gregor. and
from Chiusi ; with the first comp. Minervini in the Bull. Napol. iv. p. 135
sq.]. SUenus sits with little Bacchus playing, on coins of Sardis, Miinch
ner Denkschr. Philol. i. Tf 4, 8. S, with the infant Bacchus in the ex
cellent Borghese statue L. 709, Maffei Race, 77, Piranesi St, 15, M. Roy.
ii, 9. Clarac pi, 333, Comp, especially Calpurnius Bcl, 10, 27, Maffei and
Winck, speak of two simUar ones in Rome ; there is one in the braccio
nuovo of the Vatican, one in Munich 115, ; a repetition (of which there
is a plaster cast at Gottingen) has the inscription : bella manu pacemque
gero : mox, prsescius sevi Te duel venturi, fatorum arcana recludam, from
the Orphian doctrine, in which Dionysus introduces the last happy age
which the wise Silenus announces. Powerful figures of SUeni M, Chiar,
40, 41. Human ears (Gerh, Beschr, Roms ii, ii, s, 193,) are not rare in
Silenus, [A combination of Silenus, Dionysus, Satyr, with arbitrary treat
ment of hair, beard, ears, wreath, in later works, which are often exceUent,
for instance, Becker's August, pi. 25. 26, an exceUent bronze head found
at Colchester, Archseologia L. xxxi, pi. 13, p, 444.]
6. llxTTi-oirelMvog Tijv ilexv Sinqialeirreqog Pollux iv, 142. Statue of this
hairy S. Ficoroni Gemmse tb. 26 sq. In the grafiito Gerh. Ant. Bildw.
66, 2. 3., creeping on the ground. [A Gentili statue Gerhard Tf 106, 3.
One in the Giustiniani palace in Venice severalspans in height, Thiersch
Reisen in ItaUen i, 268. One with the boy Dionysus, who holds the
mask, on his shoulder, was excavated at Athens in the neighbourhood of
the theatre in April 1840, engraved in A. SchoU's Archaol. Mitheilungen
aus Griechenl. Tf 5, 10, A Papposilenus on a vase M, Borb, ix 29. 0.

DIONYSIAN CYCLE. PANS. 601
Jahn Vasengem. Tf 1. Wieseler Das Satyrspiel nach einem Vasenbild.
s. 123.] On vases beside Dionysus, Laborde ii, 39. Hirt 22, 2. ; here he
evidently wears the x"?^*'"! x""'" 3«o^i/s of the Sileni, PoUux iv, 118.
comp. Etrusker ii. s. 216. The ve^qig p^xXKoig areepopiivn, a roe-skin cov
ered with tufts of wool, is also to be recognised on vases. On the dpicpi-
ptxXXoi (jElian V. H. iii, 40.) and pt,xXXarol x""'-'H of the Bacchian pro
cessions, Bottiger Archaol. der Mahl. s. ^00. Welcker Zeitschr. i. a. K. s.
634 f. [Proleg. ad Theogn. p. xc. Bernbardy ad Dionys. Per. p. 715. Silenus
Xo^o,ixfiav Toup Bp. crit. p. 64. Gerhard Del Dio Panno p. 46. not. 98.]

387. Descending lower into the animal kingdom we find 1
the race of Pan, Pans, Paniscs, who represent the secret plea
sure and the dark horror of sylvan solitude. Here also there 2
occurs, and that too in their native Arcadia, a human form
which is only characterized as Pan by the shepherd's pipe
(ffif/yl), the pastoral crook, {Xayojj3aXov, xaXav^o-^), the disor
dered hair and also perhaps sprouting horns. This is the 3
usual shape on coins and vase-paintings of the best period;
however the goat-footed, horned and hook-nosed form became
afterwards the rule, probably through the Praxitelian school
of art. In it Pan appears as an active leaper and dancer 4
{axi^rrirrig), as the amusing buffoon in the cycle of Dionysus,
the impetuous lover of nymphs, but also the teacher of the
youthful Olympus on the syrinx — contrasts of tender, youth
ful beauty, with rude, stern, woodland nature, for which
Greek art cherished an especial affection. The groups in 5
which a good-natured panisc plucks a thorn from the foot of
a satyr (which race, as being of a higher breed, practises all
manner of tricks with the Pans), are conceived with extreme
ncCivete. But Pan is also, as a deemon of dark fear and panic 6
terror, a bold and victorious foe-queller; at Athens the battle
of Marathon gave particular occasion for representing him
with tropasa. As a peaceful syrinx-player he inhabits the 7
grottoes consecrated to him (Panaea), where his figure is not
unfrequently found, amid graceful nymphs, hewn out of the
living rock. It was the misapprehension of later times, which, 8
however, was very, wide-spread, that first transformed the an
cient god of pasture {nrdoiv, pastor) into a universal deemon, and
his unpretending reed-piping into the harmony of the spheres.
[1. There is occasionally to be met a Pan's head, with a terrified,
bewildered look, by which perhaps, as Zoega remarks, instead of Pan, it
was intended to express the Panic terror. Thus Gemm. Flor. ii, 9.
(.KTAAKO, Stosch Gemm. sculp, tb. 58, cf Cavaceppi Eacc. ii, 10.]
2. See the Arcadian coins in PeUerin Eec. i. pi. 21. Landon pi. 43.
G. M. 286. §. 132. E. 2. Similar figure on coins of Pandosia, N. Brit. 3.

502 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
26,, Messana (with the hare), Eckhel SyU. i. tb. 2, 10., also Pella, M,
SClem. 30, 321. Pan is also represented in human form as a flute-player
on coins of Paneas, The head on coins of Antigonus Gonnatas and Pan
ticapseon is indeed more caricatured, but stiU youthful. Vase-painting
in Walpole's Travels pi, 8. MilUngen Un. Mon. i. pi. A, [and very many
represent the human Pan with small horns.]
3, Statues L, 506. [M. Capit. iii, 35,] V. Borgh, Port, 1. Bouill, i, 53,
1, Clarac pi, 325,; Wicar iii, 40,; in the Brit. Mus, and elsewhere. P. as
Telamon Eacc. 140. [The Pan of the Earl of Leicester at Holkham the
finest statue in England, as is observed Spec, i, 40. A couple, twice the
size of Ufe, found near the church in Pane e Perna, FI. Vacca, in Fea
MisceU. i. p. 56. A fine herma in Spanheim Do usu et pr. n. i. p. 396.
One M. Flor. ii. Terracottas of the Brit. Mus. 45. 46.] Pan is frequently
to be seen on vases in Apulia and Lucania, in Volci very rarely. Gran
diose masks of the bearded Pan in terracotta and marble. [Mask of Pan
Impr. d. Inst, iv, 56. SmaU statue Brit. Mus, x, 24. p. 51 — 64.]
4. As a dancer {xoqevriig reMarxrog Beav Pindar Fr. 67, Bh,) he is often
to be seen at Bacchanals, where his foot opens the mystic cista, PCI.
iv, 22, V, 7, ; L, 421, Clarac pi. 128, ; Amalth, iu, s. 247, (from this the
fragment in E, Bochette M. I. xa, may be restored), A satyr does the
same BouiU. iii, 70. [Pans dancing to the lute of Hermes, M. d. I. iv, 34.]
Pan tearing the garments from a nymph, or a hermaphrodite (as in a
group of the V. Aldobrandini), PCI. i, 60. Gerhard, Beschr, Eoms ii, ii.
s. 168. Similar groups, but with a Silenus, BuU, d, Inst, 1830, s, 76,
Pan playing on a lyre before a herma, on a silver plate, Ant. Ere, i. p, 267,
The nymphs teazing Pan, who has legs Uke those of a bull (Homer H,
19,), relief Gerh. Ant. BUdw. 45. M, Borb, vii, 9, [D, A. K. ii, 44, 549.
Pan and Echo §. 401. E. 3.] The goat-footed Pan dancing with a nymph,
a charming vase-picture, M. Blacas pi. 23. Pan with Olympus, (Plin.
xxxvi, 48,) in the Ludovisi group, Maff, Eacc. 64., the Florentine, G. di
I'ir. St, 12. comp. 73. an Albani one and others ; also Aug, 81. may be
restored from it. Wall-painting Pitt. Ere, iii, 19. In another, i, 8. 9.
Olympus and Marsyas (comp, §, 362, E, 4, Paus, x, 30,) are grouped with
AchUles and Chiron, as in the invaluable group PUn, xxxvi, 4, 8., only
that here Pan is the sole instructor. [In the former painting also Mar
syas, not Pan ; but Marsyas has small horns in it, also M. Borb. x, 22. ; the
other is also M, Borb, x, 4, Pan and Olympus, small bronze group from
Pompeii at Arolsen, Olympus with his hair in a bow on the forehead ] On
Olympus Philostr. i, 20, 21. [Fine ApuUan vase-painting M. d, I. ii, 37.
Inghir. Vasi Fitt, iv, 332. Elite ceramogr. ii, 75, (Rv, theft of the paUa
dium), MAP2TA2 and 0A0MP02, instruction of Olympus on the ci
thern, in the circle of listening satyrs and msenads taken for a contest, al
though Marsyas has not even an instrument Ann, viii, p. 295. Bull. 1843.
p. 39,] Pan wrestling with Olympus, symplegma by HeUodorus, Plin.
Butting with a goat, Pitt, Ere, ii, 42. ; Gems, M, Flor. i, 89, 1 — 3, Copu
lation with one of these animals, in a marble group, Neapels Ant. s. 461.
5. Group in the L. 290. V. Borgh. 4, 12. Clarac pi. 297. ; Millin P.
gr. 37. Comp. the group PCI. i, 49., Theocr. iv, 64. and the epigram on
the sorrowing Satyr, Brunck, Anal. iii. p. 106, Tricks of the satyrs with
the Pans, Guattani, M, I, 1786, p, xxxu, [Pan scourged Brit, Mus, x, 37.
A drunken Pan carried by Erotes to a satyr x, 38,]

DIONYSIAN CYCLE. FEMALE FIGURES. 503
6. Pan as a trophy-bearer (Anthol. Pal. Plan. 259.), in a small statue
found at Athens, in reference to the battle of Marathon, Wilkins M.
GrsBcia o. v. vign. [p. 71. With the trophy restored by Flaxman ; it was
afterwards found that similar statues carried grapes, Clarke Greek Mar
bles p. 9.] As i/TrscffTrwT^f of Dion. Zoega 75.
7. Pan with syrinx and rhyton sitting over a grotto, before which
Cecrops and his daughters (or Hermes and the nymphs) receive a saori-
floial procession, Athenian relief, M. Worsl. i, 9. A kindred relief from
Athens, Paciaudi Mon. Pel. i. p. 207. G. M. 327. C. I. 456., with Pan and
the nymphs who are led by a youth, beneath them the Eleusinian god
desses and the director Simon (according to Hirt Gesoh. der. Kunst s.
191.). Pan with human legs, sitting with the syrinx over a grotto in
which the great mother and the nymphs (comp. Pind, P. iii, 78.) are
likewise receiving a pompa, on the Parian reUef, Stuart iv, 6, 5. comp,
L. Ross, Kunstbl, 1836, No, 13, [Reisen auf den Griech, Inseln i, s, 60,
D. A, K. ii, 44, 556.] — Paniscs as sacrificial servants, Tisch. ii, 40. — [Pan
sacrificing, two bas-reliefs in the museum at Padua, Roulez Bull, de I'Acad,
ie BruxeUes T. xiii. n. 7. (Faune fondateur du culte religieux.) Sacri
fice by Pan and Satyr on the weU-known Mantuan gem.]
8. Gem in Hirt 21, 5. M. Flor. u, 80, 2.

E. FEMALE FIGITRES.

388. There is less variety to be found in the female forrns,
the apex of which is the graceful, blooming, ivy-crowned, and
often richly-draped ariadne, whom it is not always easy to
distinguish from Cora. From the nymphs who exhibit no
excitement of character, and the female satyrs who rarely
occur, the m.s:nads (Thyades, Clodones, Mimallones, Bassa-
rides, classes difiicult to separate) are distinguished by their
revelling enthusiasm, dishevelled hair, and head thrown
back, with thyrsi, swords, serpents, dismembered roe-calves,
tympana, and fluttering, loose-flying garments. Here also art
loves to repeat forms once established and become favourite,
among which we can easily distinguish the creations of the
best period of Greek art from those of later times, which were
still more transparently draped, and more voluptuous in their
movements. Sometimes also Maenads are seen exhausted by
the Bacchian phrenzy, entwined with serpents, and sunk in
careless slumber. It is very difiicult to perceive the difference
between the Msenads strictly so called, and the personifica
tions of Bacchian festivity, serenity, music and poesy, with
which we become acquainted in vase-paintings through the
names inscribed beside them; and indeed it is not the in
tention of Greek art, in which the revelation to sense becomes
altogether a corporeal presentment of a dsmonac world, that
we should here distinguish thoroughly between real and ideal
figures.

504 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
1. Above §. 384. R, 3, Fine statue, upright, tranquil, Brit, Mus, x,
23. Do the statue PCI, i, 4^^ and the fine head in the Capitol, Winck.
M. I, 56. (Leucothea according to Winck., a head of Bacchus, according
to Visconti and the editors of Winck. iv. s. 308. 436.), belong to Ariadne ?
[Certainly not the latter, although it is stiU caUed so in BouiU. pi. 77. and
in the Beschr. Eoms iii. s. 265. See Kunstmus. zu Bonn s. 73. It may
even be known to be a male figure from the neck.] — Ariadne forsaken §.
412. R. 1. Ariadne beside D. in the portico of Thessalonica, Stuart iii, 9,
11. 2. Nymphs §, 403, Satyra et Silena (a snub-nose) Lucret, Fine
head of a female satyre (?), St. di S. Marco ii, 30. [full of speaking ex
pression ; a cast in the museum at Bonn] ; laughing countenances fre
quent on gems. A female satyr playing with an infant satyr, M. Flor. i,
90, 2. [A satyr maiden at the establishment of Comedy by Bacchus, Ter
nite Pomp. Gem. (Eeimer) heft 2. Tf. 2.] A female Pan playing on the
flute, M. Flor. i, 93, 1. ; with Priapus [or herma of Pan] on a gem, Lipp.
Suppl. 291. Hirt 21, 3., the obscene representation in which recurs on a
Bacchian sarcophagus, Neapels Ant. s. 459. [Gerhard Ant. Bildw. Tf iu,
2. 3. 4.] Bronze, Gori M.,Etr. i, 64. [A female Pan clothed in a wolf's skin
playing on the tibia (Satiressa), Indicaz. per la V. Albani p. 27. no. 242. ;
a female Pan of bronze, in the cabinet of coins at Florence. Elegantly
foreshortened group, formerly in Florence, of which there are drawings,
a female Pan who is kneeling at the trunk of a tree, against which she
leans, with three young Pans, one on her shoulder, who sits at the same
time in a wicker basket fuU of flowers, one hanging on her knees, and
one (a female) below leaning on the trunk. She seems to be in tbe act
of suspending the first in a kind of dosser, AnnaU xvui. p. 241 sq.]
3. Beautiful head of a female Bacchante, Eckhel P. gr. 25, and else
where on numerous gems. Often repeated figures, derived from the fair
est, the genuine Greek period of art, are the x'l^'^'i<'<P°'"'s §• 125. E. 2.
(Soopas), and the corresponding figure in the L. 283. Clarac pi. 135. ;
comp. therewith V. Borgh. 2, 14. M. Flor. iu, 56. ; M. Chiar. 36. (§. 374.
E. 3.) [Brit. Mus. x, 35. reUef ] ; the Thyiades and Caryatides mentioned
§. 366. and 631.; the gems Lipp. i, 184. <fcc. A dance of Msenads bold
and beautiful, in Attic style on tbe vase in Stackelberg Tf 24. (comp. the
exquisite fioating female dancers on that of iEgina Tf 23.) More volup
tuously treated, as half-naked dancers, in the reUef L. 381. Clarac pi.
140,, which much resembles the pictures from Herculanum §. 210, E, 6, and
on many sarcophagi, §. 390. R. 2. Msenads wound themselves in Bacchian
frenzy ; a beautiful figure of this description on gems is caUed CaUirrhoe
in Lippert and Tassie. The half-naked Masnad kneeling in ecstasy on an
altar, and holding up a flute-playing Athena (?) very frequently recurs,
on the relief in the L. 200. Bouill. i, 75. Clarac pL 135. and in gems,
Lipp. i, 194 ff. Suppl. 242. 277. M. Flor. i, 88, 7. 9.; we also see a tran
quil Bacchante, Lipp. ii, 152., with the same idol in her hand. [Kunstmus.
in Bonn s. 116 f 2nd Ed.] Msenad on a panther with Dion., on an ass
led by SUenus, M. Flor. i, 91. Msenads swimming over the sea on a Bac
chian buU, G. di Fir. Gemme 9, 2. and frequently. Leaning on a sea-
panther, Pitt. Ere. iu. 17.
4, An exhausted Maenad reposing (comp. Plut, Mul, virt, (i>axileg) ex-

DIONYSIAN CYCLE. CENTAURS, .'')06
plained as a sleeping nymph PCI. iii, 43. G. M. 56. 325. [Hence the pro ¦
verbial expressions Sxxxng rqoTrov, i^l rav aWTrr.Xar ¦a-xqoirov xi Bxxxxi
aiyaai. Diogenian.] A similar figure of a Masnad iu the relief G. Giust.
ii, 104. ; perhaps also the one in R. Rochette M. I. 6. (Thetis according
to R. R.), although a figure perfectly similar occurs among the furies sur
rounding Orestes and sunk in sleep. A favourite figure on gems is a
lying one half seen behind, uncovered down to the legs, with an extreme
ly graceful bend in her flexible back, for example Guattani M. I. 1786. p.
Ixxiu. Lipp. i, 183. M. Flor. i, 92, 6. Impr. d. Inst, iv, 49. 62. A Msenad
of this description M. Worsl. u. p. 49.- 60. This figure also occurs suck
Ung a lynx (Marlbor. 60.), a subject which is explained by Burip. Bacch.
692. Msenads Ukewise press out the milk from their teeming breasts
into Bacchian drinking-horns, M. Flor. i, 48, 10, Lipp. iii, 165.
5. The foUowing appear as Bacchian women : — @x>.ix, Vx'Krivn, Eillx
(the pLetiiroetxax siilix of Pindar, which I would prefer to the Euo/« of Vis
conti, Hist, de rinst. iii. p. 41.), Eiqiivn, 'O-iraqx (with fruit), Oivovori; see
Tischb. ii, 44. (comp. 50.) ; MilUngen Cogh. 19. ; Laborde 66. (comp.
MiUin Vases i, 5.). Comp. Welcker ad PhUostr. p. 213. Xoqeixg, Neapels
Aut. s. 365. Paus. ii, 20. Aiavn as priestess of Dionysus, Neap. Ant. s.
363., beside a Mxivdg. Kx-TriiM, similar to the VirgUian copa, attacked
by thirsty satyrs, Laborde 64. R. Rochette Journ. des Sav. 1826. p. 95
sqq. <bxvi'!rn and 'Eqi<pvX>ilg also as names of Msenads on Volcian vases.
So req'i^ixoqri (TEP2IX0MH) M. PourtalSs pi. 29. [0. Jahn Vasengem.
s. 28.] Kapialix as festal-song §. 367. R. 3. ; as Comedy fitted by Dion.
with a mask, and by a satyr with socks, picture from Pompeii M. Borb.
ui, 4. comp. Becchi. Tqxyalix on a vase, see Gerhard, Hyp. Rom. Studien
s. 193. Welcker Nachtrag s. 236. comp. R. Rochette Journ. des Sav.
1826. p. 89—100. [Gerh. Auseri. V. i, 66. The reading is TPAPOIAIA
beyond aU doubt, and R. Rochette himself wiU no longer insist on threnody
as in the J. des Sav. p. 98. and Mon. Ined. p. 256.] A female Bacchante
clattering with crotals, Creuzer Ein altathenisches Gefass 1832. Similar
the painted terracotta, with Bacchian ensigns, in the archaic style, M.
Pourtalfes pi. 28. Telete also (beside Orpheus, Paus. ix, 30, 3.) may be
here conjectured, she occurs on a relief from Astron in Laconica, Ann.
d. Inst. i. p. 132. tv. c. 1. comp. ui. p. Ii4. But the winged virgin with
the herald's staff in Bacchian accompaniment, Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 48., or
with vine tendrils, Impr, d, Inst, ii, 14., may be better called Hosia, ac
cording to Eurip. Bacch. 367. Of Methe §. 383, 9. Welcker ad Philostr.
p. 312. Mystis, Zeitschr. i. s. 508. [Thalia, Ixlg SixXtix, Theoris, Welcker
Griech. Trag, s. 304,]

CENTAUES,

389. We may also give the centaurs a place among this I
class of beings, as they seem perfectly fitted to enter the Dio
nysian cycle, by the unrestrained rudeness with which animal
nature-life manifests itself in them; and the part likewise
which they play in heroic mythology, is especially assigned to
them through their love of wine. In earlier times they were 2

606 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
represented in front entirely as men, with the body of a horse
growing on to them behind ; but afterwards, perhaps from the
time of Phidias, the forms were blended much more happily,
by the joining of the belly and breast of a horse to the upper
part of a human body, the forms of whose countenance, pointed
ears and bristly hair betray an affinity to the satyr; on the
other hand in female forms (Centaurides) the human portion
was borrowed more from the cycle of nymph creations, and
could display very attractive forms. Accordingly, these origi
nally bizarre shapes, which were afterwards, however, develop
ed into the most perfect unity of forms, are presented to us in
a series of excellent works of art, sometimes in contrast to
noble heroic power, sometimes as quelled subjects of the might
: of Bacchus, for the most part, suffering and ill-used, but also
treated with reverential consideration in the case of Chiron,
the instructor of heroes.
1. Tho centaurs are principaUy ancient buffalo-hunters of the early
Pelasgian times (the ThessaUan TxvqoxxSixxj/ix furnish the interpreta
tion of the mythus) ; but there is combined therewith a reference to the
effects of the introduction of the vine. Centaurs as Dionysian thiasotes,
Bottiger, Vasengem, i, 3. s. 87. A centaur carries on a vase a tree with
tsenise and tablets with human figures, a kind of xiaqx, oscilla, Tischb.
i, 42. Often in Dionysian pomps, especially as draught-animals, PCI.
v,ll. 2. The older form (which the Ausonian Mares also had, .Slian V, H.
ix, 16,) on the coffer of Cypselus (Paus, v, 19, 2,), Clusinian vases
(Dorow Voy, pi, 1. 4,), the reUefs from Assos, §. 255, R, 2,, where the
centaurs hunt bulls ; the bronze in Gori, M, Etr. i, 65, 3,, on the vases
from Volci constantly, Micali tv, 95,, also gems, M, Flor. ii, 39, 1. Cen
taurs of the earlier form of bronze, naked human body in front, small
horse behind, dug from the rubbish of the Parthenon, Ross Kunstbl, 1836,
No, 24, The later form is described by CaUistr, 12,; Lucian Zeuxis (§,
138, R, 1,) notices particularly the arx axrvquln of the centaurs, — Cen
taurides suckling, for instance, by Zeuxis, and in the pretty picture Phi
lostr. ii, 3,, on Bacchian reUefs, BouiU, iii, 39, 1, 43, 2, 4, (L, 472, 766.
Clarac pi, 150, 147,), gems, M, Flor, i, 92, 6, Two centaurs and a sleep
ing centauris, St, di S. Marco ii, 32, [A centaur avenging the death of
his wife on a lion and panther, mosaic §, 322. R. 4, no, 4, Chiron's cen
taur-wife, the infant AchiUes in her arms, ApoUon, i, 657,] Centaurs
attacked by satyrs in the Bacchian procession, PCI. iv, 21, Gerhard,
Beschr, Roms ii, ii, s, 199, Centaurs with Msenads, Centaurids with
Bacchantes in charming groups, among the Herculanean pictures, §, 210,
6, M, Borb, iii, 20, 21, A Bacchian winged centaur Impr, d, Inst, in, 62,
3, Borghese centaur in the L, 134,, finished with extreme care (the
head like Laoooon's), with a Bacchian Bros on his back. Race, 72  74.
(Clarac pi, 737—740,) V, Borgh, 9, 1, M, Roy. ii, 11, BouiU, i, 64, Clarac
pl, 266. This centaur corresponds to the older one of the two centaurs
of Aristeas and Papias, §, 203, R, 1,

DIONYSIAN CYCLE. THIASOS OF DIONYSUS. 607
Centaurs at the marriage of Peirithous (picture by Hippys, Athen.
xi, 474.) on the Theseion, Parthenon, at Phigalia §. 118. 119. Vase-
painting Hancarv. iii, 81. Tischb. i, 11. MiUingen Cogh. 35. 40. Div. 8.
(The slaying of Cseneus, comp. §. 119. R. 3.). Pitt. Bro. i, 2. M. Borb. v,
4. (Cseneus chastising Burytion, in like manner as in the temple of
Olympia §. 119. R. 2.) Combats with Hercules §. 410.
4. Chiron as Rhizotomos ou Mount Pelion G. M. 153, 564. With
Peleus and AchiUes §. 413. — Battle of panthers and centaurs §. 322. R.
4. Fight with Uons, wall-painting M. Borb. iU, 61. [Chiron's school, on
a gem of later times.]

a. THE THIASOS OF DIONYSUS IN OENBKAL.
390. The Dionysian routs and processions, composed of all 1
these figures in ancient works of art, must certainly be con
sidered from very different points of view: partly as pure oc- 2
currences of fancy, somewhat as the Msenads, at the trieteric
festival on Mount Parnassus, thought they descried the satyrs
and heard their music, — as ideal representations of Bacchian
ecstacyin all its gradations; and partlyas scenes from Dionysian 3
festivals, which were everywhere in Greece combined with a
variety of mummeries, especially representations of Dionysus
and his thiasotes, which were got up with the most unbounded
luxury at the Macedonian courts, for example that of Alexan
dria. Art herein naturally adhered much less to the religious 4
rites and mystic representations conducted in the apartments
of temples, and of which very little can be indicated, than to
the far more favourable materials which the public pompa
and the riotous, drunken Comos afforded. While in reliefs, 5
the representation of the Dionysian pompa prevails, whereat
the god is borne in the chariot, and Comedy perhaps, or at
least her masks ride behind in a cart ; we see the Comos on 6
numberless vase-paintings, especially of the later sort, per
formed sometimes by youths in ordinary costume, with gar
lands and torches, and female flute-players, half walking, half
dancing ; but sometimes also the satyr-costume, consisting of
masks and sashes, is adopted, and one of the comastee in this
equipment is led and danced about as Dionysus. Lastly we. 7
also see the scurrse or phylakes at such processions, with their
fantastic masks, stuffed out, parti-coloured jackets and panta
loons, and phallic ensigns, travestying mythological scenes
in regular stage-representation, Avhereby the whole form of
earliest comedy is presented clearly to view. Masks, however, 8
are not always indications of the drama, when they occur in
Bacchian sculptures; they are often evidently objects of wor
ship, abbreviated representations, as it were, of the god and

608 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
all his attendants, and with the mystic cist«, which were
regarded with a secret awe, the most significant utensils of
the worship.
2. Macr. §. i, 18. Such representations in reliefs, on several urns,
such as the splendid Borghese one L. 711. V. Borgh. 2, 10. Bouill. i, 76.
Clarac pl. 131. (on the correct disposition Welcker Ann. d. Inst. v. p.
159.) ; PCI. iv, 19 sqq., also 29. (according to Zoega images of growing
love clothed in Bacchian dress) ; Cap. iv, 58. ; M. Borb. iii, 40. ; vii, 24. ;
Zoega 83. 84. ; Brit. M. i, 7. Satyrs with Curetes dance together, Ger
hard a. Bildw. Tf 106, 4. [Tympanistria with two satyrs with double
flute and panther Spec, ii, 25.]
3. 0/ xyovreg {rov A.) 'evl riig xpix^ng lid piiang riig dyoqxg otvapcevov,
Ath, X, 428 e. "il(77!-eq Aiovvaioioiv oiim rav i,v7\av, Hermippus in the Schol,
Aristoph, Birds 1563, comp, §, 383, R. 7, A boat placed on a car, in
it the old D, with female flute-players and satyrs, Panofka Vasi di
premio 4 b. At the pompa of Ptolemy the Second (§, 147, R, 3,) were to
be seen Sileni, satyrs in great number, the Eniautos, the Penteteris,
Horse, Dionysus under an arbour or axixg (as at Athens also, Photius s.
V,) Mimallones, Bassaras, Lydse, Nysa, Semele's bridal chamber, nymphs,
Hermes, Dionysus on an elephant as conqueror of India with a Satyriscos
as the animal's leader, Dionysus' warUke expedition, female Indians,
jEthiopian tribute-bringers, then D. protected by Rhea against Hera,
Priapus beside him, and so forth. Comp, Schwarz on a Bacchian pompa,
Opusoula p, 95. A beautiful slave represents D. at Athens, Plut, Nic. 3,
Bacchus with Erotes as vine-dressers. Pan with canobus pitcher ?, Gerh.
Bildw. pl, 88, 1, Bacchanal from a sarcophagus at Sparta pl, 106, 1.
Bringing home of the wine-skin on poles pl. 107. Bacchian comos, very
fine, from a circular ara in the Vatican pl, 108, 1. Bacchian symposium,
children present, from V. Pamfili pl, 108, 2, Great Bacchanal from the
Gentili palace, is it ancient? pl, 110, 1, Farnesian sarcophagus at Na
ples, D, drawn by centaurs, Hercules, Pan, Bros, Phallophoria, pl, 112, 1,
Sarcophagus from the market place of Bolsena, wild Bacchanal, Ariadne
asleep, Hercules drunk, a phallus peeping out from the cista, pl, 112, 2. 3.
4, Initiation of a child into the Bacchian reXerxi, adoption as a
¦:rxig dtp' ear'ixg (at Eleusis C, I. 393,), perhaps represented in the vase-
painting, Gerh. Ant, BUdw. 51. Welcker SyU. Bpigr, Gr. p. 86. Bacchian
sacrifices, especiaUy of goats, on gems, M. Flor. i, 89, 9. Eural sacrifices
of goats to D.-Phales, Pitt, di Ere. iv, 45 sqq. M. Borb. vui, 18.
5. See PCI. iv, 22. v. 7. (with Comedy in the cart, comp. however,
Gerhard, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 152.) ; Cap. iv. 47. 63. ; Cavaceppi Race.
ii, 58. (in Lord Lansdowne's), Woburn Marb. 12. M. Chiaram. i, 35.
Gerh, Vatic, s, 84. Brit. Mus. i, 39. formerly in Villa Montalto, Admirand.
tab. 84 sq. [Frieze of a marble sarcophagus, four pieces in Caylus iii. pl.
66 — 69. Chariot with D. and Ariadne, cart with Silenus, with masks,
camels, elephants, sports.] On the bells with which Bacchantes are often
entirely hung (PCI. iv, 20. Cap. iv, 49.), see among others CatuU. 64, 262.
— The greater Bacchanals on gems are mostly modern workmanship, as le
cachet de Michel-Ange (Mariette ii, 47. Lipp. i, 360. Hist, de I'Ac. des
Inscr. i. p. 270.) probably by Maria da Pescia; of a similar kind is the

CYCLE OF EROS. 509
relief L. 763. Clarac pl. 138. The wine-skin dance of the Askolia on
gems, Raponi tv. 11. 14. Tassie pl. 29, 4867. KShler Descr. d'un camee
du Cab. Farnese 1810. Omophagia, a Bacchian telete, on a vase M. Blacas
pl. 13 — 15, the altar is placed in the middle, D, tears asunder the goat,
dyqevav xipix rqxyoxrovov, apioipdyov ;<;«{(>, the others fiUed with holy
dread flee away from the altar. Bacchian dance around an altar Impr.
d. I. iv, 61. ; opening of the cista mystica iv, 47.
6. ¥i.api.d(^ovreg Tischb. i, 50. ii, 41. iii, 17. iv, 33. MiUin i, 17. 27. ii,
42. Laborde i, 32. The Volcian vases describe these komastse more
closely as Yiapi,xqxog, TsTinj (comp. Phanes, Paus. ii, 7, 6.), ' E7'.ilnpt,o;
(comp. Androdamas, Paus. ibid). Bacchian convivia, Winck. M, I, 200,
MUlin i, 38. Bottiger JHhrenlese 38, Crowning of the best drinker
Tischb, u, 33, Costuming as satyrs Tischb. i, 37. 39. 40. 41. MilUn u,
17. Gerh. A Bildw. Tf. 72. comp. Dionys. Hal. vii, 72. D. taking part in
the procession Tischb. i, 36. ; (on an ass) ii, 42. D. enthroned, satyrs and
Bacchaj dancing around him, Tischb. u, 46. Maisonn. 22. (§. 388. R. 5.)
Dionysian dvrqov, Tischb. i, 32. comp. Porphyr. de antro Nymph. 20.
Creuzer Symb. Tf 8. (where tbe hare is to be interpreted as an Aphro
disian animal) Love of D. and Ariadne, the subject of a Syracusan ballet
in Xenophon's Symposion 9.
7. One of these phylakes as a Bacchian canephoros, Tischb. i, 41.
Representation of Zeus with Alcmene §. 351. R. 5., of Dsedalus and Ares
§. 367. R. 3., of Procrustes, MiUingen Div. 46., of Taras or Orion, Tischb.
iv, 67., of Hercules and the Cercopes §. 411. comp. Bottiger, Ideen zur
Archaol. s. 190 ff. Grysar de Dor. Comoedia p. 45 sqq. These histriones
are also called gerrones, a name which they probably got from their phalli,
yippx Na^ja in Epicharmus (Schafer Appar. in Demosth. v. p. 579.).
8. The richest coUection of Bacchian utensils and masks is furnished
by the so-called Coupe des Ptolemees §, 315, R, 5. G, M, 273, Clarac pl.
127, Masks, tragic and satyric, lying on altars, on the silver goblet of
Bologna, M, I, d, Inst, 46. Ann. iv. p. 304. comp. §. 345.* R. 3. Masks
of extraordinary beauty on large craters §. 298, R. 2, 1, Zoega Bass, 17,
Impr, d. I. iii, 67. 58, Cistse, plen« tacita formidine (Valor, FI. u, 267.),
especially on the kistophori, comp, Stieglitz Arch. Unterh. ii. s. 197,
Bacchian symbols, van, goat's head, phallus, bas-relief Gerhard, Bildw,
pL HI, 1,

2. CYCLE OF EKOS.

391. Although Eros was represented in temple-statues as I
a boy of developed beauty and tender grace of mien (§. 127,
3.), and this mode of representation prevails throughout in the
diff'erent statues of the god still extant; a more modern art 2
however, which was allied to the toying poetry of later Ana-
creontica and the epigrammatic sports of the Anthology, pre
ferred the childish form for such purposes. In the imitations 3
of a distinguished original, he is presented as a slender, unde
veloped boy, full of liveliness and activity, earnestly endea
vouring to fasten the strings to his bow; he is everywhere to 4

510 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
be met with in a similar figure in vase-paintings, to denote the
5 amatory relation. In the shape of a blooming child, but never
disagreeably soft in configuration, Eros and more frequently
Erotes are to be seen, in numberless reliefs and gems, drag
ging forth and breaking in pieces the insignia of all the gods,
caressingly subduing the wildest brutes, and converting them
into riding or draught animals, boldly and wantonly roving
about among sea-inonsters, and playfully mimicking every pos
sible occupation of man, whereby art at length degenerates
6 into a sport and completely surrenders all significance : an im
mense number of sculptures, which were still more increased
from the circumstance that real children ialso were wont to
7 figure as Erotes. Pothos and Himeeos were represented in
8 similar figures, and ingeniously grouped with Eros. Still more
significantly was Eros placed beside Akteeos, a daemon who
9 enjoins reciprocal and avenges slighted love; then in a very
numerous and important class of sculptures (which probably
belong to an allegorical fable, derived, if we judge by its first
beginnings, from Orphean mysteries) with Psyche, the soul,
who appears as a virgin with butterfly- wings, or abbreviated,
as it were, in the form of a butterfiy. This fable seems to
be represented by works of art in a more original and ingenious
manner, as regards its main features, than in the story of
Appuleius, which is spun out into a Milesian nursery tale; as
indeed the idea is not otherwise a stranger to them of an
Eros who trains up the soul to a higher blessedness, and guides
it through life and death.
1. [Propert. ii, 12. Quicunque ille fuit, puerum qui pinxit Amorem,
&c. Bubulus in Athen. xiii. p. 562. Who first gave wings to Bros, see
Rhein. Mus. 1839. vi, p. 585, Gerhard Fliigelgestalten, p. 6.] The Amor
at Naples and the torso of OentoceUe §. 127. R. 3. comp. Gerhard, Beschr,
Eoms ii, ii. s, 167. The so-called genius V. Borgh, 9, 11, BouiU. iii, 10,
2. comp. Winck. (who esteemed it too highly) W. iv. 81. 141. also an
Bros. Is not Ukewise the so-called Adonis (Apollo) ? PCI. ii, 32. M. Frang.
iii, 3. BouiU. ii, 12. [Ann. d. I, xvii, p, 348,] — The wings, which he had
even received before Anacreon (Fr. 107. Voss Mythol. Br, II, iv,), are
an essential requisite in Bros, An Eros with dolphin and flower in his
hands, PaUadas Anth, ed, Jacobs ii, p, 688,
2, A copious survey of such playful productions is given by Klotz
Ueber den Nutzen u, s. w,, s. 198. Clarac pl. 641 — 651. According to epi
grams in the Anthology, Heyne Commentatt. Soc. Gott. x. p. 92. Alci
biades had an Bros hurling a thunderbolt on his shield, Athen. xii, 534.
— A winged head of the infant Eros on coins of Antiochus the Seventh.
Mionnet Descr. v. p. 75. SimUar on coins of the gens Bgnatia.
3. Eros bonding tbe bow, M. Cap. ui, 24. Nap. i, 63. BouiU. i, 19.
Frang. ii, 7. Winck. W. vi, 6. ; G. Giust. 27-28. ; M, Worsl, I. iu, 13, ;
BouiU, iU, 11, 1, 3 ; in St, Petersburg Clarac pl, 646,1471; Demidoffcol-

CYCLE OP EROS. 511
lection pl. 650 no, 1491; Pembroke pl, 650, 1495, After Lysippus?
Quite different the statue St, di S, Marco ii, 21,, Clarac pl, 651, 1481,
4. In vase-paintings we see Eros with a lekythos, for example drop
ping grace upon Io {Xdqireg yXvxv %ivxv 'ixxiov Brunck Anab L p, 480,),
Millingen Cogh, 46, comp, Div, 42., more usually with a tsenia as the
badge of a xxXag, §. 340, R. 4, (Mystery-fillet according to Gerh. Ant,
Bildw, 65, 3, 4.), also with the hoop, xqixog, rqoxk, and stick as a child's
playthings, for instance on the vase §. 363. R. 2. R. Rochette M. I. pi.
44, 1. (Uke Ganymedes, Maisonn. 30.) ; often also with the lyre. [B.
loosens the bonds of Andromeda, winged, vexvixg li itxq S ei'a^e, Philostr.
i, 29.] 5. Sports of Erotes, ^xi^ovreg "EjiaTSf Xenoph. Eph. i, 10. With in
signia of the gods M. Cap. iv, 30. (Anthol. Plan. 214 sq.) Dashing the
thunderbolt of Zeus in pieces. Gems, Wicar iv, 48. With the sceptre of
Zeus and sword of Ares, a beautiful relief in S, Maria de' MiraooU at Ve
nice, besides in Ravenna, Comp, §. 356. R. 5. (Throne of Poseidon),
395. R. 1. (of Cronos), 369. R. 6. (of Aphrodite), 410. R. 7. (Hercules).
Eros on a goat, like the infant Zeus, coins of the gens Ponteia. Amor
entwined with a dolphin, M. Borb. no. 428., Clarac pl. 646, 1468. sleeping
on a dolphin (Melicertes) pl. 647, without wings, A. as Hercules at Vienna
pl. 647, 1480 [muffled up, with the club of Hercules, perhaps the infant
Hermes, who has stolen it?], as a captive in the Vatican, pl. 648, 1481.
Taming the lion by playing on the harp, a gem with the name of Protar-
chus, G. di Fir. Gemme 2, 1. ; with the name of Tryphon, Jonge Notice p.
148. Comp. the coins of Tomi M. I. d. Inst. 57. B. 9. Arcesilaus' mar
morea lesena aUgerique ludentes cum ea Cupidines, PUn. ; in Dresden
272. Aug. 73. Sports Impr. d. I. iv, 25 — 36. Erotes sporting with a
little dog, a fine work, Descr. de Moree iii. pl. 49. Different representa-.
tions Gerh. A. BUdw. i, 88 — 92. Erotes binding lions in a rocky region,
mosaic M. Borb. vii, 61., partly corresponding to the M. Cap. iv, 19.
Eros on an eagle, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 47. B. in the purple shell, MiUin, M,
I, u, 18, comp, §, 378, R. 2. ; on hippocampi, M. Kirker, ii, 13. Bros with
the trident on a dolphin, figure in a picture, Zahn Wandgem. 8. comp. §,
378. R. 2, Bacchian Erotes, PCI. v, 13, comp, §, 206. R. 2. Bacchian
Bros with large scyphos on a lion, a mosaic, M. Borb. vi, 62. On a cen
taur §, 389, R, 3, B, coming from the banquet, another as lamp- and a
third as torch-bearer {d7!-oxexv0dg uaTreq Xvxvo(poqav, Aristoph, Lys. 1003.),
a gem, Winck. M. I. 33, comp, Christie. Paint. Vas. 3, Erotes dancing
with cups and the Uke, Pitt. Ere. iii. 34. 35. B. rooked by Jlxilid,
vase-painting BuU. d, Inst. 1829. p, 78, 'E. ¦a-xi^av 'Trqoaa'n-eiov ' HqxxT^iovg
nrdpi.pi.iyx jj Tirxvog nreqixeipi-evog, Lucian, this latter perhaps M, Cap. iii,
40. A similar one often on gems. Erotes and Psyche represent the
bringing home of Hector's body, relief, L, 429, BouUl. iu, 45, 3, Clarac
pl, 190, E. as Ganymedes' conqueror at the game of astragals, ApoUon.
Rh. ui. 111. Philostr. the younger 8,, in a statue at Berlin, Hirt s, 219,
Levezow Amalth. i. s. 175, [two other groups ibid, s, 182 i. 189 f ], accord
ing to Hirt also Aug, 72. Erotes as fruit-gatherers, PhUostr. i, 6, in in
geniously composed reUefs, G. Giust. ii, 128. Zoega 90. Bouill. iii, 46.,
and gems, Welcker ad Philostr. p. 238. As artisans, Pitt. Bro. i, 34 —
36. Hunting, Pitt. Bro. i, 37. ii, 43. v, 59. ; reliefs, BouiU. ui, 46. Espe
cially hares and rabbits as Aphrodisian animals, vase-paint. Gerh. Ant.

512 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Bildw. 56. R. Rochette M. I. pl. 42, 1. comp. Philostr. i, 6. p. 12. E.
holding a hare, on coins of Cyzicus, M. I. d. Inst. 67. B 5. Ann. v. p. 272,
Eros riding on a roe-buck, vase from Athens, Staokelb. Tf 28. [going to se
duce a maiden or undress the bride, cylix ibid, Tf 31, Eros does not cer
tainly embrace the knee of Aphrodite,] Contending in the circus, PCI, v,
38—40,; Cap. iv, 48.; G, Giust. ii, 109,; M, Borb. viu, 28,; L, 449. 463.
BouiU. iii, 46. Clarac. pl. 190, comp. Spart. ,^1. Ver, 6. and the agones §, 406.
Driving with gazeUes, camels, wUd-boars, relief L. 226, 332, Clarac pl, 162.
With lions, panthers, swans and the Uke, wall-paint, M, Borb, vii, 5. comp.
viii, 48. 49. Zoega speaks with perfect justice against the appeUation of
genii for such winged boys, Bass. ii. p. 184. A nest of Erotes §. 210. R.
6. " Who wUl buy gods of love (Gothe) " Pitt. Bro. iii, 7. Neapel's Ant.
s. 426. B. shut out from the door of his lover and ill-treated, Millin P.
gr. 62. Stackelb. Gr. Tf 30, M. Pourt. pl. 33. Erotes coming out of
cages, lekytbion, formerly in the possession of Fauvrl; according to
Stackelb. basket work to present to Adonis. [Sale of Erotes Zahn Pomp.
Wandgem, u, 18, 24. 0. Jahn Arch. Beitr, s. 211,]
6. See Suet. CaUg, 7. To this class probably belong the sleeping Ero
tes, for instance the one on the lion's hide, with his weapons laid aside,
the lizard, [field-rat,] also butterfiies, and poppy-heads, PCI. iii, 44. ; Race.
151; Bouill. iii, 11, 2.; G. di Fir. St. 63—66.; Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 77, 2.
[Stat, di S, Marco ii, 30,'? Clarac pl, 761. 761 B, 762,]
7. B,, Pothos and Himeros by Scopas §, 126, 3. Himeros with a wreath
in Bacchian accompaniment, Maisonn, 22,, and Pothos ingeniously repre
sented as a fiute-player, Tischb. ii, 44. Himeros with a tsenia, and two
Erotes, with wreath and rabbit, flying over the sea, vase -paint, from
Volci, M, I, d, Inst, 8, [0. Jahn Peitho, die Gottin der Ueberredung.
Greifswald 1846.]
8. B. with A nteros (the former with golden and the latter with black
locks according to Eunap. Iambi, p, 16, Boiss,) contending for the palm,
Paus, vi, 23, 4, in the relief in Naples Hirt 31, 3,, [M, Borb, xiv, 34, simi
lar on one in the Colonna palace, E, Braun A. Marmorwerke ii, 5. 5a.] often
in gems, for example Impr. d. Inst, ii, 54., where there is a Nike present
(two Nikse and eighteen Erotes at TraUes, Class. Journ. iv. p. 88.). B. or
Anteros with a career for combat, Tassie 6962 ff., beside a gymnastic
herma, M. Worsl. u, 7. Comp. Bottiger before the ALZ, 1803. iv., Schneider
and Passow in the Lexicon. B. beside Aphrodite §. 376. 377., with Silenus
386. R. 3., fighting with Pan, Welcker Zeitschr. s. 476. Eros exhausted
seizing the garland. Anteros ? supports the more tender boy, a charm
ing relief Stackelb. gr. Tf i, 1. [R. Rochette M. I. pl, 42, A. 2. B. and
Anteros, both resting mournfully on their torches and holding a butterfiy,
in reference to the ceremony of a pair at an altar.]
9. Fable of Amor and Psyche, a Platonic mythus, according to Baum-
garten Crusius, Programm der Meissner Schule. Archaologische Beilage
von Bottiger (nothing new). [0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 121 — 97. on
Eros and Psyche, Psyche as ti'la'hou, as ^'"X^ butterfly, and maiden with
butterfly-wings, and in both forms placed in relation to Amor p, 137
sqq. ; the story of Appuleius not in works of art p. 127, only in some few
monuments p. 196. The group of the embracing p. 161 sqq. the same on

CYCLE OF EROS. ARIADNE. 613
articles of furniture, ornaments, rings, especiaUy sarcophagi p. 163 sqq.
Nuptials p. 173 sq. Eros as tormentor p. 177, Amor and Pysche as masks
representing other myths p. 192 sqq. Psyche lying on the ground, and
trampled on by an Amor, group in the Lateran.] The basis of the fable
of Bros and Psyche is doubtless the Orphean idea that the body is the
prison of the soul, that the soul passes its life here on earth in the remi
niscence of a bUssful union with Bros in former ..Slones, but banished from
him and fuU of fruitless longing tiU death again unites them. (Ocnos
with the lame ass in the lower world, Appul. vi. p. 130. also points at
mysteries §. 397.). Here it is not necessary to assume an antagonism
between two hostile Erotes ; the same E. appears giving pain and bliss ;
Pausias already characterized the milder nature by the lyre instead of
the bow, Paus. ii, 27, 3. It is only when Psyche is tormented or purified
that two corresponding Erotes are introduced, for the Erotes, as well as
the gay sports, can be multiplied also as tormenting spirits. Comp.
Thorlacius Prolus. i, 20. .Hirt Schriften der Berl. Acad. 1812. s. 1. Lange
Schriften i. s. 131. The works of art which do not begin tiU the Eoman
peiiod (§. 206, 3.), exhibit in long series Psyche maltreated by Eros,
singed as a butterfiy, condemned to toilsome labour, caught in a caltrop
(Tassie pl. 42, 7170.), burned by one Amor with his torch, scalded with
boUing oU by another in a wall-painting, HaU. L. Z. 1835. Intell. s. 478.
[Archaol. Int. Bl. s. 73 f], drawing water from the Styx, in Stygian sleep
(Hirt 32, 6.), roused from it by Bros with music, furnished with wings
by Hermes Psychopompus and the fettered Bros, reconciled with Aphro
dite, at the marriage-feast and bridal torus (Gem by Tryphon, Marlbor.
i, 50.), sarcoph. Brit. Mus. v, 9. embraced by E. in the very ingeniously con
ceived and exoeUently disposed group (M. Cap. iii, 22. Frang. i, 4. Bouill.
i, 32. ;' Flor. 43. 44. Wicar u, 13. ; in Dresden 218. 254. Aug. 64. 65. [Clarac
pl. 652. ; London 653 ; in tbe possession of Count Eeventlow at Emken-
dorf ], comp. Tassie pl. 43, 7181.). See Hirt ibid, and Book of plates Tf 32.
Creuzer Abbild. zur Symb. s. 24 ff. Ps. kneeling beside B., a group L. 496.
V. Borgh. 9, 9. BouiU. iii, 10, 6. Clarac pl. 265. Ps. kneeUng L. 387. V.
Borgh. 3, 4. BouiU, ui, 11, 4, M, Boy. i, 13, Clarac pl. 331. ; in Florence (§,
126, E. 4,). [0, Jahn s, 178, Psyche holding back the fleeing Eros Mionnet
Suppl, V, 1, 3,] E. striking at the butterfiy (joueur de baUon), BouiU. iii,
10, 6, (from it may be also perhaps restored a torso at Vienna) ; perhaps
also Eacc. 40 Orti Medicei ; Gems Impr. d. Inst, ii, 46. comp, 55. Tassie
pl. 43, 7064, Amor playing with a butterfly, in Eome in the possession of
Vescovali, pecuUar, Clarac pl, 647, 1473. Amor weeps over the butterfly,
Impr, d, Inst, iv, 32, A, and Psyche iv, 34. Marriage iv, 35, E, plough
ing with butterflies, Tassie pl, 43, 7132,, in a car drawn by butterflies
(Gori Gemmse astr. i, 122,), as Aphr, and B, are elsewhere by Psyches, M.
Borb. iv, 39. Tassie pl, 36, 3116, Ariadne [formerly Aphrodite accord
ing to the same gem] drawn by Psyches, M. Flor. i, 93, 2, Wicar ii, 12.
M. Borb. iv, 39. Psyche among those who take part in the Bacchian
procession, a sarcophagus-relief, see Hall, ALZ, 1833. Intell, No, 6. comp,
§. 397. E, 2. Psyche-Nemesis §, 398. [Promethean sarcophagus §, 396.
E, 3. Psyche as eidolon §, 397, R, 3,]
Eros sails across to Elysium on his quiver or the funereal urn as a ship,
Christie Paint. Vas. 7. Lipp. Suppl. 439. Tassie pl. 42., perhaps too Ana-
creonticaUy understood Amalth. iii. s. 182. Bros as death-genius Clarac
2K

514 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
pl, 495. no, 964 from Mus. Chiaram. The heavenly Bros as a flute-player
(often on gems) on the Mon, MarcelUnas ed. C, Patin, Patav, 1688. 4to, as
weU as G. Giust, u, 107, Zoega Abhandl, Tf. 4, 12. B.-Horus §. 408.
Monument from Smyrna, Maffei M. Veron, xlvii, 5.
I 392. We place in connexion with Eros the deities who
have reference to union of the sexes and married life, as Hy-
MEN,fflus, who appears as a more serious and larger Eros, and
is at the same time related to Comus, the leader of the joy-
2 ous festal throng. A favourite subject of later art, when it
became effeminate and luxurious, was Heemapheoditus — who
on the whole is not to be here understood as a natural sym
bol, but as an artistic creation of fancy, although there were
even religious idols of him — in famous works of art now stretch
ing himself restlessly in sleep, now standing and astonished at
his own enigmatical nature, now fanned while asleep by Erotes,
or pryingly watched by wondering Pans and Satyrs, also in
bold symplegma with a satyr who has mistaken him for a
3 nymph and laid hands on him. The Chaeites, as social deities
allied to Aphrodite, were sculptured in earlier times in ornate
form, then slightly draped or usually altogether unrobed; they
are characterized by the joining of hands or mutual embracing.
4 Bileithyia figures at births as a helping figure, however there
is no established form of this deity known.
1. Hyrreenoeus at Ares' adultery, in the reliefs §. 377. R. 2. At the
marriage of Ariadne §. 384. R. 3. Perhaps also the Eros-like youth along
with Paris §. 378. R. 4. Hym. in a bronze figure with roses round the
nook and torch in his right hand, from Sardis, BuU. d. Inst. 1832. p. 170.
[At processions also on gems,] Comus, a night-piece in Philostr. i, 2,
(for the explanation Pers, v, 177,), also i, 25. According to Zoega also
Bass, 92, comp, Hirt s, 224. Welcker opposed to this ad Philostr. p, 202
—215. Above §, 385, R, '6.'v.
2, Polycles' Hermaphrodite §, 128, 2. Heinrich Comm, de Herma-
phroditis, Hamb. ,1805, Bottiger Amalth, i. s. 352, [Clarac pl, 666 A,
667 — 72,] Lying statues, on a lion's hide, M. Flor, iu, 40, Wicar ii, 49.
(so also on lamps, Bartoli Lucernse i, 8, Passeri i, 8,, where others see
Night or Omphale ; also in a silver-work from Bernay) ; on cushions by
Bernini L. 527, Race, 78, V, Borgh, 6, 7. Piranesi St, 14, BouiU. i, 63.
Clarac pl. 303, ; on an antique matelas L. 461, M, Prang, iv, 4, Bouill.
iii, 15, Clarac pl, 303, Standing H. (Christodorus 102.), Museos del Car
denal Despuig en Mallorca p. 82. no. 16. 5^ palms high, similar to one
in V. Albani p. 119., beautiful torso in V. Pamfili; with a cloth around
the head, statue in BerUn 111. Caylus iu, 28—30. Kunstbl. 1824. No.
77. With a cloth falling over the head, a fan in bis left hand, Zahn
Ornam. 100. Similar in the remarkable relief of the Colonna pal., Gerh.
Ant. Bildw. 42. 1. A standing H. from Pompeii with satyr-ears. Neap.
Bildw. s. 118. (An Bin^dos carrying a kekryphalos, Lucian de mere.
cond. 33.). Osann. Amalth. i. s. 342. One also in Hope's, herma Brit.
Mus. X, 30. Sitting, on gems, Tassie pl. 31. 2609. Impr. d. Inst, ii.

THE MUSES. 515
26. Wicar ii, 24., simUar to Ariadne surprised while asleep, Welcker ad
Philostr. p. 297, See also Zoega Bass. 72. ; Pitt. Ere, v, 32—34, H,
bound to a tree, Guatt, M, I, 1785. p, Ixix, Symplegma §, 385, R, 4, f ;
an Hermaphrodite of this description in Venice. An H,, lynxes at his
breasts (like the Msenads §. 388, R, 4,), in the BlundeU collection. H,
guiding a grifiin and panther, Bros in advance, Tischb, iii, 21. Eros as
Hermaphrodite often on ApuUan and Lucanian vases. Hermaphrodite ?
from Bernay, Ann. vi. p, 249 sqq,
3. Ou the drapery of the Charites §, 336, R, 7, EarUer representa
tions §. 96. Nos. 21. 22. comp. §. 359. R. 5. In light drapery (solutis zonis
Mitscherlich ad Horat. C. i, 30, 5,) in a picture according to Ogle, Gemmse
p, 167. The Xxqirsg dipxqstg (Euphorion Frgm. 66, Meineke) in statues
L. 470. V. Borgh. 4, 14, BouiU. i, 22. Clarac pl, 301.; in the Vatican,
Guattani Mem. v. p. 113. Beschr. Roms ii, ii, s. 97. [The RuspoU group
now in the Vatican in the magazines, that at Siena in a room in the
sacristy of the cathedral. At Cyzicus in very early times §. 370. R. 7.]
Wall-painting in Catania M. d. I. ii, 47. B. Braun. Ann, ix, p. 177, Pitt,
Ere, iii, 11, [M. Borb. viu, 3,] They are often to be found so on votive
tablets as a mere personification of thanks, §, 394, Forcellini Lex, s, v.
GratisB. Often on gems. M. Worsl. ii, 5. (Aglaia with the hat of Hephses
tus). As goddesses of the year with poppy, fiowers, and ears of corn, on
a cameo in Russia, Kohler Descr. d'un Camee 1810. pl. 1. (comp. M.
Borb. viii, 3.). Tho Charites under Hera, Athena and Tyche, ibid. pl. 2.
comp. §. 399. R. 2.
4. BUeitbyia at the birth of Athena §. 371. R. . 2., of Dionysus §. 384.
R. 2. On her knees delivering, statue from Myconus ? M. I. d. Intt. 44.,
according to Welcker in Hooker's Annalen xxvii. s. 132. [not EUeithyia
but Leto]. The figure with naked bosom, holding a torch, approaching,
from V. Albani in Clarac pl. 416. no. 719. 719 A. is perhaps Bileithyia,
comp. M. Borb. v, 22. [Here the torch is a modern addition, and the
figure hastening on against the wind with a bow of the peplos over the
head is certainly not Bileithyia.] In .Slgion as a torch-bearer, according
to Paus. and coins. A Pharmacis hindering the birth, on a gem in Maffei,
§. 336. R. 5. Bottiger Ilithyia oder die Hexe. Frequent representations
in reliefs of a Seoi xovqorq6(pog, to whom children are consigned, such as
that of the Albani coUection §. 96. No. 19., that of Sigeum, Chois. Gouff.
Voy. Pitt, u, 38.

3. THE MUSES.

393. Early artists had contented themselves with repre
senting the MUSES as a triad, and distributing among them
the principal instruments of music; it was not until the more
modern ideal of Apollo Musagetes, in the garb of the Pythian,
musicians, was developed, that the number nine was estab-,
lished by several famous artists in regard to these virgins, who
were in like manner clad for the most part in theatrical dra
pery, with fine intellectual countenances, nicely distinguished

516 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
from one another by expression, attributes and sometimes
3 also by the attitude. There seem to have been especially two
main groups, independent of each other, as two principal
modes of representation can be distinguished in several figures,
such as we find them in statues, reliefs and pictures ; these, how
ever, were not so universally recognised, and the parts of the
individual muses, generally speaking, not so clearly defined,
but that numerous deviations might also occur in addition to
4 them. The plumes on the heads of the Muses are explained
from the victory over the Sieens, who were seldom formed as
altogether human, being for the most part represented as vir
gins, with the legs and wings of birds, sometimes also as birds
with virgins' heads, and furnished with different musical in
struments; on account of their reference to the lower world,
they were usually placed on sepulchral monuments.
1. Group of muses by 'Ageladas, Canachus, Aristocles with flute, lyre,
barbiton, according to Antipatros (Anth. Pal. Plan. 220.) representing
the diatonon, chroma and enharmonion. A muse with the sambuke in
Mitylene by Lesbothemis. Antique muses from Athens at Venice,
Thiersch, Epochen s. 135. ^«."-^' -" • 'tr
2. [Nine M. of Praxias in the tympanum of the Delphian temple],
muses of Lysippus [?, nine] of StrongyUon together with Cephisodotus
and Olympiosthenes (Paus.), of Philiscus (?) Plin. One of the principal
groups was that from Ambracia in the temple of Hercules Musageta, §.
180. R. 2. (perhaps b'y Polycles 01. 102.), the figures on which are all
known from the coins. Stieglitz N. fam. Rom. p. 66 sq. (where, however,
several figures do not seem to be correctly determined). Another the
muses in the porticus Metelli (Octavise), mentioned by Cicero ad fam. vii,
23. and Pliny xxxvi, 4, 10. [as by Philiscus]. Form of tho muses, Stieglitz
Beitr. s, 142. Little that is new on the coins of the gens Pomponia.
s, 163, [Beger Thes, Brandenb, p, 676,]
Statue-groups extant : 1, That from the viUa of Cassius at Tivoli,
found together with the ApoUo, §. 125, E, 4., and a Mnemosyne, but with
out the Euterpe and Urania, which have been added ; Visconti considers
it'to be a copy of the Muses of Philiscus, PCI. i, 17-27. M, Prang, i, 6-14.
BouiU. i, 34-42, Beschr. Eoms ii, ii, s. 213. 2, A similar series found in
1826 on Monte Calvo in the Sabine country, Gerhard, Hyp. Eom. Stud.
s, 148, [V, Borghese, room of the Muses,] 3, That of the Queen Christina
at Ildefonso. Eacc. 112 — 119,, all sitting like the sitting Muses in the
Vatican ; in Clarac, who gives pl, 497 — 538 many muses together with
supposed Mnemosynes, the Spanish muses after de Bossi. 4, The one at
Stockholm (from the time of Gustavus IIL), see Fredenheim §, 265. R.
2, Guattani M. I. 1784. Aug. sqq. 6. The so-called daughters of Lyco
medes §. 264. R. 1. [6. Apollo and the Muses in Worlitz, brought thither
about 1806. Sleep associated with the Muses, M. PioCl. i, 28. M. Napol.
i, 42. See however Zoega Bassir. ii. p. 212.] — Muses of the Gardens of
the Tuileries, much restored, Clarac pl. 362-354. Seven Muses with
names, vase from Nola, M. Blacas pl. 4, others also from Nola with three,
likewise with names, ibid. p. 18. [In the Terracottas of the Brit. Mus.
no. 1. 38. 40. 76. probably Muses.] Bight figures in Herculanean paint-

THE MUSES, POLYMNIA, MELPOMENE, EUTERPE, &o, 617
ings (Euterpe is wanting) with inscriptions below, Pitt, Ere, ii, 2-9.
Among reliefs, especially the celebrated one in the Colonna palace, now in
the Brit. Mus. (Cuper, Apotheosis Hom, 1683. Sohott, ExpUc. nouv. de
I'Apoth. d'Hom, 1714. PCI. i. tv, B,), which represents Homer receiving
divine honours under the sanction of Zeus, Apollo Pythios and all the
Muses. [G. M. pl, 148, Hirt Tf 28, Bull, 1844, p. 199 sqq. Three Muses
with Helen and Paris in the bas-relief of Jenkins G, M, 551,] Then the
sarcophagi, PCI, iv, 14, (Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 127,, others s. 123. 140.) ;
Cap. iv, 26. PCI. i. tv, B, (now in the L. 307. BouiU. i, 77, Clarac pl.
205.) ; Cap. iv. p, 127 vign, ; Mon. Matth. in, 16. 49, 1. 2. ; G. Giust. ii,
90. 114. 140. ; Montfaucon i, 60, 1. 2. ; Bouill. iii, 40. ; G. M. 64. (Brit.
Mus.) ; Cavac, Race, ii, 58. (Lansdowne) ; Woburn Marb. 6. ; one also in
Vienna. Boys representing the muses, on the sarcophagus PCI. iv, 15.
G. M. 76. Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 244. [One in Berlin and one in Naples,
Archaol. Zeit. i. Tf 6. 7. s. 129. 298 f 302. Two sides of a sarcophagus
in the garden of the V. Borghese, Meyer in Winck. v. s. 613 f and num
berless others.] Single statues in Bouill. iii, 11, 12.
3. Polymnia, standing, wraps her right arm in her mantle, in the
Ambracian group, as in the PCI. i., Guatt, ; on other occasions she leans
her elbow on the rocks while she holds her drapery in the same manner,
as m the L. 306. (V. Borgh. 7, 12. BouUl, ui, 12, 5, M. Roy. i, 2, Clarac
pl. 327.), in BerUn, the apoth. of Homer, PCI. iv. Cap. iv. (Meyer Tf 12.
B-.) and elsewhere ; she is also to be found sitting, in the same drapery, in
the Tuileries. Clarac pl. 329. [Polyhymnia from Thebes, Brit. Mus. ix,
4.] Melpomene stood at Ambracia in an expanded attitude with club in
the right, mask in the left hand in like manner as in the grand colossal
statue L. 348. Bouill. i, 43. M. Frang. iv, 2. (the size is stiU more magni
fied by the high-placed broad girdle, pixaxxXmrnq, and the long folds of
the drapery), and PCI. ii, 26., also PCI. iv. Ant. Ere. ; but without plant
ing the foot high, as PCI. i., Guatt. Cap. iv. The head-dress Syxog (Pol
lux iv, 133. Winck. M. I. ii. p. 250.) is to be seen PCI. iv. and on the
busts vi. 10. Melpomene in armour G. Giust., Montf. i, 61., Cap. p. 127.
Euterpe is seen with flutes sitting, standing, at Ambracia leaning ; but
also dancing (in Guatt. much as in the apoth. of Homer.) The But.
Borghese, BouiU. i, 44. M. Eoy. i, 4., is one adorans; M. Roy. i, 10. 12.
very doubtful. [A fine Euterpe with two flutes in the cabinet of Antiq.
at Vienna.] Thalia (statue ? Brit. M. iii, 5, Statue M. Borb, viii, 30.)
appears in a widely deviating form as a Bacchante, half-naked, on gems,
Agostini u, 8. Montf 61. MUlin P. gr. 9. Lipp. iii, 305. M. Flor. i, 44, 1.
2. 4. [Floating, both hands enveloped with socks, Pitt. d'Ercol. vii, 2.
Ternite Wandgem. (Wigand) i, 9.]
4. The Muses with plumes M. Cap. iv, p, 127, and elsewhere. Con
test of the Muses with the Sirens G, M. 63,; Winck. M. I. 46,; Gori
Inscr, iii. tb. 33. MiUingen Un. Mon. ii, 16. (sarcophagus in Florence).
— A Siren at Sophocles' tomb according to Vita Soph., where others saw
a x^Xeiav (or rather xnXnlav), also on that of Isocrates, Plut. V. Isocr.
PhUostr. V. Soph, i, 17., on Hephsestion's Pyre §. 161. R. 2, comp. Jacobs
Anim. Anthol. i. p. 187. On their reference to death and corruption R.
Roch, M, I, p, 283. Klausen Abenth, des Odyss. s. 47. On their form :
(Nicaise) Les Sirfenes. P. 1691. 4to. Schorn on Tischb. viii. Voss Anti-
symb. ii. (where undoubted Sirens are explained to be Harpies). Schorn.

618 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Kunstbl. 1824, N, 102. 103. Zweiter Jahresber, der Akad, s, 62, Lag-
landilre Ann, d, Inst, i p. 286. Sirens as birds with women's heads,
with Odysseus, in a vase-paint, from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 8. (similar stiU
in Pompeii), and elsewhere on vases, Tischb. i, 26. (with a tympanum),
also in a terracotta at BerUn. With bird-legs on gems, along with
Odysseus, G. M. 638. Tischb. Homer viu, 2. ; M. PourtalJs pl. 2. 23. 24. ;
Staokelb. Tf 16. The Comic poet AnaxUas calls Theano the hetaira a
plucked Siren with the legs of a throstle. S. with sword Impr. d. I. iii,
61., with torch and urn G. M. 312. Christie Paint. Vases 2. ; from a tomb,
tearing their hair, M. Worsl. i, 7., comp. L. 769. Clarac pl. 349. ; on coins
of the g. Petronia with flutes (MoreUi 1. comp. Spanheim De usu num. i.
p. 261.) ; in a wall-painting, flying upwards, with flutes, M, Borb, vii, 52.
As female forms, with Odysseus, on an Etr. sarcophagus Tischb. Homer
ii, 6. 'S.eiq'^v dqyvqx Athen. xi, 480., Sirens found in tombs in Ithaca as
golden ornaments, very elegantly wrought. Comp. §. 362. R. 4. Ann. d.
Inst. vi. p. 246. Sirens with four wings on an Etr. handle. Sirene Ligea
and Sirene Parthenope, on coins of Teriue and Naples, a female head, very
similar according to Bckhell.
The Keledones of the Loorian vase rest on a false reading ; at Delphi
they were birds, Comp, Amalth, i, s, 122, ii, s, 274,

4. DEITIES OF HEALTH.

I 394, -3SscuLAPius, a god in his worship, although merely a
hero in poetry, received the form prevailing in art especially
through Pyromachus in the Pergamenian temple (01. 130,).
It was that of a mature man of Zeus-like, but less sublime
countenance, with mild, benevolent expression, his copious hair
encircled with a fillet, standing in the attitude of one ready
to help, the himation taken about the left arm, round under
the breast, and drawn tight, and the staff' enwreathed with a
2 serpent in his right hand. Together with this, however, other
representations were preserved, even that of a youthful beard
less Jilsculapius, which had been the more usual one in early
3 times. With him were grouped Hygieia, a virgin of remark
ably blooming forms, who generally gives drink to a serpent
from a patera in her left hand, and Tblesphoeus, the little
muffled Daemon of hidden vital power.
1. Comp. CaUistratus 10. Retorto Pseonium in morem succinctus
. aniiotu, Virg. iEn. xii, 400. comp. Statius S. i, 4, 107. [Panofka Asklepios
u. die Asklepiaden B. 1846. in the Schr. of the Akad. with 8. pl. and Ueber
die HeUgotter (Dsemons and Heroes,) 1845 with 2 pl. The Epidaurian
. statue on coins of Argos, Streber Num. Munchner Akad. 1836.] Clarac pl.
545— 552.— Of Pyromachus' .lEscul. §. 157.* R. 1. The figure on a Per
gamenian coin of Aurel. Verus varies somewhat, Mionnet No. 591. ; the
drapery faUs further down, and the right hand grasps the staff like a scep
tre, not downwards but upwards. There was also at Pergamon an en
throned figure, like that of Epidaurus, Paus. ii, 27, 2., with the right hand

DEITIES OF HEALTH. 619
placed on the serpent's head. Statues (after the Pergamenian one) in
Florence, Galleria 27., exactly alike M. Cap. iii, 28., in the Magazine of the
L. Clarac pl. 346. ; similar Aug. i, 16., in Berlin Cavac. i, 34. Together
with Telesphorus [and behind him a smaU tablet and soroU, with reference
to the answers of the god] M. Frang. iii, 6. Bouill. iii, 12, 6. [Mus. Nap. i,
48.] More widely different in G. Fir. 26. comp. 22. The [Albani] statue L,
233, M. Frang, ii, 15, Nap. i, 46, BouiU, i, 47, is distinguished by the far-de
scending drapery, the large dragon at the feet and the turban-like covering
of the head {^sqiarqiov ?), which the busts S. Marco ii, 3. M. Worsl. 9, also
have. [Statue, standing, in Guattani 1784. Nov. tv. 2, ; one from Bpidau
ros, Brit. Mus, ix, 6. Visconti M. PioCl. vii. p, 97, on the palUolo, rica o
theristrion, of the Albani statue, the best, which is peculiar to surgeons ; ?
Hercules Bibax has it, for«ex. Spec, of anc, so. ii, 31,] Msa. terracotta re
sembling ZeuSj M, Borb, viii, 29. The Mso. of Thrasymedes copied on
coins of Bpidauros, Streber, Miinchner Denkschr. Philol, i. s. 160, Tf 2,
4. Mso. on coins of Tricca giving a bird to the serpent, Fontana tv. x,
11. Fine colossal bust L. 15. M. Nap. i, 47. Bouill. i, 71. Sublime oolos- 67 S
sal head of .^scul. found at Melos, Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 341. [in the Mus.
Blacas, see Cab. Pourtalfes p. 51.] A splendid head Descr. de la Moree
iii. pl. 29. On coins of Nicsea, Mionn. Bith. 226. Comp. Sprengel Gesch.
der Medicin i. s. 205. In a Pomp, picture M. Borb. ix, 47. ..Slscul. has
also beside him the omphalos (comp. §. 361. E. 6.), which is entwisted
with the weU-known net composed of areptpixrx {xiyileg rd ix rav arepi-
ixxrav lixrva Harpocr.) We see from this that this symbol of ApoUo
was also transferred to his son. On coins of the gens Eubria likewise,
MorelU i, 7. 8., it is not an egg (as is usually asserted) but the omphalos
(placed on a circular altar) that is encoiled by the Jilsculapian serpent.
The serpent of the genius loci winding itself round an omphalos (M. Borb.
ix, 20.) is another transference of the Pythian serpent to objects of Italian
worship. The advent of this .Slsoul. serpent on bronze coins max. mod.
of Antoninus,
2, So at Sicyon by Canaohus, in Gortys by Scopas, and in Phlius,
according to Paus, and the coins. Beautiful statue of the kind in Guatt.
Mem. vi. p, 137. [Mus. Chiaram. ii, 9. Clarac pl. 649, 1159; at Rome in
Vescovali's ibid. pl. 545, 1145.] A vase in BerUn presents jEsoulapius in
a youthful form beside Hygieia.
3. Beautiful statue of Hygieia in Hope's coUection, Spec. 26. [from
Ostia 1797.] Hyg. at Cassel, from Ostia, BouiU. i, 48. Welcker's Zeitschr.
s. 172. In the L. 84. M. Prang, i, 15. BouiU. ui, 13, 2. Hyg. Domitia,
according to Visconti, from Berlin, M, Roy, ii, 2, BouiU, ii, 57, ; G, di
Fir, 28, ; Bouill. iii, 13, 3, ; S, Marco n, 15, 16. [Clarac pl. 662—659, very
much that is erroneous. Hygieia lets the serpent drink from a crater,
Impr. d. I. iv. 19. 0. Jahn Beitr. s. 221.]
Tho same group of .lEsc, and Hyg, is to be found on imperial coins of
Samos (No, 267,) with, and of Odessa (230) without Telesphorus, Msc.
and Hyg, in relief, feeding large serpents in the L. 254, from V, Borgh,
BouiU. iu, 41, Clarac pl, 177, [M. PioCl. ii, 3, Clarac pl. 546, 1151 B, in
group.] Beautiful figures on the diptychon §. 312. R. 3. Similar in the
silver work Ant. Ere. v. p. 271. Mso. sitting, Hyg. standing M. Cap. iv,
41. Both as central point of the universe, on a gem, Guatt. M. I, 1787.

520 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
p. Ivii, Msc. lying, in a beautiful relief, St, di S. Marco ii, 17. Thanks of
the convalescent to Msc, expressed by the Graces, PCI. iv, 12. Suppli
cation of a family to Msc. and Hyg., votive-tablet, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s.
183. Simila-r Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 113, 4. Sacrifice to Hyg. M, Cap. iv, 42.
Often on gems, Tassie No, 4141 sqq. [.^sc. and Hyg. surrounded by the
zodiac, a corneUan, Guattani 1787. p. 56.] Telesphorus L, 610, BouiU. iii,
13, 1. Clarac pl. 334. Coronis, the mother of .iEsculapius, on coins of Per
gamon, a figure entirely veUed. Vaillant N. Impr. Gr. p. 301. On coins of
Bpidauros, in the time of CaracaUa (in Vienna), we see the infant jEscu-
lapius under the she-goat on Mount Myrtion and the shepherd Aresthanas
hastening towards them, Paus. ii, 26. ;_Pn coins of the gens Rubria M^-
culapius as a serpent coiled round an egg. The advent of this jEsculapius
serpent on bronze coins max. mod. of Antoninus, ^n u ^-/t? ', s- ¦'-^l\

5. THE PEIMEVAL WOELD ; CEEATION OF MAN.
1 395. Greek art could not place before itself as an aim, to
embody the conceptions of the early gods, who approached
more nearly the dark origin of things; Ueanus, G.s;a, and the
EACE of Titans sprung from them, never occur by themselves
as important works of art, although the Earth-goddess espe
cially finds her place in groups and representations in reliefs.
2 Ceonus comes forward more significantly; he is characterized
by the hiding of his head, often also by his hair hanging
3 straight down, and his weapon, the sickle-shaped harpe. Rhea
obtained a greater significance by the blending of her with
the MOTHEB,-GODDESS of the Phrygian worship; Phidias sculp
tured the latter for an Athenian Metroon ; she is recognised
by the crown of towers, the tympanum as a symbol of her en-
4 thusiastic worship, and the car yoked with lions. The form
and the costume of Atys, who was less naturalized in Hellas,
5 remained more oriental. The Cabiei have only found a place
in several artistic representations as local dsemons.
1. Gsea at the birth of Brichthonius §. 371. R. 4. Gsea-Cybele en
throned, M. Borb. ix, 21. Gsea with bull, goblet from Aquileia [M. d. I.
iii, 4.] The Barth often as a figure leaning on a globe with a cornucopia,
the four seasons approaching her, on gems, Lipp. Suppl. 66., and coins
(Tellus stabiUta), VaiUant De Camps p. 49. Similar on engraved stones.
— Titan-masks §. 391. R. 5. The Titans and Zagreus Zoega Bass. 81.
2. Cronus with the back of his head veiled, and xqvn, wall-paint.
GeU, N, Pomp, pl, 74, M, Borb, ix, 26,, on gems G. M. 1. His head on
Eoman denaru with the harpe, (comp. Passeri Luc. i, 9.), which is also
often toothed. On .Egyptian coins it has a straight and a curved point,
Bottiger Kunstmyth. s. 230. Busts PCI. vi, 2, 1. Cronus' enveloped
throne, L. 156. G. M. 2. Clarac pl. 218. The coin G. M. 3. exhibits Cro-
nus-Suchus, §. 232. E. Ehea brought to Cronus on Phrygian Ida, the
Cabiri as spectators in throe small figures (BuU. d. Inst. 1832. p. 189.), or
the three Cronidse as an anticipatory aUusion. (SchelUng. Kunstbl. 1833.

THE PEIMEVAL WOELD. 521
N. 66.), picture from Pomp. M. Borb. u, 59. GeU. N. Pomp, pl, 41, Inghir.
G. Omer. 131. [Rather the visit of Hera to Zeus on mount Ida, R.
Rochette, Peint. de Pomp6i pl, 1, Ternite Pomp, Wandgem, (Reimer).
Heft 3, Tf 22.] SwaUowing of the chUdren, M. Cap. iv, 5, 6. G. M. 7, 16.
3. A statue of Cybele enthroned, PCI, i, 40. Standing, S. Marco ii, 2.
Clarac, pl. 395-396 0. 396 B. 410 C. Cyb. enthroned, a Corybant danc
ing, relief in Gerh, Ant, Bildw. 22. (Dance of Corybants, relief PCI, iv,
9. Beschr. Eoms u, ii. s, 211, comp. 351. E, 1.). Cyb. enthroned, with
lions beside her, a beautiful figure on coins of Laodicea, Mionnet No. 701.
Cyb, enthroned, a branch in her hand, surrounded by Uons, beside her
Atys and a pine, coins of Faustina, Pedrusi v, 13, 2, Comp, Boissard iii,
133, Cyb, riding on lions, in a painting by Nicomachus, and on the spina
Circi. [ViUa Pamfili tb. 35, on a gem, Hirt i, 4, Standing between two
fawning lions, fragment of a small statue, d'Agincourt Fragm. en terre
cuite pl, 21, 7. Enthroned between lions in statues and reUefs, times
without number, in Athens.] With a car drawn by lions on coins of the
gens Volteia, <fec, — TauroboUa and CrioboUa altars, de Boze, Ac. des
Inscr. u. p. 475. Zoega Bass. 13. 14. Boissard iii, 47. v, 33. 34. Passeri
Luc. i, 19. Sacrifice of rams to Cyb., relief L. 661. Clarac pl. 214. comp.
Welcker Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 161. Some other monuments of the worship,
G. M. 9—16. Livia as Magna Mater §. 200. E. 2. The Great Mother
with Pan, above §. 387, 7.
4. Atys, Altieri statue Guatt. M. I. 1785. Marzo. tv. 3. M. Flor. ui, 80.
Atys with the pine, Passeri Luc. i, 17. Atys with pedum and syrinx
borne on a ram to a pine-tree, Buonarr. Med. p. 376, Atys castrating
himself, and other representations of the worship on the contorniati
which were struck for ludi (Megalesii), Comp, Thes, Ant, Gr. i, 5. Archi-
gallu^ (painted by Parrhasius according to Pliny), relief in the M. Cap.
iv, 16. G. M. 15*. Treatise thereon by Domen. Georgius. Eome 1737.
Bd. Winck. iv. s, 269. darqxyxXarvi pixariS,, with which the Galli were
scourged iv roig Mrtrqaoig. Plut, adv, Colos, 33,
5, Cabiri undoubtedly on coins of Thessalonica (Cybele on the other
side) with the rhyton in the right and the hammer in the left hand, N.
Brit, 6, 3. Cousinery Maced. i, pl. 1, 3 — 6. Welcker Prometh, at p. 261.
On coins of Syros (according to Sestini) quite like the Dioscuri, Mionnet,
Suppl. iv, pl, 12, 2, p, 404, [The Sicilian Palici, vase now in the cabinet of
coins at Paris, Ann. d. I. ii, tv. i. p. 246 — 67, also in the Giorn. d, scienze
1. ed a, Palermo 1831, xxxv, p, 82, Zeitschr, f die A,W, 1838, p, 235;
Feuerbach's explanation of the studio of a statue-caster Kunstbl. 1845.
No. 37. does not appear admissible in this representation,]
396.. Atlas, the Titanian heaven-bearer, is represented 1
almost comically in vase-paintings, and in later times was
employed as supporter of astronomical globes. The ingenious 2
fable of Peometheus even in itself prompted to represen
tation, especially of the fettered and liberated Titan. In the 3
later ages of heathendom it was used on sarcophagi, in com
bination with the fable of Eros and Psyche, the fates, and
many a heroic legend, in great allegorical representations of
human life. The giants, who figure as adversaries of many 4

622 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
gods, but especially of Zeus and Athena, were conceived by
elder art, conformably with the ancient poetical notion, as a
gigantic race of heroes, and only by later art, with reference
to their terrestrial birth, as snake-footed, rock-hurling mon
sters. 1. Atlas with Hercules on the ark of Cypselus, comp. Philostr. ii,
20. Inghir. Mon. Etr, v, 17. Passeri Pict. ui, 249. Hamilton iii, 94 (68).
Similar in the mirror-drawing Micali 36, 3, [M. Gregor, i, 36, 2,, Gerh.
Etr. Spiegel ii, 137.] (where only a segment of the heaven is given). —
The Farnese Atlas, Gori Gem. astrif T. iu. P. 1. tb. 1—6. M. Borb. v, 52.
Hirt 15 a. b. 16, 1. As bearer of the Zodiac in tho statue, Guatt. M. I.
1786. p. 62. Zoega Bass. 108. Comp. Letronne Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 161. [Atlas
as heaven-bearer, see Gerh., Archemoros und die Hesperiden B. 1838. Tf.
2. s. 32. before the sphinx, BuU. Napol. iv. Tf 6. s. 105. Atlas enthroned,
according to an ApuUan potsherd, Gerh. Konig Atlas u, die Hesperiden
B, 1841,] Atlas observing the Zodiac as astronomer, contorniate in Patin
Thes, p, 104. Atlas a bronze from Oberndorf in Munich. [The supposed
Atlas at Marseilles in MiUin Voy. au Midi de la France pl. 36. 2. seems
to be merely a porter with a wine-skin on his shoulders.] The sculptures
of the candelabra pedestal, tv. agg. B., might be altogether referred to
Pallas (owl, helmet, and giant, evidently, cf the small statue §. 371. E. 3.,
not Brichthonius, as it is explained by Gerhard Archemoros s. 38.) [E.
Bochette Mem. sur les repres. fig. du personnage d'Atlas 1835. 8vo. p. 63
sqq. G. Hermann de Atlante, Lips. 1836. 4to.]
2. Prometheus bringing fire, Bartoli Luc. 2. Gem, Brondsted Voy.
ii. pl. 45. p. 306. Punishment, Liban. 'Ex(pq. p. 1116., Bpigr. by JuUan
in the Anthol., Bartoli Luc. 3. Deliverance by Hercules, painted by Bu-
anthes, Achill, Tat. iu, 8. (in like manner as on the Capitoline sarcopha
gus), [M, Cap, iv, 25.] Prometheus (Prumathe) liberated by Hercules
and Castor (Calanice, that is 'ii.xXKivixog, Castur), relief on an Etr. mirror,
MicaU 50, — Prom, forming man whom Athena animates by means of the
butterfly, L. 322, Clarac pl. 215,; G. M, 381,; BartoU Luc. i.; Brondsted
ibid. [Prometheus on the rock by Pansenus ; invented anecdote on Par
rhasius in reference hereto Trilog. p. 46. Archaic cyUx, the fettered
Prometheus devoured by the vulture and Tityus, Gerhard Auserl. V. ii,
86. M. Gregor. ii, 67, 3. Basrelief from V. Altieri in Rome, Engravings
of the Statues cet. of H. BlundeU pl. 108. Schneidewin's PhUologus i,
348. Hercules shooting the vulture, vase from Chiusi in BerUn N. 1837,
BuU. 1836. p. 41. 1840. p. 148. 0. Jahn, ArchaoL Beitr. Tf 8. s. 229.; in a
wall-painting Zahn u, 30, 0. Jahn s. 226. Pr. liberated by Hercules and
Castor, Mirror Micali Storia tv. 50, 1, Gerh. Sp. ii, 138, by Hero, and
ApoUo ii, 139. Pr. appears reconcUed before Hera, very fine vase-paint
ing BuU, 1846, p, 114, Archaol, Zeit, iv, s, 287,]
3, The representation on the sarcoph, Admir, Rom, 66, 67, M, Cap.
iv, 25. G, M, 383, gives, in a series running from right to left, the sepa
ration of the soul from Eros, the creation of the human body by Prome
theus from the elements, the enduing with life by Athena, death, and
the conveyance back of the soul by Hermes ; and adds to these as ter
minating points, on the right the fastening of Prometheus' fetters, on
the left the deUveranoo by Hercules, evidently in Orphean sense, [0, Jahn

THE PRIMEVAL WORLD. 623
Archaol. Beitr, s. 169 f] Kindred representations PCI, iv, 34, G. M,
382,; Beschr, Eoms ii, u, s, 189.; L, 433, V, Borgh. i, 17, M. Nap, i, 16,
BouUl. in, 41, 2. Clarac pl, 215 ; L, 768, MiUin Voy. dans le Midi iu. p.
544. BouiU. 41, 1, Clarac pl. 216.; Gerh. Ant, Bildw, 61. Neapel's Ant. s.
52. (As in the first sculpture the Chaldsean legend is observable in the
Fate showing the horoscope, so also the Old Testament account of Adam
and Eve and the serpent seems to be here adopted, according to Bottiger,
Tagebuch der Fr. v, d. Recke iv. s, 32, ; according to Panofka Ann. iv, p.
80 sqq. it is Deucalion and Pyrrha).
4. As giants at Agrigentum §, 109, No. 20. Resembling heroes at Se
Unus §. 90. R. 2., Ephialtes §. 143. R. 1), on the peplos of PaUas §. 96.
No. 13. Snake-footed with scaly bodies and winged at the same time, on
vases from Volci, M. Etr. p. 53. No. 630. Snake-footed, with Zeus §. 351.
R. 2. ApoUo §. 362. R. 2. Artemis §. 365. R. 6. Athena §. 371. R. 3,
[Poseidon §, 356, R, 4, Dionysus §. 384, R, 6,] Ares §, 373. R. 1. Roll
ing on the ground and rearing, in the relief PCI. iv, 10. comp. Impr. d.
Inst, i, 63. A bronze sculpture at Byzantium represented the snake-
footed giants fighting against aU the gods with rocks and oaks, only the
one opposed to Bros voluntarily retires. Themist. p. 177. Pet. Snake-
footed giants as Telamones in an Etruscan tomb, M. I. d, Inst, ii, 4, Battle
with giants on the southern wall of the acropolis in Athens Paus. i, 25,
2, cf. Plut. Anton. 60. ; on the shield of the PaUas of Phidias ; on a vase
from Volci in Berlin, Levezow Verz. N. 1002. [Gerhard Trinkschalen Tf
10. 11.]; on an Agrigentine vase. Raff. Politi La pugna de' Giganti Pa
lermo 1828. [it is the vase M, d, I. i, 20, ; on the peplos of the Dresden sta
tue of Pallas. Amphora at Florence, Zeus with Hercules in the chariot,
Athene, Ares and two giants, Gerh, Auserl. V. i, 5, EUte i, 1. Inghirami
V. fittili i, 75. Archaic cylix, combat in chariot and on foot, Gerh.
Auserl. V, i, 61, 62,; ibid, 63. battles with giants led on by Athene and
Dionysus ; and ii, 84. 85. cylix with red figures, in which Hercules and
ATA 1 02 play leading parts; frieze of a hydria, black figures. Elite i, 2,;
an archaic Grecian amphora in Micali M, ined, tv, 37, the explanation
corrected by Cavedoni Osserv. cr, sopra i Mon, ined, Modena 1844, p. 23,
Frieze of a hydria with red figures Elite i, 3, cylix i, 4, from M- Chiusino
171, Poseidon and five other figures. A second large cylix in the Berl.
Mus. N, 1756, Archaol, Zeit. ii. s. 264 ff. by Aristophanes painter, Br-
ginus potter, with the names of the combatants. As on the cylix No.
1002. Zeus in his chariot, Hercules, Athene and Hermes, Poseidon, He
phsestus are each opposed to a giant, and on one of the Due de Luynes
(formerly Beugnot's), Vases Luynes pl. 19. 20. Ann. xu. p. 251. Gerh.
Trinkschalen Tf. A. B. Hephaestus hurls at Clytius two burning
masses with the tongs, Poseidon throws the isle of Nisyres on Polybotes,
Artemis charges her adversary with bow and spear (as in Millingen Uned.
Mon. 9.), and Apollo pjiji/o-aag (he seems meant) outs down Ephialtes with
his sword, Dionysus strangles his opponent with vine-tendrils, Athene
transfixes Enceladus, there is therefore a similar arrangement in both.
The grandiose composition of a large vase from Ruvo in the possession of
Baron Lotzbeck (now of Cav. Campana) is quite peculiar, it contains at
the same time Archemorus and Orestes, Zeus with Nike in the quadriga
(as in the Tischbein vase §. 361. B. 2.), Athene and Artemis of equal
height, Hercules fighting beneath, Minervini in the BuU, Napol. ib p. 106.

624 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
tv. 6, iU. p. 60, E. Braun in the BuU. d. I. 1845. p. 100—104. One of the
first monuments as regards art is a fragment of a very large crater from
Ruvo in the Mus. at Naples, of the finest Nolan fabric, of very ingenious
composition and invention, the combatants not in pairs. Ares, Hephses
tus, Satyr and Msenad, a satyr in warlike accoutrement, Apollo in a
quadriga, the sun in advance, the giants in skins of wild beasts, beneath
them ENKEAAA02. Probably much has passed over from the peplos
of the Panathensea to the gigantomachies on vases, Proel. in Tim. p. 26
extrl]

6. THE LOWBE WORLD AND DEATH.
1 397. Hades, the ruler of the shadowy realm, is sufiSciently
distinguished from his brothers by his heavier drapery, ex
cept when he is exhibited in rapid action as the ravisher of
Cora, by his hair hanging down upon his forehead, and his
sombre aspect; beside him sits enthroned PeesepH'one as the
2 Stygian Hera, with corresponding character. Representa
tions of these deities, and of the whole infernal world, however,
are not so frequent on vases, urns and sarcophagi as we might
expect; antiquity loved to call up cheerful ideas of the life to
come, and hopes of a palingenesis, by scenes from totally dif
ferent cycles of mythi, and especially employed the Bacchian
for that purpose, in the interpretation given by the Orphici.
3 The pleasing view of death and the grave which antiquity
sought to preserve, is also the cause why we are unable to dis
tinguish Sleep and Death in its works of art, if indeed the
apparent genius of death is not always merely a god of sleep,
and the representation of Thanatos properly so-called quite a
4 different subject. The magical and spectral Hecate was oc
casionally represented, for the exigencies of religious worship,
and that too even from the time of Alcamenes, with three
bodies, but is now almost only preserved in smaller bronzes.
5 The GoEGONEiON, the earliest image in which a dasmonic
Power which caused death from terror was embodied by the
Greeks, retained, in the shape which was certainly first trans-
I'ormed by Praxiteles into exalted beauty, only an expression
of destroying death-agony deep- concealed under grace and
pleasure. 1. Visconti considers an excellent bust of Prince Chigi's PCI. ii, A. 9.
to be the only genuine bead of Hades, [comp. Meyer in Winckelm. iv,
317, probably Pluto also a head in the Mus. Chiaram., which has been
called Neptune on account of the disordered locks on the forehead (A.
606).] Yet perhaps the basalt-head also vi, 14. is rather Hades than
Serapis. A statue (Serapis according to Zoega) PCI. ii, 1. [In VUla Lu
dovisi there is a Pluto standing behind at the waU, the head restored
from the ram's head lying at his feet. In the same Villa a bust of Pluto

HADES, CORA, GHAEON, ETC, 525
with broad band round the hair. Perhaps also August, Tf 39. An en
throned Pluto of the time of the Antonines, Nibby M. Scelti d. V. Borgh.
tv, 39, p, 127. One, half the size of life, found in the baths of Titus in
1811, and brought to the Capitol, P, Schlegel Deutsch. Mus, 1812, s. 468,
Wall-painting from a tomb at Vulci M, d. I, u, 54. Ann. x. p, 249.] Hades
enthroned on imperial coins of Cyzicus, on lamps, Passeri iii. 73, 74,
Bartoli ii, 6, 8., scarcely to be distinguished from Serapis, A Zeus-Hades
on the Bentinok gem, Cannegieter de Gemma Bent, Traj, ad Eh, 1764,
Fine reUef PCI, ii, 1, [Beschr. des Vatican s. 122.] (in which Bros and
Psyche, or a female shade, stand beside the double throne). H., Cora and
Hermes on an ara, G. Giust. ii, 126, 3. Painting G. M. 343. [On a vase
at Vaseggio Pluto and Persephone, she with a flower, looking tranquUly
at Hercules who is dragging away Cerberus.] The most complete repre
sentation of the nether world, H. as Zeus of the Lower Regions, Cora
with her torch, the judges of the dead, the blessed heroes, Tantalus, Sisy
phus, Orpheus, Hercules as visitor to the realm of shadows. Vases de Ca
nosa 3. cf. M. d. I. ii, 49, 50. Ann. x. p. 19. Vase with Orpheus and
BeUerophon. Similar the vase in R. Rochette M. I. pl. 46. p. 179. which is
also ApuUan, and in which the Lower World and the honouring of the dead
person by offerings are drawn together into a whole (above, the punish
ment of Ixion). Landing in the Lower World, the Fates, Lethe presenting
the draught, G. Giust. u, 126, 2. PCI. iv, 36. [Rich representation of the
infernal world on a vase in Carlsruhe M. d. I. ii, 49, Archaol. Zeit. i. Tf 1. ;
here pl. 12. the vase from Canosa, ii, tv. 13. a vase at Naples, pl. 14. that
from the M. Blacas pl. 7, pl. 15 one from Ruvo with Theseus and Pirithous ;
iii. tf. 25 an Etruscan cinerary cista; two others are described i. s. 191.]
Charon on a vase from .^gina surrounded by souls in the shape of little
winged figures, Mag. encycl. 1811. u. p. 140. [Stackelb. Graber Tf 47.48.]
Payment of the obolus to Charon, Bartoli Luc. i, 12. Charon ferrying
across the urn with a clepsydra, gem in Christie, Paint. Vases 5. Recog
nition in Elysium, Bartoli Pitt, del Sep. dei Nasoni 7. Danaides and
Ocnus, symbols of foUy and indolence, in Polygnotus' painting §. 134. R. 3.
(comp. on Ocnus Cratinus in Suidas s. v, o»ou iroxxi, Diod, i, 97, §. 391, R. 9,)
Both according to Vise, in the relief PCI, iv, 36. [Four Danaids winged
(as souls) are pouring water into a cask, Sisyphus is rolling the stone,
Etr. vase, Inghirami Vasi fitt. ii, 135. Ocnus and a Danaid on the frieze
of a sepulchre, Campana Due sepolcri E. 1840. tv. ii 0. and vii B. p. 10.
Ocnus in the stiU unedited waU-paintings of a Columbarium on the V.
PamfiU, of which there are copies in Munich.] Other punishments of the
Lower World PCI. v, 19. (Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ixion) ; BartoU Sep. 56.
(Ixion, Tantalus, Atlas.) [The sarcophagus in Bartoli is the same as in
the PCI. V, 19, and the figure once named Atlas is Sisyphus, as in Gerh.
Auserl. V. ii, 86. Sisyphus ibid, also pl. 87. 0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s.
230. Tantalus snapping at water, gem in Micali Storia tv. 116, 9.] The
river-god Acheron, Bartoli Sep. 57.
2. Especially through the rape of Cora {xd'^olog and dvalog) ; the Dio
scuri (change between light and the grave ; therefore beside Hades on
the lamp, BeUori ii, 8, comp, §. 414,) ; Endymion (sweet sleep, here
Luna appears in the sign of the Crab in reference to tbe dead season,
on the sarcophagus in Munich 197. Gerh. Ant. Bildw. i, 37., the char
acters also have portrait heads, Gerh. Beschr. Eoms i, s. 329.) ; Eros

526 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
and Psyche (final blessedness); the fate of ProtesUaus, Alcestis and
Hippolytus (return to life and palingenesis); procession of Nereids
(the journey to the happy islands, whither Thetis brought Achilles);
Hercules dragging up Cerberus from the infernal world (visit to the
nether regions and return). The Etruscan urns play over many of
these mythi intentionally into what concerns general humanity. Tlie
reUef, G. di Fir. St. 163., exhibits at the same time Cora brought back by
Hermes, and Alcestis by Hercules, both with Hora (comp. §. 368. E. 3.
and the Orph. Hymn. 43, 6 sqq.); even the dead have their aqx al
lotted them, Bacchian scenes prevail especially on sarcophagi, which
partly took their origin from press-vats (Visconti PCI, iv. p. 67, §, 301.
E, 5,), comp, §, 206, E, 2, The mythus of ProtesUaus, which pro
mises a re-uniting of lovers, is treated in a decidedly Orphean spirit,
in the relief PCI, v, 18,, for Laodamia who is visited by ProtesUaus is
designated as a participator in the Bacchian orgies, comp, §, 345*. E, 3,,
exactly like the Charis, Appul, Met, viii. p. 169. Bip, On the ara POl. iv,
25, Zoega Abhandl. Tf 3. 4. Beschr. Eoms ii, ii. s. 98 ff. the banquet of
Icarius and processions of centaurs are connected with the purification
of Psyche ; comp. §. 391. R. 9. Other favourite representations are jour
neys by land or water (Passeri de animarum transvectione, Thes. Gemm.
astrif. iii. p. 113.) often developed in an extremely ingenious manner, for
example when the urn is borne by a dolphin to the Islands of the Blessed,
Lipp. Suppl. 465. Comp. §. 431.
3. Lessing, Wie die Alten den Tod gebildet haben (as a genius with
a torch). Herder, Wie die A. d. T. g., in the Zerstreute Blatter (medi
ately by sleep). A youth sleeping, with his head inclined PCI. i, 29.
With his arms over his head, leaning on a cypress (Thanatos according
to Vise, Hypnos according to Zoega), a beautiful figure in the L. 22. M.
Frang, i, 16, BouiU, 1,^9, Clarac pl, 300,; exactly alike PCI. vii, 13. ; [in
a fine bronze at Florence, Wicar i. pl. 85.] at the rape of Cora, Welcker
Zeitschr. s. 38. 461. More boyish, winged, and resting on the torch with
his hands crossed over it. BouiU. iii, 15, 4.; Zoega Bass. 16. Hirt 27, 6,
(with the inscription Somnus) and frequently. Genius of death with the
torch inverted, Gerh. A. Bildw. i, 83. comp. Narcissus. Resting on the
torch, his hand on his cheek, a butterfly near, R. Rochette M. I. 42 A.
[Group of S. Ildefonso.] A sarcophagus in the Vatican groups toge
ther the genii with their arms over their head and winged boys with
torches, who point at masks, Beschr. Roms ii, ii. Beil. s. 4. The sleep
ing Erotes §. 391. R. 6.
Morpheus as an old man, winged, pouring from a horn soporiferous
odour, on the Endymion reliefs. Similar the figure Zoega Bass. 93. Head
of Morpheus? PCI. vi, 11.; Gem i. tv. A, 5. G. M. 352. Fine smaU
bronze figure, with head-wings, naked, emptying a horn, Somnus accord
ing to Zannoni Gal. di Firenze Statue iii, 138, not Mercury. "Ovtiqog,
winged, pursuing a woman, on a vase, Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 323. Marriage
of Hypnos to Pasithea? §. 210. R. 6.
Thanatos, as a sacrificial priest, Eurip. Ale. 74. Serv. ad iEn. iv.
689., on Etr. urns. With black wings, Schol. Bur. Ale. 843. Bearded and
winged on vases, carrying off a woman (comp. Boreas), R. Rochette M.
I. pl, 44 A, B, p, 217. [is Boreas; Thanatos with outspread wings, oppo-

THANATOS, PSYCHE, HECATE, ETC. 527
site to him Nike, on the beautiful cista with the fight between Amyous
and Polydeuces in the coUeg. Romanum. Thanatos seizing a, woman
round the waist, Ann. xv. p, 393, tv, 0, n, S,] With club and balance
on winged wheels, fragment of a mosaic R. Roch. pl. 43, 2. Thanatos as
a child with distorted feet beside Hypnos on the coffer of Cypselus.
Keres, recognised in figures on vases (Tischb. ii, 20. Millin G. M. 120,
459), who seem to lay out the dead {xiiqig rxvriheyiog Bxvxroio), R.
Rochette M. I. p. 229. Welcker Rhein. Mus. ii. s. 461. The Etruscan
Mantus with the hammer. Men or youths carrying smaller figures on
their shoulders (according to R. Rochette the Dioscuri carrying off the
Leucippides), also occur on Etruscan and Roman sarcophagi as genii of
death. M. Cap. iv, 44. R. Rochette M. I, pl, 74, 1. 2. 75, Fragment of a
death genius, treading on a Psyche, in the Vatican, Gerh. Ant, Bildw, 77,
3. R. Rochette pl. 77, 3. (who p. 424. connects therewith Winok. M. I. p.
162.) The Psyche or Eidolon appears floating away from dying persons on
the vase Ann. d. Inst, v, tv, agg. d. 2., at the psychostasy G. M. 597. ;
without wings on tbe gem G. M. 602. ; as a smaU winged figure in ar
mour on the vase §. 99. No. 7. ; as a bird with human head at the death
of Procris, MilUngen Un. Mon. i, 14. Hermes Psychopompus sometimes
carries it as a Uttle male figure, sometimes as a female figure with
butterfiy-wings, §. 381. R. 4. comp, 391, 9,
4, Hecate on vases as an Artemis Phosphorus, §. 358, R, 4, R, Ro
chette M. I, p, 136. Hecate triformis in the Mus. of Hermanstadt, with
representations in reUef of a mystic .^gyptizing worship. P. v. Koppen
Die dreigestaltete Hecate. Wien 1823. 4to. [Brit. Mus. x, 41, 1. p. 100
—106. That in Leyden, Archaol. Zeit. i. Tf 8. s. 132, that in the Mus.
Chiaram. Clarac pl. 563. ; the one in the Brit. Mus. Clarac pl. 558 B. no.
1201 C] Besides St. di S. Marco u, 8. Causeus Rom. M. u, 20-22. [Clarac
pl. 564 B.] Passeri Luc. iii, 76-78. In Passeri Luc. i, 97. as a single figure
beside Artemis and Selene. Hecate in the figure from Kertsch ? comp. §.
311. E. 6. Luynes Etudes Numism. 1836, especially on Gorge and Hecate.
[Gerhard A. Bildw. Tf 314, 1—10.]
6. Of the ancient Gorgonea §. 66. E. 3. The author on Levezow's
Gorgonideal, Gott. Anz. 1835. s. 122 ff. Bottiger, Furienmaske s. 13. 107
ff. On ancient coins often very horrible, Mionnet, Suppl. iii. pl. 7, 5.
On the coins of Coronea, MiUingen Anc. coins 4, 8. in reference to the
mythus of lodamia, Paus. ix, 34, 1.- The Gorgonea of the Phidian period
of art are in essentials the original ones, but with mitigated features.
The large Gorgoneion of the acropolis. Hunter tb. 9, 19. The Gorgonis os
pulcherrimum (Cic. Verr. iv, 66.) is now the Bondanini mask at Munich
133. with head-wings, Guattani M. I. 1788. p. 35. (Gothe Werke xxvu. s.
244. xxix. s. 40. 328.) The Gorg. of the Parnese onyx-goblet is still more
richly encircled with coUs, MiUingen Un, Mon. ii, 17. Profile head on
the Strozzi gem with Solon's name, M. Flor. ii, 7, 1. Wicar iv, 38. With
glazed eyes on the gem of Sosocles, Stosch 65, comp, M, Borb, iv, 39.
Tassie pl. 50, Bckhel P. gr, 31, Lipp. i, ii, 70-77, A fine terracotta
(with sprouting horns) from Athens, Brondsted Voy, ii, p, 133. A grand
mural-painting from Stabise, Zahn Ornam. 58. [Ternite, second series
Tf 9. comp. 10. 11.] Comp. §. 414 (Perseus).

528 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

7, DESTINY AND GOVEENMENT OF THE WOELD.
1 398. The goddesses of destiny presented few materials for
the plastic art. In the case of the stern Moieai a general al
lusion to sovereignty was deemed sufficient, in earlier times;
afterwards they were distinguished by allegorical symbols.
2 With regard to Tyche, either guiding power, or transitoriness,
3 or richness in gifts was rendered prominent by attributes ; the
Romans, with whom the worship of Fortuna was very old and
wide-spread, heap all attributes on one figure, yet so as that
4 in general the sterner view predominates. In Nemesis we
have to distinguish the Aphrodite -like representations of early
times from the allegorical figure of later emblematical sculp-
5 ture. As to the Eeinnyes, the Gorgon-like forms of terror of
the jEschylian stage remained strangers to the formative art,
which was contented, in vase-paintings and on Etruscan sar
cophagi, with embodying the idea of fleet, high-girded hun
tresses. 1, Moirai as matrons with sceptres on the Borghese altar §, 96, No. 22.
Etruscan Atropos (Athrpa) winged, driving in a nail, in the mirror-
drawing §. 413 (Meleagros). The frequent goddesses of destiny in the
Etruscan mirrors [Gerh. Etr. Sp. Tf 31 — 36.] have usually the style and
a sort of lekythos. In later times Clotho was represented as spinning,
Lachesis as marking out the destiny on tbe globe, Atropos cutting. So
in the Humboldt relief, Welcker Zeitschr. Tf 3, 10. [Schinke Leben und
Tod oder die Schioksalsgottinnen mit dem Humboldtischen Parzenmar-
mor 1825. The upper part restored by Bauch has been recovered, E.
Bochette M. Ined. p. 44.], and similar in part in the Prometheus reliefs,
§. 396. No. 3. Lachesis is also to be found writing or holding a roU,
Atropos showing the hour on a sun-dial, or holding the scales, M. Cap. iv,
29. (But Cap. iv, 25. the one reading probably announces the death-
judgment). See Welcker s. 197 ff. [comp. 0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 170
f The three Moirai on a vase from Kertsch, E. Rochette Peint. ant.
ined. p. 431. 452.; on a Jatta vase from Nola, AveUino Bull. Napol. iii. p.
17—26. tv. 1. comp. H. Brunn Berl. Jahrb. 1846. i. s. 630 f 734. Klotho,
seated in the middle, spins, the two uvvelqoi stand about her, Lachesis in
the direction of the wool-basket, as it seems, as if she had determined
the spinning of the thread should be continued, and the other is not
ready to cut it away, as she has not both hands free. The two figures also
which lay their hand on the shoulder of Zeus and Hera at the slaying of
Argus M. d. I. ii, 69, as if they had power over them, are taken by Avel
Uno for Moirai, comp. Minervini BuU. Napol. iii. p. 43 sq. Among the
numerous figures Ukewise of a vase that is difiicult to understand. Vases
Lamberg ii, 4. p. 7, tbe three fates have been conjectured not without some
probabiUty. On a cornelian, the spinner standing, another sitting lets
the thread run through her fingers, the third holds Uke a staff on her
shoulder, at their feet Plutus, a boy with cornucopia. BuU. 1847. p.
89,]

M(ER^, SYCHE, NEMESIS, &c. 529
2. Zoega's Tyche and Nemesis, Abhandl. s. 32. In Tyche Artemi
dorus ii, 37. distinguishes the representation with the rudder (then she
is rather Providence) from that with the wheel, xvxtvlqog (as accident).
The polos and the horn of plenty she received at Smyrna from Bupalus,
Paus. iv, 30. Praxiteles also represented an ' AyaSij Tvxri and an ' Ayx^og
Ixtpiav (Bona Fortuna and Bonus Bventus are perhaps to be thus taken
in PUny), Euphranor likewise the latter. On bis representation, resem
bUng Triptolemus and Hermes, with the patera in the right and ears of
corn and poppies in the left, often on gems, Bottiger Vasengem. i. s. 211.
The same form bears the inscription to dyx%v ' Eeperriav on coins of Salo-
nina. Comp. §. 381. E. 1. 359. E. 7.
3. On the Roman Fortunse Gerh. Ant. Bildw. Tf 4. Fortuna as
ruler of the world in the starry mantle, crowned, with sceptre and rud
der, WaU-paint. M. Borb. viii, 34. [SimUar xi, 38, both with a third paint
ing and a cornelian M. d. I. iu, 6, Ann. xi, 101, with a genius (SwTiig ?)
beside Fortuna,] Statue PCI. u, 12, Frequent in bronzes (Causeus ii,
27 sqq. Ant. Bro. vi, 24 sqq.), also Isis-like, and passing into Panthea.
Enthroned, with sceptre and rudder, Bartoli Luc. ii, 46. Three Fortunse,
with chariot, often on coins. Also Passeri Luc, i, 41, The two Asiatic
Fortunse have also dolphins as sovereigns of the sea. Fort. P. E., a head
with a diadem on coins of the gentes Arria and Sicinia. Tychse of cities §.
406. Tyche with griifin. Coll. Pourtalfes, Clarac, pl. 450. no, 841 A, others
pl. 45-4 — 56. Fortuna with Justitia in her hand, Impr. d. I. iv, 10. Sup
posed Abundantise very numerous, Clarac, pl. 451 — 463. Sors, a female
head with a box for the lots, coins of the gens Plsetoria. MorelU 1.
4. On the Rhamnusian Nemesis §. 117. Those so often met with on
coins of Smyrna have sometimes the later characteristic posture of the
right arm, — whereby the nriixvg as a measure {Mnlev inriq to pierqov) is
rendered conspicuous, sometimes they carry swords. G. M. 347-350. ;.
they ride in chariots with griffins, Creuzer Abbild. zur Symb. Tf. 4, 5.
The wheel of Nem. (See Mesomedes' Hymn, comp. Kopp, Pateogr. iii. p.
260. R. Bochette M. I. p. 214.) lies at her feet on coins of Ties {Nipceirig
Tixvav). Comp. the coins of Side, Buonarr. Med. tv. 12, 3. p. 241. Nem.
also holds her finger on her mouth in bronzes, Caylus iv, 72, 2. 3., in
Dresden 411. (according to Hase). Nem. with attributes of Tyche, Hirt
s. 98. ; holding up a branch, Impr. d. I. iv, 18. The statue L. 318. M.
Eoy. u, 20, Clarac pl. 322. is very doubtful. Nem. and Elpis opposed to
one another (as in an epigram Anal. iii. p. 173. No. 117.) on the ara in the
Florent. Mus. which Uhden describes, Mus. der Alterthums W. i. s. 552.,
and the crater-relief, which expresses on the one side sensual enjoyments,
and on the other the trials of the soul, Guattani M. I. 1784. p. xxv.
Zoega's Abhandl. Tf 5. 13. [0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 149 ff.] Psyche
with the attitude of Nem. (as an expression of self-restraint) often on
gems ; with a bound Amor, M. Flor. i, 76. Zoega Abhandl. s. 45.
5. See Lessing's Laoooon, p. 20, 342 sq. Boss's translation. Bottiger's
Furienmaske, Weimar 1801. s. 67 ff. MiUin's Oresteide pl. 1, 2. [Winck.
M. Ined. 149. M. PioCl. v, 22. Millin Mon. Ined. i, 29. Vase-painting.]
The mirror which the Brinnys holds before Orestes, as a symbol of me
mory, in a vase-painting, is worthy of notice, E. Rochette M. I. p. 187.
comp, §, 4] 6, The vase-painting, Tischb, i, 48,, appears to represent the
2L

630 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Brinnyes as the /iqoroaxonroi 'Mxivxleg (^Bschylus). May not many so-
called heads of Medusa represent the Bumenides or Athenian Semnse ?

8. TIME,
1 399. The more the naked idea of time is to be seized,
the less are the Dsemons of time susceptible of representation.
With regard to the HoE.S!, which mostly retain their physical
signification in art, the succession of blossoming and ripening
2 is their characteristic. Besides them, the seasons are also de
noted by male figures, sometimes boys, sometimes youths.
3 But even Days and Years, and Pentaeteeids and Centueies,
were sculptured, only, however, as creations conditioned by
particular purposes and again disappearing with these.
1. Thus the three Horse, who were, however, not seasons properly
speaking, for the winter was never a Hora, can be pointed out (§. 96. No.
22. Zoega Bass. 96.) in works of art as a quaternion, which corresponds to
the usual seasons, Zoega 94. Combe Terrac. 23. 51. ; united with four
male figures in the sepulchre of the Nasones, Hirt 14, 5. Comp. Zoega ii.
p. 218. Three Horse turning round a column, without attributes, in the
Vatican, Clarac pl. 446. no. 815. Quatuor anni tempora, BeUori Arcus
14. below, from the arch of Sept. Severus. The two Attic Horse, ThaUo
and Carpo, on the goblet of Sosias ? §. 143. 3). Horse of spring Gerh. A.
BUdw. i, 87. There were ballet-like dances of Horse as well as of Cha
rites, nymphs and Bacchse, which seem to have infiuenced the artistic
representations (Xenoph. Symp. 7, 5. Philostr. Apoll. iv, 21.). A dancing
Hora in the light chiton, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 31, But the Hora of spring,
the aqx par excellence, with her apron full of fiowers, occurs oftener, above
§, 368, R, 3. and 397. R, 2, comp, Neapels Ant, s. 2. Statues, M. Flor. iu,
63.; Guattani M. I. 1788, p, 46,; Clarac pL 299, Picture from Pomp.
M. Borb. vU, 40. Zeus opens the Olympian gate to the Horse, coins of
Commodus M. Flor. iv, 41. [The four Horse bringing marriage gifts to
Peleus, Campana Op. d. plastica tv. 61. 62. comp. Zoega Bassir. tv. 62.]
2. Comp. Ovid M. ii, 27. Encircling Dionysus, on numerous sarco
phagi, as G. Giust. ii, 120. ; L. 770. BouiU. iii, 37, 1. Clarac pl. 146. ; in
Cassel (Bouill. iii, 37, 2.?). In the escort of Gaja §. 396. R. 1. A genius
of Autumn, with the apron of the sower and rich booty from the chase,
gem, M. Worsl. u, 12. ; Ant. Ere. iv, 37. ? The bull of Spring opening
the year, with the Charites on his head, is a beautiful gem -figure, Kohler,
Descr. d'un Cam6e. 1810. pl. 3. Hirt 16, 4. He seems to have emanated
from the Dionysus-bull whom the Blean women invoked to draw nigh
with the Charites, Plut. Qu. Gr. 36.
3. Hirt s. 119. The pomps of Ptolemy and Antiochus were rich in
such figures §. 390. R. 3. Hirt thinks he can recognise the Eniautos in
Alpheios, §. 350. R. 5. The Mon of later superstition (one of the two sta
tues in the Vatican was executed under Commodus) PCI. ii, 19. Zoega
Bass. 41. Bottiger Kunstmythol. s. 267. Chronus in the Apotheosis of

HELIUS, SELENE, EOS, &o, 631
Homer, On Kairos, Hirt Bilderb, s, 107, Welcker ad CaUistr, vi. That
Phidias already sculptured Occasio and Metanoea (Auson, Bpigr, 12,),
seems to me doubtful; it is perhaps only a mistake for Lysippus,

9, BEINGS or LIGHT,
400. The Sun-god, if we do not take into account the Sol 1
Phoebus of Roman times, was an important subject of sculp
ture only in Rhodes, where the coins exhibit his head gen
erally in front view, with rounded forms and streaming, ray
like hair. In the entire figure, he for the most part appears
draped, in his chariot, guiding his horses with the whip, Se- 2
LENE, only distinguished in her usual form from Artemis by
more complete drapery, and veil rising in the form of an arch
over her head, is known especially from the reliefs represent
ing the fable of Endymion, "Eos either appears herself in a .3
quadriga, in magnificent form, or as the guide of the horses of
the sun. Among the constellations, most importance was at- 4
tached, in the Greek religion and mythology, to the dog Si-
Eius as the supposed author of the heat of summer, and to
Phosphoeus and Hespeeus, the heralds of day and night.
[Dioscuri §. 414, 5.] But among later works of art, an impor- 5
tant class is composed of astrological representations on gems
and coins, — horoscopes, and protecting signs of persons, cities
and countries, which usually consist of collocations of the signs
of the zodiac and the planets. For this purpose it was deemed
sufficient to add a star to the figures of deities as a distin
guishing mark. Ieis, from a luminous appearance in the sky, 6
became altogether a light-winged messenger of the gods.
1, [Gerhard ueber die Lichtgottheiten nach Denkmalern B, 1840. 4
pL] On the coins of Ehodes in Mionnet Pl, 52, 1, 2. we also see the head
of HeUus in profile with the corona radiata ; similar on Eoman coins of
the gens AquiUia. The large bead in the Cap. Mus, Bouill, i, 71,, is as
signed to Sol by Visconti and Hirt, but the Bd. Winck. vi. s. 200. dissent.
the statue described by Cl. Biagi Sopra una antica statua singolarissima,
R. 1772. is evidently HeUus; on the head are to be seen the holes for
the crown of rays. Statue L. 406. V. Borgh. St. 2, 3. Clarac pl. 334.
[Visconti sopra la statua del sol 1771. Bust with seven rays, counte
nance and hair Uke ApoUo, belonging to the English consul at Leghorn,
in Guasco de Pusage des statues pl. 3. p. 44.] A torso of Helius with the
zodiac on tho quiver belt, E. Bochette M. I. pl. 46. 3. Helius naked with
crown of rays, the whip and a ball in his hand, wall-paint. M. Borb. vii,
65. A Sol-Apollo shooting with the bow, coins of Philadelphia, N. Brit.
11.7. Rising of the Sun, on the Parthenon §. 118. A. Beautiful vase-paint.
(Helius in the quadriga, Eros going before, and pursuing Orion (accord
ing to others Cephalus), the stars, in the form of boys, setting. Pan

532 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
heralding the morning, Selene on a single horse going down) Panofka Le
Lever du Soleil. P. 1833, M, Blacas pl, 17. 18, R, Rochette M. I. pl. 73, comp.
Welcker Rhein, Mus, ii, 1, s, 133, [Elite ceramogr. ii. 111, 112, comp. 112
A, and 113, HeUos with quadriga.] R. Rochette M, I, pl. 72. A. 2,, Helios
going down, Selene coming up, between them the three Capitolian gods and
the Dioscuri, bas-relief Helius and Eos [Selene], led by Pan Phosphorus,
ascend with their chariot from a ship, Passeri Pict, Btrusk. iii, 269. Mai
sonn. 1. [Winck. M. ined. 22. Gerh. Lichtgottheiten Tf 3, 2. s. 8. Elite
ii, 114. Sunrise and sunset, Sabine vase M. d. I. ii, 55. B. Braun Ann. x.
p. 266. Welcker xiv. p. 210. EUte ceramogr. ii, 59.] The horses of the
sun rising out of the sea, MilUn ii, 49. Helius' head turned upwards,
moon and stars on the reverse, Morelli N. Consul, tb. 32, 24. Helius and
Selene in a biga and quadriga, fibula from Pompeii M. Borb. vii, 48.
Helius and Selene as a framing to rows of deities, by Phidias, Paus. v, 11,
3. ; enclosing the Capitoline gods and dioscuri in the same way, in the
reliefs PCI. iv, 18. ; R. Rochette M. I. pl. 72, 1.— Childhood of HeUus and
Selene in sculpture, Claud. De raptu Pros, ii, 44. ANATOAH and
ATS 12, medals from Damascus Steinbiichel Notice sur les Med. Rom.
en or tb. 2 f d. p. 23,
Phaethon' s fall, PhUostr. i, 11., in reliefs L. 766 b. BouiU, iu, 49. Cla
rac pl. 210.; G. d. Fir. St, 97.; in gems, Wicar ii, 8. The Heliades
transformed into poplars on a denarius of the gens Accoleia.
2. Sarcophagi with Endymion M. Cap. iv, 24. 29. ; PCI. iv, 16.
Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 276.; G. Giust. ii, 110. 236. L. 437. 438. BouiU.
iii, 34. 35. Clarac pi 165. 170.; Woburn Marb. 9.; Gerhard Ant. BUdw.
36 — 40. The relief from CiUi very simple, Wiener Jahrb. xlvui. s. 101.
Tf 1, 2. [The fine Diana before Endymion M. Chiaram. ii, 7.] Luna
in mulo, Fest. p. 172.— Pitt. Bro. iii, 3. M. Borb. ix, 40. Selene almost
naked, with Hesperus, going to Endymion. [Similar a waU-painting M.
Borb. xiv, 3.] Statue of Endymion? Guatt. M. I. 1784. p. vi. [now in the
Mus. R. Suec. Stat. 14, the explanation indubitable.] — Luna going down,
on the triumphal arch of Constantine, BeUori Arcus 41. Floating in the
sky, gem in Hirt 16, 3. — Selene drawn by cattle, statue at Antioch, Ma
lalas p. 261. as in the relief Clarac pL 166. comp. §. 365. R. 4. Statue of
Selene ? M. Borb. v, 22. perhaps Ilithyia. Artemis-Selene in the goat
skin, like Juno-Lanuvina, Passeri Luc. i, 94.
Deus Lunus or Msj!/ often on coins in Phrygian costume with half-
moon behind his shoulders, M. SClem. 21, 146. Hirt 11, 8, 9. Deus Lu
nus on horseback, an altar with two torch-bearers standing round it, like
those of the Mithrsea, on coins of Trapezus, Miinchner Denkschr. PhUol.
i. Tf 2, 10. Tho kindred Pharnaces appears probably on coins of Phar-
naoes as a Hermes-Bacchus with sun, moon and thunderbolt. A Palmy
renian moon-god Aglibul, M. Cap iv, 18.
3. Eos in her car, Inghir. Mon. Etr. i, 5. MilUn Vases de Canosa 6.
Vases i, 15. ii, 37.; comp. R. 1. [Gerh. Auseri. V. ii, 79. Elite ii, 109 A.
M. Gregor. ii, 18, 2., HE02 guiding a quadriga along, beside a tripod;
Gerh. Tf 80., Elite pl. 109, Cab. Durand no. 231., HK02 without wings
guides two winged horses; EUte pl. 109 B. 110. perhaps Bos, unwinged,
with an unwinged quadriga pl, 108, A, A02 KAVE, from MilUngen.
Anc, Mon. pl. 6., fioating draws water with one can and pours out with

SIRIUS, PHOSPHORUS, HESPERUS, ETC, 533
another, Eos pursuing Cephalus, Gerh, I^tr, Sp, ii, 179, Cephalus in the
arms of Eos ibid. 180, M, Gregor, i, 32, 1, and M. d. I, iii, 23, Ann, xii,
p. 149,, where there are similar representations,] Bos (inscription) with
the torch and bow-shaped drapery leading a horse, Pegasus ? on coins of
Alexandria, Eckhel SyU. 7, 3. Schol. II. vi, 155, Schol. Burip. Or. 1004.
jiovoxaXog ' Aag. Leading four horses of Helius on coins of the gens Plau-
tia. Fine gem with Bos yoking the horses. Cab. d'Orllans i. pl. 45. Comp.
§. 413 (Cephalus), 415 (Memnon). Bos driving upwards on Etr. mirrors,
R. Rochette M. I, pb 72 A. p. 398. 400. not. 1.
4. Sirius as star-dog on coins of Ceos (Brondsted Voy, i. pl, 27,), on
gems, Bracci i. tv, 45, Phosphorus (bonus puer Phosphorus in Eoman
inscr,) and Hesperus as boys with torches flying up and down, E. 1, Hes
perus riding before Selene (Nyx), according to Braun, on the Archemo
ros vase, which Gerh, p, 21, quite erroneously takes for Phosphorus and
HeUus, [Phosphorus and Hesperus on tbe ara Mon, Ined, 21, not cor
rectly taken by Winckelman,] In busts §, 365. R. 5. Setting stars R. 1.
So-oaUed Orion §. 97. R. 3. Ann. d. Inst. 1835. p. 250. The supposed
crater with Dionysus and the Pleiads in the L. 783. is acknowledged not
to be antique. Of the other constellations, which scarcely belong to this
cycle, Hirt s. 135. The original popular idea is often happily unfolded
by Buttmann Ueber die Entstehung der Sternbilder, Berl. Akad. 1826.
5. Comp. §. 206, 6. Hirt Tf 16. Gori Thes. gemm. astriferarum, with
comm. by J. B. Passeri F, 1750, 3 vols. fo. Augustus has Capricorn.
Districts or cities have on coins the sign under whose particular infiu
ence they lie, as Antioch the Ram, Commagene the Scorpion. On the
Alexandrine coins which give the position of the planets at the begin
ning of a Sothic period, Barthflemy M6m. de I'Ac, des Inscr. xii, p, 601.,
Saturn with sickle in a chariot drawn by serpents, and the signs of Ca
pricorn and Aquarius, Impr. d. I. iv, 1. Amphitrite? on the sea-goat, as
trological? vi, 11, comp, 12, A Borghese altar combines the planets
Jupiter, Mars and Venus with the zodiacal signs of the autumn months
(Balance, Scorpion, Sagittarius), Winck, M, I, 11, Bouill, iii, 67, Clarac
pl, 201, 202, comp, T, ii, p, 186, (the Balance held by a virgin, the Scor
pion as a kind of sea-monster, like the Crab in a painting from Portici,
Sagittarius as a centaur). The beautiful mosaic of Poligny, which
Bruand pubUshed in 1816, is a horoscope. An astrological gem of the Ca
binet Pontchartrain, which Bandelet published in 1810 and explained
badly (comp. Ac. des Inscr. i, p 279,), unites four planets with the con-
steUation of Sagittarius (Centaur), Astrological gems, Kopp Palseogr,
ui, p. 325.
Atlas with globe §. 396. R. 1, Zeus in the Zodiac on Atlas, an Al
bani marble, Guattani M, I, 1786, p, 63, comp, §, 350, 6, Planisphere in
the Louvre together with the planets and 36 decans, published by Bian
chini, of the 2d century of the Christian era, according to Letronne,
Clarac pl. 248 b. Zodiac with the planets in the pronaos of the temple at
Palmyra, Wood, pl, 19 A, The zodiac on the Cal, Rusticum, M, Borb, ii,
44, Single signs often on gems, as Impr, d, Inst, ii, 7, Sagittarius, ii,
8. Aquarius (whose beautiful figure seems to be connected with the
Chemmitic Perseus-Ganymedes of Herod, ii, 91. and Pindar Fr. inc.
110,, whose footstep causes the swelling of the NUe), Scorpion, Fish and

534 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Crab iii. 96, the Ram iii, 97. The eight deities of the days of tlie week on
an altar found at Mayence, Treatise by Fuchs, Mayence 1773, Ideler
Handbuch der Chronologie ii. s. 183. 623. [Der planetarische Gotter-
kreis von L. Lersch Jahrb. des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunden im
Rheinlande iv. s. 147. Tf 3, 5. v. s. 298. viu. s. 145.]
6. ''Iqii as messenger of Patroclus' death to Achilles, winged, with a
caduceus and a fiower, vase-paint, from Volci, Inghir. G. Omer. 256.
Iris (?) as the bearer of armour, Tischb. i, 4, Bottiger Vasengem. i, 2, s,
68, With the -nqoxovg (as in Hesiod Theog, 784,) on gems, Hirt 12, 2.
[and on coins of Terina, in AveUino Opusc. i, Abhandl, 3, where she is
taken for a siren,] Pouring out the libation to an ApoUo Citharodus,
vase-paint, Ann, d. Inst, v, tv. B. [Nike. — Hirt's BUderbuoh i. s, 93,
0. Jahn Telephos s. 79. Iris with ApoUo, Idas and Marpessa, Gerh. Au
serl. V. i, 46. The same with the kerykeion and the irqoxoog, floating
away, ibid, ii, 82. With the name at the embassy of Nestor and Anti-
lochus to Achilles, Vases de Luc. Bonaparte pl. 11. She accompanies
Hera at her visit to Zeus on Mount Ida §. 395. E. 2, Thetis when she dips
her child in the Styx, W. Gell. Pomp. ii. pl. 73. she stands behind the for
saken Ariadne Pitt. d'Ercol. ii, 16, Bottiger's Archaol. Hefte i, 1.]
Hemera and Nyx have not yet been pointed out with certainty, al
though the latter was often sculptured, especially in early antiquity.
Hirt s. 196. Nocturnus, according to K. F. Hermann instead of Uranus,
M. PioCl. iv, 18. and Winck. 43, Archaol. Zeit. v. s. 95.]

10. the winds.

I 401. In the forms of the Winds, especially on the monu
ment of Andronicus Cyrrhestes (§. 16(), 5.), ancient art. dis
plays, in an admirable manner, its capacity for characterizing
2 with delicacy and precision. With regard to individual winds,
Boreas, as the ravisher of Oreithyia, is the only one that can
3 be indicated with some degree of certainty. The Harpies,
who snatch away in the rushing of the wind (dangerous gusts
which can alone be overcome by the race of the air-purify
ing North wind), are sometimes presented as winged women,
sometimes more in the shape of birds, as the ancient legend
left their form very undefined. [Echo §. 403. R. 4.]
1. Boreas (rude), Csecias (hail-bringing), Apeliotes (warm air). Burns
(thunder-storm), Notus (long rains), Lips (heat, the ships in harbour),
Zephyrus (fine spring-weather), Soiron (cold).
2. Boreas introduced with serpent-feet on the cofi'er of Cypselus, Paus.
V, 19, 1, As a man with double wings, Tischb, iii, 31, comp, §. 397. E. 3.
The finest representation on a vase now in Munich, Welcker, Nouv. Ann.
de la Sect. Fran§. de I'l. archeol. pl. 22. 23. Vol. ii. p. 358—396, a very
important one in Berlin ibid. pl. H. and in Gerh. Etr. u. Campan. Vasen
Tf 26 ff. s. 38. two others in his Auserl, V, iii, 152, s, 8—15, and a No-

HAEPIES, TEITONS, NBEEIDS, 636
Jan one in the Archaol. Zeit. iii. tv. 31, The Mua, Borb. alone possesses
three repetitions of this representation.] Chloris carried off by Zephy
rus? Hirt 48, 1, The much discussed picture from Pompeii Ann, 1829,
tv. D, 1830. p. 347. Bull. 1832. p. 186, in the D. A. K. i. Tf 73, 424. cer
tainly not correctly explained as Hypnos and Pasithea, is recognised to
be Chloris and Zephyris not only by Hirt, Welcker and E. Braun, but
by AveUino, JaneUi, Minervini, Quaranta and others. Zephyrus pur
suing Chloris with garland, vase-painting. Bull. 1844, p, 99. Zephyrus
pursuing Thyia with enveloped head, as Boreas follows Oreithyia, vase-
painting Archaol. Zeit. iu. Tf 31. s. 97. The similar figure, youthful,
naked, winged, which Hirt Bilderbuch 18, 1. s. 148. takes for Zephyrus
pursuing Chloris, must not therefore be taken for Amor with Gerhard s.
98, not, 5.] The Aurce velifioantes sua veste, Plin, xxxvi, 4, 8,, still re
main to be pointed out, [Gerhard on a Campanari vase conjectures Aura
presenting the twins to Bacchus, Bull. 1834. p. 178, Apollo and Thyia,
Panofka Antikenkranz 1845 s, 9. 12, Oreithyia and Thyia, Gerhard
Arch. Zeit, ui. s. 97 f Tf 31.] Typhceus as a winged giant on a paste,
Hirt 18, 4. §. 361. E. 2. On Bronte and Astrape §. 141, 5.
3. The vase paint. MiUingen Un. Mon. i, 15. quite agrees with iEs
chylus Eumen. 50. On the bird form, Bottiger's Furienmaske s. 112,
comp, §. 334. E. 1. The Harpy-monuments enumerated by Heyne Virg.
.^n. iii. Exc. vii. are mostly doubtful. [M. d. I. iii, 49. Ann. xvii. p, 1 —
12, Due, de Luynes. Harpies on the sepulchral monument from Xanthus
in London §. 90.* Creuzer zur Archaol. iii. s, 241, declares the children
carried by the winged virgins to bo also winged. The engravings show
no trace of wings in the former.]

11. THE ELEMENT OF WATER.
402. From the lofty power of Poseidon, and the beauty of I
Amphitrite and Thetis, the dsemons of the sea pass over, through
various intermediate stages, into the fantastically formed mon
sters of the deep. A fine contrast is presented on the one hand 2
by the fish-tailed and satyr- or centaur-resembling Tritons often
overgrown with sea-weed (to whom Mgmo's, Glaucus, Nereus,
Phoeoys, and Peoteus bear a likeness), and on the other by the
NEREiDS,for the most part inhuman form, lightly draped in early 3
art, afterwards usually undraped, with very graceful maiden
shapes, whose flexible configuration is charmingly developed in
manifold postures and windings: a thiasus of the ocean which
receives, too, quite a Bacchian aspect, from the transformation
of the animals sacred to Dionysus into sea -monsters, and
which was especially conceived in reference to the accoutrement
of Achilles, and (after the example set by Scopas §. 125, 5.) the
escorting him home to Leuce. Among the other numerous 4
personages of the sea, there are doubtless still discoveries to
be made, as the refinement of ancient art in characterizing

5:?6 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
has not yet by any means been approached in the explanation
of its products
1. See above §. 125, 5, 356, 1. 2. Thetis xxqxivoig riiv xe(pxXtiv lixan-
ip'^g, Schol. Aristid. in Mai CoU. i, 3. p. 42. Heads of this sort on coins,
for instance of the Bruttii, Beger Thes. Brand, i. p. 340. Fine statue of
Thetis (? according to others of Aphrodite Euploea) L. 120. Bouill. i, 47.
Clarac pl. 336. Winck. W. vi. s. 312. The so-called Aphrodite Anadyo
mene M. Borb. vii, 26. might also perhaps be a Thetis. Comp. E. 3. and
§. 413. (Peleus). [Thetis on a sea-horse in the Vatican Clarac pl. 747,
1805, finer in Naples from a recent discovery ; in Florence pl. 746, 1804.
There also two other sea-goddesses.]
¦ 2. The Tritons are recognised with greatest certainty where they are
cum buccinis, as in the pediment of the temple of Saturn, Macrob. S. i,
8. (comp. Virg. .^n, x, 209, Ovid M. ii, 8,), on which occasions they are
more seldom youthful (Tiitun, Inghir, Mon, Etr, v, 55, 8,) than bearded,
Bartoli Luc, i, 5. [A blowing Triton on the tower of the winds at Athens,
according to Vitruv,, Sttiart i, ch, 3, pl, 3, A very fine bronze statue
years ago in the possession of Cav. Maglia at Vienna.] A Triton as a
youthful sea-satyr PCI. i, 36. [Clarac pl. 745, 1808, a group, Triton carry
ing off a nymph ibid. 34, Triton half fish, holding a fish, Gerh, Auserl,
V, i, 9.] Besides the fish-tailed there seem also to be human-legged Tri
tons (Voss, Mythol. Br. ii, 23,) ; those with the fore-legs of a horse occur
often in poets and works of art, BouilLJi, 42, (Crabs' claws in the hair)
43, [Comp. the bronze bust Spec, i, 65. A Triton's head between two
Erotes on dolphins. Terracottas of the Brit. Mus. pl. 4. A water god,
water-plants and dolphins instead of hair, a fish basket on his head, Mil
lin P. gr. pl. 44.] Triton-family (Triton and Cymothoe, Claudian De
nupt. Hon. 144.), a splendid amethyst in Florence, Wicar ii, 34. Meyer
Tf 29. Lipp. i, 123. Triton-mask at fountains, Propert. ii, 32, 16. Vise.
PCI. vi, 6. JEgeeon on coins of Cumse (Solin 16.), Millingen, Med. in. i,
3. Glaucus as Triton in armour on coins of Heraclea, N. Brit. 3, 13.
MiUingen Anc. Coins i, 20., of Syracuse, Torrem. 72, 9., and Etrusc. gems
(Lanzi Sagg. ii, 4, 3.). On Glaucus' form wasted in the sea, Philostr. ii,
15. The fish-tail was not wanting even in the dancing Glaucus. Comp.
Voss. ii, 24. [Gl. fish with human countenance, see Grosson, Antiquites
de Marseille 4to.] His love for the human Scylla, Hercul. paint. M. 'Worsl.
i. p. 103. A similar monster on coins of Itanus, AUier de Haut. 7, 3.
[E. Vinet Le mythe de Glaucus et de Scylla, M. d. I. iii, 52. 63, AnnaU
XV. p. 144.] Nereus with Hercules on ancient vase-paint. MiUingen Div.
32. Un. Mon. i, 11.; on a vase from Volci HEPAKAE02 and TPI-
TONGS is inscribed beside them. [§. 410. R. 5.] Nereus in Triton form
but draped, at tbe rape of Thetis, M. I. d. Inst. 37. Nereus? in form of
a Triton M. Pourt. pl. 15, Nereus ? iu Triton form with trident M. Blacas
pl. 20. [so with a, dolphin, which makes no difference, Gerh. Auserl. v. i,
9, in Berlin no. 1686 ; Nereus in human shape, with white beard and the
trident riding on a sea-horse, Gerh. Tf 8. Cab. Durand no, 209. Elite
o§ramogr. iii, 2, (pl, 1. is similar to M, Blacas 20.) ] In entirely human
figure also on Volcentine vases, at the combat with Hercules, Ann. d. Inst.
iii. p. 145 ; [as grandfather of AchiUes, §. 356, 4.] On Phorcys Schol.
ApoU. iv, 1610. Proteus as shepherd of the sea, Pitt. Ere. ii, 39. Oceanus'

TRITONS, NEREIDS. 537
(or Pontus ?) [or Triton] gigantic head on reliefs with Nereids, Clarac pl,
267. [Gerh. A. Bildw. C, 4.] Supporting Artemis-Phosphorus or Selene
§. 365. R. 5. On engraved stones, Rathgeber, HaU. Bncycl. iii. ii, s. 352.
[Head on the ara Mon. ined. 21. colossal Oceanos M. Chiaram. ii, 1, be
sides Marforio §. 261. R. 1., M. Capit. iii, 1. Lor. M scult. i. p. 33, 1.
Farnese statue Montfauc. i, 6. 0. in the Vatican Clarac pl. 745, 1800,
the Capitolian no. 1801. pl. 749 B, two in Naples and a third. 0. oppo
site to Tellus on sarcophagi G. M. 383, Gerh, Bildw, Tf 36, 39, 40.]
3, The Nereids nreql xvpixai, fixxxevovaxi, with Orpheus comp, Visconti
M, PioCl, iv, 33, Feuerbach Apoll, s, 161, Shield-bearing Nereids on a
Triton M. Borb. i, 7. Nereids with armour (for AchiUes) ; on coins of
Lampsacus (Chois. Gouff. Voy. Pitt, u, 67, 33.) ; reliefs (undraped) PCI.
V, 20. ; [Campana Op. di plastica tv. 9, 10, with Erotes,] ; on the Prsenes
tine cista in R. Rochette M. I. i. pl. 20. comp. Kunstbl. 1827. No. 32. ;
on gems (mostly half-draped, on Tritons, often luxuriously handled),
Inghir. G. Omer. 165. Eckhel P. gr. 16. Wicar iii, 26. as an aUusion to
victorious accoutrement) ; vase-paint, (draped), Hancarv. iii, 118. Maisonn.
36. M. Pourt. 41. comp. MUlin i, 14. The so-caUed Damarete (Hemsterhuis,
Lettre sur une p. gr. du Cab. de Smeth) on the gem of Dalion is also per
haps a Nereid with armour mounting on a hippocampus. A Nereid on
a hippocampus, Florent. marble-group, Wicar iii, 25. Meyer Tf 10. a. ;
[a particularly fine one in the Mus. at Naples, found in 1843, with which a
fragment in the Vatican in the round open gallery corresponds.] Bartoli
Luc. i, 4. ; gems, M. Flor. ii, 48. Wicar iv, 6. ; on sea-rams, goats, buUs,
in reliefs ; on a sea-panther, Pitt. Ere. iii, 17. ; on a sea-griffin M. Borb.
X, 19. Nereids on Tritons and sea-bulls with Venus in the sheU in the
middle, Gerh. A. Bildw. Tf 100, 1. N. on Tritons with the mask of a
river god in the middle, Tf 100, 2, sarcophagus reliefs at Rome. A Ne
reid carried off by a Triton, beautiful group in the PCI. i, 34. ; embraced
by him in a ceiling-relievo at Palmyra, Cassas i, pl, 91,, on gems, Tassie
pl. 31, 2633. Tritons and Nereids in joyous troop careering over the sea,
often with music (to the Happy Islands §. 397, R, 2,), M, Cap, iv, 62.
BouiU, i, 78. M, Franj, iv, 10, ; G, Giust. ii, 98, 102, 144. 146, 148.; BouiU.
iii, 42, 43. Clarac pl. 206 — 209. Magnificent processions of Tritons, xim,
wall-paintings, M. Borb. viii, 10. Nereids at the rape of Thetis (Cymothoe,
Psamathe, Spec, Cymatolege, (fee. in Volci) §. 402. R. 2. [Statues of fugi
tive Nereids between the columns of the triumphal monument at Xan
thus §, 128*.] It is not to be denied that there were also fish-tailed Ne
reids, according to authors (from Plin. ix, 4. onwards, comp. Voss ii, 26.) ;
yet it will be better to call such figures in reliefs, G. Giust. ii, 142., and
elseviheie female Tritons according to R. 2. Archaic Tritonides on Etr.
bronze reliefs, comp. M. I, d. Inst, pl, 18, 1. Laglandifere Ann, ii. p. 63.
Five Oceanides, with Oceanus, Thetis, Palsemon, Ino and a Triton, with
the names inscribed beside them, on a mosaic found in France (D6p.
Haute Garonne). Mosaiques de St. Rustioe prSs Toulouse Bull. 1834. p.
157. Hannov. Zeitung of the 10th Oct. 1833.
4. Of Melicertes-Palcemon §. 252. B. 3. [on the dolphin, Munich Glyp
totheca 112. Clarac, pl. 749 A. no. 1841.] Philostr. u, 16. G. M. 401, 402.
Palsemon ? with symbols, fine cameo, Impr. d. I, iv, 13, A -victorious
Isthmian athlete stands beside Palsemon on tho coin 404, Many boys
resting on dolphins belong to this class ; riding on the dolphin, in Munich

638 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
112. [In the possession of XPacetti according to M. PioCl. vii. p. 100.,
the head ii. tv, A. no, 13. with the skin of a sea-animal's head ii. tv. A.
no. 13.] Palsemon's head according to Vise, M. Frang. iii, 12. Ino-Leu-
cothea bas the kredemnon (her regular distinguishing sign, Clemens Protr.
p. 96.) wound three times round her body, in a mosaic in the Vatican,
Gerh. Beschr. Eoms ii, ii. s. 89. Her leap, on coins, in presence of the
dsemon of the rock Moluris and the dolphin who is to receive the boy,
G. M. 400. MoreUi Domit. 16, 3. comp. Thes. Ant. Gr. i, Aa. Galene in
Corinth (Pans.), on the gem §. 384. R. 3. characterized by the collapsed
saU and her position on a plane surface, see Tolken Kunstbl. i. s. 8. comp,
Addseus Anthol, Pal, ix, 644, [She smooths with her hand the watery
mirror on a cameo G. Myth, no, 246. Ino-Leucothea with the infant Bac
chus §. 384. R. 2.] Euploea? winged figure with aplustre, MiUingen Un.
Mon. i, 29., according to Welcker Ann. d. Inst, ill p 420. [Berl. Vasen
No. 835., where Levezow and with him Gerhard recognise a Victoria with
aplustre. There is one of this kind on a bas-relief in AveUino Casa di
Pompei 1840, who does not doubt p. 64 sq. the Buploea of the vase any
more than 0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 377. not. 61.] — Scylla on coins of
Agrigentum, of Cumse (MiUingen M^d. in. i, 4. a deviation), of the gens
Pompeia, [from Lipari (with Hephsestus) riding on two sea-dogs, quite
in human form, extending the right hand, striking the chords of a lyre
with her left, Sestini Descr. d'alcune mod. Grech. del Principe Christ.
Feder. di Danimarca p. 11. Scylla, original and thoughtful, on a rhyton in
the Jatta collection, Bev. Archeol. ? Annee u. pL 36. p. 418 — 20. Pitt.
d'Ercol. iii, 21. Ternite Wandgem. von Pomp. (Wigand) Tf 4.; a bas-
relief Mus. at Naples.] Tischb. Homer iv, 6. G. M. 638*. Gori M.
Etrusc. i, 148.
403. The river -gods were sculptured, according to the
physical size and the poetical dignity of the stream, sometimes
as hoary old men, sometimes as youths, with urns, cornucopia
and reeds; and beside the purely human shape, the form of a
bull took its place, especially in the early modes of represen
tation, with manifold modifications even in the same river,
sometimes by mere horns, sometimes by the body of a bull
with a man's head, and sometimes by a bull in complete form.
The nature of the country, the destinies of the people who
dwelt on its banks, determined more closely the form and
attributes, as in the grand statue of the bounteous Nile,
around whom disport the dasmons of the overflow, according
to their sixteen diff'erent ranks {nrix^ig, cubiti), and of the
mighty commanding Tiber, who was indicated by the she-wolf
with her cubs. To the Nereids oi' the sea correspond the
Naiads of the land, who were represented as half- draped
maidens, frequently holding before them large shells; they
are often also found in company with Pan, and are connected
with the athlete Hercules in reference to warm springs.
1. On the form of the rivers, M\\s.u V. H. ii, 33. Facius CoUectan. s.
186. Voss ii, 34. Fest. taurorum, cf intpp. As Acragas was seen at
Delphi in the form of a boy, and Meles according to Philostr. ii, 8 was

EIVEE-GODS, ACHBLOUS, NILE, TIBEE. 639
painttd as an ephebus (so on coins of Amastris N. Brit, 9, 8.) : so also ap
pear in youthful form Cydnus on coins of Tarsus (G. M. 307,), Orontes of
Antioch (G, M. 369,), Hermus on coins of Sardes, Temnus, Cadoe (N, Brit.
11, 16.), Pyramus of HierapoUs (MiUingen Med. in. 4, 4,), Billesus and
Sardo, the latter as a woman, on coins of Tics, and many others thus on
Imperial coins of Asia Minor and Syria, see Vaillant N, Impr. Gr, p, 342,
ed. sec, also Hypsas and Selinos on coins of Selinus §, 132, E, 2, Torrem.
65., Jllissus on the Parthenon (§, 118, E. 2,), and Iiwpus (?) of Delos in
the L,, BouiU. ui, 24, 8. Ehyndaous on a coin of ApoUonia, Mionnet
Suppl. V. p. 292, no, 76. Hipparis on coins of Camarina (Nohden 4.) is a
youth with sprouting horns, like JSsarus on those of Crotona (comp. MU
Ungen Anc. Coins i, 26.) and Gdas, Torrem. 33, 12. 13. We see'Ismenus
in the shape of an old man, on a vase, MiUingen Un. Mon .i, 27., Alpheus
§. 350. E. 5., Rheiiu^, Istrus or Danubius, on coins (G. M. 309. 310. Col.
Trajani), [Ehenus Spanheim de usu et pr. n. i, p, 359. statue in the Va
tican.] Scamandrus on Ilian (Chois. Gouff. ii. pl. 38, 7.) as in the minia
tures to the Iliad xxi., Rhodius on Dardanian coins (pl. 67, 27.), Ceteus and
Selinus on Pergamenian (pl. 5, 19.), Marsyas on coins of Apamea, and
various others. The Umbrian Clitu/mnus stood in a prsetexta in his
temple, PUn. Ep. vui, 8. On the Chrysas of Assorus, Bckhel D. N. I. p.
198. [standing with bull's head. Temple and statue, Cic. Verr. ii, 41. 44.
Eurotas of Eutychides Plin. xxxiv, 8, 19. Rivers on coins with names,
Mionnet ix. p. 169.] The two rivers Lycus and Caprus near Laodicea
indicated by wolf and bear, Streber Miiuohner Denkschr. f. Philol. i. Tf
4, 10.
2. Achelous figures as an old man with horns, with reeds and a patera,
on a silver coin of Metapontum which was in its origin half-.iBtoUan.
It was struck as the prize of an dyav rxXxvrixiog (A©AON AXEAOIO,
' Axe')^^ov), Millingen, Trans, of the Royal Soc. of Litt. i. p. 142. Ano. Coins
i, 21. comp. Osann, Kunstbl. 1831. No. 16. 17. [He thinks with Millingen
that the single coin was the prize. Achelous on Acam. and Ambracian
coins, partly as buU, partly human with horns, Strabo x. p. 458.] On the
other hand Achelous appears on the coins of Acarnania and CEniadse (for
example Sestini Med. del M. Fontana 4, 9. 10, 12. Mionnet Suppl. ui, pi.
14.) and a vase-painting from Girgenti (Trans. R. Soc. ii, 1. p. 95.) in the
form of a buU with a man's countenance and long, wet beard (Soph. Trach.
13.) The entirely similar figure of the so-called Hebon also, on the coins
of Campania and Sicily, can scarcely fail to be recognised as a river-god,
for example as Gdas on those of Gela. See Millingen's explanation, M^d.
in. p. 6. Trans. R. Soc. i. p. 142 sqq., opposed to which is AveUino's
(Opuscoli div, i, p, 81,). There are indeed objections to be removed, comp.
Rathgeber, HaU. Encycl. iii, u. s. 94. Miinchner Gel. Anz. 1836. No. 96.
97. Lecture by Streber on the Bull-Dionysus (the buU with hunfan
countenance). Alpheus in Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 276, is likewise to be thus
conceived, and the gem Millin P. gr. 46. to be explained in conformity
therewith. Cephissus is perhaps conceived entirely as a bull in Burip.
Ion 1276, as was Gdas according to Schol. Pind. P. i, 185. [and Acragas
according to a fragment of Timseus. River-gods with horns M. Hunter.
tv. 26, 19. Torremuzza tv. 32, 13 — 16. or bull-head Zoega N. Alex. p.
204.] 3. On the IItx^i; Philostr. i, 5. oonip. Welcker p. 234. Statue of the

540 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Nile in the temple of Peace, of basanite ; a corresponding one in white
marble, PCI. i, 38. BouiU. i, 61. comp. St. Victor in the Comm. [The Va-
ticanian Clarac pl. 748, 1811 ; with children also no. 1813 from the Wors
ley Mus. and pl. 745, 1812 Giustiniani ; the Nile without ¦a-iixeig R6 Scult.
Capit. i, 11, a Pamfili statue Clarac pl. 749 A. no. 1817 and one in the
Coke CoU. pl. 749. no. 1814 A. Similar statues of other rivers pl. 745, 1823.
748. 749 A. no. 1821 C. 749 B. no. 1821 D. 751. no. 1825.] Similar also
on coins, Bckhel N. anecd. 16, 1. Pedrusi vi, 28, 8. Zoega N. Mg. Imp.
16, 7. Otherwise PCI. ui, 47. [Nile, R6 Scult. Capit. i, 11.] Homonoia
of the Nile and Tiber, on coins of Antoninus Pius, Bckhel SyU. vii, 1.
Tiber PCI. i, 39. ; L. 249. BouiU. 62. M. Roy. i, 20. ; [Rfe Scult. Capit. i,
12. Clarac pl. 749, 1819.] Tigris? PCI. i, 37. Marforio §. 261. R. 1. Fine
head of a river-god (or of Oceanus) with short horns, dolphins in his
beard, and bunches of grapes in his hair, PCI. vi, 5. BouiU. i, 65. comp.
73. Two heads of young river-gods M. Borb. ui, 56. More bearded iv, 62.
4. Naiads, sometimes completely draped, at Athens §. 387. R. 7. G.
M. 327., also 328., generally only with a short garment round the loins
{tupi.xrx Longus p. 7. Sch.) and holding sheUs before their lap, G. M,
329, 476, 530, ; L. 354, Clarac pl. 209, comp, Hirt Tf 20. Statue of
the kind PCI, i, 36. The fountain-nymph Arethusa on coins of Syracuse
§. 364. R. 7. [The fountain Cyane, M\. V. H. ii, 33. A fountain-nymph
Zoega Bassir. tv. 74, Diroe in Eurip. Bacch. 519.] The sea-nymph Cama
rina on coins, Nohden 4. The unknown nymphs Ismene, Cycais, Branno,
Telonnesus, grouped with the Charites in a relief M. Borb. v, 39. The
Aqua Virgo on a gem, which has been pubUshed by Chifletius. Sleeping
nymph in relief Boissard vi, 25. ; statue L. 491. Clarac pl. 324., probably
from a Nymphseum. [Nymphs, Clarac pl. 749 A. — 754. Genies des fon-
taines pl. 756. 766.] Comp. §. 388. E. 4. (sleeping MEena,d). Also §. 414
(Danaides), 413 (Andromache), 417 (Hylas). The nymph Echo who was
frequently sculptured in antiquity (Anthol. Pal. Plan. 153 sqq.) has still
to be pointed out. Echo, Panofka M. Blacas, at pl. 23. But nowhere
certain. [Echo on a puteal introduced into the representation of Nar
cissus and Hylas, ^ Philostr. Imagg. p. 344, which is engraved and ex
plained together with two wall-paintings M. Borb. i, 4. vii, 4. in Wieseler's
Programm die Nymphe Echo, Gottingen 1844, where also Pan and Echo
are treated of]

12. THE VEGETATION OF THE COUNTRY.
.404. Among the gods of wood, meadow, field, and garden,
Silv ANUS and Vertumnus are only of Italian origin : the for
mer is distinguishable on the implements of the forester, the
latter has not yet been anywhere recognised with certainty.
The Romans do not seem to have formed their Flora so much
out of Chloris, who is not to be discovered in art [§. 401. R.
2.], as from the Hora of Spring (§. 399.), and Pomona (perhaps)
from a Hora of Autumn. Priapus, the guardian of country
and gardens, is only a form of the old Dionysus-Phallen (§.

NAIADS. SILVANUS, FLOEA, PEIAPUS. 641
383. R. 3.), which came into use at Lampsacus. Generally
speaking, the cycle of Dionysus and Demeter completely sup
plied in Greece the place of these field-dfemons. The moun- '
TAINS, irrespective of their waters and vegetation, only occur
as subordinate figures in compositions of ancient art, being
merely taken as distinguishing features of the locality.
1. Silvanus with pruning-knife, the stem of a young tree and pine-
wreath in relief G. M. 289., [now in a palace in the piazza Navona in
Eome, on the stairs, with distinct traces of red paint.] ; L. 453. Clarac
pl. 224. ; also perhaps L. 293. Clarac pl. 164. Accordingly the statue L.
466. Bouill. i, 68. Clarac pL 346. (G. M. 291. as Vertumnus) is also a Sil
vanus. [In the Dresden Augusteum Tf 82. the best statue extant, only
the head new. In ViUa Albani no. 407. a small statue, Sylvanus with
Uon's hide and a dog ; herma in the Capit. Mus.] In gems, Tassie pl.
16, 776. Ara of Silvanus and Hercules, of Portuna and Spes, Diana and
Apollo, Mars and Mercury, M. Chiar. 18 — 21. Sylvanus as a red satyr-
figure, M. Kirker. ii. 6. Pan-like with a muse (without drapery ?) Bois
sard vi, 30. comp. iv, 134. [Ithyphallic and with pruning hook, Bartoli
Lucern. 2, 26. Pan-like with pine-wreath, skin buttoned on the breast,
exceUent statue. Spec, ii, 27. — Vertumnus was perhaps only an Etruscan
primitive form of Dionysus, see Etrusker ii. s. 52. [Vert, with fruit in
his bosom Mus. des Ant. i, 68. August, ii, 82. Md. Pembrock. Guattani
1787. p. 48—54. tv. 2.] Clarac pl. 446 sqq.
2. Head of Flora, enwreathed with fiowers, on coins of the gentes
ServiUa and Claudia. The Farnesian Flora (?), a colossal, finely draped
torso, head, extremities and attributes restored, Eacc. 51. Piranesi St. 12.
M. Borb. u, 26. Neapels Ant. s. 63. [Hebe, N. Rhein. Mus. ui. s. 461.]
Rondanini statue, Guattani M. I. 1788. p. 46. [Borghese statue. Stanza
vi, 5. The Capitolian, in the Mus. Prang, and Mus. des Ant. where Vis
conti — who formerly took it for a muse, with Winck. and Meyer ad Winck,
W. iv. s. 347. — states that she had had flowers in her hands according to
Ficoroni's testimony. Supposed Floras Race. 133. Clarac pl. 439 — 441.
450. [1004. no. 2748— 2750.]— Herma of Pomona (?) M. Kirker. ^nea ii,
9. Pomona Clarac pl. 441, no, 804, 442, no, 806, The Hora of Autumn
evidently pl. 450. [The figures on the corners of many sarcophagi, comp
M. Capit, iii, 36,] The facta agresti lignea falce Pales also, TibuU, ii, 5,'
28,, has not yet been anywhere discovered.
3. Priapus-hermse are frequent on coins, vases, and reliefs as indi
cating a rural locality ; but the herma usuaUy begins only below the
phallus. The upper part of the body has the posture of fioqlaaig, so that
we may also apply the name of Lordon, M. Flor. i, 96, 1 — 3. Often also
with a mantle (as are also hermse §. 67. R.), pie>^xyx'>^ixivog in Moschus.
Herma with turban-Uke head-dress, Gerhard A. Bildw. Tf 102, 6. In
scription from Ostia, Archaol, Intell, Bl. 1834. no. 9. Hortorum custos
pone destrioto deus Priapus ego sum : mortis et vitse locus. [A Priapus
as support to a statue of Venus, August, ii, 66. s. 61. Small ones of
bronze among the Herculanean antiquities and elsewhere. A statue in
the Mus. at Aix, also two inscriptions. Ternite Pomp. Wandgem. (Rei
mer) ii, 4b.] As god of gardens he has a fruit apron like Flora, PCI. i,
51. Gal. Myth. no. 288. comp. Petron. 60. Sacrifices to Priapus often

542 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
performed by naked women on gems, Caylus iii, 50, 6. Bracci i. tv. agg.
22, 1. M. Flor, i, 96, 4—8, Priapus' birth and education, see Hirt s. 173.
Zoega Bass. 80, p, 167, On coins of Nicaea Pan stands with a pilous,
holding a sacrificial club in the left, and, as it seems, a plant in the right
hand, beside a herma of Priapus (one of the chief deities of Bithynia),
Cab, d' AUier de Haut, pl, 11, 5. P, Knight On the worship of Priapus.
L. 1786, We have stiU to mention among these domestic rural deities ; the
herma-resembling Terminus on denarii ; Epona (from epus, equus) who
was painted in stables (Juven. 8, 157. Appul, iu, p, 66, Bip,), in Bianconi
Circhi 16,, bronze figure in the Hungarian museum, Cattaneo Equejade
§. 265. E. 3. Acta Mus. Hungar. i. ; the mill-dsemon Eunostus, on a gem
in Gori, Soc. Columbar. ii. p. 205. Aristceus only occurs in the Antinous-
AristseuB, §. 203. R. 3., as an Arcadian peasant. Perhaps also Race, 126.
Head of Aristseus, similar to .Slsoulapius, Stosch P. gr. ii, 77, according to
Tolken Verzeichniss s. xlvi sq.
4, Mountains in human form, as Cithseron in Philostr. i, 14., are not
rare on coins ; for example Hsemus in hunting costume, M. SClem. 27,
269., Rhodope as a nymph on coins of Philippopolis, Tmolus and Sipylus
on Lydian coins. [Visconti ad M. PioCl. iv, 16. v, 16.]

IS. COUNTRY, CITY AND HOUSE.
I 405. Greek art represented countries, cities, and peoples,
in human shape, — far beyond the authority furnished by re
ligion and poetry, — conformably to a privilege peculiarly be
longing to it (§. 325) ; much more frequently, indeed, in the
Macedonian and Roman period (§. 158. R. 5. 199. R. 9.) than
in the elder republican time. As, in the cities founded after
Alexander, a goddess of this kind was strictly regarded as a
prosperity-bringing, dsemonic being born with the city, as a
Tyche, the corresponding representation of a richly draped
woman with a crown of towers, a horn of plenty, and the like
attributes of prosperity and abundance, was the one here
2 usually employed: however, there often also occurs a more
peculiar representation, suggested by the mythic foundation of
the city, or particularly prominent character of the collective
person represented, for instance, to give one out of many, the
very sharply expressed form of the Pallas-resembling, but less
3 maidenly Roma. Groups in which one city crowned another,
a city a king, or Arete and similar allegorical figures the city,
4 were frequent in antiquity. There were also sculptured represen
tations of Demi (corporations) — of course as men — Senates and
5 similar assemblies. In especial, there was frequent occasion for
representing the deities of the places of Agones, or even the as
semblies of the Agones themselves, as women with palms and
wreaths; numberless figures on vases crowning, or girding with

TYCHE, DEMI, GENII, LARES. 643
taeniae are certainly to be explained in this manner. The 6
Roman Genii locorum figure as serpents devouring fruits
placed before them, whilst the genius belonging to an indivi
dual — a purely Italian idea, which has been in modern artis
tic language erroneously transferred to subjects of Grecian art
— was generally conceived and embodied as a figure in the
toga with veiled head, a cornucopia and patera in its hands.
The Lares of the Roman religion appear as sacrificial ser- 7
vants; the Penates as beings allied to the Dioscuri. Even 8
open spaces, as the Campus Martius, and streets, as the Via
Appia, became human figures in all-personifying art.
1. See Hirt Tf 25. 26. s, 176—194, G, M, 364—380. Sparta [in
Amyclse Paus. u, 16, 3.], as a woman with the lyre, erected about 01. 94.
Paus. iu, 18, 5. Head of Pelorias on coins of Messana, Torrem. 60, 5, 6.
Cab. d' AlUer de Haut. pl. 1, 18. ; after which the similar head of Artemis
§. 364. R. 7. is by many caUed SiceUa. ©^/3»i with mural crown and veil,
vase-paint, Millingen, Un, Mon, 27, [x^wao-x/j, Pind, I. i, 1., evxqpi.xre xqv-
aoxirav, ieqarxrov xyxXpix fr. 207., also in Olympia Paus. v, 22, 6. and Cor
cyra.] — jEtolia, in the garb described §. 338. R. 4., sitting on shields won
in battle, N. Brit. 5, 23—26. Millingen Med. in, 2, 9, p. 39, [^EtoUa as
a woman in armour at Delphi, Paus, x, 18, 7, iEtolia with Meleager in
the bas-reUef in V, PamfiU,] Similar tho Amazon-like Bithynia on coins
of Nicomedes I. Vise. Icon. Gr. Pl. 43, 1. (Artemis according to FrohUch
and Visconti). On the Tyche of Antioch §. 158. No. 5.; so Constantine
in a statue carried in his hand the Tyche of Epel, called Anthusa, Malalas
p. 322 b. Nicetas c. 10. seems to describe a particular Tyche of the hip -
podrome of Epel. — Italia, a helmeted woman with a bull, on the coins of
the ItaUci, MiUingen Med. in. i, 19. p. 31., as a woman with cornucopia
on coins of the gentes Fusia et Mucia forming a league with Eoma.
Many such figures were introduced at the funeral and triumphal pro
cessions of the Bomans, even so late as the time of the Emperors
(Waloh ad Tac. Agr. 13.). See the figures of Europa and Asia, Phry
gia, Armenia, .Mgypt, Africa (with an elephant-helmet, scorpion and
corn-ears, Pedrusi vi, 29, 1., crowning an emperor in the Trivulzian ca
meo, see MazzuchelU's Corippus, title-vign., her head united with the
head of Ammon on gems, P. Knight, Priap. 12, 7.) and other provinces,
from Eoman coins chiefly of Hadrian's time, G, M, 364 — 380, Pedrusi vi,
28. 29. Mauritania not in MilUn, Pedr. vi, 29, 2. 3. Dacia vi, 29, 6.
[Cavaceppi Eacc. 49. Africa, bust. Asia holds a serpent Mela i, 19.
Fourteen provinces in figures, Canina Etr. Marit. i. tv. 3.] Celebrated
head of Hispania (? comp. Pedrusi vi, 28, 5.) on the Borghese relief L. 40.
BouUl. i, 74. Clarac pL 255. In the old figures in the Notitia dignitatum,
the Eoman provinces are represented as women with plates full of gold
pieces. — Cities of Asia Minor (sometimes like Amazons, as Smyrna on
coins), on the pedestal of Puteoli ; others from the portico of Agrippa §.
199. E. 9. [The twelve Etrurian cities on the pedestal of a statue, one
side of which was found at Csere, Vetulonenses, Vulcentani, Tarquinien-
ses, AnnaU xiv. tv. C. p. 37., Bull. 1840. p. 92., now in the Lateran. Two
in male figures, according to the gender of the city, the central one fe
male, comp. also §. 199. R. 9. On a coin of Sept. Severus, of Tarsus,

544 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
Isauria, Caria, Lycaonia with tower-crowns, one of them crowning the
demos of the city, Rasche ii, 2, p, 1902. Suppliant nations before Luc.
Verus, large relief Marmi Torlonia ii, 12,] Fine figures of oriental cities,
S'^ , relief in tho L, 179, Bouill, i, 106, Alexandria with corn-ears, caduceus,
'~ and ship on coins of the gens Csecilia and later ones. Cities which have
the neocorate of a temple, usually hold an idol or the temple in the hand.
Comp, N, Brit. 9, 24. 25. 10, 3. 12. 19. [Hellas and Salamis by Pansenus,
the latter with the aplustre, in allusion to the great battle. The Lindians
dedicate to Athana and Zeus riiv 'Kxpc'Tzqorxmv nrxTqllx rijv xxXriv Volor,
Inscr. N. Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 189. Rhodes branded by Artemisia, Vitruv.
ii, 8. Magnesia adorns her Citharsedus with the purple of Zeus Strabo
xiv. p. 648. Ortygia Strab. xiv. p. 639 sq. Lydia with golden drapery,
on account of the ancient riches of the country, Philostr. Im. ii, 9,, Thes
salia with olive-wreath, corn-ears and colts ii, 14, Oropus as a youth sur-
jounded by sea-nymphs i, 27, Isthmus, and also Lecheeon, as youths ii,
17, on account of the gendre, wherefore Tischbein i, 17 cannot interpret a
bearded figure with a reed in his left hand as " the genius of the Pelo
ponnesus," Scyrus, dark blue, as an island, wreath of rushes, oUve and vine
branches, Philostr. the younger 1, Calydon crowned with (pnyog (quercus
esoul,) ibid, 4, Arcadia with garland of oak-leaves and long knotty stick
Pitt, d'Ercol, i, 6,, Megalopolis with Artemis Soter beside the throne of
Zeus, Pausan, viii, 30, 5,, Cyrene on the swan, coins Bullett, Napol. 1847,
p, 127 sq. Nysa in the great Dionysian procession at Alexandria in Athe
nseus, Europa and Asia on the Chigi relief with the battle of Arbela,
IVoja sitting as a captive Libanius iv. p. 1093. Statue of a city Clarac
pl. 762 c. n. 1906 c. From the allegorical persons in art, — on which Tol
ken Vom Unterschiede der ant. u. mod. Mahlerei is most deserving of
perusal — we must distinguish the mythical, dsemonical, as a Camarina,
Cyrene, Ortygia, &c. in Pindar, Messene, the daughter of Triopas, who
had a temple and statue, Paus. iv, 31, 9, Mg\na. consecrated at Delphi x,
13, 3, or Nemea among the other daughters of Asopus v, 22, 6, whUst for
example in .iHschylus Nemea is to be understood aUegorically as the mo
ther of Archemorus. Comp, also R, Rochette Sur quelques objets en or
in the Journal des Savants 1832, Janv. after Avellino,]
2, Roma (temple §, 190. R. 1. ii.), costumed in the manner of the
Amazons, exerta mamma (Coripp. laud. Justin, i, 287.) in the statue PCI,
ii, 16, [Clarac pl, 767, 1905], in reUefs Hirt 16, 2, 25, 16. Completely
draped in the celebrated Barberini picture, Sickler's Alman. i, 1. p, 241.
[Bottiger Kl, Schr, ii. Tf 6. s. 236 ] Eoma ? Giustiniani palace Eacc. 84.
[Colossal bust V. Borgh. st. v, 27.] ; Crozat EecueU d'estampes. P. 1729. i,
2. Statue in the Palace of the Conservatori. [Clarac pl. 768, 1904.] With
Augustus, Eckhel P. gr. 2. comp. §. 200. R. 2. Sitting on spolia, Zoega
Bass, 31, On denarii of the gens Fabia holding the apex of the pontifices.
Other coins N, Brit. 1, 24, 11, 11, G. M, 662, 663, Roma and Constanti
nople on an interesting diptychon (now in Vienna, the inscr. certainly
more modern) in Gori ii, p, 177, tb, 3, p, 253. tb. 9.
3. HeUas crowned by Arete, group by Euphranor; the Demos of the
Rhodians by the Demos of the Syracusans, Polyb, v. 88, ; the Demos of
the Athenians by the Demos of the Byzantines and Perinthians, Demosth.
de oor. p 266. [Dissen in his Ed. p. 255.] ; the Tyche of Antioch by Se-

DEMI, GENII, LARES. 645
leucus and Antiochus §. 158. R. 5. Roma crowned by the Yliarig Xoxqav
on coins, Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 11.
4. The Demos and the democracy of Athens, Paus. i, 3, 2. comp. §.
138. R. 2. Demi G.M. 363. N, Brit, 10, 2. 24. 11, 6. 14. 16. Zeus and
Demos by Euphranor, Paus, i, 1, 3, Demi of Attica, heroes for them, Mar
athon by Micon, [Demos of tbe Athenians also by Parrhasius, Aristo
laus, Leochares, Lyson, AHM02 AAOAIKEHN Mionnet iv, p, 316,] The
ieqd avyxShrrro; on coins of Cumas, ibid. 9, 20, 23,, of Lamia M, I, d, Inst.
57, B 1. Of the Senate Dio Cass, 68, 5,
6. Olympia, with this legend, appears as a head in profile on Blean
coins, which cannot point out the community which caused them to be
struck, as there was not one of Olympia, Stanhope Olympia pl, 17, Also
in fuU length on these coins, as a winged virgin, sitting or hastening
along (AUier de Hauteroche pl, 6, 16.), with a staff' or wreath, see Gott.
G. A. 1827. s. 167. [Hellas and Elis, the former crowning Antigonus
Doson and PhiUp IIL, the latter Demetrius Poliorcetes and Ptolemy I.
Paus. vi, 16, 8.] Olympias, Isthmias §. 350. R. 5. Aglaophon painted
Alcibiades in the lap of Nemea, and crowned by Olympias and Pythias,
Athen. xii. p. 534 d. Nemea, Hirt 26, 14. [Nemea with the palm, plac
ing her foot on a rock, on the Albani marble vase with the exploits of
Hercules, which has more of such figures ; Nemea with the palm, on a
lion, by Nicias, adstante cum baculo sene, viz. pastore, in iUusion to the
name vipux.'] An Asiatic goddess of Agones, Gemmse Flor. ii, 52.
6. Genu locorum, Pitt. Ere. iv, 13. GeU, Pomp. 18. 76. Winok. W. i.
Tf 11. Also on contorniati, Bckhel viii. p. 306. Comp. Visconti PCI. v.
p. 56. On the representation of the genius publicus, Ammian xxv, 2.
So in statues, bronzes, coins. Ant. Ere. vi. 53. 55. 56. Gori M. Etr. i, 49.
The genius Romse very diiferent, Stieglitz, Archseol. Unterh. ii. s. 156.;
the bearded head with the fiUet across the brow (G. P. R.) on coins of
the gens CorneUa is certain. Often identified with the emperor, Eckhel
V. p. 87. Genius Augusti PCI. iu, 2. Galbse G. M. 670. However the
genius Aug. also as a serpent, Boissard iv, 137. A separate class of
workers, geniarii, in Inscr.
7. The Lares (cinctu Gabino, Schol. ad Pers. v, 31., buUati, Petron.)
in high-girded tunics, with pvrd, §. 299. No. 7. k., and goblets or tankards,
around an altar, BartoU Luc. i, 13. 14. Ant. Bro. vi, 52. 54. 57. Gori M.
Etr. i, 96. iii, 4, 1. Gerh. Ant. BUdw. 64. So the Lares Augusti, Boissard
iv, 68. PCI. iv, 46. [Guattani 1786. p. 33. Middleton Ant. Mon. tv. 9.
Caussei M. R. i, 2, 48. Hirt Tf 26, 12. Montf iU, 1, 59. 60. Rasche ii, 2.
s. 1495.] G. di Fir. St. 144. comp. 145-149. The children with the buUa
have no relation to them. On the Penates Dionys. i. 68. ; as heads of
youths crowned and sometimes provided with Dioscuri-hats (D. PP.) on
many famUy coins. ; on the denarii of the gens Csesia sitting figures of
youths with spears, a dog beside them, and a Vulcan's head above (ac
cording to others the Lares). Comp. [Rasche iii, 2. s. 825.], Gerh. Prodr.
s. 40 ff:
8. See Hirt s. 186. Tf 16, 2. 26, 5. 10. 26, 6. (Circus). Visconti PCL
v. p, 66, The Isthmus is ingeniously denoted on coins by a rudder at each
side, Millingen Anc, Coins pl, 4, 16,
2M

546 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

14. HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND CONDITIONS.
1 406. Personifications of human qualities and relations,
bordering on allegory, constitute a class of unlimited extent ;
and the inventors of Roman coin-types which furnish the
greatest number, only availed themselves of a privilege which
2 always belonged to art. Among the Greeks Nike, who was
related to Athena, and thereby most personal, was most fre
quently sculptured, then Hebe, Arete, Eirene (with Plutus,
Eleutheria, Eunomia, Euthenia, and kindred beings of benign
influence, Limos, Memos, Poene, CEstros, Palaestra, Agon, Pole-
mos, Deimos and Phobos and others: more however as second
ary figures in large representations illustrating the leading
idea of the artist, and less independently than in Roman em-
3 blematic sculpture. [§. 3b6. R, 7. 388. R. 5,] Besides the gen
eral conception of Honor, Virtus, Concordia, Fides, ^quitas,
Pudicitia, Victoria, Spes, Salus, Libertus, Pax, the particular
relations Constantia and Providentia Augusti, Concordia
exercituum. Fides cohortium, Spes Augusta, Securitas Augus
ta, Gloria exercitus, sseculi, Romanorum and the like seemed
4 also representable. The attributes are here for the most part
easy of explanation; the cornucopia is given to most figures
of the kind, because all good qualities turn out a blessing to
man ; definite corporeal forms and attitudes characterize only
a few ; sometimes also ancient modes of representing Grecian
5 deities are laid as the basis of such personifications. There is
little indication of these [as well as of the Greek] notional
(begriff'sartige) figures being thoroughly unfolded into estab
lished artistic forms, precisely because the mere notion does
not contain the germ of a complete intuition; however, the
skilful and tasteful application of most of the symbolical ex
pressions handed down from earlier times is still deserving
of great praise.
1. Hirt Tf. 12, 13. s, 103 ff. G, M. 355—362. Bckhel D, N, v. p. 87 ff'.
2, On Nike (especially tho fine Cassel bronze) Bottiger HaU. LZ. 1803.
AprU, [Bottiger Kl. Schr. u. s. 173. Tf 2.] In earlier times without
wings §. 334. R. 2., so on coins of Terina, Millingen Anc. Coins pl. 2, 2.
comp. p. 23, [Frequently without wings also in vase-paintings. Ann. xvii.
p, 174.] Numberless Nikse with trophies, shields, candelabra, crowns,
palms, ou coins and lamps, and in Pompeian pictures ; they often put
inscriptions on helmets or shields (Mionn. Descr. pl, 68, 3,, also Tischb,
iv, 21,). Nike as tropseophorus, PCI. ii, 11. Ant. Ere. iv, 50. vi, 10.
Often in cars, guiding the reins for conquerors. Nike /3ov3vrovax in gems
Tassie pl, 45,, in reliefs at Munich 214. ; Zoega Bass. 60. ; L. 223. BouiU.
ui, 47, 2. Clarac pl. 224. ; Combe Terrac. pl. 24. 26. Statues in BerUn ;
L. 436. Clarac pl, 349, 636—038, Victoria from Mantua exhibited in

NIKE, HEBE, ARETE, ETC. 547
Milan, Rumohr Reise in der Lombardei s, 137, Impr, d, I. iv, 7 — 9.
NIKH making libation to Zeus over the altar, Stackelberg Tf 18, [Nike
with kerykeion pouring out to ApoUo Kitharoedus, Luynes Vases pl. 26,
Ann, xii. p, 257. NIKH with kerykeion, pouring out to a warrior who
is returned home to his aged father, Gerh, Auserl, V. ii, 160. EUte
cfiramogr. i, 91. NIKH crowning a tripod, from M. Pourtal6s pl, 6,, comp.
M, Blacas pl, 1. ; 92 N. making libation on an altar, from V, Coghill pl.
22, 2. ; 93 another such, a thymiaterion in the other hand ; 94 erecting a
trophy, from Tischbein iv, 21, ; 96 the same Etruscan ; 97 N, in a quadriga
before a tripod, Plutus, Chrysus, a female figure, from Staokelb. Grilb. Tf
17.; 98. 99, Winged figure with cithern from Laborde ii, 37, and Tisch
bein iii, 7 (37), doubtful, as is also 100 and stiU more 96, The splendid
Victory of the Mus. Brescian. tv. 38^40. Journ. des Sav. 1845, p. 533
sqq, 6 feet high, nothing wanting but three fingers of the left hand, for
merly gilded as may be seen from a trace on the hand, an olive-wreath
was set with silver, she is writing like the one on Trajan's column, the
attitude easy, the finely folded drapery almost negligent, of masterly
lightness and truth to nature, the wings large. The gilded bronze statue
about 4 ft, high, found in 1830 at the Mantuan boundaries, in Berlin, on
which holes for the insertion of wings were afterwards discovered, Ann.
xi. tv. B, UrUchs p. 73.] Hebe draped and winged on the goblet of So
sias ; draped, with a branch in the left hand, pouring out for Zeus with
the right, Tassie pl. 22, 1306. ; on other occasions almost undraped, with
goblet. Comp. §. 351. E. 4. (Buropa), 411 (Hercules). The Hebes in Hirt
s. 92. are perhaps Nikes. Against the wings of Hebe Panofka M. Blacas
p. 80. [Hebe winged, caressing the eagle, SchliohtegroU Gemmen Tf. 33.
Winck. Kunstgesch. ix, 3, 7, refers to two Stoschian gems and another,
Hebe naked with the goblet. The statue by Nauoydes along with Hera.
Eris, Gerh, Fliigelgestalten Tf 2, 1—6, s. 17 f] Arete, see §. 406, E. 3.
and 411, (Hercules.) Welcker Ann. d. Inst. iv. p. 385. nrqiaaTrov' Aqeriig
on a golden crown, Athen. v. p. 21 1 b. Limos, Athen. x. p. 452. Momus
as a feeble old man, Anthol. Pal. Plan. 265. [Tischbein Vasen i, 67, comp.
Ehein. Mus. 1842. s, 413,] Phthonos Tischbein i, 57. (62 according to
Welcker N. Ebein, Mus, i, 413.) Eii^vpiixg xyxXpix in Heraclea by Diony
sius, Memnon c. 6, Eirene first erected by Cimon or Timotheus, according
to Plutarch and Nepos. [Statue of Eirene with Plutus in her arms by
Cephissodotus in Athens. Paus, ix, 16, 1. Eirene winged, with kerykeion,
carrying the infant Plutus, Gerh, Auserl, v, ii, 83, s. 16, Eiqivn Aoxqav
also on coins of the Epizephyrian Locrians has the kerykeion, and likewise
FeUcitas, Buonarroti Medagl, tv. 18, p, 308, Thus also Eirene on a vase-
design which seems to be derived from Aristophanes (Uke another from
the Wasps, BuU. 1847. p. 103, and Xanthias before Hercules Cab. Pour-
talfes pl. 9. from the Frogs), Vases Luynes pl, 30, Ann, xii. p. 258, Con
cord (Homonoia) and Friendship were painted by Habron,] 'EXevSieqix
with a wreath on gold coins of Cyzicus, M. I. d. Inst, i, 67 B 4. comp,
Ann, V. p. 279. Panofka, with most extraordinary reference to Liber,
Evvopttx TeX^av, a Demeter-looking female head, MiUingen Anc, Coins 2,
10, Ann, d, Inst, ii. p. 313, Ev^nvix a woman leaning, and supported by
a sphinx, poppy and corn-ears in her right hand, on coins of Alexandria,
Zoega N. jEgypt. 10, 1. G. M. 379., as a female figure with a large goblet
on the reUef of Thyrea, Ann. d. Inst. i. tv. C. 1, ^piainroXtg as a female

648 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
figure, crowning Gelas, on coins of Gela, Torrem. 32, 2. comp. 31, 1., as a
male genius in EUs, Paus, vi, 20, 26. Hosia §. 388. E. 6. Pxdia §. 391. .
E. 6. Peene, Paus. i, 43, 7. comp. x. 28, 2., perhaps with Lycurgus §. 384.
E. 6. Oestros, Vases de Canosa 7. Paleestra, Philostr. ii, 32. The youths
with the prizes for the games, on the reUef in Stuart Ant. ii, 4. vign., also
the boys, generally without wings, who show the different kinds of con
tests, L. 455. BouiU. iii, 46., Clarac pl 187.; G. di Fir. 120.; G. Giust.
ii, 124., and amuse themselves with game-cooks, L. 392. Clarac pl. 200.
comp. 349. appear to be ' Ayaveg or Tlx'kxiapi.xrx, PhUostr. ii, 32. "Ewxi-
voi as winged boys, Luc. Rhet. Prsec. 6. Phobos §. 65. Panofka Hyp. Eom.
Studien s. 245. Deimos and Phobos, Pallor and Pavor, in Eome, the
former with hair hanging down, the latter having it erect, on denarii of
the gens Hostilia, G. M. 158. 169. ApeUes painted Polemos with his hands
tied at his back. Enyo (BeUona) on coins of the Bruttii and Mamertini,
Magnani ii, 4 sqq. iv, 36. Pama on coins of Demetrius Poliorc. with
trumpet and lance, Eckhel N. anecd. 6, 9. Blowing the trumpet, Stuart
iii, 9, 13.
3 — 5. Fides and Honor (on family coins) have the laurel-wreath,
Libertas the same, also the hat. Virtus has the helmet (Virtus Augusta
an amazon-Uke costume), Triumpus on coins of the gens Papia a laurel-
wreath and trophy, [Fama, Mus. Bresciano p. 138.] Pietas the stork (Pie
tas Augusta with children, who press close to her, but also, in a different
signification, as a woman praying) ; Pudicitia (also Concordia) the veil.
Pax the olive-branch (she also sets fire to armour), Providentia deorum a
bird of augury (Pedrusi vi, 36, 4.), JEternitas has Sol and Luna in her
hands (MoreUi Vesp. 5, 31.), HUaritas P. E. on Hadrian's coins, cornuco
pia, palm, children around (Pedrusi vi, 35, 4.). Anno7ia is ingeniously
provided with a calathus and corn-ship, and carries Eoma in her hand,
Pedrusi vi, 16, 2. JEquitas and Moneta have the balance, for different
reasons. (In the sky, the balance was introduced into the zodiac, merely
as attribute of the virgin as Dike, and sign of the equinox, as the claws of
the Scorpion had long occupied the place. The matter is reversed by
Hirt s. 112.). Securitas leans on a column or places her hand on her
head (a sign of security and rest). — Spes, diff'erent from BIpis §. 398, 4.,
gently advancing with the fiower in her hand, in the ancient Venus cos
tume, is to be found on coins from the time of Claudius (as Spes Augus
ta,) Pedrusi vi, 6, 16. Eckhel vi. p. 238. M. Chiar. i, 20. [The Hesperid
on a metope of the Theseum Stuart iii. oh. 1. pl. 14. no. 18. is a similar
figure.] Spes is otherwise conceived in the relief Boissard iv, 130. as the
harbinger of a rich harvest, comp. TibuU. i, 1, 9. Salus and Valetudo
(on coins of the gens Acilia) was formed after Hygieia. Sometimes also
several persons stand for one figure, as the Tempora felidta^ was repre
sented by four boys with the fruits of different seasons, Buonarr. Med. tv.
7, 9. Bossifere M6d. du Eoi pl. 15. Abundantia Eacc. 723. [§. 398. E. 3.]
Tho so-called Medicean statue of Silence is correctly explained by Mongez,
MIm. de I'Inst. Nat. v. p. 150. as a nation from a tropseon.

ITALIAN, OEIENTAL DEITIES. 549

15. THE GODS OF EARLY ITALY.
407. The worship peculiar to the Italian peoples contained 1
very few forms which were originally Italian, and which at
the same time approached those of Greece in plastic distinct
ness. Where there is an appearance of this, we mostly find 2
however that a Grecian artistic form constitutes the basis, as
in Janus and Vejovis.
1. See in other passages Jupiter Anxur, Juno Lanuvina, Saturnus,
Fortuna, Mantus, Silvanus, Vertumnus, Flora, Genius, Lar.
2. Janus on coins of Volaterrse with two bearded, but also youthful
heads, and of Eome, with two bearded (on coins of the gens Ponteia with
sprouting beard), and only in later times a bearded, and a youthful coun
tenance. Janus herma, Impr. d. I. iv, 86. [Forchhammer in the Zeitschr.
f die A.W. 1844. s. 1074-77. The double herma also in B. Braun's Ant.
Marmorwerke i, 3. is also declared to be Janus by K. F. Hermann Gott.
Anz. 1844. s. 344.] He is formed after the Greek double hermse, such as
are found on many coins of Hellenic cities, Athen. xv, 692. comp. Stieg
litz N. famil. p. 30. Four-headed on coins of Hadrian. See Bottiger
Kunstmythol. s. 267., especially on the key of Janus. Vejovis (in imita
tion of ApoUo) on coins of the g. Csesia and Licinia, StiegUtz p. 36.
Etrusker ii. s. 60.
The supposed Etruscan deities in Gori are not in the least to be de
pended on. Dea Vacuna Sabinorum, in Guattani, Mem. enc. vi. p. 29.
[Gerhard Ueber die Gottheiten der Etrusker Berlin 1847 with 7 pl.]

16. FOREIGN ORIENTAL DEITIES.
408. The crowd of foreign gods adopted into the Greco- 1
Roman worship, gave rise to excellent or inferior works of art
in the Greek style, according as the period of adoption was
earlier or later. The best perhaps were those produced, in 2
imitation of the Cyrensean Zeus Ammon, by the worship of
the Alexandrian Serapis, a god of the infernal world and of
the Sun, whose form — an impenetrable mixture of attractive
mildness and mysterious appalling power — well represented
the character of religious feeling in later times. The statues 3
of Isis in the costume of Roman female servants of that god
dess, with the stiffly folded tunic, the upper garment fringed
and knotted on the breast, and the lotus-fiower, are seldom
works of excellence; the infantine figures of Horus or Harpo- 4
crates, with the fore-finger on the mouth, and the cornucopia
in the arm, are generally small bronzes, amulets. The Syrian 5
goddess, resembling the Phrygian Magna Mater, appears some-

660 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
times in statues of the time of the Syrian empresses; other
beings belonging to the nature worship of the Semitic nations,
and which were not so divested of their national singularity,
6 can only be recognised in some subordinate works of art. The
treasure of city coins, which has not yet been completely
turned to account for the history of Asiatic religion, enables
us also to recognise the chief deities of Cappadocia in Helle-
7 nized form. The Mithraic cycle of statues — besides the hun
dred times repeated sacrifice of the bull, which is the principal
representation, and bears a near relation to the Phrygian
Taurobolia — contains many other darker representations,
partly from the mystic history of the god, partly from the
worship, which was overloaded with ceremonies; on the whole
8 they were very rude in execution. This class is wound up by
compositions in which -the belief of the ancient world sought
to burst its boundaries, wherein it necessarily renounced all
healthy form; from thence originated the Abraxas gems in
Alexandria, monuments of the pantheistic religion of lao, and
9 the Panthea at Rome in which chiefiy the notion of a world-
governing Fortuna absorbed the ideas of all other deities.
1. Hirt Tf 11. s. 87.
2. Comp. §. 158. E. 1. Fine heads of Serapis PCI. vi, 16. BouiU. i,
66. with modius and seven rays ; Bouill. i, 67. on cameos, M. Borb. iv, 39.
Serapis as a Hades on a crocodile, Passeri Luc. iii, 73. Serpent-Serapis
iii, 70. Comp. Guigniaut Le dieu Serapis p, 9. [Standing Mus, Veron,
p. Ixxv, 6. Sitting, bronze figurette from Epirus, Spec, of anc. sculpture i,
pl, 63. Two heads Winck. W. iv, Tf 5, s. 437. Montf u, 121. Suppl, ii, 42,]
3, Statues of Isis of this description, Montfaucon Suppl, ii, 40. M,
Nap. iv, 61. Clarac pl, 307. 308, [986—994,] Isis with the winged coat
around hor loins, L, 375. Clarac pl, 306, Bust, PCI, vi, 16, Portrait
figures, M. Cap. iii, 81. Barberini group of Isis and Horus, now in Mu
nich 130., Hirt 11, 10. Worship of Isis PCI. vii, 19. Pitt. Ere. ii, 59.
comp. Bottiger Isisvesper, Minerva, Taschenbuch fiir 1809. Eoman
priestess of Isis with naked bosom, in gems, Wicar iv, 6. Numerous re
ferences to the worship of Isis and Serapis on Roman coins, especially in
the time of Commodus and CaracaUa, Bckhel D. N. vii. p. 128. 213 ff. Vota
publica of the time of Julian and other emperors, with a Julianus-Serapis,
an Isis-Helena, Bckhel viii. p. 136. Isis here sits often on Sirius who is
represented in the Grecian manner as a dog (a cow in Egyptian mytho
logy) ; as Faria she frequently holds a sail, the Pharus standing beside
her. The head-dress of Isis figures on coins of the Seleucidse, struck by
Antiochus Sidetes (Vandamme pl. 47.). comp. §. 232. R. 3.
4. Harpocrates Montf ii, 105. 123. M. cap. iii, 74. Ouper's Harpo
crates. Especially frequent as an amulet, Montf ii, 105. 123. With club,
like Hercules, as Semphucrates, for inst-ance Zoega N. Mg. Impp. tb. 9,
4. Impr, d. I, iv, 20, comp, §, 436, R. 3, Horus-Eros in gems, Impr, d,
Inst, ii, 44, We also find Horus-Eros- Hercules united, Anubis Montf
ii, 128, Boissard \i, 78, Canojms M, Cap, i, 82, ; 6, di. Fir, St, 67,

FOREIGN DEITIES. 651
5. See §. 241. R. 2. A Zeus-Belus on coins of Antiochus VIII, The
so-called bust of Hebon on gems, MilUn P. gr. 46. Tassie pl. 36, 4179, is
certainly a form of Baal. The figure carrying a basket and covered with
the skin of a fish, on a gem (Wiener Jahrb. ABl, xxiv, s. 25, No. 5,) and
in a relief in the Vienna Cabinet of Antiquities (Cannes ?) is perhaps
derived from the Babylonian mythology.
6. The Enyo of Comana on coins with crown of rays, shield and club,
MilUngen Anc, Coins 5, 4. comp. Cab. d' AUier de Haut. pl, 8, 4. Men §,
400, R, 2, Alexander the Pseudomantis' new god Glycon is also accu
rately known from coins of Abonoteichos, Eckhel ii. p. 383, comp. the
coins of Nicomedia, Cab. d' AUier de Haut. pl, 11, 10.
7, Among the numberless works on the Mithraica, after Philip a
Turre Monum. vet. Antii, there are especially to be referred to here
Zoega iiber die den Dienst des Mithras betreffenden Denkmaler, Abhand.
s, 89 — 211,, together with Welcker's Anmerk, s. 394. Comp. Creuzer
SymboUk. i. s. 728. Tf 3. 36., in Guigniaut pl. 26. 27. 27 b. Eichhorn,
Comment. Soc. Gott. rec. 1814, 1815. Seel Mithrageheimnisse. 1823.
Niklas MiiUer, Mithras. Wish. 1833, V. Hammer Mithraica P. 1833.
Clarac pl. 538 A. — 56a. The most famous of these sculptures is that in
the L. 76. Montfaucon Ant. expl. 1. pl, 217, 1, BouiU, iii, 47. Clarac pl.
204. with the inscription vxpix ort/ieiriov, from the CapitoUne Spelseum, the
same probably which was destroyed in 377. Comp, F, Lajard Nouv, Ob
servations sur le gr. basr. Mithr. P. 1828. [The same author Sur deux
Basr. M. qui ont ete decouverts en Transylvanie P. 1840. 4to. with 6 pl.
in part previously pubUshed in the Nouv. Ann. publ. par la Section Fran9.
de PInst. archeol. T. ii. p. 1. Sur une urne oin^raire du Mus6e d. Rouen
ibid, ii, 397 — 446 and Sur un basr. Mithr. qui a 6te decouv. h. Vienne Ann.
d. I. xiu. p. 170. tv. 36. The forthcoming Recherches sur Mithra will con
tain 106 pl. about 800 monuments.] Clarac Melanges p. 45. Others PCI. vu,
7. BouiU. iii, 48. Clarac pl. 203. 204. The number of them is very great ;
Southern Germany, France, England, Hungary, Transylvania Jurnish
many. Mithras' birth from a rock (Creuzer i. s. 773.) Montf i, 218. G.
Giust. ii, 62. and in the sculptures of the Mithrseum of Heddernheim,
which furnish the most complete cycle of Mithraic sculptures, see Habel,
Annalen des Vereins (§. 264, R. 2,) H, i, u. iii. [Creuzer Das Mithreum
von Neuenheim bei Heidelberg 1838, also in his Deutsche Schr. 2. Abth,
iu. s. 277. comp, 526.] Expiations and probations in tho lateral compart
ments of the Heddernheim and a Tyrol sacrifice to Mithras. — Statues of
Mithraic torch-bearers, PCI, iii, 21. Complete symbols of tho worship,
Gemmse Flor. ii, 78.
8. On the Abraxas-gems, especiaUy Macarii Abraxas — cum Comm. Jo
Chiflotii. Antverp. 1657. Prodromus iconicus sculptiUum gemmarum
BasUid. de Musseo Ant. Capello. V. 1702. Passeri Thes. gemm. astrif t.
ii. p. 221. BeUermann drei Programme iiber die Abraxas-Gemmen. B.
1820. Dorow, Kunstblatt 1824. No. 106. Matter Hist. Crit. du Gnostioisme.
Kopp's Palseogr. T. ui. From the proper Abraxas which represent the
god of the BasUidean sect which originated in the time of Trajan and
Hadrian (although even this is stiU open to doubt), BeUermann distin
guishes Abraxoids and Abraxasters which represent dsemon-figures and
combinations with other deities (Priapus, Anubis). The connexion of

562 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
the Abraxas-gems with the Alexandrine theurgy is especiaUy proved by
the passage of the papyrus in Reuvens Lettres a M. Letr. i. p. 24. [Mor
genstern Ueber eine noch nicht bekannt gemachte Abraxas-Gemme, Dor-
pat 1843. Programm.]
9. A Pantheon (phallic) already on coins of Demetrius II. of Syria.
Mionnet v. p. 58. ; also on coins of the gentes Plsetoria and Julia. Mi
nerva Pantheos, MiUin P. gr. 57. Bacchus Pantheus in inscr. and Auson.
Bpigr. 30. Tyche Pantheos often on gems, comp. OreUi Inscr. 21113.
The [singular] bronze found in the tomb of Festus (§. 205. No. 5.) seems
to be also one of this class. [Hirt BUderb. ii. s. 116. Tf 13, 20, Fortuna
from the Mus. Eom. i, 31. 32. Brunck Anal, ii, 90, 28, the head of Pan, the
breast and belly of Hercules, and Hermes below (talaria) in one body.]

C. HEROES.
409. The fixity and definiteness of individual characteris
tics, such as is observable in the chief deities of Grecian art,
extended also to the principal heroes. We know that it was
discovered in works of Greek art not merely by the attributes
and treatment, but also by the figure and conformation of
the body. Now, however, we know but very few heroes, al
most none besides Hercules, in so definite a manner, and can
even scarcely attain to a more minute knowledge, as instead
of the numerous bronze statues and groups — works of the
most excellent artists — which antiquity possessed, we have
now left us only reliefs, and those chiefiy on sarcophagi, where
the mythus is treated with particular reference to the occa
sion of the sculpture, and vase-paintings, whose light and free
design admits little of those characteristic traits. It is the
custom, therefore, in general, only to interpret according to the
import of the transaction represented, wherein the choice is
left between very difiFerent cycles of mythi. The general al
terations in the spirit of ancient art also affected the figured
representation of heroes ; in particular the bearded and com
pletely armed figures of the elder sculptors and painters were
for the most part supplanted by youthful representations, with
slight indication of accoutrement.
1, The passage in Plut, Arat, 3, is extremely important and instruc
tive. Canonic formations of Parrhasius §, 138, 2,, and Euphranor §, 129,
R, 2,, qui primus videtur expressisse dignitates heroum. In Philostratus,
Heroica, the forms of heroes seem to have been thoroughly chai-acterized
even to the most minute features, comp, §, 415, R, The signalements
also which the later pragmatic writers. Dares, Dictys and Malalas give
of heroes are perhaps taken in part from statues.

HEROULES, 653
2, See for example the numerous bronze statues of heroes described
by Christodorus ; a number of them seem together to form a large group.
4. Hyacinthus bearded on the Amyclsean throne, with Nicias very
youthful, Paus, iii, 19, 4, In the same manner are distinguished the
early and later styles of vase-paintings ; the Volcentine have mostly bearded
heroes, Ann, d. Inst, iii, p. 146. On the complete armour in antique
vase-paintings, Ann, d, Inst, iii, p. 49.

HERCULES.

410. The heroic-ideal is expressed with highest force in 1
Hercules, who was pre-eminently an Hellenic national hero.
Strength, steeled and proved by exertion, is the main feature,
which early Greek art already indicated in its creations, but
Myron and Lysippus especially unfolded into a form which
could not again be outdone. Even in the statues of the youth- 2
ful Hercules, which are often extremely noble and graceful,
this concentrated energy is displayed in the enormous strength
of the muscles of his neck (§. 331, 2.), the thickly set, short curls
of his small head (§. 330, 2.), the comparatively small eyes,
the great size and prominence of the lower portion of the fore
head, and the form of the entire limbs. But the character of the 3
victorious combatant of monsters, of the toil-laden (aerumnosus)
['TTovrigoTa'Trog xal agiffrog] hero, is exhibited more clearly by the ma
tured figure, such as it was perfected by Lysippus with especial
predilection (§. 129. R. 2.), in the protuberant layers of muscle
developed by infinite labour, the huge thighs, shoulders, arms,
breast and back, and also in the earnest features of his com
pressed countenance, in which the impression produced by exer
tion and fatigue has not been effaced by transient repose. Both 4
forms can still be pointed out in an almost unlimited cycle of
adventures and combats, and the development of the hero can
be traced from the serpent-quelling child throughout all the
events of his life. For the twelve labours, which were sculp
tured with especial frequency, but whose consistency and suc
cession were never indeed established with complete uni
formity, although an early-sanctioned order can be perceived,
there were soon formed certain favourite modes of represen
tation, — for many of them however several others which were
employed differently according to the time and district.
Among the host of other exploits we find the slaying of the 5
giants in particular on vases of the old style; as to the battle
with the centaurs there also figure here less known legendary
forms. The strictly warlike deeds were less a subject for the €
formative art than for elder poesy; hence it was only in ear
liest art that Hercules wore the usual heroic costume, such as

654 MYTHOLOGICAL- SUBJECTS.
he has it in Hesiod, and on the contrary the lion's hide, the
club and the bow figure even in early times as the ordinary
7 accoutrements of the hero. Other phases of the character are
disclosed by the relation to Omphale, the hero spinning in
transparent female drapery of russet hue, and the voluptuous
woman in heroic nudity, with club and lion's hide ; gay sports
8 of Erotes are linked therewith. Then the paternal relation
to Telephus, his son suckled by the hind and again recovered,
wherein art, which treated the subject chiefiy in the time of
the Antonines, must have partly followed other sources than
9 the usual mythological legend. Purifications and expiations,
of which the irascible hero required many, could only be
alluded to; but it is probable that the lyre-playing Hercules
sprang from the conception of the hero when softened after
expiation (comp. §. 359. 361.).
1. Beger's Hercules ex antiquitatis reliq. delin. 1705. is of little use.
Goethe Kunst. u. Alterth. ii, 1. s. 107 — 143. Gurlitt's Fragment einer
Archaol. Abhandlung iiber H., Archaol. Schr. L. 343. [Comment. Societ.
Philol. Lip's, ii. p. 58—64.] For the artistic history of H. §. 57. R. 2. 90.
R. 2. 96. No. 20. 21. 25. 99. R. 6. 118. R. 2. 119,2. 122,4. 129, 2.— In
Etruscan mirror-drawings H. (on other occasions called Hercle) is de
nominated Calanice, that is KxT^xivixog, MicaU 36, 3. 50, 1. [Gerh. Etr.
Spiegel u, 138. Statues in Clarac pl. 781 — 804 B., heads from coins pl,
1007. no. 2798—2810.]
2. Young H. of Ageladas, Paus. vii, 24, 2. Fine statue in the Lans
downe coUection, Spec. 40. Head Brit. M. i, ij(. [Speg. ii, 42, co
lossal, one of the best] ; with bruised ears, Brit. M. ih~4^. PCI. vi,
12.; similar M. Chiar. 43. M. Nap. ii, 32. iv, 70., at the same time
with a wreath of poplar encircled with a tKnia. Splendid heads on
gems (H. Strozzi) Bracci tv. 49, Lipp, i, 240. Impr. d. Inst, i, 67.
comp, §. 412. R. 1, (Theseus); also on coins, for instance those of
Crotona, where he (§, 329, R, 7,) is even crowned with laurel (as in those
of the BruttU, N, Brit, 3, 23,) and appears to differ from ApoUo only by
his short hair and bull-neck, H, youthful at the robbery of the tripod,
§, 362. R. 2. ; on the relief G, di. Fir. St, 104, with the Uon, the hydra,
the boar, the hind, then bearded ; often however also with the Hesperides,
as Christodorus describes him 137, Bronze in the Brit. Mus, H, young
with Hesperidan apples. Spec, ii, 29. H, <pq46S)qi^, vevqalng Clem, Al,
p. 26, Pott, ariqvx einrxyii x. -i. ^. Philostr. V. S, 11, 4.
4. Hercules' birth ? PCI, iv, 37. G. M, 429. H, borne by Hermes §,
381. E. 7, Suckled by Hera, on Etruscan pateras, Bianconi tv. 10, Edu
cation PCI. iv, 38, 39, G, M. 431. 432. The fight with the serpent
(Brunck iu. p. 209,) in statues, among which one at Florence is distin
guished. Edit, Winck, iv, s, 303. Meyer Tf 23. comp, BouiU. ui, 16, 4.
M, Borb. i, 8. ; a Dresden one 250. Aug. 89. (according to Hase) ; on
coins of Thebes, Tarentum (MiUingen M6d, In, 1, 13. 2, 15.) and else
where ; in paintings by Zeuxis, PUn, xxxv, 36,, Philostr. the younger 6.
Ant, Ere. i, 7. G, M, 430. M. Borb, ix, 54, The combats, d^7.oi, in the
temple of Athena Chalcioecos, on the Theseion §.118, E, 2,, on the Olym
pian temple §, 119, E, 2,, in the tympanum of the Heracleion at Thebes

FORM AND LABOURS OF HERCULES. 555
by Praxiteles, at Alyzia by Lysippus, also at Pergamos, Brunck iii. p.
209. The Volcentine vases furnish a very complete series of the combats
of Hercules, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p, 47. [Very many in Gerh. Auserl. V, ii,
93—148. iu, 183. 192. J. J. Dubois Catal. de la CoU. Panconcke 1835,
Heracl^ide no, 68—79. De Witte Catal. Durand 1836. no. 264, 332.
(selected vases), and later catalogues of the sort. Gerh, Etr, Sp, ii, 126
—168,] CoUocations M, Cap. iv, 61. Meyer Tf 6. (in Myron's style?) ;
PCI. iv, 40, 41. 42, ; M, Borb, i, 8. 9. ; Zoega Bass. 61-63. ; G. di Fir. St.
104.; L. 469. 499. BouiU, iii, 50, 1. 2. Clarac pl. 196.; G. Giust. ii, 135.;
Piranesi, Vasi u, 76. comp. G. M. 433-446. 453. Statues from Ostia,
Hercules with Diomedes, Geryon, Cerberus and the wild-boar (not the
tripod), PCI, ii, 6-8. E, A. Hagen de HercuUs laboribus. Begim, 1827.
[Four unedited monuments with the deeds of Hercules are mentioned
Ann. xvi. p. 179, two sarcophagi, an ara, dedicated by P. Decimius
Lucrio, and a fragment now in the Lateran. Add to these also the side
of a sarcophagus in V, Ludovisi with nine exploits, and a sarcophagus
with ten athloe and by-sides in the Marmi — nel pal. Torlonia ii, 2.] The
most usual order of succession seems to be nearly as follows (G. M. 453,
Cap, PCI. 42. L. 469.) : Lion, hydra, boar, hind, Stymphalides, Augeas,
bull and horses, Geryoneus and Amazons, Hesperides and Cerberus,
wherewith that at Olympia and that on the Theseion (here, as it appears,
lion, hydra, hind, boar, horses, Cerberus, Cycnus ? Amazons, Ceryoneus,
Hesperides) agree in most particulars, Comp, Welcker Rhein, Mus, i, s,
507. [Kleine Schr. i. S, 83.]
In conflict with the lion, on antique vases, especially M. Blacas pl.
27. MicaU tv. 89. ; [this ancient composition on vases was in later times
transferred into life-size reliefs, in Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome,
B. Braun. Ant. Marmorwerke u, 7. ; in like manner in a church behind
Hymettus ; of equal size is H. Xeovra(p6vog at the side of the garden of the
palace in V. Medici ;] strangling it, in archaic style, Gori M. E. i, 73., in
beautiful style on tbe Theseion, in statues, M. Flor. iii, 65., on coins of
Heracleia, of the gens Publicia and elsewhere ; standing over it and rest
ing, at Olympia. [Lion, hydra, buU, in fine compositions, Campana,
Opere di plastica tv. 22 — 24., of these are several repetitions extant.]
He fights the Hydra with the club, arrows (see Hagen), and with a harpe,
in the metopes of the Delphian temple (Eurip. Ion. 158. comp. Gott. G. A.
1828. s. 1078.), as in MiUin Vases ii, 75., whilst lolaus kills the scorpion.
[Early vases M. d. I. iii, 46. Ann. xiv. p. 103. One also in the library of
the Dominicans at Girgenti ; from a terracotta frieze in the Mus. Gregor.
at Eome, in engraved stones, the Hydra, six- seven- ten-headed, accord
ing to old designs in the Bibl. Cappon. in the Vatican no. 3103. fol. 7, 70,
72,] Carrying the wild boar on his shoulders, sometimes without Burys
theus (Liban, Ekphr. 12. Petersen de Lib. iii.), sometimes with Burys
theus stuck in the cask (§. 48. E. 3.) on vases, see Maisonneuve 66. ;
Campanari Mem. Rom. ii. p. 155. Panofka M. Bartold. p. 69 sq. Micali
tv. 92. ; ibid. tv. 85. M. Pourt. 12.; R. Rochette J. des Sav. 1835. p. 217
sq. ; in wall-paintings Pitt. Ere. iii, 47, 1.; in reliefs Clarac pl. 196.,
where the head of Burystheus is misdrawn into an altar-fiame, also on
the Theseion as it seems. Kneeling on the Arcadian hind §. 96. No. 26.
H. chases away the Stymphalides (of whose form Voss Myth. Br. i, 32.)
sometimes kneeling (on coins of Stymphalus, Cab. d' AUier de Haut. pl.

566 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
6, 22.), sometimes standing (also on these coins) with bow, but likewise
with club. He slays Diomedes with his club, coins of Antoninus Pius
of Alexandria, Mionn. Suppl. ix. pl. 8. p. 24. H. buU-queUer. Staokelb.
Graber, Tf 14. (Theseus according to Stackelb.) Fighting with Geryoneus
(PAPTFONES on a vase from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 231.) as threefold
hoplites, [De Witte Mem, sur H, et Geryon, Nouv, Ann. de la Sect. Franj,
de PInst, Archeol, 1838. 1839. p. 107. 270,] Placing his foot on the queen
of the Amazons, on the Theseion, also in Olympia as it seems, [Inspection
shows that H, holds fast the Amazon, who is thrown upon her face, with
his legs squeezed against her under the shoulders, but the fragment has
been misunderstood, and was wrongly combined with another, in a very
comical manner, in a cast at Paris in 1841. Kunstmus, zu Bonn, S,
160 — 162,] Fighting with a mounted Amazon on imperial coins of He
raclea, Pedrusi vii, 32, 6, Hercules fights especially with the Amazon
Andromache on vases from Volci, Hercules for the most part drags
Cerberus after him ; otherwise on the Volcentine vases, R, Rochette M, I.
pl, 49 a. Receiving the apples of the Hesperides from a virgin or plucking
them himself, vase of Asteas from Psestum, Millin i, 3,, another pubUshed
by Bern, Quaranta, Kunstbl, 1824. No, 6, comp. also Hancarv. i, 98, On
gems H. slays the dragon, and the Hesperides flee, M. Borb, vii, 47, The
coffer of Cypselus and the group of Theocles, Paus. vi, 19, 1. comp. v, 17,
1, combined the adventure of the Hesperides and of Atlas, in the same
way as in Pherecydes, On Atlas §, 396, [Atlas and the Hesperides on
a large ApuUan vase, Gerhard Archemorus Tf 2,, other Hesperidian
monuments, S, 41. [H. stoops, with a small basket before the tree, wait
ing tiU the apples are gathered for him ; Hermes, lolaus ; amphora in
the possession of B. Braun; Gerhard le Vase de Midias B. 1840. pl. 2.
S. 41. 76. Zoega Bassir. u. tv. 64. Mosaic §. 322. E. 4.] H. with An-
tesus, Brunck iii. p. 210. Group in Florence, Maffei Eacc. 43., fragment
from Aquileia, Wiener Jahrb. xlviii. s. 101. Tf i, 1., at Volci M. I. d.
Inst. 26, 2., [? Mus. Gregor. ii, 16, 2 a. Antseus, formerly " Cacus."] pic
ture, Nason. 13., gems. Combats especially numerous on coins of Perin
thus ; also (No. 273. Mionn.) that with the Echidna, comp. Zoega 65.
5. Battle with the giants on the coffer of Cypselus, Paus. iii, 18, 7.
Alcyoneus' death §. 397. E. 3. G. M. 458. 459. Millingen Div. 31. Ann.
d. Inst. V. p. 308. Battles with centaurs in groups of statues, M. Flor. iii,
6(?,t on vases from Volci, Micali tv. 96., and others, 6. M. 438. ; Hancarv.
ii, 124.; MiUin i, 68.; Moses 1.; Millingen Div. 38., where Dexamenos is
a hostile centaur contrary to the ordinary fable. H. slaying a centaur
Impr. d. I. iii, 66. The story of Nessus, in earliest painting, H. et
Nessus, Peint. d'un Vase de Tenee, Progr. Athen. 1835. 4to. Zeitschr.
f. A. W. 1836. s. 1157. PhUostr. the yr. 16, treated in a peculiar manner
in a picture from Pompeii, M. Borb. vi, 36. ; the rape of Dejanira on
vases, G. M. 456., reliefs, Brit. M. ii, 15. ; Dejanira borne by H., Etrusc.
mirror, G. M. 457. [Gerh. Etr. Spiegel ii, 169. comp. 160. Vole, vases
Gerh. Auserl. V. ii, 117, 1. Cab. Durand no. 321.; Gerh. ii, 3, also in
MicaU tv. 76 — 78. ; Dejanira with the infant HT.V.iOS in her arms, Her
cules, Athene and CEneus. Gerh. Tf 116.] H. opening the cask of Pholus,
on the vase G. M. 439. comp. MicaU tv. 99, 6. ; Stackelb. Graber Tf 41. ;
[three other vase-paintings, Gerh. Auserl. V. ii, 119, 120.] on gems, ibid.
tv. 116, 7., intoxicated among the centaurs, at 'Volci. Combat with

ADVENTURES OP HERCULES. 557
Achelous (group by Dontas, Paus. v, 17, 1. vi, 19, 9.) §. 403. R. 2. Millin
Vases ii, 10. comp. Philostr. the yr. 4. [Vase from Girgenti §..403. R. 2,
A Vase edited by Sam. Birch in the Trans, of the Soc. of Lit. Sec. Series
i, 1843. p. 100 — 107. and by Gerh, Auserl, V. ii, 115, was considered a de
ception by Millingen, A human head with a horn is combined with the
body of a Triton as Achelous,] Fighting with IViion, on vases from
Volci, Welcker ibid. a. 521, comp, §. 402, R, 2, H. questioning a sea
deity, Nereus or Proteus, before the theft of the apples, Impr, d. I, iii, 17.
[Bull. 1833. p, 88, Hercules and Triton, Welcker Kl, Schr. i, s, 84, M,
Gregor, ii, 44, 2, vase from Vulci 1835; Gerh. Auserl. V. ii. 111,, Cab.
Dur. no, 302,, now Cab. Pourtalfes no. 196,; hydria Pizatti, Bull, d.
PAcad, de BruxeUes xi, p. 407, edited by Roulez ; lekythos from Agrigen
tum found in 1833, PoUti Lettera al Sgr. MUlingen Palermo 1834. ; in
the possession of Baseggio in Rome 1841, H, and Triton, Rv. two
nymphs each with a dolphin; in his possession also Rv, Dionysus and
Ariadne, Apollo, Artemis, Hermes; and still more grand H,, Triton,
Athene and other figures ; a fine specimen in the possession of Cav, Cam
pana in Rome 1845 ; one in the Mus, at Naples, the sea-god terminating
in two serpents and two dogs, attacked by Hercules in shield and ar
mour, above them Dsedalus and Icarus, Rv, Perseus ; one in Vienna,
Arneth das k. Miinz-u, Antiken-Cab, s, 14. no, 77, The god wrestling
with HEPAKAE2 is also called NEPETS, Proteus or Poseidon with
sceptre and white hair and AM'tlTPITE stand by. Notice d'une coll,
de vases peints — de feu le Pr. de Canino P. 1846. p. 7. no. 11.; similar
no. 8, and NEPE half man, half fish, Uke Triton, is also alone, M. Blaoas pl.
20. and with Nereids M. d. I. i, 38. comp. 0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 64 f.
Minervini Bull. Napol. iv. p. 88. 113. Vases connected herewith enumerat
ed by Gerh. Auserl. V. ii. s. 96. not. 12. Nereus in human form wrest-
Ung with H., Gerh. Tf 112. 113. s. 99., Cab. Durand no. 304. 305. H.
overpowering the sea-god in the friezes of Assos M. d. I. iii, 34., also in
Fellows' Asia Minor p. 48.] With the sea-monster of Hesione §. 322. R.
4. With the Hippocontidce (Ligurians according to Zoega) PCI. v, 15.
Before Ilion §. 90. R. 3, With Cycjius §, 99, No, 6, 176. R. 2. Vase from
Vulci BuU, 1835, p. 163, [Gerh, Auserl, V, u, 121,, at the same time with
another] ; BuU. 1837. p, 89,, [one of those here described in Gerh, Tf 122.
123, ; a Nolan one Tf 124, Others in the Mus, Gregor,, in that at Syra
cuse and in many other places. A coUection of designs in E, Braun's,]
With Busiris (in the spirit of the Satyric Drama) Millingen Div. 28.,
with excellent drawing of the Egyptians on a Volcentine vase, Micali tv.
90.; of two other vase-pictures Panofka Hyp. Eom. Studien s. 296.
[Berl, Vasen no. 1763, &c,] H, Buzyges, Brbach vase Ann, vu. p, 93, tv,
C2 (Creuzer). H, and PaUas, beside the monster, HeUus according to
Stackelberg, Graber Tf 15. H. in advance, Pallas in her chariot, beside
a tripod [Uke Eos §, 400, E, 3,], ibid, Tf 15, Eestoration of the tripod ac
cording to Stackelberg ? ?, H. before the lustral fountain Impr. d. I. iii,
19. 20, [H, driving a bull before him, which he strikes with a bundle of
arrows as Bos drives the boar in Theocritus 29, a tree, vase-painting
BuU, 1842. p. 187. On a fine cyUx of M. Joly de BammevUle's at Paris.
H. grasping the vines with such force that the roots turn upward, oppo
site H. strangling Syleus. A girl with pitcher and goblet before an altar
on the bottom.

558 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
6. In old wooden figures H, appears in armour, Str, xv, 688. comp.
§. 77. E. 1, On the ark of Cypselus he was recognised by his usual
ffX^i«a, §, 57. E. 2, with which the sword, Paus, v, 18, 1. is not at vari
ance ; in many vase-paintings (M. I. d. Inst. 26, 10. Tischb. ii, 20.) [Micali
tv. 90. 100, 2. 3. Laborde ii, 22. Politi sulla tazza deU' amicizia 1834.] it
is united with the otherwise usual costume, as is also the Boeotian shield,
§. 99. No. 6. Tho bow of Hercules is the Scythian one, with double bend,
(the nrxhivrovx r6i.x jEschyl. Choeph. 159.), Passow in Bottiger's Arch. u.
Kunst. s. 150. The Uon's hide is fastened especially in Btruscan bronzes
not merely with the fore -paws on the breast, but also with a clasp on the
waist, Micali tv. 35, 6, 14.
7, H. and Omphale, Farnesian group, Neapels Ant, i. s, 24, Gerhard's
Ant, BUdw. i, 29, M, Borb, ix, 27. Belief G. M. 463. Tho spinning H.
in the mosaic §. 322. R. 4. G. M. 464. ; Lucian speaks of simUar paint
ings De hist, conscr. 10. On the Cassel statue, BouUl. ii, 8. Volkel in
Welcker's Zeitschr. s. 177. Hercules combed by Omphale, G. M. 453.**
Omphale in tho costume of Hercules on coins of Sardis, on gems. Julia
Domna as Omphale, Guattani Mem. enc. v. p. 120. [Large statue of Om
phale in this costume in the possession of Vescovali in Rome.] Head of
Omphale? L. 193. M. Frang. ui, 11., on many gems, see especiaUy G. di
Fir. V. tv. 27, H, aud lole ? famous gem of Teucros, M, Flor, ii, 6. G, di
Fir, V, 26, 1. G, M, 455. [Jul. Minervini conjectures U mito di Ercole e
di lole Nap. 1842. 4to. in a Pompeian picture. R. Rochette Peint. de Pomp.
pl. 7. p, 91—107. Cavedoni in the BuU. Napol. ii, p, 63, E, Braun BuU.
1842, p, 185. 0, Jahn Archaol Beitr. s, 233, supposes it with Panofka to
be Auge,] H, subdued by Eros, §. 129, R, 2. Treated in a more archaic
fashion, Lipp. i, 282. G. di Fir. v, 6, 4. Wicar ii, 23. H. brings Bros
(Epeur) a prisoner before the throne of Zeus, Etr. mirror-drawing, M, I.
d, Inst, ii, 6, Erotes playing with Hercules' weapons, G. M. 472,* and
frequently, Eros-Hercules L. 266. 297. BouiU. iu, 10, 1. 3. Clarac pl. 282.
MiUin G. M. 482,** The so-caUed Ptolemseus Auletes, a Hercules at
Cos, in female costume, according to Kohler Descr. d'une am^thyste.
1792. 8, H. and Telephus (according to Visconti, Ajax according to Winck,)
in the fine group Race, 5, PCI. u, 9. BouUl. ii, 3, Clarac, pl. 302, comp.
Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 227. [ibid. s. 154.] and Gerhard A. Bildw. Tf 113, 1.
In bas-reliefs Hercules with Telephus in his arms and Bacchus. Other
groups L. 450. BouiU. u, 2. Guattani M. L 1788. p xxix. [H. with the in
fant Telephus on his hand, and the hind at his feet ; similar a very small
statue in the Cabinet of Antiquities at Vienna.] Gaetano d' Ancona IUus
traz. del gruppo di Ercole coUa Cerva scoperta in Pompeii nel 1805. On an
Athenian monument, M. Nan. 190. comp. Paciaudi Mon. Pelop. Bpim. §. 3.
Bckhel P. gr. 26. 27. Fine picture of the recovery of Telephus, Pitt. Ere.
i, 6. G, M. 461, M, Borb. ix, 6. comp. viii, 50, Coins of Pergamos, Chois,
Gouff. Voy. pitt, u, 5, 3,, Midseon, VaiUant De Camps p. 63,, Tarsus, 6.
M. 450,, of Antoninus Pius §, 204. R. 3. Antonini Imp. iU, 67, The eagle
introduced as in the waU-painting, Telephus alone as a chUd under the
hind, on coins of Tegea, Cab. d'AUier de Haut. pl. 7, 2. ; as a youth, re
sembUng the Dioscuri, with the hind on the Portico of Thessalonica. Dis
covery, Coins of Gorme, Miinchner Denkschr. t Philol. i. Tf 3, 2. [0.
Jahn Telephos und Troilos, Kiel 1841, 8vo. and Archseol. Aufs. s. 160—

APOTHEOSIS OP HERCULES. 559
180. Telephus at the hind and H. Campana Opere di plastica tv. 25. As
in the fine relief Visconti Mon. Scelti Borghes. ii, 9. 0. Jahn s. 62. a ser
vant lays the swaddled child of Auge in her bosom, the painting in the
baths of Titus in Thiersch Veterum artif. op. tb. 1. may also be interpret
ed in connexion therewith according to Panofka Hall. LZ. 1836. Aug. s.
490 — 92, although the motive of the swing which the maid gives herself,
remains obscure. Auge in Mysia, Auge, Teuthras, Aphrodite, Gerh. Etr.
Spiegel ii, 169, <fec.] Hercules' son Qlenus, on a vase from Volci, see
Commentat. Soc. Gott. rec. vii. p. 102.
9. On the coins of Crotona we see H. making expiation, and reposing
beside the wine, see Dorians i. p. 455. H. in remorseful sorrow on account
of his frenzy, picture by Niosearchus, PUn. xxxv, 40, 36. Making atone
ment at Delphi ? Laborde Vases i, 34. On the archaic vase Laborde ii, 7.
Athena has taken the club from H. and be ascends a step playing on the
lyre. H. Kitharodos, often at Volci, with Athena, also with Hermes and
Dionysus, Micali tv. 99, 8. Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 135. Also Passeri Luc.
ii, 6., on gems M. Flor. ii, 44, 2. Lipp. Suppl. 335. 336. and among the
muses of Ambracia, §. 393. R. 2. G. M. 473. ''H.qxx'Kri ra Movcrx yerti, re
Uef, Boissard, iv, 63, [H. and the Muses worshipped in the Gymnasium
according to inscriptions,]
411. The pyre on Mount (Eit& (the suff'erings at which were 1
certainly very rarely exhibited by art), and the apotheosis
open up a new series of representations of Hercules. We see
the hero, in beautiful vase-paintings, led up by his guardian
deities, from the pyre to Olympus in a quadriga, usually in
youthful form, — because his rejuvenescence took place simul
taneously with the apotheosis, — and even wedded there to
Hebe, the goddess of youth. Another mode of representation 2
first introduces Hercules into the thiasos of the Bacchian at
tendants, and sports with the contrast between the violent
and intractable hero and his wanton companions. A Her- 3
cules of this sort, taking his ease in this happy intermediate
state, was represented in the famous master-piece, the torso
Belvedere, whose posture entirely agrees with that of the hero
reposing among the satyrs. Hercules here rested on his right
arm, in which he probably held the skyphos, (§. 299. No, 7 d,),
and had the left doubled over his head; a happy feeling of
comfort seems diffused over the muscles of his majestic frame,
without effacing the impress of immense power. Following up 4
the sports of Dionysian festal mirth, art also gladly represented
Hercules in a comic light ; for which his adventures with the
Pigmies and Cercopes furnished the best opportunity. The 5
worship of Hercules is denoted by his sacrificial animal, the
wild-boar, and also the Herculean skyphos; the cornucopia
also belongs to him in a certain relation. Here he is usually
grouped with inferior rural deities (§. 402. 403, 1,), to whom
he even approaches pretty near in an inferior modification,
wherein the rude and coarse phase of his character comes

560 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
6 into view. The allegorical fable of Hercules at the cross-Avay,
on the other hand, is of little importance to art.
1, A suffering II. (H, habitu OUtaso ?) [solo eo habitu Roma;] is said to
be in the Barberini palace ; a head with such expression on gems, Spence,
Polym, pl, 19, 3, Lipp, Suppl. ii, 491. [Fine youthful bust with mourn
ful expression Galer. di Firenze iii. tv. 117.] On the apotheosis Bottiger
Hercules in bivio p. 37. Belief on the Amyclsean throne, Paus, iii, 1 8,
7, Picture by Artemon, Plin, xxxv, 40. Fine vase-piot, in Gerhard,
Ant, Bildw, 31, comp, Welcker, Hyp, Rom, Stud, s, 301, Nike drives,
Hermes guides, Apollo welcomes, Poeas takes away the quiver, a nymph
extinguishes the pyre, as does the brook Dyras on other occasions, H,
ascending in Athena's quadriga, on several vases from Volci, Ann, iii, p.
151, ; besides MUlingen Div, 36, ; G. M. 462. ; Moses pl. 69. ; [De Witte
Vases peints de I'Btrurie No. 96., underneath the pile, which the nrxq-
^evoi 6pifiqo(p6qoi Arethusa and I1PEMN021A are quenching.] H. in
youthful form receiving the draught from Hebe, relief, Guattani M. I.
1787. p. 47. H., in a circle of several deities, presented to Hebe, on Btrus
can mirrors, for instance Micali tv. 49. Hebe with Hera and Athena
coming to meet the quadriga of H., in Volci, Ann. iii. p. 152. Olympian
marriage of H. and Hebe (but with the enigmatical inscription lOAE, R.
Rochette M. I. p. 271.), splendid picture on a large crater from Nola, in
Berlin. [Apotheosis of Hercules Berlin Vases no. 1031, cylix from Tar
quinii, Gerhard Trinkschalen Tf 5. and no. 1708 — 1711 amphorse ; Dubois
Vases Paucouoke no. 79. Selection from Luc. Bonaparte's Vases Archseo
logia L. xxiii, Nike to the right of H. under a portico, the gate of Olym
pus, handing him a garland, on the left Zeus with winged thunderbolt,
Ev. Quadriga guided by a crowned goddess, another with cup and lute ;
in the Mus. at Naples from Euvo. H. in the quadriga led into Olympus,
Ev. Battle; Vasi Feoli no. 18. II. with Athene in the quadriga, guided
by Apollo with the hind, without bow, Ev. Dionysus with two satyrs ;
no. 19. amphora from Vulci, the same together with a figure meeting
Apollo ; Mus. Etr. no. 1636, MicaU Storia tv. 89. H. lying (in Olympus)
with AAKMENE at his feet. Alcmene in Olympus Gerh. Studien i. s.
304. Not. 6. Very doubtful if Alcmene Gerh. Trinkschalen 5. and that
she, who must have been introduced by Hercules, should pray to Zeus for
his reception. Vase of Python Nouv. Ann. de I'l. MiUingen T. i. p. 487.
pl. 10, Alcmene on the pile, to which Amphitryon and Antenor apply
torches, above in half-length Zeus and Acs, all these with the names, and
two Hyads, who quench the fiames by pouring water from their pitchers,
whUst two thunderbolts are hurled to the ground by Zeus, who thus des
tines Alcmene to immortality, as he also caused her to be stolen from
her grave by Hermes. She therefore stretches her right hand upwards.
Ev. Dionysus between two Msenads, and Semele between Satyr and Sile
nus.] 2. So the Farnesian relief (Zoega 70. Corsini HercuUs quies et expi-
atio in Fames, marmore expressa), the meaning of which is evidently
this: H. is apotheosized in the year 58 of Admete, the priestess of
Hera; through the priestess he receives from the hand of Hebe the
draught of immortality (to which draught is also to be referred Gerh. Ant.
Bildw. i, 47.), and now comes as dvxnzxvopi.evog in the first place into tho

HERCULES, IN DIVINE FORM, 561
sphere of the Bacchian dsemons. We see II. besides in the Bacchian
tliiasus on the Volcentine vases, as on the tazza in Zoega 71. 72. In
Bacchian pompa beside Dionysus in the chariot, PCI. iv, 26. Woburn
Marbl. 6. Playing on the fiute among satyrs, Laborde ii, 11. At the
banquet with Dionysus and Ariadne, MiUin Vases i, 37. Contest in
drinking with Dionysus on a golden goblet in the Cab. du Eoi, G. M.
469. Carousing, Zoega 68. PCI. v, 14. M. Worsl. i, 2., on archaic gems,
Impr. d. Inst, i, 17 sqq. iu, 21 sqq. Sails introduced (allusion to the voy
age over Oceanos ?). Intoxicated (Brunck Anal. iii. p. 210.), Impr. d. Inst,
ii, 29. ; sinking away, Zoega 67, Gerh. Ant. Bildw, i, 30, comp, Neapel's
Ant. s, 59, Statuette from Velleia, M. I, d, Inst, 44 c. comp. Lopez, Ann.
iv. p. 71. Also Pitt. d. V. Negroni, comp. §. 386. E. 3. Head of H. crown
ed with ivy, G. M. 470. [with vine-leaves, herma, Brit. Mus. ii, 46.] As
the hospitable hero holding out his right hand, le^iovp^evog, on numerous
bronzes, G. di Fir. St. 113. 114. Ant. Bro. vi, 20. H. drunk, bronze from
jEtolia Spec, ii, 31. 32. H. with a hero on an Etr. mirror, Iscr. Perug.
T. i. tv. 6. no. 1., BuU, 1830, p, 163, 1836, p, 41.
3. Repose of Hercules on vases of Volci, Ann, iii, p. 152, We see
him here reclining at the banquet, crowned by Athena, Hermes and
Alcmene present, MicaU tv. 89, Tho posture of leaning on the elbow is
ascribed by Luc. Lapith, 13, 14, to Hercules with Pholus, — Torso PCI, ii,
10. BouiU. ii, 4, Eacc, 9. comp, Winck, i. s. 267, Beschr. Rom. ii, ii. s.
119. Found at the time of Julius IL, in the Campo del Flore, where the
theatre of Pompey stood. On the inscription and the master §. 160. R.
6. [R. Rochette in the Mem. de I'Ao. des Inscr. xv, 1 and in his Mem. de
Numism. et d'Antiq. 1840. p. 120 — 166. Conjectures sur le groupe an
tique dont faisait partie le torse de Belved. supposes Auge to have be
longed to it, comp. 0. Jahn Zeitschr. f A. W. 1843. s. 857. Minervini
takes the gem of Teucros for H. and lole, Mito di B. ed lole p. 32 — 36.
The sculptor Jerichau, who executed a few years ago a similar H., as
serts that certain muscles do not admit of an uplifted arm, and therefore
of the assumption of a group. This comes in aid of Heyne's conjecture
§. 129. R. 2, d.] This eternal rest is clearly distinguished from that im
mediately after his labours, §. 129. R. 2. — Similar the H. invictus, Bois
sard ui, 103. That divine clearness also characterizes many heads, espe
ciaUy those with the twisted fiUet, for instance that in BouUl. i, 71.
(called Hero, victor). More grand the H.-head Lipp. i, 247. Suppl. 312.
Zeus-Uke statue of Hercules, found in Bavay, see Q, de Quincy, Ann. d.
Inst. u. p. 59. M. I. 17. Spec, ii, 33.
4. H. among Pygmies, Philostr. ii, 22. Zoega 69. A Pygmy himself
(Sophron's"H5uXXo5) and fighting with cranes. Tischb. ii, 18. comp. 7.
MUUn i, 63. 72. M. Pourtalfes 8. Battles of Pygmies often on vases, also
from Volci and Tarquinii. The Pygmies are represented on the vases
precisely as in Ctesias Ind. 11. Adventures with the Cercopes §. 90. R. 2.
[Three vase-paintings see Ueber den epischeu Cyclus s. 409 f Another
Cab. Durand no. 315. in Gerh. Auserl. V. ii, 110.; one quite new Bull.
1843. p. 65, Black figures on yellow ground, the Cercopes tall and
slender, with hair long and lank.] MiUingen Div, 35 [?] Tischb. iii, 37, [?]
Represented by phylakes, Hancarv. iii, 88. (Dorians i. p. 463.). Comp.
Bottiger Amalth. iii. s. 318.
2N

662 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
5. H. with symbols of his worship, PCI. iv, 43. 6. M. 480. (pediment
of a smaU temple near Tibur) ; Chiar. i, 21. Altar with attributes of H.
Gerh. A. BUdw. Tf 111, 1—4. H. resting on capitals of columns 114, 5.
6. Hermes brings a sow as an offering to Hercules and Athena. Ibid.
Tf 86. 1. Among rural deities, BouiU. ui, 70, 1. H. as overseer of herds
of cattle, Winck. M. I. 67. Hercules Placidus with the horn of plenty
(comp. Photius Bibl. Coisb xvu. p. 347.), Pan beside him, Boissard iv, 71.
With cornucopia PCI. ii, 4. ; handing it to Zeus, G. M. 467. Carrying
Zeus [Pluto] with cornucopia 468. Carrying him over the water, led by
Hermes, Gori M. Etr. u, 169. Christie, Painted Vases 15. Millingen Div.
35. : a still enigmatical representation, even after the explanations of
Bottiger, Archseol. Aehrenl. i. s. 4. MiUin Vases ii, 10. [G. M. 468.]
MiUingen Div. p. 56. Gerhard Kunstbl. 1823. s. 206.— Hermheracles,
BouUl. iii, 17, 3. 4. Clarac pl. 347. ; together with Hermathene, Passeri
Luc. ii, 8. Poseidon, Hercules, Hermes fishing, G. M. 466, referred by
0. Jahn Zeitschr. f. A.W. 1838. s. 319, without any probability, to the
comedy of Hebe's marriage.
6. Hadrian's gold-coin, of Gades, gives alone an authentic representa
tion, Eckhel D. N. vi, 506. Ann. d. Inst. iv. tf F, 2. MiUingen Ann. vi.
p. 332, In vase-paintings I would rather reckon G. M, 460, under this
head (taking MiUin's priestess of Ceres as Arete), than Maisonn, pl. 4. Ann.
tv. F, 1. Bottiger Hercules in bivio. Lips. 1829. Welcker Ann. iv. p. 379.
Schulzeit. 1831. No. 84. [An undoubted representation is furnished by
the uncommonly successful composition of the vase from Dubois Maison
neuve Ann. iv. tv. F. comp. in reference to MUUngen's unimportant
doubts, Rhein. Mus. iv. s. 479 f comp. v, s. 137. vi, s. 610, also Feuer
bach Ann. XV. p. 248., Gerhard ApuUsche Vasenbilder. Tf 12. Not. 12. 13.
who now also supposes Hedone along with H. and Omphale Tf 14.]

2. THE OTHER HEROIC CYCLES.
1 412. In sculpture not less than mythology, the heroic form
of Theseus was, as early as the Phidian school, fashioned after
that of Hercules; he received, however, a less compact structure
of body, one which especially indicated activity in wrestling,
a less compressed and more graceful form of countenance, and
short but less crisped hair; his costume, except in vase-paint
ings, which adhere to the general heroic garb, is usually the
lion's hide and the club, sometimes also the chlamys and pe-
2 tasus, after the manner of Attic ephebi. At a much later
period was established by art, from the descriptions of tragedy,
the slender and noble form of Hippolytus, which was allied
3 to that of Artemis. Bceotian heroes are often indicated by
the hat {xwri Boiaria §. 338. R. 1.) worn in their country; in
characteristic and expressive sculpture, nothing has come down
to us from the rich cycle of Theban myths, except Amphion
4 and Zethus, the twin brothers of diflferent nature. The lofty
and graceful heroic form of Jason can hardly be recognised in

ATTIC HEROES. CECROPS, THESEUS, ETC. 663
the statue of the sandal-tyer, which, although otherwise ex
cellent, displays nothing of heroic grandeur, and whose atti
tude besides occurs in Hermes (§. 380. R. 7.) ; a panther's or
lion's skin seems, from old descriptions, to belong to his com
plete costume ; however, he is also characterized in vase-paint
ings by the Thessalian garb of the petasus and the chlamys.
Medea sometimes appears in simple Grecian costume, some- '
times with oriental drapery, especially in the sleeved coat
hung over the under-dress — the candys (§. 246. R. 5.) — ex
pressing in mien and gesture the concentrated passionateness
of her nature.
1. Attic mythus. £'r«cAiAe!4s sacrificing Chthonia ? on the marble seat
in Staokelb. Graber s. 33. Cecrops and his daughters §. 387. R. 7. Herse
with Hermes §. 381. R. 6. Erichthonius' birth §. 371. R. 4, comp. §. 384.
R. 2. Education? (Hephsestus with Hera according to Visconti, with
Thetis according to Zoega) PCI. iv, 11. Panofka Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 303.
comp. Clarac Melanges p. 44. Beschr. Roms ii, ii. s. 228. Driving a cha
riot §. 118. R. 2. Oreithyia §. 401. R. 2. [Alope and Kerkyon, Winck.
Mon. ined. 92. Nouv. Annales de I'Inst. archeol. i. p. 149 — 160. pl. C.
Fragment, Indicaz. dei mon. del M. Estense di Catajo p. 92. no. 1151,]
Tereus and Progne, on a vaso from Volci, Ann, iii, p, 162. [on one from
Ruvo in the Mus. Borb., Roulez in the Nouv. Ann. de PInst. archeol. ii.
p. 261. pl. 21., comp. Minervini, Avellino, Welcker in the BuU. Napol. ii.
p. 12. 81. .^geus questioning Themis who is seated on the tripod, cylix
in Gerhard's 'Winckelmanns-Programm. 1846.] Theseus, statue with hel
meted head, the interpretation doubtful, Spec, ii, 19, [in like manner that
of an Athenian relief, where Theseus is worshipped (formerly in Ampelo-
kipos near Athens) M. d. I. iv, 22 B. Ann. xvii, p. 234., Archaol. Zeit. iii.
Tf 33 , Clarac u. pl. 224 A. BuU. 1846. p. 3.] JEthra carried off by Po
seidon, in Volci, Commentat. Soc. Gott. rec. vii. p. 103. Theseus bringing
forth .Sgeus' armour from under the stone, frequent in Volci, Ann. iii. p.
47., on coins of Athens (after the group Paus. i, 27, 8.) N. Brit. 6, 16. ;
Impr. d. Inst, i, 69. ; Winck. M. I. 96. ; Zoega Bass. 48. ; GeU, N. Pomp.
pl. 16. M. Borb. ii, 12. Taking leave of Mthxa., on coins of Troezen, Mil
lingen Anc. coins 4, 22. [Gerh. Auserl. V. iii, 158.] Bight battles of The
seus on the Theseion §. 118. E. 2. viz. The Crommyonian sow (also on
coins, N. Brit. 6, 23.), Sciron, Cercyon (represented like Antseus, see Plat.
Laws vii, 795.), Periphetes ?, Sinis ?, Pityokamptes (also Tischb. i, 6. Mil
lin Vases i, 34. Bottiger Vasengem. ii. s. 134.), the Marathonian buU
(comp. G. M. 485. ; M. Borb. vui, 13.), Minotaur. The battle with Pro
crustes in vase-paintings, MilUngen Div. 9. 10. (Thes. in the Ught chiton),
represented as a farce, ibid. 46. The death of Sciron and of Patroclus,
vase-picture of the royal mus. by Panofka, with 4 pl. B. 1836. 4to. Vases
afterwards found in Etruria Annali viii. p. 313. [one edited M. d. I. iu, 47.
Ann. xiv. p. 113.] Theseus prevented by .^geus from taking Medea's poi
sonous draught, Winck. M. I. 127. Combe Terrac. 20. (Machaon accord
ing to others). [0. Jahn in the Archaol. Zeit. 1848. s. 318.] Theseus sub
duing the Minotaur, on a very old gem, E. Soc. of Litt. ii, 1. p. 95., where
MiUingen sees Achelous. besides, Stosch Gemmse 61. Bckhel P. gr.
32, ; N, Brit, 6, 18— 20. ; Hancarv, iii, 86, G, M, 490, 491, §. 99, N, 2,

664 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
Lanzi De' vasi ant, diss, iu, ; Gori M. Etr, i, 122. Theseus, Minos, Ari
adne and Minotaurus {Txuqog), vase-painting from Volci, BuU, d, Inst.
1830. p. 4. The minotaur, scarabKus and corneUan Impr. d. I, cent, iii,
11, 12., as a centaur in the labyrinth, gem, M. Flor. ii, 35, 1. [The bat
tle between Theseus and M. by L. Stephani Leipz. fol. Statue of Th. sub
duing the Minotaur very well preserved, found at Genzano in 1740. C. Fea,
MisceU. i. p. 152. Th. vanquishing the Minotaur on a sarcophagus in
Cologne, Verein der Alterthumsfreunde Bonn vii. Tf. 3. s. 1 15. ; very fre
quent in mosaic pavements, at Pavia in the church of St. Michael, in
Orbe, Kunstbl. 1845. s. 383, in Aix, Salzburg, Gaeta, Naples.] Theseus
among the boys and girls of Athens, receiving their thanks, mosaic from
the country of the Marrucini, AUegranza, Opusc. erud. pl. iv. no. 5. p.
232. WaU-painting, Pitt. Ere. i, 5. Theseus with Poseidon, §. 356. E. 4.
[The deeds of Theseus, in the dress of the Attic ephebi, seven, five, six,
four, two, are very frequent on goblets, in red figures, some of which are
enumerated in Gerh. Auserl. V. iii. s. 33. Not. 9. Of these a. is singular
ly beautiful, see Bull. 1846. p. 106, Archaol. Zeit. iv. s. 288, and now in
the possession of B. Braun, b. with six exploits de Witte Cab. Etr. p. 66.
in the possession of the Duo de Luynes, c. with five. Cab. Durand no. 348.
now in the Brit. Mus., d. engraved there pl. 234., according to the cover
of the part, removed from the Durand coUection to the Brit. Mus. If this
is correct, a repetition of the same representation must be there, brought
from Siena in 1843, where it was found, corresponding completely, on a
cylix under no. 183. among the 100 vases brought from thence to the
Brit. Museum. In a smaller collection, then also in Siena, of a painter
pensioned by Lucien Bonaparte, there was in a fine small cylix repeated in
and outside (as in a.) Procrustes on the bed, Th. with the hammer strik
ing away at Hm, Korkyon, the sow together with her nymph Phsea who
wards off, Sinis, a man with a beard, at whom Th. strikes with a vessel,
the bull : on the outside the wrestling contest is left out. Further there
is e., from the Reserve Btr. no, 3, now in Munich, in Gerh. pl. 232. 233. f.
Bull, Sinis, sow, Periphetes ; inside Th. and Antiope, g. Sinis, sow, within
palsestrian, h. an amphora in the possession of Cardinal Fieschi with Pro
crustes and bull. Single exploits in Gerhard tf 159. Procrustes and
Sinis comp. s. 35. not. 16. 18. pl. 160. 161. Minotaur 162, 1. Bull 162, 3.
Sow. On a cylix in the Mus. Gregor, u, 82, 3. a, b, the combat with the
bull, Athene and a companion in arms present, opposite a fight of 5
warriors ; a centaur inside. Bull and centaur Campana Op. di plas
tica tv. 64, 65,] Seducing and forsaking Ariadne : this cycle given in the
Salzburg mosaic in Vienna, Wiener Zeitschr. 1817. No. 74. Creuzer
Abbild. zur Symb. Tf. 65, 1., tbe forsaking in the Pomp, picture in Zahn
17. 21. GeU, N. Pomp. pl. 43. 49. ; Pitt. Ere. u, 15. M. Borb. viii, 4. Impr.
d. I. iii, 68. Ariadne looking after, Dresden statue 402. Aug. 17.; the
same figure in Venice, BuU. d. Inst. 1831. p. 61. comp. Cavaler. 60. G.
Giust. 142. Theseus led by Athena and Dionysus embracing Ariadne, to
gether on a vase from Volci. Catal. by Levezow. no. 844. [Gerh. Btr. u.
Campan. Vasen. Tf 6. 7. Thes. u. Ariadne 0. Jahn's Archaol. Beitr. s.
251 — 300.] Theseus in the battle of the centaurs, recognizable on the
PhigaUan frieze, Stackelberg Tf 29., as in the battle of tho Amazons, Tf.
14. comp. s. 53. Theseus' combat with and love for the Amazon Antiope,
on vases from Volci, Ann. iu. p. 152. ; he carries her away with the as-

ATTIC HEROES, THESEUS, MENESTHEUS, ETC, 565
sistance of Phorbas (according to Pherecydes, comp. Comment, p, 103,)
and Peirithous, M. I. d, Inst, 65, Theseus led by Antiope, Millingen,
Un. Mon. i, 19,, according to Welcker Hyp. Rom. Studien s, 305, Theseus
fighting with the Amazon Hippolyte, G. M. 495. Vase in the M. Pour-
talfes pl. 35, 36, with explanation by Visconti p, 1. [MUUn Vases i, 10.
Rhein Mus. 1835. iii. s. 489 — 494.] Th. and Hippolyte Welcker Bonner
Kunstmus. s. 17. E. 3. [s. 36.] Impr. d. I. i, 86. [Th. and HippoUte (not
Antiope) fighting Gerh. iii. Tf 163. 164. 165. 168., especiaUy the magnifi
cent vase from Euvo, Quaranta Annali civili del regno delle duo Sicilie,
Luglio e Agosto 1842. p. 129. Th. and Hippol., she on horseback, the
hero on foot, Hermes, At'nena, Aphrodite above; M. d. I. ii, 13. Ann. vii.
p. 66. Marriage of Th. and the Amazon Antiope, in presence of .iBgeus,
Ann. d. I. xvui.] An Amazon Loxias (comp. the Hyperborean Loxo) beside
Theseus' chariot, vase-painting, Ann. d. Inst. v. tv. A. Theseus' love for
Helena, on a magnificent vase from Volci. [The abduction on the Amy
clsean throne, the deliverance by the Dioscuri on the ark of Cypselus,
where Helen maltreats .Slthra. The first on the vase meant by the Author
from Volci, Mus. Etr. 1941. Gerhard Auserl. Vasen iii, 168, (Ev, Theseus
and Antiope,) 0E2EV2 carries off HE A.ENE. HEPITOVS looks around
for pursuers, a stately figure, HEPE2 tries to prevent the abduction,^
Here, as an intimation that the act was contrary to her will — and
KG PONE, a name without a figure, most of the others written in wrong
places. The same in archaic style Gerh. tf 167, also Vases Luynes pl, 9,
10, Cab. Durand no. 383., where the chariot stands ready and Phorbas as
weU as Peirithous is turned backwards for defence (Ev. AchiUes and
Memnon, not the Apharetidse). The other, Helena rescued by the Dioscuri
De Witte Cab. Durand no. 361. Vase in the possession of Baseggio,
ArchaoL Zeit. 1847. BeU. s, 24,* ELENA brought tack to TVNAA-
PE02 by KA2T0P and nOLVAEYKEE2, both on horseback, lastly
0[N]ET0PKAL02. (Ev, Kreneus) 362, 471, De Witte Vases Peints (de
Luc. Bonap. no. 118. Brondsted Thirty-two vases (Campanari) pl. 12.
BuU. 1832. p. 114. and M. Blaoas pl. 31. do not belong to these.] Theseus
sitting fixed in the infernal world, Etr. gem, G. M. 494. Sacrifice to
Theseus, as it seems, St. di S. Marco i, 49. Theseus' head on coins, N.
Brit. 6, 22. 23., hence also to be distinguished on gems from Hercules,
Lipp. i, 239. 41. 45. 46. iii, 205. Stuart iv. p. 10. With the Uon's hide
above, on coins of Nicsea {Qnnex T^ixxieig). Comp. the vase-p. Millingen
Un. Mon. i, 18. Menestheus on coins of Blsea as founder, Bckhel N.
anecd. p. 203. Acamas and Demophon, with their horses Phalios and
KaUisphora, vase, of Exekias, Berliner Vasen no. 651. [where [AE]MO-
<1>0N is read Sophon by Levezow and Gerhard, and Mophon by Panofka
Ann. xii. p. 231. Akamas leading Polyxena as a sacrifice on a cylix with
lUupersis, the names inscribed. BuU. 1843. p. 71. Akamas and Demophon
leading back iEthra M. d. I. ii, 25. Ann. vii. p. 292. Codrus on a cyUx of
the finest Attic style in the possession of Sig. Palagi, Milan, K0AP02
and AINET02 on the bottom, around Athenaia between Lycos, Aias,
Menestheus, MeUte and Medea between .Slgeus, Theseus, Phorbas and
.^thra. B. Braun Teseo, Ajace e Codro E. 1843. and less magnificent
Gotha 1843. The goblet of Codrus and for its explanation also H.
Brunn Berl. Jahrb. 1845. i. s. 701 — 3. Otherwise, 0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs.
181. Th. Bergk Zeitschr. f A. W. 1844. St. 107 f.]

566 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
2. The fable of Phcedra and Hippolytus is perfectly evident on the
Agrigentine sarcophagus §. 257, E, 4. [Loop. Schmidt in Gerh. Arch.
Zeit. 1847. s. 5. Tf 6. 6,] ; in the fore-ground Hippolytus in the middle of
the hunting- train receive's Phsedra's letter, in the background he is seen
at the boar-chase, and on the right and left the love-sick Phsedra, and
Hippolytus overturned from his car. Hence we recognise the same fable
in Zoega 49. (50. is doubtful), also G. di Fir. St. 91. ; L. 16. Clarac pl.
213. ; Gerh. Ant. BUdw. 26. ; Woburn Marbl. 1 3. ; also Bckhel P. gr. 33. ;
Terme di Tito 43. (Thiersch Diss. Vet. artif opera vet. poet. carm. optime
expUcari tb. 4. p. 21.) ; Pitt. d'Erc, iii, 15. GeU N. Pomp, pl. 77, M. Borb. viu,
52, Some of these reUefs have an historical reference, Eoma leads the horse
of the emperor at tbe chase ; comp, §, 427, E, 1. Hipp, tauro emisso expa-
vescens, by Antiphilus according to PUny, on Btr. urns, Micali 32. 33, (ac
cording to the older Bd,) comp. PhUostr. ii, 5. Hippolytus and Virbius §.
364. E. 5. 8. Hippolytus as Orphious M. Blacas pl. 7. comp. Getting. Anz.
1836. St. 176. Theseus and Phsedra, before Apollo Daphnephorus M. d. I. ii,
16. Ann. vii. p. 70, very doubtful. [Phsedra suffering, Etr. mirror Memorie
per le belle arti E. 1805. p. 149. ; not in Gerhard. Hippol. and Phsedra 0.
Jahn ArchaoL Beitr. s. 300 — 300. FEDRA among the six tragic heroines
from Tor Maranciano in the Vatican, holding the rope in her hand, R.
Rochette Peint. Ant. pl. 6. Phasdra, the nurse and a servant, after the
theatre, Pitt. d'Erc. s. 4., according to Feuerbach Vatic. Apoll. s. 386 f
very probable.]
3. Theban coins. Cadmus stepping from his ship to the shore, in ar
mour, coins of Thebes, Millingen Anc, Coins 4, 12,, with the cow as
founder of Thebes, coins G, M. 396, Combat with the dragon on coins
of Tyre, gems in MUlin, Vases p, 1, M. Flor, u, 4. Vase-paint. Millin
M. I, u, 26. ; R. Rochette M. I. pl. 4, 2. ; MiUingen Un. Mon. i, 27, ex
actly as in Burip, Phoen, 673. the Boeotian xwii indicates Cadmus, as
it does Pentheus in MiUingen Div, 5. Marriage with Harmonia [fine
vase from the CocumeUa in Berlin BuU, 1841. p, 1 77 — 183, Gerh, Btr, u.
Campan, Vasen Tf C. Beautiful vase with the marriage found in 1828
near Ruvo with 21 others in the same tomb. Gran, musaico Pompei.
Tombe de Ruvo, Nap. 1836, p, 4,] (with reference to mystery doctrines),
Zoega Bass, 2. G, M, 397, Semele §, 384. R, 1. Actseon §. 366. R, 5.
Laius carrying away Chrysippus in a chariot (Apollod. iii, 6, 5.), on
large vase at BerUn, [no, 1010, Gerh, ApuUsche Vas. Tf 5. Avellino wiU
write on another from Ruvo.] (Edipus as a child consigned to the shep
herd Buphorbus, on vases from Volci. M. d. I. ii, 14. Ann. vii. p. 78. The
Sphinx trampUng down Theban youths, on numerous gems, as weU as on
the throne at Olympia. [0. Jahn Arch. Beitr. s. 112 ff'.] Oidipus slaying
Laius, Inghir. Mon. Btr. i, 66. [Tolken gemmen iv, 1. no. 12.] (Edipus
with the sphinx often on gems, G. M. 602-6. and vases, Tischb. iu, 34,;
Passeii Luc, ii, 104, ; BartoU Nason. 19. (In Inghir. i, 67, the sphinx ap
pears as a female centaur with wings), (Ed, receives Tiresias' announce
ment of his ruin (after Sophocles), vase-painting in R. Rochette M, I. pl.
78, an initiation scene according to R. Rochette) [who defends his expla
nation, Nouv, Ann, d, I'l, p, 183,], The blinding of (Edipus (after the ac
count in Euripides' (Edipus), Inghir. Mon, Btr. i, 71, Giamb, Zannoni
IUustr, didue Urne Btr. F. 1812. comp, Rathgeber, Hall, Encycl. ui, ii.
s, 394. (Ed. expelled? G. M. 506. Guattani M. I. 1788. p. xxv. tv. 2.
[Zoega in Mon. ined. 103. (G. M. 506.) conjectured Teiresias fleeing with

AMPHIARAUS, ARCHEMORUS, ETC. 567
Manto and other Thebans in the war of the Epigoni. Visconti and Mil
lingen Div, p. 43, remark that Winok. missed the interpretation,] (Edipus
going into exile with Antigone ? MUlingen Div. 23, [Atreus and Thyestes,
Welcker Griech. Trag, s, 683.] (Edipus at Colonus ? reUef, Winck. M, I,
104, M. Borb. v, 23, [Two different reliefs very similar Neap, A, Bildw.
s. 130. according to H, Brunn Jen. LZ, 1846, s. 963.] Pitt. d'Ercol, i, 3.
But see Welcker HaU, LZ. 1836. Apr. s, 590. Panofka ibid. s. 493.
Attic youths at the tomb of (Edipus (Ev vin^ pi.oXxx'riv re xxi dir(poleX6v
¦noXvqi^ov, xoXttu l' Oili'!r6lxv Axi'ov viiv ixa) MUUngen Un. Mon. i, 36.
M. Borb. ix, 28. Expedition of the Seven: the e^eT^xaix of Adrastus and
Amphiaraus, the main subject of the Thebais, on the vase §. 99. No. 8.,
also in MUlingen Div. 20. 21. Five of the seven heroes holding coun
cU §. 175 R. 2. Comprehensive representation of the whole expedition
in the PanfiU reUef, R. Rochette M. I. pl. 67 A. p. 426. [Tydeus and
Polynices before Adrastus, Nolan vase of earUest design, Ann. xi. tv. p,
255. Abeken, Adrastus, Amphiaraus, Tydeus, with the names Ann. xv.
p. 215. tv. F. Gerhard Btr. Sp, ii, 178, ; Amphiaraus taking leave of
Eriphyle, vase-painting, M. d. I, iii, 54. Ann. xv. p. 206. tv, F mirror.
A's departure, amphora from Csere 1836. Mus. Gregor, ii, 48, 2a, shorter
Gerhard Auserl, V, ii, 91, Nolan hydria in Baseggio's, Ann. xi. p. 261. not.
7. A. accoutred gives Eriphyle his hand, similar a small vase from Csere
Bull. 1844. p. 36. The bronze figure in Tubingen §. 96. no. 3, Baton,
Jahrb, des Alterthumsvereins des Rheinlandes x. s. 74. ReUef from
Oropus of the best period, the descent of Amph, M, d. I. iv, 5, copied in
a design on marble from Herculaneum Zahn ii, 1. Ann. xvi. tv. E. p. 166.
Several other monuments 0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs. s. 152 — 159.] Arche
morus killed by the serpent, Boissard i, 78. 81. MiUingen Ano, Coins pl.
4, 14. Adrastus kiUing the serpent, Winok. M. I. 83. G. M. 511. Death
of Archemorus, vase in the Bourbon Museum, B. Braun Bull. 1835. p. 193.
[Gerhard Archem. u. die Hesperiden B. 1838. tf 1, s, 28,, also Nouv, Ann.
de PI. pl. 5. 6. irqoiieaig of Arch. Large vase from Ruvo, the corpse of
Arch. The heroes slaying the dragon, BuU. Napol. ii. tv. v. p. 90. iii. p.
60. Archaol. Zeit. u. s. 378. Opheltes encoiled by the dragon Mus.
Gregor. ii, 62. 79. The Winck relief in Braun Zwolf Basrel. Tf 6, toge
ther with a vase of Baron Lotzbeck as vignette. Amphora from Ruvo in
the mus. at Naples, Hyps, praying for pardon before Burydice, heroes,
Gerh. Apul. Vasen Tf E, 10. Hypsip. imploring Lycurgus, heroes Inghir.
Urne tv. 80, the child enfolded by the winged serpent tv. 79. Pitt. d'Er
col. iv, 64. two in combat with the dragon. Hyps, in despair, the pitcher,
only the head of the child remaining. The child encoiled by tho serpent
often on Roman cippi.] Ismene slain by Tydeus, on vase-paint., Tischb.
iv, 18. (Maisonn, 51,), MilUngen Div, 23, according to Welcker, Schulzeit.
1832. s. 144, [Gerh, Vas, u, 92,] Tydeus wounded, Etr, gem, G, M, 508,
509. Micali tv, 116, 3, Capaneus hurled down the ladder by the thunder
bolt, often on gems, Cassini iv, 29, Caylus ui, 86. G. M. 510. Micali tv.
116, 10. 11., hurled down Impr. iii, 27, cf 28, ascending iii, 69. [struck
down with the thunderbolt v, 32, 'Tolken ii, 2, 142, iv, 1, 32, 33,] ; Winck.
M. 1. 109. Zoega Bass, 47. Battle before the gates of Thebes, Inghir, i,
87, 88. 90. Micali tv. 108. Combat of the brothers (Liban. 'Ex(pq. p. 1119.),
G. M. 512. The brothers dying at the altars of the Furies, the form of
(Edipus rises out of the earth repeating the curse, Inghir. i, 93. comp.
94. [The combat of the brothers by Pythagoras of Rhegium, by Ona-

568 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
tas. Frequent in vase-paintings as G. M. 568, and Etr. Urns, Mus. Gregor.
i, 93, 2. 4. M. Chiusino tv. 189. 190, in Leyden no. 16. 16. 17. Inghirami
Urne tv. 92. from Gori i, 33. G. M. no. 512. Bull. 1840. p. 151 sq. On the
long sarcophagus from Tarquinii M. Greg, i, 96, 3. Eteocles demanding
back the sovereignty from Polynices, at the right side of the combat of
the brothers, and (Edipus at the left, Tolken Gemmen ii, 1, 46. iv, 1, 30.
31.] Amphiaraus (whose Esculapius-Uke head has a laurel crown on
coins of Oropus, Cadalv&ne Eec, p. 168,) engulphed, Inghir, i, 84,
Alcmeeon's revenge, on Etr. urns, Manto consecrated to Delphi, Gerh.
Ant, Bildw, 21,, also perhaps M, Borb, vii, 19. — Zethus and Amphion, the
Theban Dioscuri as two youths, their arms laid on each other's shoulders,
the one with the cithern, the other the club, on a gem in the Vienna ca
binet; punishing Diroe §. 157, R, 1. 2., also on contorniati, the Etr. sar
cophagus, Dorow, Voy, pl. 14,, and elsewhere. On the dissimilar charac
ter of the two, see Denkmaler, Text No. 215. [The brothers in conversa
tion, in reference to a famous scene in the Antiope of Euripides, E. Braun
Zwolf BasreL Tf 3, In the vign. tho reUef of tho Paris Mus. with ZETV5,
ANTIoPa, AMPHION, which is repeated with other names at Naples,
without names in V. Albani. The mother between the sons also on a
mirror, Eoulez Amphion et Zethus Lifege 1842 (not in Gerhard). On an
Etr, urn M. Gregor, i, 95, 2, where one of them has a sword, Dirce lies
thrown down, unless it should be Clytsemnestra with Orestes and Py
lades,] Thespian coins. Narcissus pining at the fountain, throwing himself
in, Pitt, Bro, v, 28 — 31, M, Borb, i, 4, ii, 18, (Eros' torch here becomes
a death-torch) ; Lipp, i, ii, 63, M, Flor, u, 36, 2, Impr. d. Inst, i, 73. (the
flower Narcissus introduced). [See ad PhUostr. Imag. i, 23. Bronze
figure in the Boyal Library at Paris, Clarac pl. 590, no, 1281. Barberini
statue Caussei Eom. Mus. i, 2, 53.]
Orchomenian coins. Athamas sacrifices one of his chUdren on a large
low altar (G. M, 610, ; hitherto explained otherwise). Athamas himself
sacrificed, vase-painting, E. Bochette M. I. 28. (according to E. Bochette
the murder of Agamemnon). Ath. pursuing Ino, CalUstr. 14,, above §.
402, E, 4, A remorseful Athamas by Aristonidas, Phrixus and Helle
flying, Pitt. d'Ercol. iu, 4. M. Borb. ii, 19.; vi, 19. HeUe alone. Cab.
d'AUier de Haut, pl. 4, 1, Tischb, Vasen, iu, 2, Phrixus borne by the
ram and sacrificing it, on coins of Gela, Torrem, 33, 3 — 6. 6 im TleXix
dyav, Peleus and Atalanta wrestUng (Apollod. iii, 9, 2.) on Etr. mirrors
and elsewhere, B. Braun BuU. 1837. p. 213. [Gerh. Auserl. V. iii, 177.
Etr. Spiegel, u, 224. M. Gregor. i, 35, 1.]
4. lolchian coins. [The Argonauts by Lycius PUn. xxxiv, 19, 17,
painted by Cydias Plin. xxxv, 36, 26. Painting with which Agrippa
adorned the portico of Neptune Dio Cass, liii, 27. cf Martial ii, 14. iii, 20.
xi, 1.] Neleus and Pelias discovering Tyro their Ul-used mother, Bpigr.
Cyzic. 9. Etr. mirror, Inghir. ii, 76. G. M. 415.* Jason, ancient descriptions,
Pind. P. 4, 79. Philostr., the yr. 7. The so-called Cinoinnatus, according
to Winok. xi, 2, 4. a Jason, in the L. 710. Maffei Eacc. 70. BouiU. ii, 6. M.
Prang, iii, 15. Clarac pl. 309. (with new head) [according to Visconti M.
PioCl. vii. p. 101 sq. The head of different marble, but antique] ; repeti
tion from Hadrian's viUa at Tibur, in Munich 150. [also in England, Bot
tiger Amalthea ui. s. 242. in Sholburne House, Gode Eeise nach England

ATHAMAS, JASON, MEDEA, <fec. 569
iv s. 43, also in Lansdowne House, London, see also M. Capit. iii, pl, the
simpUcity of the shoeing is a test, Philostr. Epist. 22. Visconti in the
Mus. Frany. remarks the same attitude in two figures of the Parthenon
frieze Stuart ii. ch. i. pl. 30 A.] Similar the statuetta PCI. iii, 48. and M,
Frang. iv, 20. Clarac pl, 814, comp. §. 157*. E, 3, The voyage of the Argo,
Flangini L' Argonautioa di ApoUonio Eodio T, i, ii. vignettes. Building of
the Argo, G. M. 417. 18, also Zoega Bass, 46, [Campana Op. di plastica
tv. 5.] Argus building the ship, Impr. d. I. iii, 64. Jason (Basun) as
master-carpenter, Btr. gem, Micali 116, 2. The Argo on her voyage, G.
M. 419. 420. MilUngen Div. 62. Combat of Polydeuces and Amyous §.
173. R. 3. G. M. 422. 22.* [D, A, K, i, 61, 309, The mirror in the cista,
which is now also pubUshed by E, Braun, 310. Gerh. Btr. Sp. ii, 171.]
Phineas and the Harpies, Athenian vase Millingen Ano. uned. mon. pl.
15, and in Stackelb. Tf. 38, who [wrongly] explains it as the death of Aga
memnon. [Large vase-paint. M. d. I. iii, 49. Ann. xv. p. 1.] Sacrifice to
Chryse §. 371. E. 8. (Jason present in the Thessalian costume §. 338. R.
1.) Argonauts.? vase from Volci, BuU, 1835. p, 183, [Archaol. Zeit, iii.
Tf 35, s, 161. Gerh. Vasen ii, 155, where APXENAVTH2 is interpreted
to be Hercules, and the sacrifice to Chryse is also engraved from other
vases,] Arrival of the Argonauts at .3!etes' court, one brings him a tessera
of hospitaUty from Sisyphus (in reference to jEetes' Corinthian origin),
Jason and Medea form their love-engagement, Maisonn, 44, Jason receives
the lynx through Hermes, Combe Terrac, 53. Jason subduing tbe bulls,
and betrothing himself to Medea, L. 373. Bouill. iii, 51, 1. Clarac pl,
199. ; subduing the bulls and slaying the dragon with Medea's aid, a
relief in Vienna, [In Villa Ludovisi at Rome Jason attacking the dra
gon, which Medea is preparing to lull asleep with a round cake. Ja
son assaUing the dragon, and three inactive subordinate figures. Cam
pana Opere di plastica tv. 63, of which the wanting piece is in the British
Museum.] The portion with the taming of the buUs, also Flang. ii, 199.
Cavaler u, 2. M. Veron. 223, 5. G. M. 424. comp. the coins of Nero, Pe
drusi V, 3, 6. Jason at the altar of the Laphystian Zeus, where are the
head and fleece of the ram, Flang. i, 434. G. M. 424* Comp. Gerhard Ja
son des Drachen Beute B. 1835. s. 6. This cylix from Csere does not re
present Jason swallowed by the dragon and vomited up, Welcker Rhein.
Mus. iii, 503, indeed he is afterwards given in the M. d. I. ii, 35. Ann. viii. p.
289. as campato del dragone. [A vase in Perugia exhibits Jason as dragon-
slayer, rushing into the open jaws of the monster with drawn sword, and
his mantle over his face, in like manner as he there cautiously extricates
himself, after he had slain it from within, because it was impenetrable on
the outside. Bull. 1846. p. 87.] Jason at a pillar, round which the dragon
is coUed, with which the bird lynx ? is fighting, the fleece of the ram
also there,. Impr. d. Inst, i, 75. 76. Medea soothing the dragon. Combe
Terrac. 52. Jason killing the dragon (in ThessaUan costume), Millingen
Div. 6. Jason as dragon-slayer, Medea, the Boreads and other Argonauts
present, Maisonn. 44. Jason taking down the fleece, Flang. ii, 430. Ja
son brings the fleece to Pelias, Medea beside him, the tripod of rejuvenes
cence in the back-ground, Millingen Div. 7. [Death of Talus, in accord
ance with ApoUonius, vase from Ruvo, one of the most remarkable paint
ings derived from antiquity, the Argo, Circe, Medea, Poseidon, Amphi
trite, the Dioscuri twofold. Bull. Napol. iii. tv. 2. 6. iv. tv. 6. p. 137. Gerh.
Arch. Zeit. iv. tf 44. 46. incomplete.]

570 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
6. Medea's destinies. Bottiger Vasengem. i, 2. s. 164. Persuasion of
the PeUades, G. M. 425. AmaHhea i, 161 ff'. Gifts to Creusa, PCI. vu, 16.
The tragic scenes from Buripedes' Medea, after the same original, in
three reliefs : at Mantua, Carli [Dissert, due, suU' impresa degU Argon.
e] Sopra un ant. bassor. rappr. la Medea d'Burip. 1786. [Labas M. di
Mantova i, 9.] G. M. 426. ; L. 478. Admir. 55. BouiU. iii, 50, 3. Clarac
pl. 204. ; still more complete in the Lancelotti relief, now in the Vatican,
Winck. M. I. 90, 91. [Besides these three bas-reliefs compared by Botti
ger De Medea Burip. there is a sarcophagus in the Caucoi palace, now the
Belloni, very similar to the Lancelotti reUef ; one in the court of the La
teralis engraved L'Argonautica tradotta Eoma 1791, T. i. tv. 12, probably
the same as the Beger one. There is a fragment of the Mantuan represen
tation in the M. PioCl. vii. tv. 16. ; another, Medea with the sword, in Na
ples in S. Chiara, Millin Tomb, do Canosa p, 32,] The reUef in Beger
Spicil, p, 118 — 131, (according to Pighius) connects therewith the above
scenes of the bull-taming, dragon- slaying and betrothal, which indeed
belong originally to the same whole. The closing piece, Medea with the
dead bodies of her children in the dragon-car, also Gori, Insor, Btr. iii, 1.
tb. 13, comp. E. Bochette Journ. des Sav. 1834. p. 76. The destruction
of Creusa treated in magnificent vase-style. Vases de Canose 7. [Archaol.
Zeit. 1847. tf 3. 0 Jahn s. 33—42. Medea boiUng the ram Gerh. Vasen
ii, 167, two representations; cylix in the Mus. Gregor. ii, 82, 1. Gerh.
Archaol. Zeit. iv, 40. s 249., two scenes. The beautiful reUef in the
palace of the Maltese in Eome, Bottiger Amalthea i. s. 161. Tf 4.] Med.
as the murderess of her children in the group of Aries, G. M. 427. [The
chUdren shrink from the sword with which their mother has terrified
them beforehand, and she stares to the side, hesitating in the moment of
execution : the artists of the place erroneously explain it as a mother pro
tecting her chUdren.] ; similar ones seem to be described by Libanius ' Ex(fiq.
p. 1090, and CaUistr. 13. Timomachus' picture §. 208. E. 2. comp. also
M. Flor. ii, 34, 3. Impr. d. Inst, i, 77. [Ann. 1829. tv. D 3. p. 245. not. 7.]
and the picture in Luc. de domo 31. Medea borne by the dragons, E.
Bochette M. I. pl. 6. [Painting by Aristolaus, Plin. xxxv, 40, 31.]
1 413. Among the Thessalian heroes Peleus is only deserv
ing of notice in art by his relation to the Nereid Thetis, who
most usually struggles against her ravisher and tries to scare
2 him away with monstrous shapes. The hair reared up like a
mane, the nostrils {pnvxTri^ig) swollen with courage and pride,
a slender pillared neck, and thoroughly noble and powerful
forms of body belong to the character of Achilles, according
to ancient testimonies, with which such at least of the monu
ments as are authentic and more carefully handled are in ac
cordance; a certain heroic attitude in which the one leg is
quickly advanced, and the himation falls negligently over the
thigh of that limb, is also at least frequently introduced in
Achilles; when he is seated the himation is drawn, in the
same way as in Zeus, around the lower portions of the figure.
3 Meleagee appears in a celebrated statue as a slender but
powerful youth, with broad chest, active limbs, curling hair
and a chlamys thrown back and wrapped round the left arm.

PELEUS, ACHILLES, 571
after the manner of hunters (§. 337. R. 6.) and iEtolians (§.
3^8. R. 4.); he is the huntsman among heroes; the boar's
head, on which he leans, points him out unmistakeably.
¦With him figures Atalanta in Artemis-like costume, her hair
forming a bow on the crown of the head. The Thracian Or- ^
PHEUS appears as an inspired Citharcedus with a certain eff'e-
minacy of conformation, in tolerably pure Hellenic .costume
in earlier art; it was at a later period that he received the
Phrygian garb.
1. Phercean coins. Destinies of Alcestis, G. M. 428, Gerhard Ant,
Bildw, 28. (Ale. is a portrait), comp. Hyp. Eiim. Studien s. 150. Bartoli
Nason 10. [Vase, VermigUoli Le ierogamie di Adm. e. di Alo. Perugia
1831. 4to.]
Itonian coins. ProtesUaus and Laodameia, on sarcophagi (§. 397. E.
2.), BartoU Adm. 75-77. Winck. M. I. 123. PCI. v, 18. 19. G. M. 661.
comp. Beschr. Eoms ii, ii. s. 255. [Sarcophagus in S. Chiara, Naples M.
d. I. iu, 40 B. Ann. xiv. p. 32.] On Btr. sarcophagi, Inghir. i, 19. and
frequently, but indicated with Uttle distinctness. [According to Grauer
M. d. I. iii, 40 B. Ann. xiv. p. 40. the death of Alcestis. M. Gregor. i, 94,
1. Laodamia on her couch which the shade approaches.] Eckhel P. gr.
36. represented in an indecent manner (doubtful whether old).
Phthiotic coins. E. Rochette M. I. i. Achilleide. Peleus' rape of
Thetis, on the coffer of Cypselus, on the Barberini vase §. 316. R. 2. comp.
MiUingen Memoirs of the Soc. of Liter, u. p. 99., in the vase-paintings,
Walpole Trav. p. 410. (from Athens), many from Volci (Ann. iii. p. 153.),
especiaUy the fine one M. I. d. Inst, i, 38. with the Nereids' names ; besides
M. I. d. Inst. 37. §. 143, 1. (for the explanation J. de Witte Ann. v. p. 90
sqq., Chiron who stands by vvpctpevae N^^cos Siiyxrqx, Pind. N. 3, 57.) ; Mil
Ungen Un. Mon. i, 10. Div. 4. (Peleus with Thessalian hat) ; Maisonneuve
70. R. Rochette pl. 1.; vase from Volci Levezow Verz. 1005.; [Vases du
Due de Luynes pl. 34. ; Gerh. Auserl. V. iii, 178 — 182,] on an Etruscan
mirror, Dempster ii, 81,, and the reliefs Mon. Matth. iii. 32, 33. "Winck. £„y^ Li./:
M. I. no., sculptures which must celebrate the marriage of. some great '
personage, hence Hera Zygia is enthroned at the top, and the sign of the
Balance (vestra sequaU suspendit tempora Libra, Pers. 5, 47.) is suspend-
ed. Peleus returning out of the sea, Etr. gems §. 175. E. 2. Impr. d. I.
iii, 30. Peleus brings Thetis to Chiron §. 143. No. 1. The gods at his mar
riage §. 143. E. No. 3). Marriage gifts, G. M. 651. (Eris is driven out.)
2. Life of AchiUes, G. M. 652. Bathed in the Styx, GeU. N. Pomp.
T. ii. p. 42. 74. E. Rochette pl. 48. DeUvered to Chiron, vase from Volci,
Micali tv. 87. M. I. d. Inst. 27, 40. Education with Chiron, [Pind. N. 3,
43.], PhUostr. ii, 2., especiaUy in lyre-playing. [Peleus consigns the chUd
to Chiron, Mus. Etr. p. 46. no. 314. Gerh. Auserl. V. iu, 183. Hydria in
the possession of Baseggio, Rome 1841. Pel. delivers the child to the
centaur, Thetis stands behind Peleus, who is accompanied by a dog; per
haps the same vase. Chiron teaching AchiUes, Cabot Stucchi tv. 7 A.
AchiUes takes leave of Nereus §. 402. R. 2, who is seated in the same
manner on his throne, a fish in his hand, when the sisters beg him to
consent to the carrying off Thetis by Peleus, Gerh. Vasen iii, 178. 182.]
Ach. in Scyros on the sarcophagus of los, see FioriUo and Heyne, Das

572 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
vermeinte Grabmal Homer's, also Pitt. Ere. i, 8. G. M. 653. ; M. PCI. v,
17, G, M, 555,; in R, Rochette M, I. 12, [Gal, Om, 180,]; Woburn Marb.
7. ; sarcoph. from BarUe, E. Bochette, Ann. d. Inst, iv, p, 320, tv, D. B.
Picture by Athenion, Plin. xxxv, 40, 29, comp, Philostr, the Yr. 1, ; in
Pompeii, GeU, N, Pomp, pl, 69. M, Borb. ix, 6. The so-caUed Clodius of
the ViUa PanfiU a disguised AchiUes, Bd. Winck. \i. s. 309. ; an AchiUes
with ear-rings stood at Sigeum, Serv. ad Mn. i, 34. comp, TertuU. de paU.
4. The representations on the so-called sarcophagus of Alexander Seve
rus, edited by Bid. Venuti 1765. M. Cap. iv, 1. BartoU Sepolcri 80.
Inghir. G. Omer. 22. (as dispute of the princes), and the corresponding
jeUef L. 117. Winck. M. I. 124. BouUl. iii, 13, 2. Clarac pl. 111. G, Omer,
23, unite the departure of Achilles from Scyros with that from his home,
into the general picture of a warrior tearing himself away and hurrying
to battle ; the old men appear to be Peleus and Menoetius, as in the vase-
painting §. 143. No. 4. The further achievements of AchUles §. 416, — To
Achilles' character belongs the xopcxv, dvxxxiri^eivr^v xop^nv according to
Philostr, ii, 7,, the Younger 1. Libanios 'Expq. 6, Heliod, .ffithiop, ii, 36
(the chief passage), AchiUes was ' Aviov'Kog in a statue in Christod, 261.,
perhaps however not universally. Comp, also PhUostr, Her, 19, 5, The
attitude and disposition of the drapery are characteristic, G, M. 655, M.
Cap, iv, 1,, and the Zeus-like drapery in the figure in Zahn 7,, as well as
in the Ambrosian Iliad throughout, especially tv, 47, It is stUl doubtful
whether the Achilles Borghese (V, Borgh. i, 9. BouiU. u, 14. [Visconti M.
Scelti Borghes. i, 5.], interesting as regards the history of art from its
Polyclitan proportions [?] and a certain hardness in the handling), is
reaUy Achilles ; the attitude and age correspond to the statuse AchUlese
in Plin. xxxiv, 10., and the iTriaepiqiov is perhaps an aUusion to the com
plete armour. The busts in Dresden 386. Aug. 35., in Munich 83. M.
Nap. ii, 59., M. Worsl. i, 7., Tischb. H. i, 6, [is from the Borghese statue]
and p. 40,, are at aU events connected with the statue and demand a like
explanation ; there is in all a certain dash of softness and melancholy,
which is altogether unsuitable to Ares, but might very well be given by
an artist to Achilles, Of an equestrian statue of AchiUes, Malchos p.
273, ed, Bonn. Pharsalian consecrated gift : Achilles on horseback, Pa
troclus walking alongside (Paus, x, 13, 3, Cod, Mosc) ; from it a name
may be given to the horseman on the coins of the city, Achilles' head
on coins of Pyrrhus and later Thessalian ones, E, Bochette p. 246. 415,
vign, 15, Cab, d'AUier de Haut. 6, 17.
3. JEtolian coins. Statue of Meleager, Eacc. 141, PCI. ii, 34. Piran.
St. 2. M. Nap. ii, 56. BouUl. ii, 7. (there are traces, on the pedestal, of
the hunting spear which he held in his left hand), [The finest statue,
found at MarineUa in 1838, now in Berlin, M. d. I. iii, 68. Ann. xv. p.
237—265. A. Feuerbach. See also Tub. Kunstbl. 1838. No. 60. Also re-
/« '/ markably fine the statue Specim. ii, 37. mistaken for Mercury,not in Clarac
pl. 805—7. 809. 811 A. 812 B. One also in V. Borghese Salone no. 8. of
the new collection.] Meleager, 1 Coins of Ephesus, Miinchner Denkschr.
f Philol. i. Tf 3, 11. The hero on coins of .Stolia with the chlamys
wrapped round his left arm, the kausia hanging on his neck, and lean
ing on a long knotty staff (Landon i, 34.), is also perhaps Meleager. Caly-
donian boar-hunt (Philostr. the Yr. 16.), on vases from Volci, with many
names of heroes, BuU. d. Inst. 1830. p. 4. Ann. iii. p. 154.; with names

MELEAGEE, CEPHALUS, ORPHEUS. 573
also Levezow Verz. No. 624., [Gerh. Btr. u. Campan. Vasenbilder Tf 10,
1. 2., where there is also another 3. 4. without names. Gerh. Apul, Vasen
Tf 9, Beri, Vasen no, 1022,] Calyd. chase ? M, Pourt, pl, 11, in reliefs, G.
M, 411-13, M, Cap. iv, 60. Woburn Marb, 8, 10, (where Meleager has
also the chlamys thrown back) and many others, Ukewise on Etruscan
urns. Meleager standing before the boar's head, gems, M, Flor, ii, 36-3.
Impr. d, Inst, i, 71, Calyd, chase, Artemis seated near, sarcophagus in
Salerno, Gerh. A. Bildw. Tf. 116, 1 — 3. Meleager slaying the brother of
Alth»a, reUef in V. PamfiU, ibid. 116, 4. Mel. and Atalanta according to
Zannoni on a vase from Perugia, Ann. vi. tv. G. Explanation Ann. v. p.
346. [Sarcophagus in V. PamfiU, on the foreside the chase, on the Ud
the burial, on the sides the conflict with the uncles, simUar to Gerh. 116,
4, and Atalanta, B. Braun Ant. Marmorwerke ii, 6 a. b. 0. Jahn Bull.
1846. p. 131.] Mirror-drawings, in which Meleager deUvers the boar's
head to Atalanta, Gori M. Btr. i, 126. Inghir. U, 61. [Gerh. Btr. Sp. ii,
175. Two others 174. 176.] Mosaic of Lyons, G. M. 413*. Combat with
his mother's brothers and death of Meleager, M. Cap. iv, 36. G. M. 415. ;
L. 270. V. Borgh. 3, 12. BouUl. iii, 51, 2.; Clarac pl 201.; Zoega Bass.
46. (similar Bouill. 51, 3) ; merely the death L. 256. Clarac pl. 201. In
teresting mirror-drawing, VermigUoli Iscr. Perug. tv. 1. Inghir, u, 62,
comp, §, 398, R, Burning of the body and suicide of Althsea, Barberini
relief, Admir. Eom. 70, 71., another fragmentary one, M. Cap, iv, 40, simi
lar also Winck, M. I. 88, G, M, 414. [Idas and Marpessa §, 362. E. 2.]
Locrian coins. The assaUing hero on the fine coins of Opus is pro
bably Ajax, son of OUeus, who is similarly described by Christod. 209.
(Eathgeber, Hall. Encycl. iii, iv. s. 288.). A similar one on those of
Tricca N. Brit. 6, 11.
Cephalleno-Attic coins. Bosset Essai sur les MedaUles de Cephalonie,
pl. 1. no. 1 — 5. Cephalus beside the slain Procris, MilUngen Un. Mon. i.
14. [Inghir. Vasi fitt. ui, 205.] comp. §. 397. E. 3. Ceph. with hair hang
ing down {xvxf.riqog as a fugitive after murder) on coins of Pale, N. Brit.
7, 22. 23. Cephalus carried off by Bos, often on Nolan vases, Tischb. ii,
61, iv. 12. MiUin U, 34. 35, (with inscription). MiUingen Cogh. 14. CyUx
of Hiero M. d. I. ii, 38. B. Braun Ann. ix, 209. [Gerh. Auserl. Vas. ui. s.
39. 0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 93 ff.]
4. Thracian coins. Lycurgus §. 384, R. 6. Orpheus in Hellenic cos
tume, Paus. X, 30, 3. ; in the Pythian stola, Virg. Mn. vi, 645, Vases de
Canosa 3, (where the only addition is a Phrygo-Thracian tiara, as in
CaUistr. 7. comp, the yr, Philostr. 11,) ; in a dress approaching this, but
stiU pecuUar, in the beautiful genuine Greek relief-group with Burydice '' *'?
and Hermes, (in Naples with Greek inscriptions. Neap. Antik. s, 67, ; in
VUla Albani, Zoega 42,; in ViUa Borghese, L. 212. Winok. M. I, 85,
Clarac pl, 116,, in Latin inscription erroneously named Amphion, Zethus
and Antiopa). Similar as tamer of wUd beasts (whereon Welcker ad
Philostr, p, 611,), in the mosaic of Grandson, G, M. 423., a similar fine
mosaic has recently been found near RottweU. [Rom. Alterth. in der
Umgegend von Rottweil Stuttg. 1832. s. 62 ff. with engraving. There is
one from Cagliari in Turin. Acad, des sc. de T. xiii. p. 13., deUa Marmora
Voy. de Sardagne ii. p, 621, one in Jul. Val. res g. Alex, i, 67,] 0, also
among the animals on an Alexandrian coin of M, Aurelius, Mionn. Suppl.

674 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
ix. pl. at p. 24. Orpheus in Phrygian garb with Muses, vase Neapels
Ant. Bildw. s. 379. no. 2004.; Gerhard's JVIysterienvasen. 0. almost
naked, playing on the lute, on each side a Thracian with mantle and
spiked cap, listening in kingly dignity, vase in the possession of Barone
Naples in 1845. 0. similarly draped M. Blacas pl. 7., where he holds Cer
berus in the infernal world,] Later, with the same style of handling in
Phrygian costume with anaxyrides, in the Vatican VirgU and Catacomb
pictures, comp. Caylus iii, 13, 1. iv, 48, 1. As tamer of Cerberus, un
draped, gem in Agostini ii, 8., in the himation on the vase with Hip
polytus, above. Killed by a Msenad, vase-painting M. I. d. Inst. 5, 2.
Relief in the collection of the king of Sardinia, pubUshed in Shelstrate's
Virgil ed. 1750. tb. 18. ad G. iv, 622. [comp. 0. Jahn Pentheus s. 19. Or
pheus young, only with a chlamys on his arm, overpowered by three
Thracian women in long garments, two casting stones, one on horseback
with lance, he, sunk upon one knee, raises merely his lyre as a defence.
Amphora in B. Braun. BuU 1846. p. 86. On a vase Mus. Gregor. ii, 60,
1. a woman in long drapery, not a Baccha, strikes with an axe at Orpheus
with his lute, who catches her by the arm, M, d, I. i, 6, 2, the woman is
tatooed on the arms and has a sword, on other vases otherwise, 0, Jahn
Archaol, Beitr. s, 101,] Thamyras M. d, I. ii, 23, Ann, vii. p, 231. viii.
p, 326. [BuU. 1834. p. 202. Mus. Gregor. u, 13. ; MilUngen CoghiU pL 42.
the Muse winged pursues Thamyras who flies holding the lute over his
head, for defence, not in order to dash it in pieces (Feuerbach Vatic.
Apollo s. 272.), as if after the statue on Mount Helicon and Polygnotus'
picture, and Uke the Orpheus M. d. I. i, 5, 2. The winged floating figure
pursuing Thamyras M. d. I. i, 6, 3. is called by Millingen Ann. i. p. 270.
Nemesis. Why not also a muse ? Zoega explained so the similar scene
d'HancarviUe iv, 61.] Supposed Thamyras of an Btr. mirror M. d. I. ii,
28. Ann. viii. p. 282. A1N02 Levezow's Verz. no. 866. O AIN02 M.
Etr. de Luc. Bonap. no. 1434. [Musesus, the Athenian, as scholar of Terp
sichore and Meledosa, very fine vase-painting. Bull. 1845. p. 219 — 223,
now in the British Mus. And this perhaps rather to be understood as
Th'amyris Bull. 1840. p. 64, Ev, Apollo, It is uncertain whether the
Thracian minstrel with listening Muses in the museum at Naples is Or
pheus, or according to Ann. vii, p, 232, Thamyras, as the painting with
the names M. d. I. ii, 23. still remains very dark.]
1 414. We know Bellerophon, among the Peloponnesian
2 heroes, by his connexion with Pegasus and Chimsera. The
Danaids of Argos are represented by art, in perfect conformity
with the original intention of the mythus, as a kind of nymphs
3 with water-vessels. Peeseus appears very like Hermes in
configuration and costume; a later Asiatic art sought to claim
4 him for its home by a more oriental drapery. Pelops has a
Lydo-Phrygian costume and the effeminate forms which are
5 usually combined therewith. To the Dioscuri, who always
retained very much of their divine nature, belong a perfectly
unblemished youthful beaiity, an equally slender and power
ful shape, and, as an almost never-failing attribute, the half-
oval form of the hat, or at least hair lying close at the back
of the head, but projecting in thick curls around the forehead

BELLBROPHON. 576
and temples, as is observable in the colossal group on Monte
Cavallo, The distinction between Polydeuces the boxer, and
Castor in his equestrian costume, is only to be found where
they are represented in heroic circumstances, not where they
are exhibited as objects of worship, as the Athenian Anakes
and as genii of light in its rising and setting, (whereby they
also admit of a reference to the destinies of the life of man).
1. Corinthian coins. Medea §. 412, 6. BeUerophon riding Pegasus,
gem in Hase Leo Diacon. p. 271, breaking him, Tischb. iii, 38., [G. M.
392.] on Corinthian copper coins, and denarii of the gens Tadia, G. M. 390. ;
watering him, G. M. 391., on gems, Stuart iii. p. 43.; bringing the ^ri'i/af
xTt/xTOf of Prcetus to lobates, Maisonn. pl. 69. comp. G, M, 392, ; vanquish
ing the Chimaera on Pegasus, in the MeUan relief §, 96. No. 29., vase-
paint., G. M. 393. ; Corinthian coins, MiUingen Med. in. 2, 18., sardonyx
from Volci Impr. d. I, iii, 9. Coins of the gens Cossutia ; thrown off, and
Pegasus fiying to the Olympian heights, G, M. 394. [Guigniaut pl. 170, 618.]
Bottiger Vasengem. i. s. 101. [Guigniaut, Rel. de PAntiqu. pl. 157. 170 —
176. — 1st. B. takes leave of Proetus, from whom he receives the letter, the
queen, who loves B., sits pensive opposite, a female attendant holds a shade
over her, vase in the Mus. at Naples M. d. I. iv, 21, Longperier Ann.
xvii. p. 227. ; on another in the same Museum (Ser. 4. no. 682.), when B.
has received the letter, Stheneboea standing behind her husband wishes
him success on his journey, while she lays her arms upon her breast, so
that she touches her neck with one finger, beneath them young men, and
maidens, twelve figures, Ev. Scenes among men and women ; the 1st is
exactly the same in Dubois Maisonn. pl. 69. (not B. deUvering the letter
to lobates) where no remark is made on the vase and the place ; on a
crater from Apulia, but with Nolan design, in the possession of Mr. Tem
ple, the BngUsh ambassador at Naples, B., his horse beside him as usual,
gives his hand to the king who is enthroned, with bird-sceptre, while
Stheneboea standing gives the farewell-cup to B., on the tankard there is
a figure painted, Ev. Battle of Amazons ; abridged, Proetus only gives his
hand to B. at parting, the letter is left out, Tischb. iu, 38. G. M. 392. —
(neither the taming of Pegasus, nor parting from lobates). — 2d. B., ac
companied by Pegasus, greets lobates, two women, one of whom carries
a cista and a lance, regard him with astonishment, vase of exceUent de
sign in the Bourbon Museum; BuU. 1836. p. 117., unless perhaps the
parting from Proetus is also presented here, comp. Cab. Durand no. 247.
Ev. (the other side, as well as nos. 246. 250. 317 Rv., where Pegasus is
wanting, appear to belong to some other subject^— 3d. B. in confiict
with the Chimsera on the Amyclsean throne, on the throne of j3llsculapius
at Epidaurus, on metopes of the Delphian temple, and of the north side
of the Parthenon, on vases, on two of the Prince of Canine's, said to be
in the archaic style, Gerh. Bapporto not. 419,* one of which, now in the
Paris Museum, Dubois Mais. 34, very clumsy, only represents B. driving
Pegasus along; in red figures Tischb. i, 1. G. M. 393, Guigniaut pl. 157,
617, only lobates and Athene present ; in tho possession of St. Angelo,
Naples only Athene and a warrior; in a design of E. Braun's B., between
Athena seated and Poseidon standing, looks down on the Chimsera and still
holds his lance ready for the thrust ; on a vase in the Bourbon Museum

676 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
(Ser. 6. no. 1342.) he holds his lance towards the Chimsera — here with
the heads of lion and goat, beside a tree — which seizes an overthrown
warrior with its lion-claws, while five others on both sides encounter it,
Ev. four naked youths, Neapel's A. Bildw. s. 264 ; Cab. Durand no. 248.
on a Sabine vase B. on Pegasus is surrounded with rays, and a Diosou-
rian cap is hung up, as also in M. d. I. iv, 21., of the Chimjera there is no
thing visible but the lion- and goat-heads, Ev. Sphinx between two satyrs
Ann. d, I. x. p. 274. A composition abounding in figures on the Lamberti
vase, now in Carlsruhe, M. d. I. ii, 50., Ann. ix. p, 219,, where the Chi
msera has three heads, and on the one in Berlin no, 1022,, Gerh, Apul,
Vas, Tf 8., relief on a tomb in Tlos §, 128.* — 4th, B. fights against the
enemies of lobates, on a high narrow crater only half-preserved on a
white winged horse with shield and lance, of the five warriors one stoop
ing under him reaches the shoulder of the horse, while another covers
him with his shield, above the latter another threatens B. with his
sword, the two on the right side are wanting, a swan bites at the lance
near the hand, a panther beneath, Ev. combatants. Battle with the
Solymi also Cab. Durand no. 249. 1374? — 5th. B. returned to Argos,
crater in the Bourbon Museum, armed wjth two lances, is before the
door, in which Stheneboea stands, a mirror in her hand ; this is the meeting
again, after Eurip., Griech. Tragoedien s. 780 f Tischbein iii, 39., on the
opposite side from B.'s leave-taking with Proetus pl. 38, Stheneboea lifts
her hands in amazement when the youth stands again before her, a co
lumn expresses the palace, a darting Eros the love of Stheneboea. Bottiger
Kl. Schriften ii, 256. supposes it to be the earlier, first arrival of B., but
for a woman who was still a stranger to him the reception of the guest
is not so suitable.- — ^6th. B. has carried off his lover on Pegasus, to punish
her love for him with drowning, the ancient punishment of unfaithful
wives, thus carrying his virtue still higher than the old fable did ; she
is already hurled down head-foremost, and the rider, who is himself not
unmoved, holds his hand before his eyes. The probably Lucanian vase,
found in Magna Grecia, is polychrome, like that with the fiame-consumed
Alcmene §. 411. E. 2., two Calydonian hunts, <fec. and belongs to the
Marchese Einuccini, Inghirami Vasi fitt. i, 3. Gr. Trag. s. 782. — 7th.
B. watering Pegasus at a fountain, after the discovery of which as Hy-
ginus says P. A. ii, 18, he wished to ascend to heaven (the illusion must
have been communicated to him that a certain spring had the virtue to
strengthen him so wondrously, comp. Griech. Trag. s. 787.) B. Braun
Zwolf Basrel. f 1. — 8th. B. thrown from Pegasus, on the engraved stone
above referred to but not Cab. Durand no. 249. Rv. as the horse must
necessarily have been winged.— 9th. Megapenthes, the son of Sthene
boea, attempts to murder B, after he was thrown from Pegasus in his
flight to heaven, and the latter is saved by his son Glaucus, One of the
bas-reliefs on the temple in Cyzicus Anthol, Pal, p, 63, no. 16,]. Pegasus
tended by the nymphs, on Corinthian coins and gems, Thorlacius de
Pegasi mythol. 1819, BartoU Nason, 20, comp. E. Eochette, Ann. d,
Inst, i. p, 320,, also §, 252, E, 3, Chimesra, Etruscan §, 172, E, 3. Coins
of Sicyon §, 132, E, 1. [On several hundred monuments, observes Vis
conti ap. Clavier Apollod, ii, p, 522, from the bronze ones in Florence
onwards the head of the goat invariably rises out of the back of the
animal: otherwise the poets, see Heyne ad ApoUod, p, 114.]

10, PERSEUS, 577
2, Argive coins, Io §. 351. B. 4. Io on coins of lotape BuU. 1835. p.
188. The BerUn Vase with Zeus and Io Gerh. A. BUdw, Tf, 116. Io and
Epaphus, very doubtful, M. Borb. ix, 48. Statues of the Danaides and
jEgyptiades on the Palatine, Petersen Einleitung s. 97. Schol. Pers. ii. 56.
[0. Jahn Archaol. Aufs s. 22 — 30.] Danaid from the baths of Agrippa
in Berlin, with orientalized hair-dress and painful expression ; she holds
a vase before her lap. Similar PCI. ii, 2. To that group belonged also
probably the Anchirrhoe (probably the name of an Argive fountain on the
Brasinus) of the BlundeU collection ; PCI, iii, tv, agg. A, 9. p, 73, [Clarac pl.
760. no, 1828.] — which resembles very much the statue L. 73. Bouill. i,
¦sy- _87, Clarac pl. 324.— and many others. [Kunstblatt 1839. s, 211, in V.
Albani, Indicaz. no, 434, ; in the Altieri palace, Rome, the size of life, at
Tegel near BerUn,] Combat with chariots about the Danaides? G, M.
385. Comp, Gerh, Archemorus s, 47 f. [and Notice sur le Vase de Mi
dias au Mus. Brit, B. 1840. 4to, and in the Trans, of the Eoyal Soc, of
Literature Sec, Series i, p, 192. for the name of the painter has come to
light,] Proetides §. 363. E. 2. Danae §. 351. E, 4.
3, Perseus sculptured by Pythagoras with talaria, as in the Hesiodio
shield. Very similar on gems to the Hermes Belvedere §, 380, 5, Lipp,
i, 52-54, Very completely costumed on Pontic coins, for instance those
of Amasia, M, SClem. 25, 236, Perseus exercised by Athene Vase from
Eome in the Akad. Mus. Leipz. 0, Jahn in the Schriften dor Sachs.
Gesellsohaft der Wiss, 1847, Putting on his wings, on the scarabseus,
G. M, 386. Head with the Medusa as helmet, alto relievo. Spec. ii. 44
comp. Hunter N. Vett. tb. iii, 9. Head of Perseus with bird's head as
helmet Impr, d, I, iii, 63, [Head of P. on coins of Siphnos Mionnet pl. li,
6.] Levezow Das Gorgonen-Ideal B, 1833, The combat with the Gor
gons, always as beheading, in old and hieratic reUefs §, 90. R, 2, 96. No,
29, ; on vases, especiaUy archaic ones, Micali tv, 88, 6, Ann, d, Inst, iii.
p. 164. ; [two from Vulci in Gerh. Auserl. V, ii, 88, 89, 3, 4 and a Nolan
one Tf 89, 1. 2,] on Clusinian clay-vases, Micali tv, 22, ; in an Etruscan
bronze, Gori M, Etrusc, i, 145,; on a tripod (comp. §, 361, R. 5,) in Du-
rand's collection. We often see introduced the reflecting shield of
Athena (as in the picture Luc, de domo 25. comp. Apollod. ii. 4, 2.),
Combe Terrac, 13, also 71, [?] Gori M, Btr, i, 31. G, di Fir. Intagl. 16,
3, G. M. 386** sqq. Asiatic modes of representation on coins of Sinope
(Perseus standing over Medusa, reverse Pallas with the Gorgoneion on
her helmet, Neumann N. V. u. tb. 1, 1.), Cabera (on both Perseus with
Phrygian cap and long chlamys) and Tarsus (Perseus naked). Perseus
pursued by the Gorgons, on the coffer of Cypselus and in old vase-paint
ings, Levezow Gorgonen-Ideal Tf 2, 24. Hence the archaic bronze, Perseus
four -winged, in arabesque style, M. Pourtalfes 40. (Ker according to
Panofka). Perseus running, with the harpe, on the reverse of the Gor
goneion, on coins of Seriphos, Cadalvfene Recueil pl. 4, 27. Perseus
stabbing the Gorgoneion, with Pallas, Btr. mirror, G. M. 386*, [Gerhard
Btr. Sp. ii. 123 where also 121 Perseus alone with Harpe aud Kibisis,
122 P. with Menerva, Aplu and probably his sister, 124 P. and Menerva
with inscriptions,] and at the saine time with his back turned, gem, M.
Flor. 34, 5. Perseus delivering the Gorgoneion to PaUas, Inghir. Mon.
Btr. i, 55. ; Perseus holding his adversary, Impr. d. I. ui, 15. [P. with
the Gorgoneion in his hand, Campana Op. di plastica tv. 66. ; fighting
20

678 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
with the monster tv. 67.] vase-painting, M Borb. v, 61, Maisonn. 46.
Perseus bringing the head to Polydectes, as in the picture Paus. i, 22,
6., towards the other side the pursuing Gorgons and Poseidon, Millin Vases
ii, 3. 4. comp, Millingen Div. 3. [A peculiar scene on an archaic vase is
described in the Archaol. Intell. Bl, 1837. s, 52,] Perseus leading An
dromeda down from the rock, fine relief in the M, Cap. iv, 52., as in the
epigram in Brunck ii. p, 172, 13. and in Luc. Dial. D. marin. 14. Statue-
group in Hanover (comp. Gott. G. A. 1830. s. 2013.), entirely corre
sponding to that from Deultum, Cab. d'AUier pl. 3, 10. Group in Iconium,
Petersen Einl. s. 129. [P. showing to A. the Gorgoneion in the mirror
of the fountain, four times Pitt. d'ErcoL iii, 12. M, Borb. ix, 39. xii,
49-51, by Guattani: Memorie v. p. 67. Hermes and nymphs named;
comp. Ternite 2d. ser. heft. 2. Tf 11. not. 1.] Intervention of Perseus,
Gori M. Btr. i, 123. Inghir. Mon. Etr. i, 56. 56. Painting by Euanthes, '
Achil. Tat. iii, 7. 8. comp. Luc. De domo 22., Philostr. i, 29. and Pitt.
Ere. iv, 7, 61. M. Borb. v, 32. vi, 50. ix, 39. Gell, Pomp. pl. 42. N. Pomp.
pl. 67. ; vase - paint. E. Eochette M. I. pl. 41. Perseus' sword, the
harpe, has a straight and a curved point, on coins of Tarsus and numer
ous gems.
4. Pisatic coins. Pelops presented with the quadriga by Poseidon,
Philostr. i, 30. Perhaps also on the VeUetri relief §. 171. E. 3. Pelops
leading a horse, on coins of Elis, M. SClem. 9, 127., watering his horse,
on the fine cameo, MUlin M. Li, 1, Preparations for the contest with
(Enomaus on the Olympian temple, Paus. v, 10. (Enomaus sacrificing
to Artemis Alpheioa before the contest, interesting vase-paint. Maisonn.
30. Inghir. Mon. Etr. v, 16. NeapePs Ant. s. 342. comp. the Yr. PhUostr.
9. Pelops beside Hippodameia in the chariot, (a prolepsis?) Combe
Terrac. 34., [fragment Brit. Mus. x, 32.] so conquering (Enomaus, Philostr.
i, 17. Pel. and (Enom., Apul. vase, (Jerh. Archem. Tf 3. [Large vase
from Euvo Ann. d. I. a. xii. tv. N. 0. p. 171. by Eitschl. Bull. 1846. p.
56. Vaso di Pelope e Mistilo M. d. I. iv. 30, H. Brunn Ann. xviii,]
Contest of Pelops and (Enomaus in Btr. reliefs, Uhden, Schr. der Berl.
Acad. 1827, s. 211. [Mus. Gregor. i, 95, 1.]; conceived as a race in
the circus on a Eoman sarcophagus in the Vatican, Guattani M. I. 1785.
p. ix. G. M. 521*. Belief in the L. 783. Clarac pl. 210. (Enomaus slain
by Pelops on Etr. urns, MicaU tv. 105. 106. comp. Uhden ibid. 1828. s.
233. Eathgeber, Hall. Encycl. ui, ii. s. 99 ff. Atreus and Thyestes, Vatic.
Vase in Millingen Div. pl. 23. Welcker Zeitschr. f A. W. 1838. s. 233.
MoUonidse ? Bull. 1834. p. 46.
Arcadian coins. Cepheus §, 371. E. 5. Telephus §, 410, 8, (Hercules)
and §. 415, (Trojan war), Atalanta and Hippomeiies? a group, Maffei
Eacc, 96.
[Messenian coins, Merope who brandishes the axe against her son
,^pytus whom she does not recognise, restrained by the old man, after
Euripides in the Kresphontes, G. M, 614, 615. Griech. Trag. s. 835,]
6, Amycleean coins. Leda §. 351. E, 4, Birth of the Dioscuri G. M,
522, Rape of the Leucippides, the Apharetiadse resisting, PCI, iv 44. G,
M, 523, G, Giust, ii, 438. comp, Bottiger Archseol. der Mahl. s! 291 ff"!
[Campana Op. di plastica tv. 55.] The carrying away, of the Leucippides
often on Etr, urns, in reference to death, R. Rochette M, I, pl. 75 pj.

THE DIOSCURI. 579
gures of the Dioscuri, theu heads, starred hats and the like from coins,
G. M. 624-29. Fine Dioscurian head, Impr, d. Inst, i, 8. As horsemen
on many coins, holding palms, with inscription, on coins of Tarentum,
MilUngen Anc. Coins i. 12, Often on Roman denarii as horsemen, riding
beside or away from one another (their lot leads them to opposite sides).
The two horse-tamers of Monte Cavallo 'ivuroig ptxqpixtqovre — 18 feet high,
splendid figures in Lysippian proportions [?], executed at Rome, pro
bably after the time of Augustus, from Greek originals, the inscriptions
without significance, the horses treated as parerga; on the erection
Lettere of Canova and P, Vivenzio, Sickler Alman, ii, s. 247, Tf 19, 20, ;
besides Race. 11-13. Piranesi Stat. 4. Morghen Princ, 25. 26, Bd.
Winck, V. s. 463, vi, ii. s, 73. Meyer Horen i, ii, s, 42. Wagner
Kunstbl. 1824. No, 93 ff, — are recognised as Dioscuri especially from the
fashion of the hair; [Kunstmus. zu Bom s, 133-160, Fogelberg, Ann,
xiv. p, 194. Euhl Pferdebildung antiker Plastik 1846. s. 33. 46. Fo
gelberg the Swede as well as Tieck in Kugler's Museum B. 1836. St.
6. assigns the colossi to the time of Tiberius. Phidias' alter colossious
nudus was in Rome.] Very similar figures on gems, Raponi P. gr. t. 5, 9.
and in reUefs, for example, R. Rochette M. I. pl. 72. The CapitoUne
horse-tamers are less exceUent ; Polydeuces is distinguished by the curl
ing hair of Zeus, and pancratiastic ears. The horse-leading Dioscuri in
the reUef M. Chiar. 9. have almost Phrygian caps, comp. G. di Fir. 98.
and the wall-painting M. Borb. ix, 36. [Cabott Stucchi figur. tv. 2.,
standing beside the horses, above them genii with raised and inverted
torches.] The Athenian Anakes as youths armed with spears standing
round an altar, Cayl. vi, 47. Catal. de Chois. Gouff. p. 34. comp. C. I. No.
489. Similar M. Nan. 234., where there is a half-moon over their altar.
In chlamydes with parazonia, on a sardonyx as amulet, Bckhel P, gr. 28.
As armed youths often on Etruscan mirrors ; in heroic companionship,
Inghir. ii, 48. G. M. 409*, Castor is distinguished by equestrian orna
ments from the naked boxer Polydeuces (comp. §. 412; R. 1. Statue of
Pol. boxing? BouiU. i, 1.). Polydeuces as boxer, bronze from Paramythia
P. Knight Spec, ii, 22. Castor with sepulchral urn, scarab. Impr. d. I.
iu, 5. In Etr. bronzes, for example Micali tv. 35, 13. with swan-heads
on their hats (they are presented so, with inscriptions, on an Etruscan
mirror according to Gerhard's account). [Dioscuri Gerh. Etr. Sp. 1, 45 —
64. 68. 69.] The Dioscuri beside Hades on lamps (§. 407. R. 2.), BartoU
ii, 8. ; in representations of men's destinies as symbols of rising and set
ting, §. 397. R 2. and 3. §.400. R. 1. Two urns entwined with serpents
on Lacedsemonian coins as symbols of the Dioscuri, N. Brit. 8, 1. Thanks
giving of one escaped from the dangers of the sea in an Anakeion, ex
pressed on a reUef which was found at Este in 1710, now in "V'orona (from
the Museum SUvestrium), where the Dioscuri are represented by youths
with oval hats and two diotse. Com. Cam. Silvestrii Rhodigini in anagly-
phum Gr. interpretatio posthuma. R. 1720. Comp. Thiersch Reisen s. 70.
The so-called Cabiri, stiff figures with oval hats, are also better called
anaktes. Ant. Ere. vi, 23.
415. The mythic cycle of the Trojan war was held in I
especial favour by ancient art, and larger compositions were
introduced even on floors, goblets, and armour, as they were
afterwards on relief-tablets, which, with their small figures

580 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
and names inscribed beside them, presented a kind of primer
of antique sculpture. The Cyclian poets, who formed the in
troduction and continuation to the Hiad, were therein as much
' drawn upon as Homer himself Ancient art characterized
every leading hero, inasmuch as it condensed the features fur
nished by the epic into a personal shape, with that freedom
and precision which were peculiar to it; besides Achilles we
can still recognise, from such characteristic traits, especially the
Telamonian Ajax; and yet even the lion-like, fiercely-raging
Ajax might be easily confounded with the incomparably softer
and feebler Menelaus in a principal group which was often
repeated in antiquity, and is in the highest degree deserving
of admiration. In Diomed we have to expect fresh, but not
highly ennobled, heroic energy, in Agamemnon a dignified,
kingly character. Among the Trojans Hector and Priam are
less known by their plastic development than Paris, to whose
effeminate conibrmation a richly ornamented Phrygian dress
was found suitable, whilst otherwise only subordinate figures
wear this Asiatic costume, the leading heroes on the contrary
being always provided with the general heroic drapery. Of
the women belonging to this cycle of myths, Helen, the
Aphrodite among heroines, and Hecuba became the principal
subjects of the formative art; the countenance of the latter,
although deeply furrowed by grief, does not however conceal
the innate vehemence and passionateness of her nature.
1. See on the mosaic in Hiero's ship §. 163. E. 6. Scyphi Homerici
Sueton. Nero 47., to the same class belong those of Bernay §. 311. E. 6.
Theodorus' (about 01. 120.) helium Iliacum pluribus tabulis Plin. Corre
sponding picture from the so-called temple of Venus in Pompeii, Stein
biichel Atlas Tf. viii. B. C. D. [The house of the tragic poet, more apt
ly, the Homeric house, see Ternite zweite Beihe heft 3. Tf 22.]
Trojan war, Tischbein's Homer with designs from the antique ; six
numbers with commentary by Heyne, three by Schorn. Fr. Inghirami
G, Omerica, 1827, 2 vols, — Antehomerica. Paris' shepherd life, MUUngen
Div, 43, Paris and (Enone, Terrac. in MilUngen Un. Mon. ii, 18. Paris'
battle with the brothers and recognition by Cassandra (after Sophocles
and Ennius' Alexander) on Etr. sarcoph. Uhden, Schr. der Berl. Acad.
1828. s. 237. E. Eochette M. I. pl. 61. p. 266. [0. Jahn Telephus und
TroUus 1841. Mus. Gregor. i, 95, 4.] Hermes with Paris, mirror-design
(in Beriin), G. M. 535. The three goddesses before Paris §. 378. E. 4.
Menelaus woos Helena, mirror- drawing, Inghir. ii, 47. [Gerh. Etr. Sp. ii,
197.] Agamemnon and Menelaus taking leave of Helen, in whose house
Paris is arrived as a guest, Btr. mirror, M. I. d. Inst, ii, 6. [Ann. vi. p.
183. 241. Gerh. Btr. Sp. ii, 181. N. Ehein. Mus. i. s. 416—420.] Paris'
hospitable reception in Helen's, and Paris bringing her home to the house
of Priam, Ev. The simultaneous combat of the Dioscuri with the Apha-
retiadas, M. Blacas pl. 30. 31. Getting. Anz. 1836. s. 1754. [As the bride
is received by the king foUowed by two lancers, so the bridegroom, follow
ed by his horses is received by the Queen. In the Cyprians, Paris solem-

EVENTS OF THE TEOJAN WAE. 681
nized his marriage after his arrival in Troy ; possible indeed that this is
meant. A ydpiog of Theseus and Antiope in Athens was noticed above.]
Paris comes to Helen, vase-paint., Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 34. (ProtesUaus ac
cording to Gerh.) Bros wins Helen for Paris, MiUingen Div. 42. The
carrying away of Helen on vases from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 153., on
Btr. urns frequently. Tischb. i. 4. Marriage §. 378. E. 4. Odysseus
and Palamedes Ann. d. I. vii. p. 249. Sacrifice of Iphigenia, Uhden,
Schr. der Berl. Acad. 1811. s. 74. Timanthes' picture §. 138. E. 3,
Gell, N. Pomp. pl. 46. [M. Borb. iv, 3, Zahn i, 19, D, A. K. i, 44,
206.]; ara in Florence {K>,sopiivng 'ewoiei), where Calchas outs off her
hair, and Agamemnon turns away veiUng his face, Lanzi Op. post i. p.
330 sq. E. Eochette M. I. tv. 26, 1. p. 129. (otherwise explained: L'ara
d'Alceste, P. Pisani incise. 1780.) ; Medicean vase. Tischb. v, 3, G, di Fir,
St. 156, 157, ; Btr, urns, MicaU 70, 71, (of the earlier edition), E, Eochette
pb 26, 2, (the snake-entwined omphalos introduced) ; [Braun in the Giorn,
scientif, di Perugia 1840. i. p. 50 — 65. ; Antiquarium at Mannheim ii. s.
8. ; Mus. Gregor. i, 94, 5. ; on the large sarcoph. from Tarquinii ibid. 96,
2. where however we must rather suppose tho sacrifice of Polyxena, along
with the death of Astyanax 96, 1 ] vase-pict. in which tho substitution
of the hind is finely expressed, E. Rochette pl. 26 b. [Wall-painting tf.
27. 0. Jahn Archaol. Beitr. s. 378 — 398. A smaU picture discovered in
1835, in Zahn ii, 61., represents Iphigenia, from whose hair Calchas cuts
off the points of a tress ; before the thalamus AchiUes sits in sadness,
unbearded, with the lance, wrapped in his mantle, turned away, and per
haps struggUng against Eros, with his arm uplifted as to the gods.] Ajax
and Teucros taking leave of the aged Telamon, vase-pict. E. Eochette pl.
71, 2. Telephus' combat with AchiUes, MiUingen Un. Mon. i, 22.? Tele
phus cured by the rust of AchiUes' lance, gem in Eapponi 36, 3. Mirror
in Bianconi 1. Inghir. u, 39. [According to the inscriptions Philoctetos
and Machaon, while other mirrors represent the healing of Tel. 0. Jahn
Teleph. und Troilos s. 8 f and Archaol. Aufs. s. 179 f Gerh. Btr. Sp. ii,
229. Exploits of Telephos 0. Jahn Ant. Aufs. s. 164 fif. Telephos recog
nised in Aulis seizes the infant Orestes and flies for refuge to the altar, on
Etr. altars, 0. Jahn Tel. und Troilos 1841, and on painted vases, A. Aufs. s.
* 172 ff". Auge, Teuthras, Aphrodite.] Patroclus' wounds bound by AchU
les §. 143. E. 3). ProtesUaus' death §. 413. E. 1. Palamedes and Protesi-
laus? playing at dice (Bur. Iph. Aul. 190.), vase-paint, see Panofka, Hyp.
Eom. Studien s. 165. comp. Ann. d. Inst. iu. p. 133. BuU. 1832. p. 70.
. Ajax and AchiUes M. d. I. ii, 22. Ann. vii. p. 228. Welcker Rhein. Mus.
iii. s. 600. Combat of AchiUes and Hector (after the Cyprians?) §. 143.
R. 2.), comp. Welcker Ann. v. p. 219. [Ajax and Hector ? Grotefend Ann,
vii. p, 220, Achilles and Hector do not hasten to the single combat, but
they separate from it, angrily, even after it has been terminated. They
did not however fight over the dead body of Troilus (0, Jahn Tel, u,
TroUus s. 90 f ), which is not there, and indeed this would be no duel at
alLbut in order to decide the war without a general engagement, which
only fits into the Cyprians, Death of Troilus, to which several monuments
belong which are referred below to Astyanax, 0, Jahn Tel, u, Troilus s.
70 ff. In vase-paintings we have to distinguish the pursuit of Tr,,
which is furnished by at least fifteen vases, beginning with that of
Clitias and Ergotimus which is rich in names and figures, the slaughter
which is to be found on three, and the combat for the body on two vases.

582 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS,
The first is engraved iu Gerhard's Vasen des k. Mus. Tf 13, 6. 14. 20. E,
1. 3, 7, 10, Auseri. Vas. i, 14. iu, 185. The second M. d. I, 34, (com
mented on by the author in manuscript as the death of AchiUes after
Campanari BuU. 1834. p. 234 sqq., with reference however to Rhein. Mus.
iu. s. 627.) ; 0 Jahn Tel. u. Troilos Tf 2, Gerh. Vas. des k. Mus. Tf B, 6. ;
Auserl. Vas. ui, 224—26. ; the third Gerh. iii, 223. The first also on Btr.
urns, Mus. Chius. tv. 25. 147. ; Ingh. M. Etr. i, 83. ; VermigUoli Iscriz.
Perug. i. p. 166. ; Gori i, 134. Dempster i, 68. Cavedoni Indicaz. per U
Mus. di Catajo p. 16. no. 1. p. 84. no. 869. ; BuU. 1846. p. 163. where the
meaning is missed ; also in the museum at Florence, several times, and
on a cameo in Mantua, M. Worsl. tv. 30, 14. (Milan ed.) ] Death of Pala
medes from a vase-painting Welcker Tril. s. 469. Ztschr. f AW. 1838. s.
218. Palamedes I0aM.IA'I and Philoctetes ? Impr. d. I. in, 32. [The
heaUng of Philoctetes is later than the death of Palamedes.]
Homerica. Homeric scenes, filling up by Inghir, Gal, Omer. Welcker
HaU. ALZ. 1836. n. 75 ff. [now again to be completed in many points.]
Ilian tablet in the M. Cap. iv, 68. G. M. 558. Tischb. vu, 2.: The
events of the lUad and those which succeeded tUl the emigration of
iEneas, in reference to Rome as New Troy. For the explanation Beger's
BeU. Trojanum, 1699. Welcker Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 227. A piece of a per
fectly similar tablet in Chois. Gouff. Voy. Pitt. ii. p. 346, Inghir, G. Omer.
5. ; different that in Montfaucon Suppl, i, pl. 37, 2, Maffei, M. Veron. p.
468. Inghir. 6, comp, Gott. G, A, 1834. St. 93, also §, 416. R. 1, Minia
tures of the Ambrosian MS. §, 212. R. 3., likewise Gothe, Kunst. u. Al
terthum ii, 3. s. 99. Casali altar of T. Claudius from Faventia, with
reliefs from the Trojan war, and the early history of Rome, Bartoli Ad
mir. tb. 4. Or. Orlandi Ragg. sopra un' antica ara. [F. Wieseler Die Ara
Casali Gott. 1844; H. Brunn Berl. Jahrb. 1845. i. s. 71 sq.] Vignettes in
Heyne's Iliad. — [Calchas winged, examining entrails, M. Gregor. i, 29,
6. Gerh. Etr, Sp, ii, 223.] The bringing back of Briseis §. 210. E. 6. M.
Borb. ii, 68. [Briseis and Achilles, with the names Gerh. Vasen iii, 181.
184.] The restoration of Chryseis to Chryses, painting from Pomp. M.
Borb. u, 67. [R. Rochette M. I. pl. 16.] G. Omer. 21. Embassy to AchU
les, R. Rochette M. I. pl. 13. M. Borb. ix, 12. Neapel's Antiken s. 242.
The lyre-playing AchiUes, fine engraved stones, Bracci ii, 90. G. M. 567.
G. Omer. 99. ; 100. Slaying of Dolon (in the wolf's skin) and capture of
the horses of Ehesus, on gems, Tischb, iii. G, M, 570-74, Impr, d. Inst, i,
80, 81, (if not Tydeus with the head of Melanippus) ; iii, 35, 36, also perhaps
Tischb. ix, 5, (comp, C, I, 5). On the vase from Bernay, E, Eochette pl, 52.
comp, p, 284, Leprevost Mem, sur la coll. de Vases ant. de Bernay, Dolon
in wolfs skin surprised by AI0MEAE2 and OATTET, cyUx by Eupbro-
nius M. d. I. ii, 10. Ann. -vi. p. 295. [Here visits Zeus on Mount Ida,
metope from SeUnunte, Serradifalco ii, 33. a painting M. Borb. ii, 59.
Ternite 2 Eeihe iii, 22. Dead body of Sarpedon, carried away by Death
and Sleep Gerh. Vasen ui, 221.] Hector storming the ships, on gems,
Impr. d. Inst, i, 82., with torch, G. Omer. 137. ; Aja.vs defence 136, 138,
G, M, 575, 676, Odysseus under Ajax' shield, Tischb, v. Contest for the
body of Patroclus §, 90, R, 3,, vase-paint. G. M, 580,, coins of the lUans
No, 237, Mionnet. Contest for the body of Patroclus and reconoUiation
of AchiUes §. 143. No. 1. [Gerh. Vasen iii, 190.] Antilochus' embassy,
beautiful cameo, Tischb. ix, 4. G. M. 584. G. Omer. 157. comp. 31. accord-

EVENTS OF THE TROJAN WAR. 583
ing to Welcker, Orestes, and Pylades in Tauris, according to the Gri
mani bas-reUef; G. M. 684. Mon Matth. iu, 34. G. Omer. 158. Achilles
mourning, on gems, M. Flor. ii, 25, 3. Wicar iii, 33. G. M. 566.; R.
Rochette vign. 16, 1. ; Impr. d. Inst, i, 78. ui, 37. 38. 39. 72. comp. §. 372.
R. 7. Restoration of Briseis G. M. 587. §. 311. R. 6. (the bringing away
of Briseis, according to Lange in Welcker's Zeitschr, s, 490,). AchiUes
accoutred by Thetis §. 402, R, 3. AchiUes putting on his grieves, Btr, gem,
G. Omer. 183. Impr. iii, 73, Apollo rescuing the Trojans at the Scasan gate,
on gems, Caylus v, 53. Natter, Traite 34, G, Omer, 73, Achilles in his
chariot raging in the waves of Scamandros, on an Etruscan urn, where
Scamandros figures as a little Triton ; on a sarcophagus from Sparta, R.
Rochette M. I, pl, 69.? Hector taking leave of Andromache, in Volci.
Ajax, Hector, .^neas, fighting M. d. I, ii, 38, vase from Cajre with names,
Ann, viu, p, 306, [Hector between Priam and Hecuba, who places the
helmet on him ; the painter Buthymides HonOAlO, Gerh. Vasen iii,
188, Hector's departure, the same persons, here also with the names, tf.
189. ; Hector and AchiUes in combat, Athene between them tf 201, com
bat of the same heroes before the waU and the Sosean gate tf 203, between
Athene and ApoUo tf. 202. three times and tf 204. Combat at the ships
tf 197, 1. Patroclus' shade appearing above a ship, tf 198, 1.] Soul-
weighing on Hector and AchiUes, Etr. mirror, Winck. M. I. 133. The
dragging of Hector §. 99. No. 7. Bartoli Admir. 4., on gems (round the
city), M. Flor. ii, 25, 1. G. Omer. 204. 205. Impr. d. Inst, i, 85. ; BartoU
Luc. iii, 9. ; Vase from Bernay, R. Rochette pl. 53. Andromache's grief,
fine gems, G. M. 609. G. Omer. 246. Patroclus' feralia on the cista §. 173.
R. 3. [Races round his tomb Gerh. Vas. iii, 198, 1.] Ransom of Hector,
Volcentine vase (AchiUes with a beard, on a couch), G. Omer. 238. ; [Achil
les on a seat, bearded, with red figures, Gerh. iii, 197.] ReUef from Ephe
sus, G. Omer. 212. ; others M. Cap. iv. 4. G. M. 589, corresponding L.
206. BouUL iii, 53,3. Clarac pb 111. ; also pretty nearly L. 418. G.M.
690. Bouill. iu, 54, 3. Clarac pl. 194. [Brit. Mus. x, 40, 2, p. 96 sq,] ; gem,
Guattani 1786, p, Ixv, ; Priam at the feet of AchiUes Impr. iii, 76. 77.
mosaic, discovered in 1823 at Barhely in the comitate of Hunyader (11^;-
apiog, ' ApcATifff , Aljropielav), see Abbildung von zwei alten Mosaiken. 1825.
The Phrygians with craters, two Farnesian statues and a similar one
PCI. vu, 8. are perhaps from a group of this kind [kneeling in order to
deUver a burden?]. Weighing of Hector's body (after jBschylus' Phry
gians, Schol. II. xxii, 351.) on the silver vase of Bernay, R. Rochette M.
I. pl. 52. [Hector's burial, Winckelmann M. I. 136, the wanting piece
in the Colonna palace, E. Braun A. Marmorw. i, 9 a. b.]
Posthomerica. The Amazons coming to Priam after Hector's death,
hence in the reUefs Winck M. I. 137. 6. M. 692., and Winck. 138. G.
Omer. 244. Andromache with the urn introduced, sitting. [So on an am
phora from Vulci with the dragging of Hector, on the other side the
arrival of the Amazons, Gerhard Auserl. V. iii, 199.] Connexion of the
Iliad and >Bthiopid, cameo, G. M. 591. Battle, G. M. 580. Penthesilea' s
death (AxiX'hevg xAxav xiiriiv, Paus. v, 11, 2.), in gems, M. Flor. ii, 33, 2.
3. Impr. d. Inst, i, 86.; on sarcophagi, PCI. v, 21. Winck. M. I. 139. G.
M. 595.; Bouill. iii, 52. Clarac pl. 112.; R. Rochette 24. (with sepulchral
reference); BeUori Luc. iii, 7. 8.; Tischb. Vasen u, 5.; M. d. I. ii, 11.
Penthesilea's death? mirror with tho names, Archiiolog. Intell. Bl. 1835.

584 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
No. 2. [E. Braun. Both combatants clad in iron, similar in style to the
group on the bottom of the goblet of Sosias. Gerh. Btr. Sp. u, 233. Ach.
here draws his sword on P. while in the cylix M. d. I. ii, 11. he transfixes
her with his spear. Thus also Gerh. Vas. iii, 206, where the names are
inscribed. Ibid. tf. 205. they fight over a faUen Amazon.] ; on contorniati
with inscription. Memnon comes to Ilion, MiUingen Un. Mon. i, 40.
Priam's [formerly Memnon's] chariot, guided by an Ethiopian, relief, M.
Borb. vi, 23. Antilochus' dead body placed on Nestor's chariot, Etr. urn,
Tischb. Homer i, 6. G. M. 596. comp. Philostr. ii, 7. Combat of Memnon
with Achilles, in Volci (over Antilochus' body, Eos and Thetis at hand),
Ann. iu. p. 154.; §. 99. No. 9.; G. M. 597. (the psychostasy); MUUngen
Div. 49. ; Zoega Bass. 55. (where Bos wishes to separate them). Psycho
stasy on vases M. d. I. ii, 10 b. Zeus, Hermes weighing, a goddess. [Ach.
and Memnon fighting, Thetis, Bos, with the names Gerhard Vasen ui,
205, 3. and 204, on the first over the body of Antilochus, on the other
without it ; without the body, with the goddesses and with each a com
panion in arms 211.; over the body between Sphinxes 220.; perhaps also
on the amphora from Veil, Canina I'ant. Veil tv. 36. 37, combat over a
dead body between two female figures, the one with a red, the other with
a black circlet, according to p. 78. crowns for the conqueror, Rv. a war-
chariot, four couple men and women. Thetis and Bos implore Zeus,
with the names, vase, R. Rochette Peint. de Pomp. p. 5., without
the names, with Athene, mirror Mus. Gregor. i, 31, 1. However, for this
poesy, as well as for the whole Trojan cycle, the monuments that have
since become known are too numerous to admit of being fitly introduced
one by one.] Troilus slain by AchiUes at the altar of the Thymbrsean
ApoUo, Ann. iii. p. 163., in the temple, Maisonn. 14. The Troades bring
ing the sacrifice-for the dead to Troilus, MiUingen Div. 17. [Troilus in
the Antehom.] Uluche and Achle, scarab, comp. Welcker Zeitschr. f. A. W.
1836. no. 12. [The contest between both after Odyss. viii, 72.] AchiUes
wounded in the heel, Impr. d. Inst, i, 87, (archaic) 88 — 91. iii, 40. 78. G.
M. 601., on a silver vase, R. Rochette pl. 63. ; defended by Ajax, Impr.
84., borne away by Ajax, Etr. gem, G. Omer. 13. G. M. 602., vase from
Volci, R. Rochette M. I. pl. 68, 1. Combat over Achilles' body, Volcen
tine vase-paint. M. I. d, Inst, i, 51, comp, Hirt, Ann, v, p. 225,; gem, G.
M. 581. (where the corpse is in quite the same way drawn by a rope).
Achilles' death, in the preeenco of Neoptolemus, vase-paint, from Volci,
Ann. iu. p. 154. Achilles' expedition to the Happy Islands §. 402. Achil
les and Helena wedded by the Moerse, group in the island of Leuce, Phi
lostr. Her. 16. Contest for the armour §. 311. R. 5. G. M. 629. G. Omer.
110. Roman bas-relief M. d. I. ii, 21. K. Meyer Ann. vui. p. 22. Other
monuments p. 26. 26. Odysseus with Achilles' armour Impr. d. I. iii, 42.
Od. VA12 armed iii, 43. The enraged Ajax of Timomachus §. 208. R, 2.
Tab. Iliaca, paste in Tischb. vii, 6. comp. Libanius p. 1091. Bronze sta
tue of the insane Ajax. Ajax's suicide M. d. I. ii, 9. Ann. vi. p. 272.
Philoctetes abandoned in Lemnos, Zoega Bass. 64., fanning his wounds
with a vulture's wing, gem (BOH0OT) G. Omer. 51. 6. M. 604. ; Impr.
d. I. iii, 83., with Odysseus and Neoptolemus (after Sophocles) on Etr.
urns, E. Eochette pl. 54. 65. G. Omer. 49. Theft of the Palladium, Le
vezow Ueber den Eaub. des Pall. 1801. MilUn Enlevement du PaU. 1812.
G. M. 562-65*. It is to be found at every stage, even that of the

PEESONAGES OF THE TEOJAN WAE. 686
quarrel with Odysseus, on gems ; an explanation is still wanting of the
scene M. Flor. ii, 31, 1. G. di Fir. Int. 26, 2. (see however E. Eochette M.
I. p. 200,) ; on vases, Millin i, 14. (where the theft is placed simultaneous
ly with the voyage to Leuce) and Millingen Un, Mon, i, 28, (where
Diomed and Odysseus carry off two PaUadia, as in the terracotta relief in
Berlin, and according to Ptolem, Heph. in Photius p, 148 B,) ; Ann. d.
Inst. u. p. 95. tv. d. ? ; E. Eochette M. I. pl. 63. 56. ? Theft of the PaUa
dium on vases from Ruvo, InteU. der Hall. LZ. 1837. no. 30. Od. at the
theft of the Palladium Impr. d. I. ui, 80. Od. and Diomedes ? ui, 79.
Diomed's theft of the PaUadium and Od, with names along with Helen
EA. Vase-painting M, d, I. ii, 36, Ann. viii. p. 295. [Griech. Trag. i. s.
147 f 0. Jahn in Schneidewin's PhUologus i. s. 56. A previous or inter
mediate scene is presented on a vase in 0. Jahn's Vasenb. Tf 3.]
Destruction of Rion, §. 134. R. 3. Picture described by Petronius 89.
Chief groups on a helmet, Neapel's Ant. s. 216. Ingeniously represented
in the figure of one Trojan woman, Libanius p. 1093. Epeys with He
phsestus making the Trojan horse, Etr. mirror, Micali tv. 48. The wooden
horse introduced, on a vase from Volci, in reliefs, Marm. Oxon. i, 147. ;
on Etr. urns, R. Rochette pl, 57, 1, 2, ; Pitt, Ere. iii, 40. comp, §, 335,
R, 9. The heroes coming out of it, G, M, 606, Laocoon §, 156, The
outrage on Cassandra, on vases (Bottiger and Meyer Ueber den Raub
der Kassandra, 1794,), especially Laborde ii, 24. Maisonn. pl. 16. R.
Rochette pl. 60. 66. (at the same time other women and old men flying
for refuge) ; on mirrors in R. Rochette 20. comp. p. 321. ; gems, W.
Worsl. iv, 23. Impr. d. Inst, i, 92. (Cassandra after being violated,
M. Flor. ii, 31, 2.); reliefs L. 288. Winck. M. I. 141. Clarac pb 117.
(comp. Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 158.), Gerhard Ant. Bildw. 27. (similar to the
kneeUng Msenad §. 388. R. 3.). Death of Priam Mon. do' Conti Giusti,
Verona tv. 3. [Gerhard Vasen iii, 213. and Pyrrhus throwing at him the
murdered Astyanax Tf. 214.] Astyanax killed at the altar of the Thym
brsean ApoUo, vase from Volci, M. I. d. Inst. 34. comp. Ambrosch Ann.
iu. p. 361. (Death of Troilus? Welcker Ann. v. p. 253.) [§. 99. R. 3, 10.]
Farnesian group of statues (so-caUed Commodus), Cavaler. 1, 29. R.
Rochette pl. 79. (Hector, who has wrested from AchiUes the dead body
of TroUus, according to Welcker Zeitschr. f Alterth. 1834. s. 64.). Mo
saic from Tivoli, R. Rochette p. 325. Burial of Astyanax? G. M. 611.
Hecuba (of Euripides) and Polymester M. d. I. ii, 12. Ann. vii. p. 222.
[Emigration of jEneas Gerhard Vasen iii, 215 — 217. and very often on
vases.] Sacrifice of Polyxena, often painted, Paus. x, 25. On the cista
of Prseneste, where Astyanax is sacrificed at the same time, §. 173. R. 3.
Group of statues, Liban. p. 1088. Walz, Rhet, i, p, 395, Stoschian gem
(psyche of AchUles introduced), Winck, M, I, 144. Menelaus reconciled
with Helen, Tischb. v. (Vases iv, 50.) and MiUingen Un. Mon. i, 32.
Destruction of the Locrian Ajax, a tempest-picture, perhaps after Apol
lodorus, PhUostr. ii, 13. Andromache drawing water as a captive (after
II, xi, 457.), on coins of Larissa, in the possession of Col. Leake. JSthra
§. 412. R. 1. Dispute of the Atridse? MiUin Vases i, 66. Welcker Ztschr.
£ A. W. 1836. no. 29.
2. In antiquity Odysseus was known oi-s-o -roS i7rqu(pvov xxi iyqriyoqorog,
Menelaus rov iifiiqov, Agamemnon rov ev^iov, Tydeus by iT^evSieqix, Ajax Te
lamon by the fihoavqiiv, Ajax, OUeus' son, the 'erotpiov, Philostr, ii, 7, — The

686 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
group of Ajax and Patroclus above mentioned exists as Pasquino in
Rome (anonymous treatise by CanceUieri on Marforio and Pasquino,
FioriUo in the Kunstblatt. 1824. No. 47,), at Florence in the Pitti palace
and on Ponte Vecchio (Maffei, Raoo. 42. Tischb. Homer v,) [Clarac pl.
825, no, 2084,] exceUent fragments from Hadrian's vUla at Tibur in the
Vatican, PCI, vi, 18. 19,, viz, Ajax's head and Patroclus' legs and shoulder
with the spear-wound. A perfectly similar head in Lord Egremont's coU.,
Spec, 54,, also Brit, Mus, 2, 23, comp, Morghen Princ, 6, What is engraved
in Tischb, i. v, as the head of Agamemnon and Menelaus is in reality the
same. Also the group on a gem in the possession of Mariette, Millin Vases
i, 72, 4 comp. G. Omer. 150. The hero rescuing the dead body corresponds
only to Telamonian Ajax, and the action, conformably to the conditions
of the plastic art, is more concentrated than in Homer ; the same hero pro
tects and carries away. Ajax and Patroclus ? vase-painting M d. I, ii, 1 1.
[certainly Ajax and AchiUes, as it is also explained Ann. -vi. p. 297. And
they are also presented in the famous marble group, see Kunstmuseum
zu Bonn 1841. s. 75 — 80. Gerhard (on this Buch Preuss. Staatszeit.
1841), while otherwise invited to resort to this explanation, only found
difficulty in the wounding of Achilles on the tocle, but this does not rest
on ancient invention, and was not therefore to be attended to. On Ooins
BPETTIflN the same fine head. Rv. Athene, Nike and a trophy, (fee]
The head of Diomed, Tischb. iii. from the PCI. is doubtful. In the Brit.
Mus. Spec, ii, 30. On gems he has the chlamys almost always wrapped
round the left arm in the .Sltolian fashion, §. 338. R. 4. Hector on lUan
coins, N. Brit. 9, 18. 19. Chois. Gouff. Voy. Pitt. ii. pl. 38. Pedrusi v, 17,
3. Mionnet Suppl. v. pl. 5, 1., in a quadriga, Ni^^ on his hand, comp.
PhUostr. Her. 2, 10. ; as hoplites on coins of Ophryneion, Cab. d'AUier pl.
13, 12. ; his bearded and helmeted head pl. 13, 11. Priam enthroned,
coins of Ilion, Cab. d' AlUer pl. 13, 8. ; with his name, Maisonn. Vases 63,
heads on gems Lipp. i, ii, 1 — 3. Paris on the temple of JEgina §. 90. R.
3. in the Phrygian costume (Eurip. Cycl. 182. mentions his wide and
particoloured trousers and golden ornaments on his neck) with the apple
in his hand, sitting, PCI. ii, 37. Race. 124. Altemps, Piran. 24. ; standing,
Guatt. M. I. 1787. p. 37. (but PCI. iu, 21. explained to be a Mithraic min
ister). Statue at Cassel (Atys, Ganymede?), Welcker's Zeitschr. s. 181.
Fine busts of Paris in Walpole's travels (from Tyre) ; Guattani 1784. p.
76. ; M. Nap. ii, 57. [Statue of Paris from Guattani Clarac pl. 827. no.
2085, that of the Vatican sitting pl. 829. no. 2078, a fine one standing,
in the possession of Smith Barry pl, 833, no, 2077 A,, a simUar one in
the museum at Naples pl. 833 C. no 2081 B., that in Dresden pl
828. no. 2076, a sedent one in Berlin pl. 833. no. 2082., that of the
Torlonia coUection ii, 45. pl. 827. no. 2077., a standing one there also i, 38.
pl. 828 no. 2079., three others pl. 830. The Paris also in Lansdowne
House is standing, the right hand on the prop, the left planted under the
haunch, the right leg across the other, looking thoughtfuUy aside, finely
conceived. Heads are frequent Spec, ii, 17., several in England. The
fine gem, which was in the possession of Natter, Winck. No. 42. is Attys
according to Zoega Bassir. i. p. 98. and Visconti M. PioCl. vii. p. 99., ac
cording to R. Rochette J. des Sav. 1831. p. 340. TAPOT was added by Nat
ter himself as in a repetition of the same work. A scarab. API2 bending
his bow, Guattani 1784. p: 88. tv. 3. Head of uEneas on a Macedonian
coin in the French cabinet, R. Rochette Nouv, Ann, i. Lettre ^ Mr,

ODYSSEUS. 587
Grotefend p, 36,] Helen, bronze statue, the hair flowing down to the
hips, Nicetas de Stat. 9,, in the thin chiton of Aphrodite, with fluttering
upper garment on the Hall of Thessalonica, Stuart ui, 9, 7. ELINA in
old-Etruscan style, winged, Eckhel P, gr. 40. Toilette of Helen (in Polyg
notus) on vases, R, Rochette M, I, pl, 49 A, The Trojan old men gazing
with admiration on Helen, II. iii, 154, reUef in Munich, see Thiersch,
Jahresber. der Akad. ii. s. 60. Hecuba, statue, M. Cap. iii, 62., according
to Winck. and R. Rochette p. 312. [perhaps a lamenting Barbarian
princess ; there is a similar figure on the Amandola sarcophagus in the
Capitol.] Bust in Villa Albani pl. 67 A. Agrigentine vase, ibid., Hecu
ba led into captivity. Comp. Bartoli Pitt. 27.
416. The character of Odysseus was developed in a partir
cularly delicate manner by ancient art, — in the form however
in which we know him, probably not until the time of Alex
ander; the conic cap and the high-girded chiton, which be
longed to the dress of seamen, as well as the more powerful
than elastic structure of his limbs, give him a look of decided
energy and alertness; natural intelligence and mature ex
perience are expressed in every feature of his countenance.
Orestes, who was undoubtedly characterized with precision,
in the chief works of ancient art, by the sombre look of the
fugitive murderer, is recognised in the artistic representations
which we possess, only by the external attributes of the blood
stained culprit imploring protection.
1. The dress of Odysseus, (R. Rochette M. I. iu. OdysseideJespeciaUy
the -TTihiov (§. 388. R. 2. Cato in Polyb. xxxv, 6.)is said to have been first
given him by Nicomachus (§. 139.) about 01. 110. PUn. xxxv, 36, 22.;
other accounts (Bustath. and Schol. ad II. x, 265.) mention Apollodorus,
01. 93., as the inventor of the hat of Odysseus ; certain it is that on the
whole it is not known in vase-paintings. An exception in R. Rochette
pl. 64. On the other hand Odysseus is seen with at least a similar hat
on the rather ancient Btruscan gem, Inghir. G. Omer. 176. Odysseus in
his usual costume with the dog Argos on denarii of the gens Mamilia,
Bckhel D. N. v. p. 242. Morelli Mam. 1. 2. Fine bust in Lord Bristol's,
Tischb. u, 1. On a cameo, MiUin M. I. i, 22. On coins of Ithaca, in the
possession of Bosset (G. M. 639*.), and Cumse, in R. Rochette p. 253.—
The scenes of the Odyssey tolerably complete, Tischb. u. iv. vi. viii. G.
M. 627-42. Fragment of a tablet, Uke the tab. lUaca (Od. with Circe),
G. M. 635.^0dysseus' affected madness, Lucian De domo 30. Od.'s ad
ventures at sea, mosaic in the braccio nuovo of the Vatican, Beschr. Roms
ii, u. s. 89. Polyphemus with a comrade of Odysseus under his feet,
group in the Capitol, [Clarac pl. 835. no. 2091.] similar bronze in Count
Pourtalfes' coll., R. Rochette pl. 62, 2. Od. handing the cup to Polyphe
mus, Mich. Arditi Ulisse che — si studia d'imbriaoar Polifemo, iUustr, d'un
bassor. in marmo del M. Borbonico. N. 1817. The same subject L. 461.
Clarac pL 223. [833 A. no. 2087 A. Od. under the ram, statues in V.
PamfiU and V. Albani 833 A. no. 2087 B. 833 C. no. 2027 C. Statues of
Od. in Vienna pl. 832, in Venice, the one going to meet Ehesus in the
dark pl. 831. no. 2088.] Btr. urn, R. Rochette pl. 62, 1. Impr. d. I. ui,
86. The blinding of Polyphemus, old vase-painting, M. I. d. Inst. 7, 1.

588 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
i!omp. Ann. i. p. 278. comp. Cent, iii, 44, Btr, urn, R. Rochette pl, 62, 3,
IBas-reUef at Catania, pl. 63, 2. Od. escapmg under the ram, in vase-
paintings, M. I. d. Inst. 7, 2. 3. ; often also in Btruscan bronzes. Poly
phemus singing his love, Zoega 67. Pitt. Ere. i, 10. PhUostr. ii, 18. (On
the Mattel ReUef in R. Rochette M. I. 7, 1. comp. the evidence adduced
p. 412. from which it can no longer be considered to belong to the fable
of Polyphemus). Od. with the winds of JUolus in the bag, Passeri Luc.
ii, 100. Circe handing the cup to a companion of Odysseus, in the cos
tume of a jongleur of later times, waU-painting, Gell, N. Pomp. pl. 72.
The metamorphosis often on Btr. urns, R. Rochette pl. 61, 2. Od. with
the herb moly, G. M. 636. Necromancy of Od., vase from Nola, R.
Rochette pl. 64. M. Pourtalfes pl. 22. ; according to Panofka la Terre et
le fossoyeur. Od. with Tiresias, fine reUef in the L. 298. Clarac pl. 223.
G. M. 637. Btr. mirror, Od. before the shade of Tiresias, explained by P.
Secchi BuU. 1836. p. 81. (nothing convincing) [M. d. I. ii, 29. Ann. -mi.
p. 66. 170. 1840. p. 68. M. Gregor. i, 331. Gerh. Etr. Sp. u, 240, The
masterly painting on the crater from Pisticci with the judgment of
Paris M, d. I. iv, 19, Ann, xvii, p. 210.] Od. with the Sirens, §. 393.
R. 4. With omission of the Sirens, Bellori Luc. ui, 11. Comp. Beger
Ulysses Sirenes prsetervehens. Scylla, §. 402. R. 4. Od. building a ship,
Impr. d. Inst, i, 95. Od. as beggar, thoughtful iii, 85. [Od. and Nausicaa
at the washing, Gerh. Vas. iii, 218.] Od. taking leave of Alcinous, G. M.
639. The shepherds preparing a meal for Od., Tischb. viii, 8. Od. with
the dog Argos, G. M. 640. Tischb. viii, 3-6. Od. as a beggar in the house
of Penelope, waU-painting, Gell, N. Pomp. pl. 15. Penelope afflicted, §.
96. No. 12. [Clarac pl. 834, 2090. R. Rochette M. I. p. 162 sq.] Homer and
Penelope R. Rochette M. I. pl. 71, 1. Welcker Rhein. Mus. iu. s. 620.
Foot-bath of Eurycleia, G. M. 642. — Od. (without pilion) at the tomb
of Telemaohus (xx'hog Trihep^xxog) after an obscure mythus, in Maisonn.
72. Od. dxxv^o'TrXiiil Welcker BuU. d. Inst. 1833. p. 116. [Inghirami
Vasi fitt. ii, 116. 117. Tho signification is e-vident. A fragment with
THAEPONOS KIPKH BuU, 1843. p. 82. by Baron Giudica in Palazzuolo,
now in Rome.]
2. R. Rochette M. I. ii. Orest&de. Orestes by Rathgeber in the Encycl.
of Ersch and Gruber iu, v. s. 104. Mythus, works of art. Murder of
Agamemnon, on vases, M. I. 614. 16. (according to Telken's Kunstblatt ii.
s. 70., Merope seeking to kUl .ffipytos). Union of jEgisthus with Clytsem
nestra, Millingen Div. 15. Electra with Orestes' urn, on vases, Millingen
Div. 16. ; La'borde i, 8. ; R. Rochette pl. 31. Orestes and Electra at
Agamemnon's tomb, Clarke's Travels ii, iii. pl. 1.; MiUingen Div. 14.;
R. Rochette pl. 34. Or. and El. (according to Winck.) in the group of
Menelaus, §. 196. R. 2.), Maffei 62. 63., [Clarac pl. 836. no. 2094.] more
probably in the somewhat archaic group, M. Borb. iv, 8. R. Rochette pl,
33, 1, [Clarac pl. 836. no. 2093.] Clytsemnestra and .^gisthus put to
death (on Agamemnon's throne), M. PCI, A 6, G, M, 618. The kUUng of
jSigisthus, [a very ancient reUef §. 364, R, 8.] a picture, Luc, De domo
23., on a vase from Volci, Ann. d. Inst. iii. p. 154. [On the sarcophagus
from Tarquinii No. 4. mentioned at the sacrifice of Iphigenia, the body
of Clytasmnestra laid out in the middle, under which Electra sits griev
ing, on the right those of .^gisthus and Pylades, on the left Orestes and
two Furies. Orestes stabbing iEgisthus, Clytsemnestra springing forward

ORESTES, 689
with the axe, with the names, Gerh, Vasen des Berliner Mus. (no. 1007,)
Tf 24,] Or. with jEgisthus' head on Etr. urns (Burip. El. 860,) explained
by Uhden and R, Rochette. The slaying of Clytsemnestra, and pursuit
of Orestes by the Furies to Delphi, in the Vatican relief, Heeren Hist.
Werke iu. s. 121. PCI. v, 22. G. M. 619., perfectly similar G. Giust. 130.
Barbault Mon. Ant. pl. 56, 3., more abridged in the reUef in the Mus.
Chiaramonti, R. Rochette M. I. pl. 52, 2. ; the middle group, Bckhel, P.
gr. 20. comp. Welcker Zeitschr. s. 433. The relief L. 388. BouiU. iu, 66.
Clarac pl. 202. related, comp. the author's Bumenides p. 111. The same
subject handled in the Etruscan manner, MicaU 109. comp. OrioU Ann.
d. I. vi, p, 164, Orestes pursued by the Brinnyes (§, 398, R, 6.), often on
Btr. urns and vases, Tischb. iii, 32. MiUingen Cogh. 29. Or. held by Py
lades, in the Aocoramboni and similar reUefs and the Prsenestine cista,
Guattani M. I. 1787. p. xxv. ; by Electra, on engraved stones. Orestes at
Delphi, on vases, §. 362. R. 3. ; on a lamp, R. Rochette p. 155. ; much re
sembUng Diomed with the paUadium in the reUef M. Borb. iv, 9. R.
Rochette pl. 32, 2. p, 198. ; before Athena, G. M. 622. [foisted on MilUn
by Dubois] Orestes in Electra's arms, G. M. 621. 0. at the tripod Impr.
d. I. iu, 25. ; protected by Athena Archegetis (§. 370. R. 7.), Tischb. iii,
33. The scenes at Delphi and Athens combined, on the Vatican vase.
Diss. Aoc. Rom. ii. p. 601. R. Rochette pl. 38. Calculus Minervse, G. M.
624. (§. 196. R. 3.) ; G. Giust. u, 132. ; BeUori Luc. u, 40. Bckhel P. gr.
21. Iphigenia in Tauris, picture by Timomachus, Plin. xxxv, 40, 30. Tau
rian sacrifice in the Aocoramboni reUef, now in Munich 230., Winck. M.
1. 149. G. M. 626., more accurate in Uhden, Schr. der Berl, Akad, 1812,
13, s. 85. More abridged in the relief L, 219, Clarac pl, 199, ; Zoega
Bass, 56. Two Grimani reliefs in MiUin, L'Oresteide pl, 3, 4, comp,
Schorn's Kunstbl, 1828, s, 169, Welcker Rhein, Mus, iv, s, 602, [Griech.
Tragod, iii, s, 1164 — 1176, (The Grimani bas-reliefs also Mon, deU, Mus,
Grimani public, neU' anno 1831, Venezia,) The relief at Berlin s, 1174,
in Gerhard's Arch, Zeit, ii. Tf 23, s, 367, That at Bonn s, 1175, Jahrb,
des Vereins der Alterthumsfreunde zu Bonn i. Tf 3, 3, s, 61, by UrUchs,
comp, Wieseler Zeitschr. f AW. 1843. s. 483.] Orestes and Pylades
kneeling as victims, Impr. d. Inst, i, 96. ui, 70. 71. ? ? Led for sacrifice,
Lucanian vase, R. Rochette M. I. pl. 41. ; painting, Pitt. Ere. i, 12. (comp.
tv. 11. Ann. d. Inst. ii. p. 134). Orestes and Pylades together with Iphi
genia escaping with the assistance of the Taurian Artemis (in half-Phry
gian costume, with lance and bow), Maisonn. pl. 59. Laborde i. p. 15. ;
Iphigenia in Tauris, amphora from Ruvo M. d. I. ii, 43. Ann. ix. p. 198.
[One of five vases, the only ones from Misarra in ApuUa, in the Santan
gelo coUection at Naples, contains the two captives led before Iph., very
fine.] Murder of Pyrrhus at Delphi, Etr, urn, R. Rochette pl. 39. Wicar
iv, 24. (The wheel which Pyrrhus holds is, according to R. Rochette,
the xiixXog of the tripod, according to Creuzer, Wiener Jahrb. liv. s. 157.,
the wheel of Nemesis). Orestes and Neoptolemus on a Nolan vase? R.
Rochette pl. 40. Orest. and Neopt. in Delphi (Or. and Machsereus ac
cording to Panofka) Rv. Orestes before the Itxn of the Areopagus ac
cording to Panofka, M. Pourtalfes pl. 7. *¦
417. Without taking this cycle of heroes into account, I
Asia appears also in a mythological point of view to have
been the home of effeminate figures, such as the favourite

590 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
! boys of Zeus and Hercules; the Amazons are also represented
in vase-paintings as Asiatic in regard to costume and accou
trements, and with a certain softness of forms, although sta
tues and reliefs adhered to the simple and light drapery, and
strong, rounded forms of the limbs which were given to them
at the Polyclitan period.
1. As to Troy we have still to mention the mythic figures : Dardanus,
also Anchises, ou coins of Ilium, E. Eochette M. I. p. 246. Electra, spouse
of Dardanus, with Phrygian cap, sitting, the PaUadium falls from heaven,
on an engraved stone in the Vienna cabinet. Laomedon pursued by
Poseidon, Etr. bronze-work, Inghir. iii. 17. Anchises and Aphr. §. 378.
R. 3. Telamon saving Hesione, Winok. M. I. 66. comp. Pitt. Ere. iv, 62.
Ganymedes, §. 351. R. 6. — Hylas carried away by the nymphs, G. M.
420*. (M. Borb. i, 6 ) 475. ; Mon. Matth. ui, 31. ; Paciaudi Mon. Pelop.
Bp. 2. Together with Narcissus, on the puteal, Guattani, M. 1. 1805.p. xxxix.
2. The Amazon of Phidias preparing to leap, the wounded Amazon of
Ctesilaus §. 121, 2. [The Amazon with the left arm uplifted above the
head, several times in the Vatican and the Capitol, in the palaces Pa-
cetti, Clarac pl. 813. no. 2034. and Giustiniani no. 2037, Torlonia pl.
812 B. no. 2032 B. also in the Colonna palace, iu Lord Egremont's coll.
Clarac pl. 808, 2031. and Lord Lansdowne's pl. 833 B. no. 2032 C. ; the
Camuccini one also came from V. Aldobrandi. A smaU bronze in the
Florentine Museum repeats this remarkable composition more authen
tically than the marble statues, Visconti in the Cab. Pourtalfes p. 11. not.
39. Also Clarac pl. 667. no, 1208 B, from V, PamfiU is not Diana, but
this Amazon.] On horseback, in bronzes. Ant, Bro, vi, 63, 64, Amazon
falling from her horse, marble statue, M, Borb, iv, 21. [Clarac pl. 810
B., 2028 B., another in the court of the Borghese palace at Eome.]
Amazons in the full equipment of Grecian heroes, on a vase from Volci,
M. I. d. Inst. 27, 24. ; one of them blows a trumpet (in reference to their
Lydo-Tyrrhenian origin), like the Amazon in Phrygian costume, Micali
tv. 108. [Amazon on horseback, and two enemies, M. Gregor. ii, 18, 1.]
Combats with Hercules §. 410. E. 4. Bottiger Vasengem. iii. s. 163. [S.
170 ff'. Series of Amazon forms.] Theseus §. 412. E. 1., around Troy
§. 415. E. 1. (Priam on horseback advancing against the Amazons, on a
vase in the old style, see Millin M. T. ii. p. 78.), in the Bphesian temple
§. 365. E. 1. [Amazon Cyme on coins Miinchner Denkschr. Philol. i. Tf.
3, 8. Amazon battles very frequent on vases, Hancarv. ii, 65. 126. Tischb.
ii, 1. 8. 10. Millin i, 10, 23. Tomb de Canosa 9. MiUingen Div. 37. Un.
Mon. i, 38. Laborde i, 20. In Gerh. Auserl. V. ii. 103 arming. 102 march.
104 battle.] In reliefs at PhigaUa §. 119. E. 3., at HaUcarnassus §. 161. E.
1., on the temple of Artemis Leucophryne in Magnesia, [now in Paris,
Clarac pl. 117. C— 117. I. comp. L. Boss. HeUenika i. s. 57.] The sar
cophagus (from Laconica) in Vienna is particularly fine, Bouill. ii, 93.
Moses pl. 133., where the Amazons wear coats with empty sleeves, §. 246.
E. 5. Of another sarcophagus in Sparta, Abercromby Trant Narrative
of a journey through Greece, L. 1830. [?] Sarcophagus from Mazara,
Houel i. pl. 15. ; M. Cap. iv, 23. One from Sidon ArchaoL Zeit. 1848. s.
31. 313. Pomp. waU-paint. in Zahn 12. 13. Comp. Bottiger Archaol.
der Mahl. s. 256.

AMAZONS, NIOBE, D^DALUS. 591
Niobe §. 126. Beliefs, PCI. iv, 17. Fabroni tv. 16. ; in Munich 213.
V. Borgh. i, 16. A less comprehensive but very remarkable one, PCI. iv,
17. comp. Welckler Zeitschr. s. 691 ff. Family visit to Leto. (Aarw xxi
"i^ii^x pidxx ptev (pi'Kxi faxv irxiqxi, Sappho), the daughters play at astra
gals, G. M. 515. [The statues Clarac pl. 681—590. Bas-reliefs in addi
tion to the sarcophagi placed together in the Zeitschrift, and that found
in 1824, in Munich, the fine fragment in Bologna Thiersch Eeisen nach
Italien s. 361.; the sarcoph. now in the Lateran, L. Grifi intorno ad un
sepolcro dissoterrato nella vigna Lozano R. 1840. tv. (from the Atti dell'
Acad. Rom.) Kunstbl. 1839. No. 34. H. Brunn Kunstbl. 1844. s. 322 f.
Bull. 1839. p. 3. 39. ; an Etruscan one in ToscaneUa, Campanari garden,
with a male protrait figure lying thereon. Bull. 1839. p. 25. A vase-
painting Cab. Durand No. 19., E. Bochette Mon. Ined. last page, another
from Euvo BuU. NapoL 1843. tv. 3. p. 71. of p. HI; one with ApoUo, a
Niobid, Artemis and the psedagogue, De Witte Vases peints de M. M*.
p. 9.; a waU-painting in the Columbarium of V. Pamfili, BuU. 1838. p. 4.
1839. p. 38. Niobe at the moment of her death, Staokelb. Graber Tf 64.
Welcker Griech. Trag. i. s. 295. Terracottas of a group of Niobids found
at Fasano, BuU. NapoL v. (1847.) p. 41. tv. 3.]
418. The Islands, excepting Crete, of old renown, were, 1
like all those regions which the Greeks did not inhabit from
primitive times, poor in mythi, and therefore in subjects for
art. Colonies sometimes celebrated in statues and on coins 2
their earliest founders, who, if not mythological personages
themselves, yet stood in close approximation to them. The 3
power of Rome procured for the history of .tineas many an
artistic representation, and obtained for the legends regarding
the foundation of the city a place beside the Grecian mythi;
the praise of a truly plastic life can only, however, be given to
the group of the twins under the she-wolf
1. Cretan mythus. Buropa §. 351. R. 4. Talus (with inscription) on
coins of Phsestus, Cab. d'AUier pl. 7, 5. comp. Ann. d. I. vii. p. 164. Mi
notaur and Ariadne §. 412. R. 1. 384. R. 3. Dcedalus and Pasiphae, L. 71.
Winck. M. I. 93. BouUl. iii, 52. Clarac pl. 164. G. M. 487. comp. 486. ;
painting, M. Borb. vii, 65.; frequent subject of art, Virg. iEn. vi, 24.
Petron. 52. Philostr. i, 16. [Campana Op. di plastica tv. 59. 0. Jahn
Archaol. Beitr. s. 241. Pasiphae with the infant Minotaur in her lap,
cylix from Vulci BuU. 1847. p. 128. Beliefs 0 Jahn s. 239 ff. Wall-
painting D. leading the buU before Pasiphae enthroned (on the other side.
Ariadne handing the clue to Theseus,) Mus. Borbon. xiv, 1. Zahn ii, -60.]
Icarus getting his wings, sarcophagus in Messina, Houel ii. pi. 76. Hirt,
Tolkons KunstbL u. s. 73. ; Zoega Bass. 44. Winck. M, Ined, 95, ; Orti
Mon. Giusti tv. 1. 2. fragment. [The copy in the viUa Albani also in B.
Braun Zwolf Basrel. Tf 12. ; where there is also a second from the same
viUa engraved ; another has gone to St. Petersburgh. Vase-painting M.
Borb. xiii, 67. Dsedalus standing fastens the wings with tho assistance
of Athene. Proteus and Menelaus underneath, Rv. Perseus and the Gor
gons.] Cameo, M. Borb. ii. 28. {Creta sitting by in light hunting dress).
[On the other side, a female figure, la Scultura?, works with a hammer
at one end of the wings. Dsedalus at the same time holds back Icarus

692 MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
by the arm, who is placed aloft with extended wings ; the moment seems
intended when the last hand is put to the wings, and Icarus is just going
to soar up,] The flight, G, M. 488. 89,, from Pitt. d'Erc, iv, 63,
2. Taras and Phalanthus in a group of statues, Paus, x, 13. Taras
on a dolphin on Tarentine, see especially Probus and Virg, Georg,
ii, 176, Byzas on Byzantine coins, comp, Millin P. gr. 47, Cydon
on coins of Cydonia. Tios on Tianian coins. Vise. Icon. Gr, pl. 43,
16 ; Adramyttus (?) ibid. pl. 43, 15, Cyzicus on coins of the city of that
name, G, M, 421. Eurypylus, king of the Ceteans, on coins of Pergamus,
Mionnet Suppl. v. pl. 4, 1. Pergamus xriarng ibid., monomachy on coins
Cavedoni Ann. 1835. p. 269. Athymbrus on coins of Nicsea, Midas with
Phrygian cap on ooins of Midaion and Prymnessus. Of Leuoippus §. 372.
B. 3. AveUino, Opusc. div. i. p. 199. On Syracusan coins Leucaspis, Tor
rem. tv. 78, 11 — 14,, Pheresmon on Messanian coins, ibid. 50, 6., Agathyr-
nus on those of Tyndaris, see Due de Luynes, Ann. d, Inst, ii, p. 308 sqq.
Millingen Anc, Coins 2, 9. An equestrian hero on ooins of Segesta, pro
bably Egestes of Troy, Nohden 8. ; against this Millingen Anc, Ooins p. 8.
Epidius Nuncionus on coins of Nooeria (according to Avellino), MiUingen
Med. In, pl. 1, 7. p. 14. So even historical founders, as Gorges, the bro
ther of Periander, on ooins of Ambracia, R. Rochette Ann. d. Inst, i. p.
312, M, I. pl. 14., Docimus on coins of Docimeia. Comp. VaiUant N.
Imp, Gr, ed. sec. p, 305. R. Rochette p. 245.
3. .jEneid, Cod. Virg. G. M. 645—652. Shelstrate's VirgU L. 1750.
Heyne's Virgil, especially in the 2d ed. .Mneas carrying Anchises, on
Ilian, Segestan (Torrem. tv. 64, 2 sqq.) and Roman coins, contorniati,
lamps (BeUori iii, 10.), gems, M. Flor. ii, 30, 23. Impr. d. Inst, ii, 62.,
vase-paintings, Micali tv. 88, 6. R. Rochette pl. 68, 2. 3. [and numberless
others.] Marble at Turin pl. 76, 4. ; represented by monkeys on a Her
culanean painting, Pitt. Ere. iv. p. 312. .^neas with Dido, with an in
teresting representation of Carthage and its tutelar deities, in a late-Ro
man reUef, PCI. vii, 17. comp. Beschr. Roms ii, ii. Beil. s. 9. Barberini
and Vatican statue of Dido kUling herself, PCI. ii, 40. B, 10. The statue
Anthol. Pal. Plan, iv, 161. quite different. Comp. on the figured repre
sentations of Dido, Heyne Virg. T. vi. p. 762. Dido abandoned by Maea.s
who is sailing away, female attendants and the figure of Africa beside
her, pict. from Pomp. M. Borb. ix, 4. (Cleopatra according to CiriUo). The
origin of Rome on the ara of Claudius §. 415. R. 1. and the statue of the
Tiber §. 403. R. 3. Clarac pl. 176. JEneas and the sow of Alba, on the
Vatican altar (of Augustus), R, Rochette pl, 69, The sow with the thirty
pigs, on gems ; also perhaps PCI, vU, 32. Maeas in the costume of an
imperator of later times, sacrificing the sow, relief, G. di Fir, iii, 119,
(according to the editor). Rea Silvia §. 373. R. 3. Romulus and Remus
under the she-wolf (lupa tereti cervice reflexa, Virg. Mn. viii, 633.), on
coins of Rome and lUum, N. Brit, i, 19. 9, 18. §. 182. E. 1.: on gems', G.
M. 656.^ Impr. d. Inst, u, 64, 65. (the shepherd Faustulus clad in the
sisyra and Eoma present) ; relief, G. M. 657. ; statue §. 172. E. 1. The
coins of Capua, N. Brit. 2, 14., point at a simUar local legend. Tbe shep
herds watching, G. di Fir. Intagl. 36, 1. Passeri Luc. iii, 1. 2. Eomulus'
spoUa opima, G. M. 658. Tarpeia overwhelmed by the Sabines with
shields, on coins of the gens Tituria. Rape of the Sabines on coins, G. M.
668*. Ooins of Constantius, M. Flor. iv, 100.

HISTOEICAL EVENTS. 593
II. SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE.
A. OF AN INDIVIDUAL KIND.
1. HISTORICAL REPRESENTATIONS.
419. Greek art was in its nature so much a creation 1
emanating from within, and was so closely connected in its
historical development with religion, mythology and poetry,
that the representation of outward, experimental life could
only occupy in it a subordinate rank. And even where ex
ternal experience furnished materials to the artist, represen
tations of definite individual transactions are much rarer than
a conception of the subject in its general features. In Greece, 2
however, painting, from the coincidence of its development
with the Persian wars, and the slighter connexion of its pro
ducts with religion (§. 73, 1.), was oftener than sculpture di
rected to the celebration of historical events of the past, and
victories of the present [§, 99. R, 1. 109, R. 3, Temple of Nike
Apteros] (§. 135, 2. 140, 5. 163, 6,); the life of sages and
poets was also drawn into this circle. In works of sculpture, 3
if we disregard allusion to historical occurrences by the choice
of mythi (§, 89, 3. 90, 3.), historical representations were very
rare before the time of Alexander. There is, however, a certain 4
number of striking and wonderful stories of great filial devo
tion, love and the like, such as that of the Catantean brothers,
that of Hero and Leander, and some others, which have almost
acquired the privileges of mythi in the formative art as well
as in poetry. Real historical representations were more fre- 5
quent among the Romans, in which great military expeditions
were completely unfolded on triumphal arches and columns;
and even on coins many events were not merely mythically
alluded to, but even directly represented, in earlier times as
distinctions of particular families, afterwards as glorious deeds
of the emperors; even in Rome, however, historical subjects 6
were seldom to be found apart from this class of monuments.
Apotheoses can scarcely be ranked among historical events; 7
they form at least the transition from the sensible world to
one fancied divine. — As in the warlike representations on 8
those honorary monuments their national character was also
given to the (jermans, Dacians and Sarmatians, it may be re
marked here that in the designation of foreign races ancient
art exhibits much skill and accuracy in the appreciation of
peculiar forms.
1. Wo are in a great measure indebted for this view to Winokel-
2P

594 SUBJECTS FEOM HUMAN LIFE.
mann, who regarded the migration of the Heraclids as the latest subject
of the formative art. And even here it may be doubted whether the
three heroes at the urn, on gems, are the HeracUds drawing lots. Winck.
W. iii. s. xxvii.
2. In Philostratus Panthia, Ehodogune, Themistocles in Persia, Pin
dar as a boy, also Sophocles occur as subjects of pictures. According to
Luc. de morte Peregr. 37. Socrates' conversatidn with his friends in pri
son was often painted. Socrates and Alcibiades ? Impr. d. I. iv, 83. [So
crates emptying the poisoned cup, was conjectured in the relief Mon. de'
Conti Giusti Verona tv. 1, 1. by the Author Gott. Anz. 1837. s. 1956, as
weU as the Editor, although Socrates' portrait is not expressed and therefore
a surgeon might be intended. Socrates also on sarcophagi with the Muses.
0. Jahn's interpretation of a bronze relief as representing Socrates and
Diotima is with justice opposed by AveUino Bull. Napol. ii. s. 27 sqq. and
R. Rochette Peint. de Pompei i. p, 105 sq. So also is the sepulchral re
Uef M. di Mantova iii, 16. certainly not Aristotle with the young Alexan
der, In a repetition of this representation in the Museum at Brescia,
where it is also caUed Aristotele e suo scolare, the boy has the forms of
a humpbacked person and therefore seems rather to be a slave,] Mar
riage of Masinissa and Sophonisba, Herculan. waU-paint. Vise. Icon.
Eom, pl, 56. M. Borb. i, 34. Alexander's marriage §. 211, 1. — Croesus on
the pile (trusting that the gods wiU quench the fiames), vase-painting
from Volci (the only one of the kind), M. I. d. Inst. 64. Welcker Ehein.
Mus. u. s. 601. Arcesilaus s. 427. E. 6.
3. Historical groups and reUefs §. 118. R. 2, a. and at the end, §. 129.
R. 3. 157*, 2. 3. Othryades on gems, if it is he (vie), Lipp. i, ii, 66. 67.
and elsewhere. The Argive poetess TelesUla arming herself, Paus. ii, 20,
7. The explanation of tbe Etruscan reliefs [Zoega Bassir. tv. 40.] Ingh.
Mon. Etr. i, 63. 64., as the Marathonian Echetlos is very doubtful. Arion
with his lute on the dolphin M. Borb. x, 7. (Uke Taras), as side-piece of a
Nereid on Triton. [Diitrephes pierced with arrows. Pans, i, 23, 4. The
painters playfuUy painted Timotheus sleeping in his tent, and Tyche above
him catching the cities in a net, M\i&n V. H. xiu, 43. Suid. Plut.
Apophth.] HarmoSiits and Aristogeiton, a group on Athenian coins, and
on the throne seat Stackelb. Graber s. 33. Vign. only not that by Praxi
teles, if it was the one carried off by Xerxes and restored by Alexander,
Seleucus or Antiochus, but it must have been the earliest of the three
executed in Athens, that of Antenor. [s. 88., or if not the one restored,
then it was that of Critias or of Praxiteles. One of these groups in the
Agora Aristoph. Eccles. 713., Aristot. Ehet. i, 9. The marble throne is
doubtless the same which is mentioned Stuart ii. ch. 4., the German trans
lation ii. s. 438. from the memorandum in Lord Elgin, inasmuch as the sa
crifice of Brechtheus' daughter is only called the death of Lesena.] Amber-
goblet (§. 312. E. 3.) with Alexander's whole history. Belief in giallo antico
from Laurentum with an aUusion to the battle of Arbela, Fea on Winck.
iii, 441. G M. 664. Alexander and Diogenes, Zoega Bass 30. comp. also
Boissard i, tb. 81. Diogenes in his tub Impr. d. I. iv, 82. Demostheiies
at the altar of Calauria, reUef in terracotta, Fea ad Winok. ii. p. 256. [The
equestrian battle of Agathocles splendidly painted on tablets, Cic. Verr.
iv, 2, 66.]
4. The Catanian brothers on the temple of ApoUonius §, 167, E, 2. on

HISTORICAL EVENTS. 595
ooins of Catana (Torrem. tb. 23.) and of Sextus Pompeius. Claud. Bidyll.
vii. sings of statues. [Cleobis and Biton in Argos clothed in the r^iiewo;.
Poll, vii, 61., the drawing of their mother to the temple represented in
Argos, Paus. ii, 20, 2., in Delphi Herod, i, 31 and Cyzicus in one of the
stylopinakia of the temple of ApoUonis no. 18. of the Epigrams. A bas-
relief, formerly in the Sacchetti palace seems modern, as well as another
of different composition in a Roman dealer's in 1846. A stone see TOlken
Gesch. Steine s. 312, 7. The relief edited by Beger Spicil. p. 146. and
Montf. i, 24, now in the library of St. Mark, Venice, is partly obscure, but
not referable to any other story, as Bottiger Kunstmyth ii. s. 282. sup
poses.] Cimon suckled by Pero, Valor. Max. v. 4. ex. 1. (who mentions
hujus facti pictam imaginem), waU-painting, M. Borb. i, 5. [Ternite
Pomp. Wandgem. 2 Reihe i, 8.] The story of Hero and Leander is to be
found represented on coins of Sestos (Mionn. Suppl. i. pl. 8.) and Abydos
V. pl. 5, 3., gems (Lipp. i, ii, 62.) and contorniati in the same simple man
ner. [Also in a Pomp, picture, Journ. des Sav. 1846, Febr, BuU. Napol, i.
p. 20.]
6. See §. 198, 2, 202, 2, 204, R. 4, 205, 6. 207. R. 4, Fragment of a
battle of Romans with Dacians as it seems, L. 349, Clarac pl, 144, Larger
pieces from similar warUke scenes, G. Giust. ii, 71. 72, Battle of Bomans
and Marcomanni (Blackie Ann. d. Inst, iii, p, 287,, [Nibby Sarcofago
scoperto entro la vigna Amendola R, 1839.] Pergamenians and Gauls
according to R. Rochette, BuUet, univ. Set. vii. 1830. p. 368.) on
the sarcophagus of the Vigna Ammendola, M. I. d. Inst. 30. 31. — On
denarii of the repubUo only aUusions to historical transactions can be in
troduced, as .^mUius Lepidus placing the diadem on Ptolemy V. (Morelli
gens .Emilia 8.), Jugurtha bound (gens Cornelia), the subduing of King
Aretas and the Jew Bacchius in Arabia (gentes Plautia and .ffimilia),
StiegUtz p. 97 ff. On imperial coins the muneracongiaria and opera
pubUca are especially commemorated ; but also other undertakings of the
emperors, Trajan's campaigns, Hadrian's travels. — AUmentarise Fausti-
nianse, Zoega Bass. 32. 33. The Mithridatic wars painted, Sidon. Apoll.
carm. 22. v. 158.
6, Curtius, V, Borgh. st, i, 18., Maffei 83, is lay Bernini; the horse
only is antique. The engraved stones with Codes, M, Scsevola, and Cur
tius M. Flor. ii, 56. are evidently modern ; those with Cleopatra's death
(comp, §, 311, R. 5,) doubtful, that with the murder of Csesar, Lipp. i, ii,
279,, certainly not antique. The deUvering up of Jugurtha was repre
sented on SyUa's signet-ring, Plut. Sylla 3, Roscius — how he was encoiled
by a serpent when a boy — was embossed in silver, Cic, de div. i, 36, Do
mitian when hard pressed by the Vitelliani, represented in a relief, Tac.
H, iii, 74, AVG as a hero in armour, with the Roman eagle and the
PaUadium, Impr._d. I. iii, 89, Commodus' worship of Isis, represented
in a mosaic in a portrait manner, Spart, Pescenn. 6. In Uke manner
Heliogabalus' worship of the gods, in a painting, Herod, v, 5, — The con
densed representation of the destinies of the Leg, XI, Cl. P. F. on a gem,
M, Flor. u, 19. Lipp. i, ii, 451. is interesting. — The statues of Barbarian
kings as captives, which are sometimes fine (for instance Maffei Race. 56.
from the forum Trajani, comp. Montf iv, 148, Clarac pl. 330,) were always
perhaps secondary figures on honorary monuments, [Clarac pl. 862 — 864
C] Tiridates? L. 446. Clarac pl. 336. Comp. §. 406. R. 5. (Silence).

596 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIPE.
7, As to the consecrations of the emperors the G, M, 671 — 684, places
together the principal monuments ; the emperors are borne to heaven by
an eagle, the empresses by a peacock. Hadrian in the reUef PCI, v, 26.
receives (like Hercules) immortaUty in a goblet. On coins of M. Aure
lius a Junonian throne denotes the consecration of Faustina, Pedrusi
viii, 18, 5. The diptychon G. M. 659. also refers to a later apotheosis, not
that of Romulus. On the ara Augustea at Ravenna (Gori Gemmse astrif
iii. p. 137.) Claudius seems to be adopted among the gods of the JuUan
race. comp. §. 199. R. 6. 8. 200. R. 2. 204. R. 4.
8. See on this point Blumenbach Commentatt. Soc. Gott. xvi. p. 175.
The .Egyptians are very excellently drawn on a Volcian vase, Micali tv.
90. The statue of the drunken Indian, CaUistr. 3,, was somewhat Moor
ish ; comp, Philostr, ApoUon, u, 22. The life of 21. female negro slave is re
presented in a Cyrensean sepulchral painting. Pacho pl, 54. A negro (by
restoration) L. 354, Clarac pl, 322, Ethiopian bath-servant, PCI. ui, 36.
A negress, bronze head M. Pourtalfes pl. 19. A kneeUng moor as a lamp
ibid. 30.

2. PORTRAITS.

420. Portrait -statues {dvbgidvreg), which arose from the
desire to honour victors in sacred games, and which there
fore, like other statues, stood originally in connexion with
the worship of the gods, were, on the disappearance of gen
uine republicanism, increased to an enormous amount by the
political ambition and the adulation of later times (see §. 87.
88. 121, 3. 128, 5. 129, 3. 158. 181, 2. 199 sqq.) They" were
generally of brass, seldom of marble; besides the entire figure,
the form of the bust and the medallion was employed, espe
cially for erection in larger series. Painting, usually exercised
for private commission, is not however without example in
public honorary portraits. Originally freer representations of
the corporeal and intellectual character of individuals, por
trait-statues, properly so-called, only made their appearance
by slow degrees (§. 87. 123, 2. 129, 5.) At the same time
there were portraits made of men of earlier times in the same
manner as of heroes, from their known character, their sayings,
their poetical works, such as the head of Homer which was
conceived with the loftiest sentiment, the statues of the seven
wise men, and the cheerful head of Socrates formed from Sile
nus, after the description in Plato's Symposium. At the time
when learning was most cultivated in Greece the portraits of
authors, above all of philosophers, constituted a very impor
tant branch of art to which many artists applied themselves
almost exclusively, principally because endeavours were made
to form as complete series of them as possible in museums and
libraries ; the artists too displayed therein admirable talent in
expressing the peculiar study and literary character of these

GREEK PORTRAITS, 697
men down to their very finger-ends. There are likewise pre- G
served many authentic busts of the distinguished men of
Athens; on the other hand, as to the princes who were so
often sculptured in antiquity and represented in every stage
of idealized and ordinary human form (§. 168. 199.), very few
remain, with the exception of Alexander the Great, chiefly
because no collections of them were made in the Roman times.
Coins, on the contrary, from Alexander downwards, afford a 7
rich survey of the dynasties sprung from the Greek race, as
well as of the oriental, which sought to approach the former
in their customs.
1. It is worthy of remark that, according to Hyginus f 104, Laoda
mia makes religion a pretext, in order to have in her possession a portrait
of ProtesUaus, comp, Ovid Her, 13, 152. Portraits as a compensation for
absent lovers are ascribed by the tragic poets to the heroic times, .^sch.
Ag. 405. Eur. Ale. 349. [Dicseogenes in the Cyprians, Aristot. Poet. 16.
Welcker Griech. Trag. s. 204.], comp; Visconti i. p. 2. Lobeck Aglaoph.
1002. and 1007. (That the ' 'kqpi,x(pqoliroi, Theoph. Char. 16., were majo
rum utriusque sexus effigies cubiculares sub specie Hermarum biformium
consecratas, is not very probable). — At Athens, according to Demosthenes,
Conon was the first erected, after the slayers of the tyrants, §. 88. ; then
Chabrias (besides Nepos Chabr. 1. see Aristot. Rhet. iii, 10.), Timotheus
aud many others. The oration of Iphicrates against Harmodius, a de
scendant of the tyrant-kiUer, (Aristot. Rhet. ii, 23, 6. 8.) seems to have
been occasioned by the latter disputing the other's right to the honour
of the statue which only belonged to his family, comp. Demosth. ag.
Lept. p. 462, Besides A. Westermann De publ. Ath, honor, p. 14 sqq.
dvlqixvro^iixxi, C. I. no. 2749.
2. Hence dvlqixvroi.oioi, statuarii stands for brass-casters. What we
have in marble are mostly Roman copies. Of busts §. 345, 3., shield-
figures §. 311. R. 3. 346*, 4. Portrait-paintings as honorary figures,
especiaUy in Asia Minor, for instance that of the citharcedus Anaxenor
in the purple mantle of Zeus SosipoUs at Magnesia, Strab. xiv, 648.
Comp. §. 208, 3.
3. The famous edict, that the statues of athletes should not be larger
than life (see among others Lucian pro imag. 11.), must have estabUshed
a thorough distinction between them and those of heroes which were
usuaUy made larger. The iaapiirqnroi dvlqixvreg in the oath of the Attic
archons are also connected therewith. But from these are to be clearly
distinguished the st. iconicse, accurate portrait statues, which were rais
ed, of course not tiU after Lysistratus, to those who had been three times
victors, [§. 87. R. 2.]
4. Pariunt desideria non traditi [traditos] vultus, sicut in Homero
evenit, PUn. xxxv, 2. The splendid Farnesian head of Homer (Tischb.
Homer i, 1.) shows the yt^vxi yijqxg, Christod. 322. ; the Capitoline heads
in Vise, i, 1. are less worthy of the heroic Homer. However, the coins
of Amastris (M. SClem. tb. 6, 9.) and los, and the contorniati also give
different heads. The Homeric monuments above §. 31 1, 5. 393. R. 2. G.
M. 543—649. Some doubtful sculptures, R. Rochette M, I. pl. 70 (thanks-

598 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE.
giving of a family to Esculapius and Hygieia ?) and 71, 1. p. 420. Doubt
less then to the non traditi vultus belong Lysippus' Seven wise men and
.Msop (Anth. PaL Plan. 332), after which may have been executed the
hermse of Cassius' viUa, with inscription beneath, and the .^sop of the
ViUa Albani without any. The figure of Solon also at Salamis which
iEschines declared to be very old, was not raised 50 years before Demos
thenes, De falsa leg, p, 420. Of Lysippus' Socrates, Diog. L. ii, 43. comp.
Vise. pl. 18. (On the gems of Socrates, which are for the most part aUe-
gorical or fantastical, Chifflet's Socrates). The wealth of the Greeks
even in statues of these early times is shown especially by Christod. and
the enumeration of female statues by Greek masters in Tatian adv. Gr.
52. p. 168.
5. On sculptors of literary men Plin. xxxv, 2.. xxxiv, 19, 26 sqq. comp.
§. 121. R. 3. Busts of learned men as ornaments of museums, probably
in those of Alexandria aud Pergamon, as well as that of Asinius Pollio,
then also in private collections, Pers. Prol. 6. Juv. ii, 4. vii, 29. Lipsius
De biblioth. 9. GurUtt s. 240. comp. s. 306. R. 4. — On the delicate percep
tion of character see especially Sidon. ApolUn. Epist. ix, 9. The geometer
Euclid was sculptured with fingers apart and arched, the finger-counting
Chrysippus with his bent together, Aratus as singer of the stars (although
indeed. only from books) with neck bent backwards. The tjvo last are
seen thus on coins of SoU (Vise, pl, 67, 1,) hence Visconti recognises
Chrysippus in a bust in the Villa Albani,
As to philosophers we know from coins Pythagoras (ilv^xyoqng 2«-
piiav. Cab, d' AlUer pl, 16, 16, Comp, §. 181. R. 1.), HeracUtus and Anaxa
goras (Vise, pl. A, 2,), from undoubted busts Socrates, Plato, Oarneades,
Theon of Smyrna, Aristotle (statue in the Spada palace), Theophrastus,
Antisthenes, Diogenes (interesting statue in V, Albani) ; Zeno tbe Stoic,
(whose bust at Naples Visconti takes for the Eleatic Zeno, assigning to
the stoic another unauthentioated one ; [Leuoippus, Avellino Opusc. i, p.
198,] the excellent statue of an elderly man in the tribon, M, Cap, i, 90.
Bouill, ii, 26,, belongs to neither), Chrysippus, Poseidonius, Epicurus and
Metrodorus, Hermarchus.
As to poets we find on ooins Alcseus, Sappho (the busts are uncer
tain, and the vase at Vienna published by Steinbiichel, Vienna 1821, MU
lingen Un, 33, 34, Maisonneuve 81,, although the inscription may be ge
nuine, [a clay relief from Melos in the Brit, Mus, represents the same
scene] cannot however be regarded as a portrait, which is furnished on
the contrary by the bronze coin published by AUier de Hauteroche,
Notizie intorno a Saffo di Breso. 1822, comp, Plehn Lesbiaca p, 189 sqq.
Gerhard Kunstbl. 1825. No. 4. 5. Brondsted Voy. p. ii. p. 281.), Anacreon,
Stesichorus (exactly after the statue mentioned by Cic. Verr. ii, 35.).
[Anacreon with his little dog, vase in the Brit. Mus. Sam. Birch, Archseol.
L. xxxi. p. 256. Bepetition in Rome, BuU. 1846. p. 81. Cydias with a
lute, XAIPE XAIPE KTAIA2, on a vase Catal. Magnoncour, comp.
Getting Anz. 1840. s. 597 ff. Two statues found at Monte Calvo in
1836, and belonging probably to the nine Muses are Anacreon and pro
bably Tyrtseus, both in the Borghese Mus. Supposed busts of Anacreon
Neapels Ant. Bildw. s. 100. no. 343. Another M. Worsl. iii, 3.] In mar
ble works, Sophocles (from the Prytaneion of Athens? M. 'VVorsl. i, 2, 1.),
[the splendid statue in tho Lateran and pictures M. d. I. iv, 27, 28. Ann.

ORATORS, HISTORIANS, RHETORICIANS, 699
xviii, tv. E p,] Euripides (a statuette important in a literary point of
view L. 65. Winck. M. I. 168. Clarac pl. 294,) [Statue standing Chia
ram. u, 23. sitting in Dresden, Leplat pl, iii, Clarac pl, 841. n. 2098 D.
many busts, Euripides is also in several instances united with Soph, in
double busts ; likewise in reUef in a goblet from Athens BuU. 1842, p,
172,] Menander and Poseidippus (statues fuU of life and truth, but of
a certain eff'eminacy and flabbiness, PCI. iii, 15, 16, Bouill, ii, 24, 25.
[Clarac pl. 841.] Schlegel Dramat. Poesie i, at the conclusion), Moschion.
[Clarac pl. 840 D. no. 2122 A.]
In orators, busts of Isocrates, Lysias, Demosthenes and .^schines
(also in MilUngen Un. Mon. ii, 9. ; we recognise in him 6 xx'hog dvlqidg in
like manner as we see in Demosthenes the fiery and impassioned patriot ;
statue of Demosthenes, now in the Vat., G. M. Wagner Ann. d. I. viii.
d. 169, [M. Chiaram. u, 24, On a bust AvelUno 1841. comp. N. Ehein.
Mus. iii, p, 274. Schroder Ueber die Abbild, des Demosth. Braunschweig
1842,]), Leodamas, Historians: Herodotus and Thucydides, Rhetori
cians: Epaphroditus, .^Uus Aristides, (On the Vatican statue of API2-
T1AH2 5MTPNE02 see Mai script, vet. nova coU. i, p. li. Gerhard,
Beschr, Eoms u, ii, s. 330.). A victorious rhetorician from Alexandria,
Amalth. iu. Tf 8. Herodes Atticus from Marathon M. Pourtalfes pl. 37.
Physicians: Hippocrates, Asclepiades and others (especially in minia
tures). The astronomer Hipparchus on coins of Nicaea, with the globe,
Mionnet Suppl. v. p, 91. [Visconti Iconogr. Gr. pl. 26. Measuring with
the compasses on the globe with the ecliptic and the equatorial circle,
UrUchs Dreizehn Gemmen aus der Sammlung der Frau Mertens-Schaaf
hausen Bonn 1846. no. 8,]
6. Among the Athenian statesmen there are undoubted portraits of
Miltiades (comp, Paus. x, 10.), Themistocles (however what Visconti pro
duces is still doubtful j) honorary statue of a statesman sitting, in Lord
Egremont's collection. Spec. ii. 7. ; (on the other hand a bearded head with
sailor's cap and laurel wreath, with individual features, on staters of
Lampsacus is without doubt Themistocles, the ancient lord of Lampsacus),
Pericles (after Ctesilaus §, 121., the helmet covers the pointed head, a
bust in Munich 186. shows also the Ionic fashion of wearing the hair
among the elder Athenians), Alcibiades who was often sculptured in his
time, but whose herma PCI, vi, 31,, little corresponds to the fame of his
beauty, comp, Welcker Zeitschr, s, 457. Aspasia is the first woman of
whom there exists an authentic likeness, in a bust of the PCL vi, 30, The
noble figure M, Borb. i, 60, Neapels Ant. s, 105, is arbitrarily called Aris
tides, It is .iBschines, see VescovaU in the Bull, 1836, p, 47. The sup
position that the fine statue PCI, ii, 43, Bouill, ii, 23, is Phocion has been
abandoned by Visconti himself, comp, vii. p. 100. — The statue of the Spar
tan Lycurgus PCI, ui, 13, is very doubtful. On Alexander §. 129, 4. 158,
2. [Clarac pl. 837 — 840 A.] Alexander's likeness was even much worn as
an amulet, TrebeU. Trig, 14, A coffer with Alexander's bead at Dessau
(with ram's horns and diadem), Kunstbl. 1830. No. 37. The contorniati
also represent his procreation by the dragon.
7. The ooins of Hiero and Gelon were either struck in after times in
honour of the tyrants (according to Visconti), or belong entirely to Hiero II,
and Gelon IL, the son of Hiero II, ; those ascribed to Theron are partly

600 SUBJECTS FEOM HUMAN LIFE.
forged aud partly erroneously explained. AveUino Opuscoli i, ui. The effi
gies of the Macedonian kings before Alexander are discredited by Vis
conti ii, p. 79. perhaps with reason ; he explains what are taken for them
to be heads of heroes. — I refer entirely to Visconti's great work for the
beads of the kings of Macedonia, Thrace (only dating from near the close
of its independence, for the supposed Lysimachus is Alexander), Epirus,
lUyria, the Pseonians, the SiciUan tyrants (I omit Sparta as the head of
Cleomenes is very uncertain), the princes of Pergamon, Bithynia (among
them the unknown queens Orodaltis and Musa-Orsobaris), tho Cappado-
cian. Pontic (from 268 before tiU 40 years after Christ), Bosporan (from
289 before tiU 320 years after Christ), and Armenian kings, as well as some
small dynasties in CiUcia, the Seleucidse, as well as the later kings of
Commagene and other Syrian districts, of Osroene, Mesopotamia and
Characene, tbe Herodiads, the Arsacids, the Grecian kings of Bactriana, the
Indo-HeUenio and Indo-Scythian sovereigns (see Todd Trans, of the Asiatic
Soo. i, ii. p. 313. Tychsen Commentat. rec. Soc. Gott. vi. p. 3. KChler
Med. Grecques de rois de la Bactriane. Pet, 1822. Suppl. 1823, Mem.
Eom. iv. p. 82. Schlegel N, Journ, Asiatique 1828. p, 321, E, Eochette
Journ. des Sav, 1834. Juin, Juill. 1836. Fevr. Mars. Notice sur quelques
Med. Grecques ined. de la Bactriane P. 1834. Suppl. and deuxifeme SuppL ex-
trait du Journ. des Sav. 1836. [3 Suppl. Fevr. 1839. 1844. p. 108.] comp.
Grotefend Zeitschr. i. A. W, 1835, s, 836, Al. Burnes Travels in Bokhara
vol, ii. p, 457. pl. 3. 4. Elucidations by WUson and Prinsep, Getting.
Anz. 1835. s. 397 ff. Hanneversche Blatter f Munzkunde 1834. no. 11.
[1836. no. 26.] Coins of king Kadphises BuU. 1834. p. 240. On the coins of
General AUard Journ. Asiat. iii, 5. T. 1. N. 2, p. 142.), of the Ptolemies, and
later Cyrensean and Mauretanian princes. [In Clarac who gives pl. 1023
— 1028, from Visconti's work the other heads of famous Greeks, and 1078
—1081, the kings are 1029—1042, the Arsacids pl. 1043 — 45, the Sassa-
nids 1046 — 51. Lenormant sur le classement des medaiUes qui peuvent
appartenir aux treize premiers Arsacides Nouv. Annales de I'Inst, ii, p.
191 — 236,] Antiochus VIII, and Cleopatra his mother on an onyx in the
Mus, Prancianum, FrehUch tb. 1, [The Author sui ritratti del 1. and
2, Ptolomeo in monete o cammei Ann. xu, p, 262, Arsinoe Philadelphi,
according to the Due de Luynes, marble head in Count Pourt. 's coll. from
Alexandria, M. d. I, iii, 33, Ann, xiii, p, 296, Birch Unedit. Coin of De
metrius II, Numism, Chron. vol, pb 5, p, 78,]
421, In Rome the likenesses of kings, and men of the early
republic may have been designed from the wax figures in the
atrium; which themselves again were sometimes purely ideal
creations, as in the case of the first kings, and sometimes were
taken from the family features of the descendants. The ear
liest authentic busts we have, of a decided portrait character,
seem to be those of Scipio Africanus the Elder. Caesar's like
ness was the first that was placed on coins during life; this
example was followed by the murderers of Csesar, and the
triumvirs. The iconography of the Roman emperors has been
referred to above (§. 199. sqq,) as the main source of the his
tory of art for the period ; it lies before us in great complete
ness, while busts of Roman poets and men of learning are

EOMAN POETEAITS. 601
preserved in much smaller number than those of the Greeks,
The Herculanean discoveries show us what a host of honorary
statues, and sometimes how excellent ones — among many mere
mechanical works — were also erected by Roman municipia.
1. On the coins of famiUes, heads of Eomulus, Tatius, Numa, (also a
bust) and Ancus, in Vise, comp. StiegUtz N. fam. Rom. p. 96. §. 181. R. 1.
Then Junius Brutus, Posthumius Regillensis and others. Scipio's busts
are known by the scar on his forehead in the form of a cross. Hannibal,
Vise. Icon. Gr. pl. 56, 6. 7. Impr. d. I. iii, 86. ? Quinctius Flamininus §.
160. R. 4. Even Sylla occurs only on coins of Q. Pompeius Rufus, Pom
pey on those of his sons. M. Antony the triumvir Impr. d. I. iv, 91.
Pompey's heroic statue in tbe Spada palace, Maffei Race. 127. [Clarac pl.
911.] disputed by C. Fea, Osserv, 1812,, defended by G. A, Guattani 1813,,
also by Vise. i. p, 118. Of Csesar, especiaUy a Farnesian and a Capitoline
bust, [one in Berlin and one in the Casali palace, Eome, statue of Agrippa
in the Grimani palace, Venice]— Edm. FigreUus De Statuis iUustr. Eoman-
orum. Holmise 1666.
2. In the series of the emperors probably endeavours at completeness
were made even in antiquity, so that of Domitian, only one of whose
likenesses is said to have escaped destruction (Procop. Hist. Arc. 9. p,
296.), many however soon existed again. Comp. §, 199, E, 4, 5, VitelUus'
busts according to Visconti date from the sixteenth century ; that how
ever in the museum of Mantua is esteemed genuine, also perhaps the
colossal bust at Vienna,-' [Statues of tbe emperors from Csesar down to
Constantine, Clarac pl. 911 — 980, Heads pl, 1054 sqq,]
3. Authentic but not very accurate likenesses of Terence [from the
contorniatus at Gotha], Accius, Sallust, Horace, ApoUonius of Tyana, and
Appuleius are furnished by the contorniati ; of VirgU only by the minia
tures of the Vatican and Vienna MSS, comp, Beschr. Eoms ii, ii, s, 347.
(the bust at Mantua, M, Nap, iv, 73,, is not genuine). Busts of Terence,
[a Terentius with a comic mask on the bend of the right arm was added to
the Mus. of the Capitol in 1839, Annali xii. tv. G. p. 97, Colossal bust of
Msecenas in a private house at Rome, copied in marble in the Mus, at
Naples, Di un busto di C, C, Mecenate, Parigi 1837] Q. Hortensius,
Cicero (very many spurious, that in the Mattel pal., now in the posses
sion of the Duke of WeUington, is defended by Visconti against S. Cle
mente ; there is a simUar one in Munich 224., comp. Beschr. Roms ii, ii.
s. 8.), and Jun. Rusticus the younger. Seneca (Maffei 128.) is known
with certainty through the double herma found in V. Mattel. Lor. Rfe
Seneca e Socrate. 1816. and in the Atti d. Ace. Arch. ii. p. 167. The head
of Lucretius is given on a gem (lvcb.), Impr. d. Inst, ii, 78.
4. Family of Balbus §. 199. R. 7. M. Borb. ii, 38—43. Herculanean
women §. 199. E. 7. The costume of the elder one again occurs exactly
alike in Julia Domna, M. Frang. iii, 18., the other is pointed out as a virgin
by the unveiled head, after the old custom in art (Paus. x, 25, 2. Valer.
Max. vi, 3, 10.). Ordinary municipal statues in many museums, for exam
ple Clarac pl. 351. [pl. 891-910.] Statues of ordinary persons were not so
rare as some suppose (Beschr. Eoms i. s. 332.) ; the same thing was free
to every one as well as to Herodes Atticus who erected numerous statues

602 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE.
of his pupils as hunters at his country-seats, PhUostr. V. Soph, ii, 1, 10.
— Arminius or Deoebalus Spec. ii. 49. [according to GottUn^iThusnelda
and ThumeUcus, Jena 1843. fol. The son of Arminius and his wife the
col. statue in the loggia do' lanzi at Florence.]
For the literature of Iconographies. The earUest were that of Varro,
§. 322, 7. (it consisted of 100 weekly parts, an epigram seems to have
accompanied each statue), and that of Atticus which was on a similar
plan, Plin. Nepos Att. 18. lUustrium imagines ex ant. marmoribus e
bibUotheca Fulvii Ursini. 1669. 70. Illustr. virorum ut extant in urbe
expressi vultus cselo Augustini Veneti. R. 1569. Illustr. imag. del Tho.
GaUseus. 1598. (Enlargement of the first work). Commentary on it by
Jo. Faber. 1606. Iconografia — da G. A. Canini, ed. M. A. Canini. R. 1669.
(very uncritical). Illustr. vet. philosophorum, poetarum, etc. imagines
cum expl. I. P. Bellori. E. 1685. Gronov's Thes. Ant. Gr. T. i. ii. iii. (of
Uttle use). E. Q. Visconti loonographie Greoque. P. 1811. 2 vols. 4to.
Icon. Romaine. P. 1817. T. i., continued by Mongez T. ii. 1821. iii. 1826.
iv. 1829. Gurlitt's Versuch iiber die Biistenkunde (1800.), Archaol. Schr.
s. 189. (the catalogue of portraits preserved is now very much to be thin
ned). Hirt ueber das Bildniss der Alten, Schr. der Berl. Akad. 1814. s.
1. [Griechenlands Schriftsteller und a. merkw. Manner nach Antiken
gezeichnet 1 — 4. Lief Leipz. 1828. 29. 4. unscientific] Scenes from Ufe,
with significant names, on vases, M. d. I. ii, 44. E. Braun Ann. ix. p. 189.

B. REPRESENTATIONS OF A GENERAL KIND.
1. RELIGIOUS TRANSACTIONS.
422. Among sculptures taken from ordinary life, but
considered general, by far the greatest number, for reasons
which lie in the history of art, refer to the service of the gods
and to the ceremonies and games connected therewith. — Re
ligious solemnities are represented simply and compendiously
on Greek reliefs, on Roman sculptures with greater fullness
and more attention to details. Libations especially, ofl'erings
of every kind and the enwreathing and adorning of the
images of the gods, are exhibited in vase-paintings, but always
with Greek freedom in the treatment of the actual transaction.
Here are to be found with especial i'requency sacrifices to
THE DEAD (which have been for the most part misunder
stood); inasmuch as cippi (§. 286.), — often inscribed with
names, ornamented with helmets, vases, also columns or en
tire temple-like heroa (§. 294. 8.), in which armour hung,
vases stood, branches were stuck, and the form of the departed
was often also bodily present, — were carefully honoured, espe
cially by the women of the family, by entwining with fillets,
anointing with oil, pouring wine from phialse and karchesia
(§. 298. 299.), and ofl'erings from baskets {xava §. 300.) and

RELIGIOUS TRANSACTIONS. 603
caskets {xi^iina, §. 297.). The representation of the deceased 5
as a hero with attributes from gymnastic and hunting life,
such as we usually find it in vase-paintings, already occurs
also on grave-pillars in reliefs of the early Greek style. It is 6
also interesting to see the consecration {ib^ueig) of hermae and
statues presented to our view on ancient works of art, parti
cularly gems. Persons occupied at the service of the altar 7
were also, especially when their functions introduced a signi
ficant and pleasing attitude, early represented in statues, often
in an established style appropriated thereto, as in the Cane-
phori and other maidens officiating in temples.
2. Examples in Athena^ Dionysus, Pan, Priapus. (To these also be
long the gems in which a woman with naked bosom presents doves, Wi
car iii, 40.). The rural sacrifices in the L. 163. 762. BouUl. iii, 68, 4. 97,
1. Clarac pl. 217. 223. ; M. Worsl. ii, 22. are very naively represented.
Eural sacrifice to Hercules and Priapus (§. 411. E. 5.) of great truth, from
the Bondanini palace, in Munich 131. 'Winck. M. I. 67. Guattani 1788.
p. iii. Sacrifice to Bacchus § 390. E. 4. Sacrifice to Libera, fine relief,
L. 159. Clarac pl. 217. Fine reUefs, women leading a sacrificial bull (as
in Hermione) PCI. v, 9. ; Wicar iv, 29. comp. the vase-painting Gori M.
Etr. i, 163. We often see on Greek reliefs processions of men with their
arms enveloped and pressed close to the body ; the deities who receive
them appear of gigantic size, M. Worsl. i, 1. 9. 10. 11.; L. 261. BouUl.
iii, 67, 2. Clarac pl. 212. Many sacrificial representations on gems, Lip
pert. i. s. 313—344. Suppl. s. 100—108. M. Flor. ii, 72—77. Roman suo
vetaurUia on tbe col. Trajani; St. S. Marco i, 50.; L. 176. 751. BouiU. ii,
97. ui, 63, 2. Clarac pl. 219. 221. Capitoline sacrifice L. 41. Bouil. iii,
62, 1. Clarac pl. 151. Sacrifices as Vota Publica on coins, for instance
VaUlant de Camps p. 43. Complete Roman sacrifice, Passeri Luc. i, 35.
36. Strues et ferotum on a table before Jupiter, ibid, i, 31. Haruspicina,
Winck. M. I. 183. L. 439. BouiU. iii, 60, 3. Clarac pl. 195. comp. PCI.
vii, 33. Auspices, reUef, G. di Fir. St. 142. Boissard iv, 68., comp, the
author's Etrusker ii. s, 125. Frequent on Roman family coins. On the
Utuus Clarke Archseol. Brit, xix, p, 386, The supposed Dodonsean sacri
fice L. 551. Clarac pl, 214,, is a kriobolion of the Phrygian worship (the
beUs hanging on the tree agree therewith), comp. §. 395. E. 3. Scenes
from the Egyptian reUgious ceremonies on Eoman altars, M, PCI, vii,
14,, and on waU-paintings, among others M, Borb, x, 24,
3. When, in vase-paintings, a white- coloured figure is danced about
and adorned by others of ordinary colour, and also of the female sex (for
ex. Laborde i, 9.), this is certainly an ivory-image, as in Philostr. ii, 1.
an ivory Aphrodite is celebrated by her hierodulse in myrtle bowers.
So is also perhaps Maisonn. 23. to be recognised as an ivory Aphrodite
surrounded by hierodulse ; before her there is a basin with a goose. In
Millingen Div. 41. a temple statue of Aphrodite is known by the rich or
naments on the throne and drapery, and the thymiaterion standing be
fore hor. — Lustrations §. 362. R. 3. Amphidromia (lustration of a child
around the burning hearth) on vases from Volci, Ann. iu. p. 155. The
Dsemon Amphidromus on Etruscan bronzes, according to R. Rochette M.

604 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE.
I. 42, 2. p. 229. [Panathenaic procession, archaic, Gerh. Btr. u. Campan.
Vasenbilder Tf 2. 3.]
4. See for example Tischb. ii, 15. 30. iu, 40, MilUngen Cogh, 26. 46,
49. Div, 14, 16, 17. 18, 19, 39, 48, 58, Un, Mon, 37, Millin i, 16, 21. La
borde i, 13, On the vase in MiUin u, 38, (who sees here mysteries of
Jasion, as well as in ii, 32,) stands a iiqag of the kind in the small temple,
to whom are brought fans, mirrors, boxes of clothes, — in which doubtless
he took pleasure when in Ufe. Tomb, de Canosa pl. 4. the hero sits with
a staff in his hand in his little temple ; a youth enters with a phiale and
prochus (§. 298. R. 2. 3.) in order to make a libation ; others bring in
the xreqiirpixrx. R. Rochette M. I. pl. 30. : a heroen with pyramidal roof,
within which is the stele, vases of a black colour beside it, persons with
offerings around. Comp. pl. 45. §. 397. R. 1. Maisonn. pl. 10. the dead
man sits beside an Ionic grave-pillar, §. 54. R. 3. and receives libations.
Heroen of a Citharoedus, Maisonn. 39. On the vase of the form of a
marriage vase, M. Borb. vii, 23. Inghir. Vasi fitt. 42., stands the dead
woman as Aphrodite beside a vase of exactly the same form in a heroen
(probably a maid who died a bride) ; on the reverse a cippus, offerings
around. Heroa on lamps, Passeri iii, 44. Sacrifices for the dead repre
sented by boys, cock-fights introduced, on a sarcophagus, BouiU. iii, 44, 4.
5. To the oldest representations of a deceased man as liqag belong the
two strikingly corresponding steles of an Orchomenian, DodweU's Tour
i. p. 243., and Meddix a Campanian [the inscription does not belong to the
stele and is now separated from it], E. Eochette M. I. pl. 63. (as Odys
seus), where gymnastic attributes and a dog are given to the figure of
the departed which leans upon a staff, above §. 96. No. 28.
6. Consecrationes of this sort (comp. §. 66, 2., 383. E. 3.), Eaponi P.
gr. 5, 5. BartoU Luc. ii, 28. The woman entwining a fiower with tsenia,
Tischb. Vases iii, 49., is to be explained from Theocr. 18, 48: 'Exivxg
(pvrov el pii. Comp, Gerhard Ant, Bildw. 17, 2. Oimantic usages prophecy
by means of the &qixi (Lobeok De Thriis, now Aglaoph, p, 814,) was par
ticularly represented, Millingen Div, 29, The Pythia §, 362. E. 3.
7, Canephori of Polyclitus, Amalth. iii. s. 164, Found in the Via
Appia, by Crito and Nicolaus of Athens, in ViUa Albani, Winck. W, vi,
1, 8, 202, Three in ViUa Albani, Gerhard A, Bildw, Tf 94. Clarac pl.
442. 443. Others ibid, and 444. Of others found near Frascati (Cava
ceppi iii, 28.), ibid. v. s. 21. 332. and elsewhere. In the Brit. Mus. Terrac.
pl. ^.'''In Munich 166 sqq. Virgins of bronze, in genuine Attic garb
(§. 339. E. 4.), and in tho style of §. 96. No. 17., with the motion of the
hand toward the head pecuUar to the Caryatides (§. 365. E. 5.), and simi
lar others referable to reUgious usages, M. Borb. ii, 4 — 7. Maidens of
the same form and costume advancing to a temple, in the relief G. Giust.
ii, 64. The archaic relief, Cavaceppi Ui, 13. belongs to a simUar proces
sion. Panathenaic virgins on the temple of PaUas Polias §. 109. E.' 4. ;
one of these in the Vatican ? Beschr. Eoms. ii, ii. s. 106. [M. Chiaram. ii,
44. It has been shown that this one is not derived from the Pandroseum.
A good statue similar to it stands overlooked in the court of the Giustiniani
palace Eome.] — Bronze statue found at Piombino in 1812, of old Pelopon
nesian school of art (Ups, eyebrows and nipples were silvered) [see §. 306.
R. 3.], of great truth to nature and individuality, a lampadephm'os accord-

PERSONS IN THE SERVICE OP RELIGION. 605
ing to R. Rochette, Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 193 sqq. 323. M. d. I. i. 58. 59.
[Clarac pl. 482 A BuU. 1832. p. 196. The author in the Hall. A. L. Z. 1835.
Jun. s. 186. Insor. on the foot ' A^xvxx Itxxrxv. According to Letronne
ApoUo Philesius Ann. vi. p. 198 — 236., Patroos according to Panofka ibid.
p. 233., similar statues tv. d'agg. D. E. Letronne Explication d'une in
scription trouvie dans Pinterieur d'une st. ant. en bronze P. 1843. 1845.
4to. R. Rochette, Questions de I'hist. de Part. 1846. p. 191—210., is op
posed to. ApoUo, for he supposes it to be a young victor in the games, and
the execution to be old, not archaistic, as well as that the inscription is
of equal antiquity, although several things in it seem to point distinctly
enough to a later period, even to the first century before Christ. Two
long curls have certainly become a prevaiUng test of ApoUo (191 — 201.) ;
yet the whole attitude of this beautiful statue is too much in agreement
with the MUesian ApoUo Spec, i, 12., MiiUer D. A. K. i, 4, 21. Clarac pl.
483. no. 930, to admit of any doubt that it is Apollo. These long tresses
too are not an invariable sign, and are wanting in the Nani or Pourtalfes
Apollo, in that in the Spec, i, 6., Brit. Mus. iii, 4. D. A. K. i, 4, 22. and
on the MUesian ApoUo ibid, tf 16, 61., MiUin P. gr. pl. 6., on the statue
in the Brit. Mus,, Spec, ii, 5, The colossal Apollo also at Delos had a
profusion of hair falling down on the neck, and the border of small curls
in front, but hardly long curls hanging down upon the breast. The load
inscr. drawn from the eye of the statue, containing the names of two
Ehodian artists incomplete, which was at first suspected to be a trick of
tj(j^ Dubois, possibly indeed belong, not probably however, to a later time
than the work itself C, Curtius also in the Kunstbl, 1845, s, 166, consi
ders it an imitation of the old style, chiefly from the excellence of the
modeUing behind when compared with the foreside which is Inten
tionaUy neglected, the former according to Letronne betraying the
infiuence of the schools of Praxiteles and Lysippus,] A daduchos
(rather Selene) M, Borb. v, 22. — Statue of a slave roasting the entrails
of the sacrifice §. 121. E. 3.; the same subject in a vase-painting in
Micali tv, 97, 2,, comp. 96, 2.— -Priestess of Ceres, PCI. iii, 20. Sacri
ficial servant of Ceres with a young pig on his shoulder, in Lord Egre
mont's coU., Spec. 68. A woman offers up incense in a Bvpuxrtiqiov, Eros
[hermaphroditic, as the so-called genius of the mysteries] brings a tsenia.
Stackelb. Tf 35. HeUenic mode of taming the sacrificial bull, Eurip.
Hel. 1582 (1561) sqq. rxvqov dqrxpieiv El, 821. [Baubo, Millingen Annali
XV. tv. E. p. 72.] Camillus in the palace of the Conservatori, a pleasing
figure in bronze, Maffei Eacc. 24. ; simUar L. 739. 740. M. Borb. -vi, 8.
Vestal virgiiu may be recognised by the vitta, G. M. 332. 33., comp. Vise.
PCI. ui. p. 26. Head of a priest with the apex, in Munich 193. Feciales
on coins of the ItaUan empire, Micali tv. 115, 15 , of Capua, N. Brit. 2, 9.,
and Eome, and on engraved stones, especially one found in Samnium,
probably from the ring of a general of the Italici, Micali tv. 117, 16.,
comp. Impr. d. Inst, ii, 67. Ancilia, Wicar iu, 22. Arohigallus §. 395, R.
4. Priestess of Cybele, with inscription, PCI. vii, 18. Priest of Isis as
in Appuleius, PCI. vii, 19. Mon. Matth. iii, 24. Roman ladies often in
the costume of priestesses of Isis, also with moveable head-dress, PCI. vi,
16. Maff. 93. Fine statue of an adorans femina (PUn.) with pecuUar
cast of drapery, PCI. ii, 47. (Pietas), BouiU. ii, 29. and above §. 393. E. 3.
Bronze, Ant. Ere. vi, 83. M. Borb. v, 21., comp. Bottiger Kunstmythologie

606 SUBJECTS FEOM HUMAN LIFE.
s. 51. For the history of incense Hase Palaeologus s. 76. [Statues of
priests Clarac pl. 768 B, priestesses pl. 762 C]

2. AGONES.
1 423. Gymnastics constituted that phase of Grecian life
which was most completely reflected in art, on account of the
natural affinity in which it stood to sculpture. The most per
fect transference of gymnastic forms to the materials of the
plastic art, — that grove of brazen statues of victors in the
temple -courts of Olympia and Pytho, — are indeed lost to
us, and only a few excellent remains of the kind are left;
however, from the marble copies, reliefs, vase-paintings and
gems, a very complete cyclus of representations can still be
composed, and these also certainly enable us to penetrate
deeper than has hitherto been done, into the science of the
syriijjara, or methods and artifices, of the ancient corporeal ex-
2 ercises. Short curling hair, robust Jimbs, a powerful devel
opment of the form, and comparatively small heads charac
terize the entire class of figures; the bruised ears (§. 329, 7.)
and prominent muscles distinguish in particular the boxers
3 and pancratiasts. It was a leading aim with ancient art to
represent with perfect truth the particular form of body and
characteristic motions belonging to the different kinds of com
bat, and these were also indicated in the statues erected in ho-
4 nour of the victors (§. 87, 3.) ; but the athletes were also sculp
tured as frequently in actions which were common to all, such
as the anointing of the body, praying for victory, encircling
the head with the victorious fillet, and very frequently in
5 quite a simple and tranquilly firm posture; these statues,
which some time ago often received false names (for example
Genius prsestes), for the most part held perhaps garlands in
their hands; palms also served, as in Hermes, to point out
6 their significance. Amidst the numerous figures which appear,
particularly in vase-paintings, as superintendents of the exer
cises, we may chiefly expect to find the aliptse or teachers of
gymnastics, whose fame was intimately bound up with that
of their pupils.
1. MercuriaUs De arte gymnastica furnishes Uttle that can be relied
on regarding ancient monuments. [Krause Gymnastik u. Agonistik der
HeUenen aus den Schriften u. Bilderwerken 1. 2. Th. 1841 with 28 pl.
The same author Die Pythien, Nemeen u. Isthmien aus den Schriften u.
Bildw. 1841 with pl. Die Olympien 1838 without sculptures.]
3. [Athletes Clarac pl. 854 D ff.] Runners §. 122, 3. Ant. Ere. vi, 68.
59. M. Borb. v, 54. (according to others wrestlers or discoboli). On Vol
centine vases the stadiodromi run in fours towards the right, the diaulo-

GYMNASTIC ACTIONS. 607
dromi in threes or fives in the same direction, the dolichodromi on the
contrary towards the left, Ambrosch Ann. d. Inst. v. p. 64. The race is
represented here rather in a conventional manner than with truth to na
ture. The statue PCI. iii, 27. was perhaps rather raised to a female run
ner of Domitian's time (Dio Cass. Ixvii, 8.), than a Spartan woman.
Leapers on vases, Tischb. iv, 43. M. Borb, iii, 13, Gerh, Ant, Bildw, 67.
(with spring- weights and spring-poles, which others take for javelins).
Gems, Tassie pl, 46, 7978. Caylus in, 21, 4, Micali tv, 116, 16, On the
xXriiqeg Welcker Zeitschr. i, s, 238., and the spring with the lanoe § 121.
E. 2. Leaping through the rope, Grivaud Antiq. Gaul. pl. 23, Leaping
over others, gem, Caylus iii, 86, Tassie tv. 46, 7980. Leaping over stakes
with halteres, ibid, 46, 7978. The real daxaXixt^eiu, (rxaho/ixri^eiv, Epioharm.
Discoboli: the one in the act of throwing by Myron §. 122, E. 3. comp,
Nonnus xxxvii, 682 sqq, [in the Lansdowne coU, Clarac pl, 829, no. 2085
A,, in the Brit, Mus. 859, 2194 b., in the Massimi pal. 863, 2194 a.] ;
the one preparing for the contest, also in several copies, PCI. iii, 26.
BouiU. ii, 17.; Borgh, 7, 9. in the L, 704, BouiU. ui, 17, 5,; in Mr,
Duncombe's coll., Yorkshire. One in England in Cavaceppi Stat.
Ristaur. i, 42, Impr. d, Inst, iv, 69. On gems, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 87. Wall-
painting, M. Borb. ix, 62, On vases generally stepping out, Tischb. i,
64. iv, 44. Maisonn. 25. ; beginning the action of throwing, Gerhard Ant.
Bildw. 68, 1. Victorious discobolus with all the ensigns of victory, gem,
M. Flor, u, 17, 2, On the pentathlon on the vases of Volci (represented
by leaping, throwing the javelin, and the discus), Ambrosch. p, 84, The
youths with mattocks, who figure at the exercises of the pentathlon, for
example Maisonn, 25,, Festus s. v, rutrum tenentis, refer to the fioHqoi of
the axxpipLx for the leapers (see Dissen ad, Pind. N. v, 20., they are some
what differently interpreted by Welcker Zeitschr. s. 257. Ehein. Mus. i.
s. 77.). Wrestlers dxqoxeiqi^opievoi on coins of Selge, Mionnet Desor, pl.
67, 3. 6., vases, Tischb. iv, 46., bas-reliefs, Guatt. 1785. p. liu. Vise. PCI.
v^ 37. Bouill. iii, 46, 9. Groups of wrestlers in bronze, from a chariot,
Gerhard Ant. Bildw. Tf 119, 1 — 3. Boys wrestling. Pan above Impr. d.
Inst, iv, 65. Wrestlers d la Anteeus, Grivaud Antiq. Gaul. pl. 20. 21.
Wrestling contest between a naked man and a woman (with girdle round
the middle), on vases from Volci, Ambrosch p. 78. The statue of a wrestler
of rather advanced age with powerful muscular development described by
Christod. 228. Pancratiast-hoys in tho celebrated symplegma at Florence,
G. di Fir. St. 121. 122. Maffei Race. 29. §. 126. R. 4. (not ¦?rxXxiurxl, with
whom throwing down decided, (comp. the wrestling of Bacchus and Ampe
lus in Nonnus x, 365 sqq.) ; but the pancratiasts wrestled chiefly on the
ground.) A similar anaclinx)pale on the coins of Constantine, Pedrusi v,
26, 6. Polyclete's diro-xreqvi^av, §. 120. E. 3. may be conceived from
Stuart i. ch. 4. pl. 13. and iii. ch. 13. pl. 11. On other ax'>ip<'xrx ¦jrdxng
Ambrosch ibid. s. 76. Boxers, statues, Bouill. iii, 19, 2. 3. Csestuarius
in the GentiU palace at Eome, Gerhard 68, 3. ; in Dresden, 295. Aug. 109.
(in green marble) ; torsos found on the Quirinal in 1739, described by
Ficoroni. Arms, Ant. Ere. vi. p. 1. vign. Beliefs, L. 736. Clarac pl. 200.;
PCI. V, 36., where they have the hair bound into a tuft, Uke the 'Ayaveg
§, 406, R, 2, Vases, Tischb. i, 55. 56. Monument of a csestus-fighter in
Montf iii, 168. according to Fabretti, Lampadedromia with saucer-
shaped sockets for the torches, as on coins of Amphipolis (Mionnet,
Descr. pl. 49, 6.), vase-painting, Tischb. ii, 25, iii, 48. [Dubois Voy. en

608 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE.
Crimee iv Serie pl. 13., vase from Panticapseon, four youths, two with
torches, one of whom is crowned by Nike.] Lampadists painted by Pyr-
rhon in the Gymnasium at Elis, Diog. Laert. ix, 11, 62. Reliefs with in
scriptions, Bargas-Maooiucca Spiegazione di un rare marmo Gr. 1791, C.
I, 287; Caylus EecueU, i. p. xvii, 117. C, I, 242. Mosaic, Gerhard Ant.
Bildw, 63, 1. Glass-paste with a 'hxpiicxlixg, Brondsted Voy, ii. vign. 36.
Vase Cab. Pourtalfes pl. 5. p. 28. Lampadedromia on horseback, on the
Pergamenian vase, Choiseul Gouff. Voy. ii. pl. 4. [now in Paris. An an
tique paste, torch-runner, Brendsted Eeise ii. s. 289. On a vase found
at Kertsch (Panticapseon), of later style introduced from Italy, the
beginning of a lampadophoria ; the torch is kindled at the altar (of Pro
metheus). According to a tracing.] Hadrian as Spheeristes in two groups
(according to Hase's interpretation), in Dresden 364^67, Aug, 57. 108.
Statues of Sphserists, Vitr. vii, 6, M. Borb. vii, 47, 8, Gem with a sphse-
rist, Olenine Essai sur le costume et les armes des gladiateurs Article iv,
[Statues of sphserists Gibelin in the Mem, de I'Inst, Nat, iv, 492 sqq,]
Female combatant with a female fiute-player, late Athenian hydria, [a
singular sport] Staokelb, Tf 22. Cock-fights in reliefs, L, 392, Clarac pl.
200,, vase-painting (in Vienna) and gems, §, 391, R, 8, (Eros), Impr, d.
Inst, iv, 16, comp, §, 381. R. .7, (Hermes), Cooks as symbols of combats
often on vases of Volci ; also a cock as herald, Ann, iii. p, 168. Kohler
L'Alectryophore, descr, d'une statue ant, Petersbourg 1835. [Cock-fights,
0, Jahn Archaol, Beitr. s, 437,]
4, An athlete anointing himself, an exceUent statue in Dresden 400.
Aug, 37, 38, SimUar on gems. Natter pl, 25, Tassie tv, 47, 7933. Ra
poni 49, 3. Bracci. i, 51. 62,, comp, the statues tv. agg. 26. Bouill. iii,
19, 4, ' Airolvip^evoi §, 120. R, 3, 129, R, 1. 175, R. 2. MiUingen Cogh. 15.
Youths with bathing apparatus, often on gems (Impr. d. Inst, i, 42,) and
vases, comp. §, 298. R. 2, 4. A boy-athlete praying for victory (comp. §.
87. R. 3.), in bronze, at Berlin. Levezow De juvenis adorantis signo.
Bouill. ii, 19. M. Fran^. iv, 12. Presenting of Teenies, often on vases,
Laborde 6. The women who fasten them round are often perhaps to be
explained as the places of the game, comp. §. 405. R. 6. Crowning of an
athlete, Stackelb. tf 12. Polyclete's Diadwm^nos §. 120. R. 3. Guattani
Mem. enc. v. p. 81. The prize-vases are often distinctly to be seen in
vase-paintings, Laborde i, 8., gems, M. Flor. ii, 86, 2. Raponi 59, 4.,
lamps, Passeri ii, 98. 99., coins, where they stand on the tables of the
agones. A vanquished combatant Impr. d. Inst, iv, 71. Conqueror 72.
Sacrificial procession of a -victor in the xeJ^ng very instructive. Lid of a
sarcophagus in the Gaetani palace, Gerhard Ant. Bildw. Tf. 119, 4.
5. Athletes standing tranquiUy, G. di Fir. St. 93, 124 — 129. Bouill.
iii, 19, 5. To this class belong particularly many antique statues, such
as the young athlete in the Capitol, Winck. W. v. s. 550., the bronze and
the marble statue in the Florentine museum, Bd. s. 446. 566. (both larger
than Ufe), the so-called genius from Pesaro, M. Flor. 45. 46. Winck. W.
iii. s. 189. 393. and several others. Advancing athlete ? statue, M. Borb.
vii, 42. Two statues of athletes restored as gladiators, M. Borb. viii, 7. 8.
in a certain antique style which recals Myron. Fine bronze head of an
athlete with a tsenia around the hair (eyes hoUow, lips gilt), at Munich
296. M. Nap. iv, 74.

PORTRAITS OF ATHLETES. CHARIOT GAMES. 609
6. Youths with Oosmetse, Sophronistse, Bidyseoe or whatever they
may be called, in vase-paintings, Bottiger Hercules in bivio p. 42. Stele
from Crisso {Xquiro) with an Agonothete, sitting, a roll in his hand, a
kithara before him, a garland hung upon it, strigil with lekythos, a
sphsera entwined (?), Staokelb. Graber Tf 2, 3. [Monument of a youth
who had distinguished himself intelleotuaUy and in the palsestra or who
had conquered as Citharoedus, and had also been previously distinguished
in athletic games, like Plato and others.] Exercises in presence of the
Aliptse, vases of Volci, Ann. iu. p. 167. On the difference between Ago-
nothetse (in tranquil attitude) and Mastigophori (rather Aliptse, in mani
fold activity) Ambrosch s. 80 ff. The Zeus-resembUng figures, with
cothurni, on coins of the Macedonian time (for example the Bithynian,
Visconti Icon. Gr. pL 43, 3 — 8), seem to be Alytarchs, who appeared in
this costume at Antioch, Malalas p. 286. 310. ed. Bonn. — Gymnastic chas
tisements on vases, likewise gems, for example, Tassie tv. 46, 8031.
Double rod. Jason as physician examining a sick athlete, M. Pourtal&s
pl. 26. C. I. no. 606.
424. Games with horses were honoured and valued in
an equal degree with gymnic agones, and represented by
Greek artists with life and spirit. The Romans also took '¦
pleasure in seeing their circus -games sculptured and painted,
especially in mosaic; the favoured charioteers of the fac-
tiones, notwithstanding their intractable costume, also received
honorary statues, and there are many works of the kind pro
duced even in latest antiquity and in the very rudest style.
The combats of the gladiators, although their costume also
could but little correspond to the Greek sense of art, gave
occupation at least to subordinate artists who painted walls
and adorned sepulchral monuments; we may assume that
such gladiatorial combats, hewn out on tombs or embossed on
grave-lamps, sometimes supplied the place of actual combats;
and instead of the full honour for the dead were meant to
furnish the deceased with a semblance thereof
1. Ancient horse-bits M. Borb. viii, 32. Olenine [Essai sur le costume
et les armes des Gladiateurs] Article v. p. 27., one from Italy pl. 12. Ca
vedoni on some coins which refer to Olympian victories. Bull. 1837. p.
154. On the management of horses and art of riding among the ancients,
Hase PhUologus s. 53. ambling s. 64, KeXnri^ovreg on coins of Kelenderis
and vases, Tischb, i, 62. ii, 26, The race of the xxTwri, as it seems, ibid.
i, 53. The racing of the Apobatse, §. 118, 2 b. Bigce, quadriges, often on
coins (exceedingly magnificent) and vases, especiaUy prize-vases. On
both we see particularly the important moment when they sweep round
the meta, and when the le^loaeiqog describing the largest circle, the most
spirited horse, is finely presented to the eye. On vases of Volci, Athena
also stands by protecting the chariot. The arrangement of the xivrqov
and the pixani with the clappers (comp. Soph. Bl. 727. Anth. Pal. vi. 246.)
is seen in Millingen Un. Mon. 1, 2. ; the harness of the horses particular
ly evident, ibid. 21. Parts of the chariot, on vase-paintings, Ambrosch
in loco p. 73. Comp. the work of Ginzroth (only too prolix) Die Wagen
2Q

610 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE,
u, Fahrwerke der Gr, u. Romer. 1817, 4to, especially s. 111, The horses
in agones on vases have often marks, in Volci a keles has a 2 {irxpi,06qxg).
The currying and shoeing are, as it seems (notwithstanding Beckmann
and others deny such an age to the latter practice), exhibited on an old
Attic vase-painting, Walpole Mem, p. 321. pl. 3. Comp, Class, Journ, T.
xxxiv. p. 206. Ancient horsemanship, Tarentine coin 138. On the ty
ing up horses' tails Olenine pl, 16. p. 38, Mounting with the stirrup on
the lance, on a gem (Winck. M. I. 202. Tassie tv, 44, 7585), is evidently
another and later custom than that described by Xenophon, in which the
lance only served as vaulting pole. — Txuqoxx^xi^ix on horseback, relief,
Marm. Oxon. ii, 58. Gem (thus much to bo recognised), Impr. d. Inst, ii,
76. ; on foot, on coins of Larissa, Mionn. SuppL iii, pl. 12, 2., of Crannon ?
M. 1. d. Inst, 49, A 5,
2, See Montfaucon iii, 161 sqq. The contorniati give decursiones,
venationes, pugilatus, scenica, with many interesting detaUs, Eckhel vui,
p. 292 ff. Ou the statuas aurigarum see Anthol. Plan. v. Winck. vi, 1.
s. 321. 373. PCI. Ui, 31. A victorious, triumphing auriga in the relief
Winck. M. I. 203. ; others on coins of the sinking empire and gems of
latest art, G. di Fir. 24, 3. The Maian miniatures of the Iliad repre
sent the chariot-racers at the funeral games of Patroclus in the chequered
garments, with the narrow caps and broad girdles of tho circus-char
ioteers, tb. 65., comp. p. 23. The pompa circensis on a coin of Gordianus
Pius, Buonarr. Med. 14, 5. Pompa of the emperor as Alytarch, on a
Perinthian coin of CaracaUa, ibid. 9, 5., (processus consularis according to
p. 186). Circensian procession, lid of a sarcophagus in San Lorenzo before
the gates, chariot with elephants, on hand-barrows Cybele, Victoria, Ger
hard A. Bildw. Tf 120, 1. Maximin at Circus games, the circus very accu
rate, but the perspective execrable, instructive for the history of art, sarcoph.
reUef, Gerhard Tf 120, 2. Circus-racing in reliefs, G. Giust, ii, 94, ; G, di
Fir. St, 99, with names inscribed ; gems, M. Flor, u, 79. Lipp. i, ii, 472. 73. ;
terracotta in the British Museum 60. ; lamps in Bartoli t. 27. Passeri iii,
26. (very accurate) ; mosaics, Laborde, Mos. d'ltaUca p. 27 sqq. especiaUy
pl. 18. Artaud Descr. d'une mosaique repres. des jeux du Cirque, decouv. k
Lyon. 1806. Amores Circenses §. 391. R. 5. The mappam mittere is
seen clearly in D. A, Bracci Diss, sopra un clipeo votivo spett, aUa famiglia
Ardaburia, trov, 1769, nello vie. d'Orbetello. Lucca 1771. The meta of
a small circus, with its ornaments, Zoega Bass. 34.
3. See §. 211. R, 2, Pomp, painting, in which a circle is drawn for
the combat, Gell. Pomp. pl. 75. A Cyrensean one, Pacho pl. 53, 1. But
the mosaic, Winck, M, I. 197. 198,, comp, Fabretti Col. Traj, p 266 sqq,,
is particularly accurate. Also the reUef on a Pomp, sepulchral monu
ment to Castricius Scaurus (Mirmillones, Secutores, Thraces, Retiarii,
also gladiatores equites), Mazois i, 32, Steinbuohel Atlas 17, 18. Gladi
ators (as bestiarii, ludii, aurigse) frequently on sepulchral lamps, Passeri
iii, 8., and gems, Lipp. i, ii, 475. Two wounded and faUing gladiators ?
statues, M. Borb. v, 7. vii, 25. [Clarac pl. 854 C. D. 866-72. cestiarii pl.
866. 858. Relief with gladiators from Pompeii, the most important of
all. Bull. Napol. iii. p. 86 sqq. iv. tv. 1., comp. Henzen BuU. d. I. 1846. p.
89. H. Brunn Beri. Jahrb. 1846. i. s. 724 sqq. Mosaic §. 322 a. 4. Com
bat with wild animals, large bas-reUef, M. d. I. iii, 38. Henzen Ann.
xiv. p. 12.] Costume of gladiators Olenine pl. 1. 10, on M. Borb. vii, 25.

DANCES, MUSICAL PERFORJIANCBS. 611
p. 14, hard workmanship. — Combats at sepulchral monuments on Etrus
can urns are Ukewise to be understood as denoting ludi funebres. They
probably occur also on Greek vases, according to Campanian custom, for
example Maisonn. 23.
425. The near relation in which the art of dancing stood 1
to sculpture (§. 77, 2.), has been yet but little indicated Avith
certainty in particular cases ; many ancient modes of dancing,
however, can be pretty well recognised in vase - paintings.
Neither musical contests nor theatrical representations en- 2
couraged to imitation in the good times of art, their costume
being in general as ample and gorgeous as the plastic art re
quired it simple and natural (§. 336, 3.). Only those branches
of art which, neglecting severe principles, imitate life in
greater extension, as vase-painting, miniatures, mosaics, fur
nish theatrical scenes in considerable number.
1. Of the dances in Athenseus we recognise pretty weU on vases the
xeqvoCPoqog, dv^epcx, xx'Kx^itrptog, x^lq otpt.'ri (Laborde i, 78.), axaip or trxo-Tirog
(§. 385. R. 4 h.), xoqlxi (Laborde i, 68. §. 386. R. 3.). The xsqv6(foqog also
on wall-paintings, according to the Bd. of the Pitt. Ere. iii. p. 164. Ku-
(imriiqeg in bronzes, Micali tv. 56, 2 — 5. earlier ed. ; female K. on vases,
Tischb. i. at the end. The so-caUed Horse, L. 20. V. Borgh. i, 14.
Bouill. ii, 96. Clarac pL 163., are Dorian dancing girls, with unhooked
chiton, §. 339, 1. A chorus-dance wherein a temple is adorned, L. 21.
Clarac pl. 163. A young maiden dancing in light dress with castagnettes,
vase-paint. Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 66. A female dancer OPXHCIC from the
Vatican Manuscript of Cosmas in Winck. W. vii. Tf 8 C. [Female
dancers in terracotta Clarac pl. 776.] — ^Dancing Galli (Chinese-looking),
striking smaU cymbals and tympana, mosaic by Dioscurides, M. Borb.
iv. 34.
2. Victorious citharoedi often on vases, for ex. Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 58,,
comp, §, 96, No. 23,, also 99, No. 1. Splendid figure of a maiden playing
on the cithern, on the gem by Onesas, Wicar ii, 43. Citharoedus before
a tomb, Impr. d. I. iv, 80. Caricature of an infibulated citharoedus,
bronze, Winck. M. I. 188. A musical virtuosa playing at the same time
on a standing and lying stringed instrument, M. Borb. i, 30. Fine vase-
picture of a concert of female players on the flute, the cithern and the
trigonon, together with female singers, Maisonn. 43. A female flute-
player and a female cithern-player, before an athlothete, Laborde i, 11.
The very interesting picture from the necropolis of Cyrene, Pacho pl. 49.
50., exhibits a double agon of auletse and citharoedi in fuU costume. The
three figures on vases with high stephane {Syxog V) seem to be statues in
the stage costume of Hercules, Hermes and a third. Comp. therewith
Pitt. Bro. iv, 42. M. Borb. i, 31. especially the faithfuUy represented flute-
player. The Panfili reUef in Winck. M. I. 1 89. alludes to the theatrical
games given by Valerianus Paterculus at a celebration for the dead,
among other things by a Hercules in the stage costume.
The vase found at Aulis, MiUin ii, 56. 56. represents a scene of the
Attic theatre with the theatre itself. We best acquire a knowledge of
the tragic costume therefore from the mosaic referred to §. 322. R. 4. No. 7.

612 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE.
Tragic scene, GeU N. Pomp. 75. Lower Italian farces, §. 390. R. 7. ; Ger
hard Ant. Bildw. 73. [Players Clarac pl. 873-874 D.] Cmnic actors in
statues, PCI. iii, 28. 29., in Btruscan bronzes, Gori M. Btr. i, 186., on
sepulchral lamps, Bartoli 34 sq. Passeri iu, 21. Impr. d. I. iv, 59. 60.
61.? A Xanthias before Hercules, after the Frogs of Aristophanes,
Btruscan [Oscan], M. Pourtalfes pl. 9. Scenes of later comedy, Pitt. Ere.
iv, 33. 34. M. Borb. iv, 33. vii, 21. GeU N. Pomp. pl. 76. From Terence
§. 212, 3. Zahn waU-painting 31. M. Borb. iv, 18., perhaps Terence's
Eunuch iii, 2. [A collection is expected from Wieseler.] Ficoroni De
larvis scenicis et figuris comicis. R. 1764. ed. 2. Scenes of the tragic,
comic and satyric drama as decorations of rooms §. 150. R. 2. 209. R. 4.
Costuming of players for a comic and satyric agon, under the superin
tendence of an old didaskalos, mosaic from Pompeii, M. Borb. ii, 56.
[Dressing for a satyr-drama, vase in the Mus. Borbonico of the first class,
M. d. I. iii, 31. Ann. xiu. p. 303. BuU. 1837. p. 97. 0. Jahn Archaol.
Aufs. 8, 143 ff,] GeU N, Pomp, 45,, comp, BuU. d, Inst, 1833, p, 21.
Bacchus surrounded by bis thiasotes, among whom Comoedia is costumed
in mask and sock, M, Borb. iii, 4, The relief Buonarr, Medagl, p. 447.
exhibits a tragic actor sitting on the stage in Dionysian garb, a little
flute-player and a Victory, as it seems, beside him. M. Pourtal&s pl, 38,
Eoman sculpture, according to Panofka a dramatic poet and xoo,^'^'^"-
xa?iof, comp, Visconti M, PioCl, i, tv, 6, Dramatic poets are often repre
sented looking at masks, in reliefs, Winck, M, I, 192,, and gems M. Flor.
i, 44, 8, Comic poet with mask, pedum, scrinium, ThaUa beside him, Gell
N, Pomp, 17, A tragic poet, forming the plan of his piece, protagonistes,
Pitt, Ere. iv, 41. Philosopher before the sun-dial, Impr. d. I. iv, 81.
Mathematico- musical instruction, Tischb. iv, 69. A school of mathe
matical philosophers, mosaic in Winck. M. I. 186. Eepresentations of
artists at work §. 305. R. 7. 310. R. 1. 319. R. 4.

3. WAR.
1 426. Representations of war were naturally most con
nected with historical events, especially in the productions of
art at the Roman period, although scenes in particular which
related to the fortunes of war, were often represented in gene
ral reference, rather as matters of prophecy than of history.
But there can scarcely be a more important source than tri
umphal monuments for obtaining a vivid knowledge of the
Roman legions, Prastorian and auxiliary cohorts, in dress, ac-
2 coutrements and standards. From that principle of the an
cients, which led them to give prominence to the human
figures, and to assign a subordinate rank to the lifeless masses
as mere accessories, even sea-battles could be treated in small
3 space in an attractive manner. Statues of combatants in in
teresting postures may have also for the most part originally
fulfilled their destination in larger historical groups, and after-
4 wards been erected as separate performances. It is otherwise

WAR. 613
with the numerous scenes in vase-paintings, which precede the
battle, accompany and follow it, wherein we can hardly at all
times imagine that such were occurrences of the heroic times,
but neither can we presuppose specific historical events.
1. Montfaucon iv, 1. Above §. 419. R. 6. — Erection of a tropseon,
Pitt. Ere. iii, 39. ; on the large bronze helmet M. Borb. x, 31. A Roman
warrior bearing a trophy, crowned by a Nike, Pomp. pict. M. Borb. iv,
19. A Roman general before whom prisoners are brought, sarcophagus-
reUef, PCI. v, 31. Triumphs on Btr. urns, Gorii, 178. 179., imperial coins
max. moduli, on the triumphal arches, comp. the fragment in Hase Leo
Diao. p. XX. — Roman soldiers adoring the legionary eagle (the signa were
a kind of deities), Impr. d. Inst, u, 68. — Ferentarii equites (with missile
weapons), picture, Varro L. L. vii. §. 57. Prsotorians ? L. 752, Clarac pl.
216. A Punic elephant-leader, Mionnet T. ix. pl. 9. no. 5.
2. Montfaucon iv, u. Fine fragment of a sea-battle, S, Marco ii, 50.
[A cast of it in Bonn no. 385 d, explained as the flight of the Aohseans
from Mysia. There is another fragment perfectly Uke it Mus. Bresciano
tv. 51, erroneously explained as the battle of Marathon, derived from a
sarcophagus, not a frieze,] Larger representations in the reUef, Montf.
tb. 142. War- ships on dariks, accurately engraved Mionn. Suppl. viii. pl.
19, 3., coins of Gadara, TripoUs and other cities in Phoenicia (M. SClem.
28, 275. 284 sqq.), Byzantium (Cab. d' AlUer pl. 3, 7), Cyzicus (of the Eo
man times) ; vases from Volci, Micali tv. 103. Roman war-ships with the
standards of the cohorts upon them, on gems, M. Flor. ii. 49 sq. The
most accurate representation of a ship is furnished by the Prsenestine
reUef with a bireme, Winok. M. I. 207. Beschr. Eoms ii, ii. Beil. s. 11.
Besides, Le Eoy Mem. de I'Inst. Nat. Litt. ui. p. 162. The relief, M. Borb.
iii, 44. is important as regards the disposition of the oars ; the vela con-
trahere can be understood perfectly from the Pomp, relief, Mazois i. pl.
22, 2. Gori 6, 2., together with Bartoli Luc. iii. 12. Ships Impr. d. Inst.
iv, 77. 78. Construction of the ancient rowing vessels Antichitk di Br
colano. 3. Borghese gladiator §. 157*3. Dying gladiator §. 157, 2. A fettered
Gaul from a tropseon, an exceUent bronzo, in Grivaud Ant. Gaul. pl. 23.
A falling combatant, with Phrygian cap, PCI. iii, 50. BouiU. iii, 17, 6.
Combatant sunk on one knee and continuing to fight, M. Flor. ui, 77. ;
L, 60. Clarac pl. 280, Barbarian warrior dying, M, Borb. vi, 24.
4. On vases: arming (Millin i, 39,), departure and libation thereat
(MiUin i, 13, 41,, comp, the fine Greek reUef, St, di S, Marco i, 48,),
march to the field in chariot and otherwise, combats of warriors (with
heralds standing by), warriors with the Nice on the quadriga (MilUn i,
24,) and the Uke, Banks of hoplitse at the charge, on vases of Volci,
MicaU tv, 96, 1, Horseman on a stele ; holds for fastening the bronze bridle.
Stackelberg Graber Tf ii, 1. Practice in shooting with arrows at a cock,
vase-paint, M, Borb, vii, 41, Olenine Article iu. p, 16, s, pl, 10. 11. 13.
Slinger in the act of slinging, very accurate on coins of Selge, Mionnet
Descr. Pl. 57, 3. 6. .Slnianian sUnging on coins Brendsted Voy. ib Vign.
48. p. 303 sqq. missiUbus the left foot advanced. Veget. de re mUit. p. 29.
ed. Schwebel.

614 SUBJECTS FEOM HUMAN LIFE.
Judicial proceedings at the close (as on the shield of AchiUes) are
hardly to be met with ; the challenge is alluded to on coins of the gens
Portia, Stieglitz N. fam. p. 107.

4. THE CHASE, COUNTRY LIFE, ECONOMICAL OCCUPATIONS.
1 427. Scenes of the chase were pretty frequently represented
in ancient works of art, especially the boar-hunt, which in
point of danger made an approach to war, and hunting the
2 hare, which required particular swiftness and dexterity. The
occupations of rural life were rarely represented by immediate
imitation of reality, as so diversified a mythical expression for
them was afforded in the cycles of Demeter and Dionysus;
at least art loved to mingle satyrs, erotes and other mythical
3 figures, as personages actively participating therein. Rural
simplicity and bluntness did not lie beyond the sphere of an
cient art; accordingly the short stature and thickset form
which were given to the earlier figures of the kind, were re-
4 quisite in the representation of a homely rustic nature. In
youthful forms this rustic character assumes the expression of
5 guileless innocence and naivete. An old fisherman also, grown
haggard and weatherbeaten by long-continued toiling at sea,
was a subject which plastic artists as well as poets in anti-
6 quity carried out with great truth to nature. Reliefs and
paintings which were intended to announce the profession of
the occupiers of the houses, gave occasion for manifold repre
sentations of handicrafts and trades.
1. Montfaucon iii, 166 sqq. PhUostratus describes i, 28. one picture,
'SvoSi^qxi, Phil, the yr. another, Kvvnyerxi. Statue of a hunter in coat and
chlamys of skins, with fowls and hares taken, M. Borb. vii, 10. Sleeping
huntsman, very fine reUef in the M. Cap. iv, 63. On vases of the old style
boar-hunts frequently occur, sometimes in reference to dark mythic
stories, §. 75. E. 2. 99. No. 4., comp. Paus. i, 27, 7. Welcker, Jahn's Jahrb.
1829. i. s. 254. A wild-boar brought back, MiUin Vases i, 18. Gerh. Ant.
Bildw. 70. Hunting tho hare, fine in vase-paint. Millingen Un. Mon. 18.
The lion -hunting in the reliefs : G. Giust. u, 136. ; Mon. Matth. iii, 40, 1. 2. ;
Caylus iv, 119.; Guattani Mem. enc. vii. p. 12.; L. 423. BouiU. ui 64 4.
[Lion-, stag- and boar-hunt, sarcophagus, Neapels A. Bildw. no. 185.]
venders of killed fowls, Impr. d. Inst, iu, 49. Clarac pl. 151., introduces
a Roma among historical figures, as in triumphal prooeseions. Comp. §.
412. R. 2. Lion-hunts often on later imperial coins and gems, comp. S.
207. R. 7. Hunters chasing away their young from tigers, Bartoli Nason.
15. Ludi funebres, tigers, lions with persons appointed to engage with
them, Mazois Pompei. 31. 32. Bartoli Nason. 27. Luc. 31. Montf iii 165.
Herodes Atticus erected in woods and fields, statues of bis foster-sons in
all sorts of hunting attitudes, Philostr. v. §. 2, 1, 10. [This class of sub
jects must have been extremely ptjpular and widely encouraged in later

THE CHASE, COUNTllY LIFE. 616
times, judging from the numerous remains in statues and reliefs at Eome,
Naples and other places. In waU-painting also specimens of this branch
of art are not wanting, which in like manner occupied a not altogether
unimportant place in the vase-paintings of an earUer period.]
2. 3. A ploughman with the antique hooked plough, Etr. bronze,
Micali 114. [Vase-painting of Nicosthenes, in Berlin no. 1696.] On a
gem, M. Flor. ii, 42, 3. Ploughs drawn by butterflies and bees, on gems,
comp. Binzroth Wagon u, Fahrwerke Tf i B, Operations of the vintage
(treading the grapes with the feet, pouring the must into the winter-
casks), Zoega 26. Clarac pL 136, (L, 478,), Passeri Luc, ii, 48. 49, Gar
deners beating down olives from the tree, vase-paint,, Micali tv, 92, 2.
OUve-harvest, vase from Csere, Mon. d, I. ii, 44, b, Eitschl Annali ix. p,
183, comp, G. Hermann Zeitschrift fiir AW, 1837. no. 103, A conversa
tion, here and also on the vase with the return of the swaUow, M, d, I,
ii, 24, Ann, vu. p. 238. [Olive-harvest by seven women on an amphora
iu the Munich coUection. Vine gathering, vase-painting BuU. 1843. p.
80. Two men beating the fruit down from an olive tree, which is col
lected by a boy into a basket, Berl. Vasen no. 638.] Herd of cattle under
the protection of rural deities, Bondanini bas-reUef, Guattani 1788 Jan.
tv. 3, now in Munich. [Mon. ined. 67., B. Braun Zwolf Basr. zu. Tf 7,]
MUking a cow, reUef, PCI. vii, 23. (according to Vise, for priestly use).
A peasant disembowelling a slaughtered animal, exceUent figure, L. 340.
BouUl. iii, 19, 6. Clarac pl. 287. A rural scene, peasants loading a wag
gon, described by Libanius p. 1048 E., the Baths of Titus contain a simi
lar one. An old peasant, G. Giust. u, 45. A shepherd with an exomis of
skin, PCI. iii, 34. — A peasant frightening a rustic beauty with a viper
coUed round a stick, idyllic painting en camayeu, M. Borb. ix, 49.
4. The boy extracting the thorn, the so-called Spinarius, is a repre
sentation from country Ufe, of truly touching simplicity, in bronze, Maffei
Race. 23. M. Franj. iu, 21. Often repeated. The boys wrestling with
geese (according to Boethus infans anserem strangulans, of bronze,) espe
ciaUy that of the Capitol, Morghen, Princ. 10. Bouill. ii, 30, 1. M. Fran9.
22., also belong to this class. — Boys with amphorse on their shoulders as
fountain ornaments,
5. The so-caUed Seneca L, 696, in black marble, much restored, is
according to Visconti an African (?) jisherman, Sandrart u, 1. 6. V.
Borgh. 3, 10. BouiU. u, 66. Clarac pl, 325. [Fisher Brit. Mus, x, 28, 29.
.Egyptian diver on a crocodile ibid, 27,] comp, the yqmeiig, x'hirqvrog
yiqav Theocr. i, 39. SimUar figures PCI. ui, 32. L. 611. BouiU. iii, 19, 7.
Clarac pl. 326. A young fisher of bronze, M. Borb. iv, 65. Sleeping
fisher-boy, PCI. ui, 33. [A fisherman Clarac pl. 881. 882. A fisherman
and a boy with a duck in Gargiulo Race tv. 60. Shepherds Clarac pl.
741. 742.]
6. Game-market, G. Giust. ii, 112. Booths of the female game-seller,
of the viotuaUer, Zoega 27. 28. Wine-selling (it is poured into amphorae
from large skins in a waggon), M. Borb. iv, A. v. 48. GeU, N. Pomp. 81.
Market quite Uke that of Pompeu, in a mural-painting, Zahn Ornam. Tf
42, Wool-selUng, under superintendence of a magistrate, Arcesilas (ac
cording to others the sUphion trade of Cyrene), vase-painting from Volci,
M, I. d. Inst. 47. Ann. v. p. 66. [Rhein. Mus. v. s, 140, Panofka Bilder

616 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE,
Antiken Lebens Tf 16, 3. MicaU M, ined. tf 97. Inghirami Vasi fitt, ui,
260,]— Business of the fuUo, wall-painting from the FuUonica of Pom
peii, M, Borb. iv, 49 sq, GeU N, Pomp. 51,— The fine female spinner. Bet-
tiger Vasengem. iii. s. 37, Embroideress, vase-painting. M. Pourtalfes pl.
34. Female weavers ? 33. The art of the flower-wreathers (fiorari) repre
sented by winged children, mural-painting M. Borb. iv, 47. — Husband
man bringing his produce to the market, relief, M. d. I. ii, 27. I. M. Wag
ner Ann. iv. p. 47. Swine-slaughtering Impr. d. I. iv, 53. MiU with asses
iv, 79. [Swine-scalding, a group, Neapels Ant. Bildw. no, 26. The super
cargo's return, E, Braun Ant. Marmorwerke i, 10, comp. Clarac pl. 192.
no. 352. Tomb of Burysaces the baker M. d. I. ii, 58. 0. Jahn Ann. x. p.
231. On a sarcophagus in ViUa Medicis, a mUl turned by a horse, thus also
on a large bas-reUef in the Mus. Chiaram., on another an ass turning the
mill Pomp. Gemalde M. Borb. vi, 51. Bronze-casting §. 306. E. 6. comp.
BuU. 1835. p. 166. Ann. ix. p. 184. A vase-manufacturer §. 321. E. 3.
Studio of a sculptor, fragment of a bas-reUef in the Eicciardi pal., Flo
rence, Roulez Bulletins de I'Acad. r. de Belgique T. 13. no. 9. Female
painter Pitt. d'Erc. i, 6. ; another lately discovered. BuU. Napol. 1846. p.
12.]

5. DOMESTIC AND MARRIED LIFE.
428. Representations of social banquets are more frequent,
as their festal character particularly adapted them for artis
tic scenes; at these there are not wanting musical and or
chestic entertainments {ax^odpiara) and transparently dressed
hetaerEe. But as the simple family banquets on Greek sepul
chral stones are certainly conceived as feasts of the dead, who
appear there themselves as deities of the Nether World, so
also those festal banquets on the cinerary cistte and vases of
Italy probably express in great part the happy fate of the
departed, which Greek authors of hymns described as an in
cessant feasting at well covered tables, and a perpetual intoxi
cation. In so sensual a portrayal of the lot of the blessed,
even the freedoms which the guests at these banquets would
take with meretricious flute-players (Greek houris) might not
appear unseemly.
[Bottiger Kl. Schr. u. s. 308—341. Tf 7, Human Ufe. 1. Generation
and birth, 2, Desire, 3, Hesitation and shame, 4, Quickening, 5. Hour
of birth. 6. Good and bad genius. Panofka BUder antiken Lebens mit
20. Kpftf B, 1843, 1. Education. 2. Gymnastic games. 3. Races. 4, Music.
5. Hunting. 6. War. 7, HeaUng art. 8, Plastic art, 9. Dancing. 10.
Sports. 11, Marriagfe. 12. Banquet. 13. Sacrifice. 14. Rural life. 16.
Sea-Ufe. 16. Commerce and trade, 17. Domestic Ufe. 18. 19. Female life.
20. Close of Ufe. By the same author Griechinnon und Griechen B. 1844.
3 Kpftf Statues of chUdren Clarac pl. 876—881. 883. 884.]
1. Such feasts on Etr. urns, Micali tv. 107. Vase-paint., Hancarv.
iii, 62. ; Tischb. i. at the end (where there are present a hoplomachos and

DOMESTIC AND MARRIED LIFE. 617
a female kybisteter) ; ii. 55. (with a cymbalist and a female flute-player) ;
iii, 10. (the half-naked women are hetseriu) ; Millingen Cogh. 8. (the flute-
player, like those of Athens, is at the same time a hetsera) ; Laborde i, 62.
(the flute-player figures in transparent drapery) ; Maisonn. 45. On a vase
from Agrigentum, Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 71., the carousers and the female
fiute-player have their names inscribed beside them. A fine vase-paint
ing with a similar hetsersB-banquet is described in a very animated man
ner in Neapel's Ant. s. 341.; engraved M. Borb. v, 61. The transparent
draperies characterize maidens, as the Rhodian sambykistrise, Athen. iv,
129. A hetasra with such drapery and hair-net, Bros at hand, in the mural-
painting M. Borb. vui, 5., comp. i, 23. and the statue at Dresden 245.
[Cylix in the M. Gregor. ii. tv. 81 a. b. A banquet around, and one,
whose head is held by a woman, is vomiting ; he holds his finger as if he
had just thrust it down his throat. Another cylix in the same museum
by Epictetus, is only referred to, not engraved, in which a medicine ope
rates both ways, and the patient seems to handle pills with repugnance.
Comp. BuU. 1841. p. 137. On the other side a man and woman of distin
guished rank at table, with attendance, repeatedly painted in the tomb
discovered by Campana at Csere in 1846, Canina Etr. Marit. i, 63.]
2. FamUy banquets of the kind in Maffei M. Veron. 49, 1.; Winck.
M. I. 19. 20.; Zoega 11.; Hobhouse Travels pL 1.; M. Worsl. i, 12.;
Clarac pl. 165 sqq. Wiener Jahrb. xlviu. Tf 2. ; Gerh. Ant. Bildw. 76, 2.
EspeciaUy M. Oxon. i. tb. 61, 136-140. Bas-relief at Merbeka in the plain
of Argos Exped. de la Moree ii. pl. 62. [Coena feralis Brit. Mus. x, 49, 2.
Le Bas Mon. d'Antiq. fig. 2. cah. P. 1837. p. 86—245, Letronne L. k Mr,
Le Bas sur les sujets funeraires et des sofenes d'adieu. Revue Arched, iii,
1846. p. 214 s. p, 85. Gerhard Ant. BUdw. Tf 315, 1—6, on 2 and 4 with
scenes from the lower world, comp. Beschr. Roms i. s. 323. E. Fried-
lander de operibus anaglyphis in mon. sepulchr. Grsecis, Regiom. Boruss.
1847. 8vo.] The husband Ues, the wife sits on the x'hivn and has a ^qxviov
(comp. R. Rochette M. I. p. 146.) under her feet, a ministering boy fre
quently stands by. Through a window is seen a horse's head (death as a
journey, comp. R. Rochette p. 96.) ; sometimes a serpent drinks from a
goblet presented to it (Oxon. i, 135. ii, 67) ; and if, as often happens, the
husband has a modius on his head, we plainly see that the banquet of
Hades and Persephone is imitated. A procession of supplicants also often
approaches, sometimes with a sacrificial swine or sheep, for ex. Maffei M.
Veron. 139, 6. G. Giust. ii, 93. In Caylus ii, 74., where the names are
placed above, those feasting are crowned with garlands. The represen
tation Inghir. Mon. Btr. vi. tv. c sqq. is the most simple and antique.
3, Accordingly the vase-painting Tischb, ii, 52, for example is perhaps
a banquet of the dead ; the eaters partake of the eggs of the usual coense
ferales ; and yet there is even here a naked female flute-player,
429. Among the scenes of married life Greek art loved 1
especially to employ in vase-painting the fetching of the bridal
bath, and the taking home the bride in a chariot as indica
tions of a marriage. A very frequent representation in vase- 2
paintings — an ephebus pursuing a maiden — might be inter
preted from the wide-spread custom of virginem rapere. But 3

618 SUBJECTS FROM HUMAN LIFE,
the giving away the bride by Hera, the goddess of marriage,
also figures prominently in several works of art, such as must
have been executed by an artist of the best Greek period. The
Roman sarcophagi represent marriage in a similar manner, by
Juno Pronuba uniting the spouses; besides. Aphrodite and
Peitho, and in later antiquity, Eros and Psyche, were intro
duced as secondary personages. Further, there are not want
ing sculptures which indicate in its main points the life of
the child through the period of rearing up, and that of the
youth till the age of manhood,
1. Attic maidens bringing the bridal bath from Callirrhoe, in vases
from Volci, §, 99. No, 13. (the right explanation of these was already given
Gett. G. A. 1831. s. 1331. and was afterwards confirmed by the inscrip
tion KALIPEKPBNE), also on gems Lipp, ui, 388, 89. Young man in
the bath, splendid early Grecian work, from Volci, Impr. d. Inst, iii, 46.
The bridal procession in cars, as it is described by Homer and He
siod, together with the hymeneeus represented by Apollo as citharoedus,
combined with the comus of Dionysus — on many old vase-paintings (a
Sicilian one published by Maggiore) [1832], especially of Volci, Ann. ui. p.
162. Leading the bride to the house of the bridegroom, Apollo and Ar
temis in advance Staokelb. Tf 32. (also in MiUingen Peint. de V. 43.)
Hymenseos very complete in Stackelb. Tf 42. [PoU. ui, 40. Hesych.
dyayii.'\ On other matrimonial subjects of these vases (kisses, presents,
lyre-playing) Ann. iii. p. 68. The Campanian and ApuUan marriage-vases
represent especiaUy the adorning of the bride under the direction of
Aphrodite. The Grecian bride in her dressing-room, Bottiger Vasengem.
i. s. 139.
2. Several vases of this kind are given by R. Rochette M. I. i. as the
rape of Thetis. Youths carrying away maidens in chariots, Millingen
Cogh. 1 sqq. Comp. Gerh. Prodr. s. 76.
3. The giving away the bride in the genuiiie Attic style, Lipp. Suppl.
394. ; the relief Adm. 57. indicates the same original with this ; in that
in Guattani 1786. p. xxxi. Hera is omitted, but persons delivering mar
riage gifts are added, from Greek compositions. Marriage presents, fine
relief in Guattani p. 1x1. [R. Gironi Le Nozze do' Greci, Milano 1819.
Vase-picture, also in the Bibl. Ital, 1819 March (where, 1820 Febr. p.
228,, another in the possession of Santangelo with marriage ceremonies
is described) ; the paranymphos leads the bride by the hand, who is push
ed forward by the pronuba to the husband who is armed with a lance ;
Apollo with laurel branch, Artemis with bow and quiver, and a woman
who speaks to him with the spear, perhaps the mother of the bride,]
4, Roman reUefs, in which Juno Pronuba brings or keeps together
the spouses, Admir. Rom. 56. 65. Brit. Mus. x, 50., as Commodus and
Crispina on coins, Vaillant De Camps p. 45, 1. Exactly the same on a
larger sarcophagus in the Vatican, Gerh. Ant. BUdw. 74. [Large sarco
phagus from MonticeUi Mon. d. I. iv, 9, Ann, xvi, p. 186, E. Braun,]
Marriage of the later Eoman period (a boy introduced with a fruit apron),
L, 492, Clarac pl, 203, Marriage sacrifice with favourable omens, Adm.
58, Wicar iii, 16, Bathing the feet of the bride (according to a probable

DOMESTIC AND MAEEIBD LIFE. THE BATH. 619
interpretation), Adm. 59. ZoSga Bass. 12.; L. 766. Clarac pl. 203. The
Aldobrandini marriage (§. 319. E. 7.) unites the bride in the thalamus
whom Charis has anointed and Aphrodite (Peitho) persuaded, with the
adjustment of the bath and the preparation for the hymenseus, comp. §.
378. E. 4. The lying in, Adm. 65. Birth of a child, the Parcaa oast the
nativity, L. 459. Clarac pl. 169. [comp. the lying in of Alcmene, of Leda
in bas-reliefs.] — Two nests with children on a tree, PCI. vii, 9. ; waU-
painting in Pompeii, Gell. N. Pomp. 48., an Idyll according to Hirt, Ann.
d. Inst. i. p. 251. — Eros and Pysche on the sardonyx-vessel §. 316. E. 6.,
comp. §. 391. E. 9. — Cadmus' and Peleus' marriages serve as mythologi
cal representatives of real historical ones. [Zoega Bassir. i. p. 252.]
5. Thom. Bartolini Antiq. vet. puerperii 1675. Offering a child to a
xovqorqiepog Se« §. 96. No. 19. Bas-relief from Sigeum, Ion. Ant. i. vign.
2. ; from Troas, in the L. 521. Panofka Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 396. tv. 9.
Clarac pL 203. ; sarcophagus relief in the Campo Santo at Pisa, Eosellini
Ann. vi. p. 236. tv. d. agg. F, Marriage, and training of children on the
sarcophagus, Guattani 1784, p. xliii., comp, R, Rochette M, I. p. 406.
Course of life of a chUd, R. Rochette pl. 77, 1, 2. Rearing up and edu
cation, Winok. M. I. 184. Youths wrapped in the manly himation,
at the back of numerous vase-paintings, Bottiger Vasengem. u. s. 37.
§. 337. R. 6. Also with armour on vases from Volci, Ann. iii. p. 156.,
in reference to the solemn assumption of armour by the ephebi. A
Roman youth receives the toga pura, as it seems, in the relief Wicar iv,
16. Scenes in the women's apartment, embroidering-frames, lute, mir
rors, spinning Staokelb. Tf 33. 34. Female bath, douche Tf 3 b. [Lady
and her maid, Ternite Pomp. Wandgem. 2d Ser. Tf 3, a poetizing maiden
Tf 1. and so forth. Panofka Griechinnen und Griechen. Griech. Frauen-
leben mit 56 bUdl. DarsteU. B. 1844. 4to.]
Love incantations, Tischb. iii, 44. — We must here by way of appen
dix refer to the great number of obscene representations (especially the
Veneris figurse, on pictures, gems, coins, lasoiva numismata. Martial viii,
78.) to which also mythology gave frequent occasion, see §. 137. R 3. It
is remarkable that the Volcentine vases usuaUy represent obscene subjects
in the oldest style. On the pornographers of the later times §. 163, "^--^
430. But other scenes also of domestic life, such as the 1
Bath, which particularly suited the voluptuous art of later
vases and Etruscan mirrors, as well as all sorts of Games and
diversions, especially when they gave scope for a peculiar de
velopment of human characters, did not lie out of the sphere
of ancient art; but it quite departed from its destination, 2
when — as in pictures at Pompeii — it painted on the wall
libraries, dainty dishes, the house-dog, which were actually
wanting, and thus sank to a mere substitute of reality.
1. Boys bathing in a public bath AHM021A, Tischb. i, 58, A private
bath is designated in Uke manner on a vase by lAIA, R, Rochette M, I.
p. 236. Bath and palsestra are often combined on vases. Women bath
ing, Tischb. iii, 36, and often, also with ministering Erotes, in vase-
paintings as well as mirror-designs. What ArchUochus says Fr. 7, in
vase-paintings : E^owo-a BxXT^ov ft-vqaivng iriqTrero, poliig re xa'hov dv^og. A

620 SUBJECTS FEOM HUMAN LIFE,
boy in the bath in thick mantle, Impr, d, I, iv, 73. The rack, which is
seen here and often in the hands of women bathing and dressing, is per
haps merely an instrument for holding ribbons or something of that kind.
Douche-bath, vase-painting from Volci. Eoman baths §, 292, R, 4. — The
painting of the countenance, Tischb. ii, 58. Maisonn. pl. 16, — The girl
playing at astragals, an xarqxyxXiZovnx (comp, §, 120, R, 3, 417. R. 2.), is
preserved in several copies, in the Brit. Mus, [ii, 28, Clarac pl. 678, in
Berlin ibid, Gerh, Beriin's Alt, Denkm, no, 69,], Paris L. 686,, Dresden
[August, pl. 106,], the WaUmoden collection, [Cavaceppi Stat, ristaur. i,
60.] BouiU. ii, 30, 2. M. Fran?, iv, 9. Clarac pl. 323. [One in the Colonna
palace, a fine work, the left hand supported, the right raised as if it had
just thrown; the shirt is very prettily wrought. Ficoroni i tali cet. p.
148. The earlier Greek model from Tyndaris in Naples, Bull. 1843. p.
60, Serradifalco Antich, di SiciUa V, p. 52, Thus Arne plays on coins of
Kierion Millingen Anc, Coins pl. 3, 12, 13. Ficoroni dei taU d. Antichi
R, 1734,] The smaU bow on the plinth (according to others a serpent) is
perhaps meant to designate one of the younger nymphs of Artemis. Comp.
Becker August. Th. iii. s. 21. Levezow, Amalth. i. s. 193. Board-swing on
vases, Gerh. Ant. BUdw. iii, 53. ; rope-swing, ibid. 64. ; seat-swing, 55.
MiUingen Un. Mon. i, 30. Comp. on these x'laqxi, oscilla, von Kehler,
Masken s. 16. Playing at the trochos, Winck. M. 1. 193—195. Tassie tv.
47, 7981. 84. comp. R. Rochette M. L p. 233., §. 391. R. 4. (Eros?) ; [pe
culiar to Ganymedes on vases] at large baUs, Tischb. ii, 61. 62. Cottabus,
Jacobs Verm. Schr. vi. s. 106, still to seek for in works of art. [Perhaps
Mon. Ined. 200. Welcker Kl. Schr. ii. s. 225.] The game of enkotyle (but
not accurately represented) on vases, M. I. d. Inst. 47 B. Ann. iv. p. 336.
ChUdren's sports at the SaturnaUa, according to Melchiorri, on a relief
in the Vatican, Diss. d. Aoc. Rom. ii. p. 147. Gerh. Ant. BUdw. 66.
Dwarfs as Eoman articles of luxury, in bronzes. Ant. Ere. vi, 91. 92.
Gori M. Etr. i, 56. Pitt. Bro. v, 66 sqq. (as Pygmies).

6. DEATH.
1 431. Direct representations of death and the ceremonies
observed thereat are rare in Greek art; the dead body ceases
to be an expression of life and precisely thereby a subject of
2 art. To allusive representations belongs, besides many already
noticed, sometimes taken from mythology (§. 397. R. 2.), some
times from life (§. 428. R. 2.), the simple figure of a departure,
a journey, without further indication of the unknown bourne
whither it is directed.
1. Conclamatio, relief, L. 182. (an imitation of the antique) Caylus iii,
73. Bouill. iu, 60, 1. Clarac pl. 154. Planctus L. 459. BouUl. 60, 2.
Clarac pl. 163. ; urns from Clusium §. 174. E. 2., comp. Gori M. Btr. iu, 3.
t. 20-23. Carrying out the body, a strange painting, described by Gell
N. Pomp. u. p. 48. Depositing the deceased in the tomb, Stackelb. tf 38.
[The three Athenian vases M. d. I. iii, 60. Ann. xv. p. 276. are especially

DEATH. SKELETONS. 621
important. W. Henzen. Berl. Vasen nach Gerhard no, 1847-49, Similar
on a oantharos from Volci, BuU. 1844, p. 33,]
2. On the subjects represented, chiefly departures, and the fine style
of Grecian grave-steles, E. Wolff and Gerhard Ann. d. Inst. i. p. 134 sqq.
B'ine stele Stackelb. Graber Tf 1, See the Marathonian vases L. 705
sqq. Clarac pl. 125 sq. and M. Worsl. i, 6. 14. Caylus vi, 49 sqq. In con
nexion therewith it has been correctly remarked that the sitting not the
standing figure is the dead man (Einck, Kunstblatt. 1828. N. 42, 7.), see
also M. Veron. 49, 2. 51, 11. Desor. de la Mor6e iii. pl. 16. Banquet, the
husband lies, he is the deceased, his wife gives him her hand. Comp. pl.
14. 18, 2. 19, 1. 20, 2, tbe man sitting the deceased. [Comp. Eoulez Basr.
funeraires d' Arezzo p. 13. not. 1. Le Bas Mon. d'antiq. fig. p. 142 sq.]
There is also a horse often introduced, L. 695. Clarac pl. 162. ; R. Ro
chette M. I. 46, 1. p. 126. Marm. Oxon. ii. No. 63. (an Attic cippus, a
Siren above, §. 393, 4.). Hereto belongs also the relief Winck. M. I. 72.
with the serpent behind the youth taking leave, comp. Gerh. Beschr.
Roms u, ii. s. 6. [Kunstmus. zu Bonn 1841. s. 122. Serpent round the
tree C. I. u. no. 3366 and no. 2322. b 86 and b 94.] The 'iiqag Ukewise
even rides up to a Hesperidian tree enwreathed by a serpent (symbol of
a blessedness veiled in darkness and terrors) with an altar. Maffei Veron.
49, 8. However this symbol is rejected by Gerhard Archemoros s, 68,
The viqag in his hereon on vases, exactly as he appears on steles, see
Stackelb. at pl. 2, 2. The departure-scenes on vases must also perhaps ¦
in a great measure be conceived in conformity with the reliefs. On Btrus
can cinerary cistse the departure often takes place before a grave-pillar
with a pine-cone, usually before a door, Mantus or Orcus whips on.
Here also the person taking leave is often on horseback ; an amphora
Ues on the ground, a serpent issues forth ; genii of the infernal world lead
the horse. Comp, §, 174. R. 3. — Women, with the right hand placed on
the chin, the left on the breast (as prisoners were represented among the
Romans), seem to denote the final farewell (I'adieu supreme). R, Rochette
p. 132. and especiaUy the stele in the L. pl. 46, 3., and the fine bust from
a sepulchral monument in Staokelb. Graber 1 Abth. s. 44. closing vignette.
The lutrophoros on Attic tombs of those who died unmarried, statue
in BerUn, Gett. G. A. 1830. s. 2016. A lutrophoros M. Chiaram, i, 11.
Clarac pl. 407. no. 703. 0A1A1MO2 [-KovrqoCpiqog ¦Ttxig see G. Hermann
De duabus inscr. Gr. 1835. p. 13.] — Tomb of a hunter (a stag devouring
the fruits placed before him), reUef from Megara in Vienna, Wiener
Zeitschr. 1832. No. 144.
432. Skeletons {exeXeroi, larvae), — under which term are 1 1
only, in general, to be understood among the ancients, flesh-
less forms shrivelled into skin and bone, — as well as death's
heads, did not make their appearance as symbols of death un
til later times and on monuments of no artistic importance.
At Trimalchio's feast a silver skeleton admonished to the en- 2 2
joyment of life, and Appuleius was accused of carrying about
him a larva (larvalis imago, sceletus) as an amulet or charm.
1. Several things of this nature brought together by Welcker, SyUoge
p. 98. The tomb-stone with the inscription cited there and a larva be-

622 SUBJECTS FROM THE REST OF NATURE.
neath was to be seen in 1822 in the ceUars of the British Museum.
On a sepulchral monument from Pompeii a relief with a skeleton adorn
ing a woman with ribbons, Mazzois Pomp, i, 29. Cippus at Naples with
a skeleton, from whose mouth a butterfiy is floating away, Neapels Ant.
s. 61. A skeleton escaping from the urn (on skeletons in amphorse,
comp. Steinbiichel Alterth. s. 67.), while Eros sends light into it, Impr.
d. Inst, ii, 58. A skeleton dancing to Silenus' flute, Wicar iii, 28. See
also Gori Insor. i. p. 455. and the gems in Christie, Painted Vases 4. 6.
(skeletons with lanterns). On the skeletons of Cuma (§. 260. R. 1.),
works by Jorio, Sickler, Blumenbach, Gett. G. A. 1823, s. 1243. Gethe
Werke xliv. s. 194, Olfers, Schriften der BerL Akad, 1830, s, 1, Tf 1—4,
[Stackelb, Graber s, 16, " no dancing skeletons, but dry haggard human
bodies?" The shades leave the graves larvali habitu, nudis ossibus
cohserente, Seneca Ep. 24. ossea forma, Ovid Ib. 146. So the two figures
on a vase, Mus. Chiusino ii. tv. 168.] List of the skeletons in ancient
art, ibid. a. 30 ff. Tf 5. A bronze larva, consisting of skin and bones,
was said to have been consecrated by Hippocrates at Delphi, Paus. x, 2, 4.
2. The larva argentea in Petron. 34., sic apta ut articuli ejus verte-
brseque laxatse in omnem partem fleoterentur, was accordingly a regular
skeleton. A skeleton at a feast also on the relief in the Louvre 25. —
Appul. de magia p. 68. Bip.

III. SUBJECTS FROM THE REST OP NATURE.
1. ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
433. The mastery of the ancients in the representation of
the NOBLER kinds of animals arose from their fine sense of
characteristic forms. The horse was immediately connected
with the human form in Greek statues of victors and Roman
statuse equestres; although seldom slender and high, the horses
of Greek works of art, however, are very fiery and spirited,
those of Roman execution more clumsy and massive; their
pace is frequently an artificial one which they were taught —
ambling (tolutim). According to Pliny the tutelarii were re
sponsible with their lives for a dog licking his wounds, in the
Capitol, because it was of inestimable value; there are ani
mals of this class of distinguished beauty; as well as wolves,
bulls, rams, boars, lions and panthers, in which sometimes
the forms of these animals are as grandly developed as the
human forms in gods and heroes. To represent powerfully-
designed wild animals, especially fighting with one another,
was one of the first efl'orts of early Greek art.
1. Winck. Werke iv. s. 236.
2. Iconic horses, MW&n V. H. ix, 32. Calamis' horses §. 112. 2. Mar
cel de Serres Ueber die Thiere der alten Kunst, Bibl. Univ. 1834. Mars

ANIMALS AND PLANTS, 623
p. 231 sqq., distinguishes four breeds of horses, the African, ApuUan,
Thessalian and Sicilian. The same lately on the animals on the mosaic
of Palsestrina ; Froriep. Notizen 1834, N. 922 ff. Very erroneous on the
whole. The heads from the Parthenon are celebrated §, 118, 2, c, as are
also the Venetian horses (compared with the former by Haydon, L, 1818.
and Gothe Werke l, s, 118,) St. di San Marco i, 43 sqq. §. 261. R. 2., those
of Monte Cavallo §. 414. R. 4., that of Marcus Aurelius §. 204. R. 4. Fal
conet (Euvres ii p. 1. comp. i. p. 157., those of the Balbi §. 421. R. 4., one
in Florence, GaU. St. 80. (comp. 81 — 86,). Herculanean quadriga of
bronze. Ant. Ere, vi, 66, Horse's head from the Colombrano palace at
Naples, Gethe W, xxviii. s. 34, M. Borb. iii, 10. [Cicognara Storia d,
scult, iii. tv. 19.] Fine horse-head in bronze, gUded, in Augsburg (Raiser
§. 264. R. 2.). Fabulous horse {liqorovovg) on coins of Nicsna, Mionn.
Suppl. V. tb. 1, 2. p. 148. no. 861., comp. Sueton. Cses. 61. Very fine ones
on ThessaUan and SiciUan coins. We learn from Xenophon, Virgil, Colu
meUa and Oppian what were the notions of the ancients in regard to
beauty in horses. Explanation of the muscles and the bas-reliefs on B,
Matthsei's model of a horse by Seller and Bettiger. Dr. 1823. Comp. above
§. 424, 1. [Ruhl ueber die Auffassung der Natur in der Pferdebildung
antiker Plastik, Cassel 1846, 4to.] Mules especially on Sicilian coins.
[Eutychus with his ass Nicon, caused by Octavian to be represented in
bronze at Nicopolis in commemoration of the lucky omen of meeting them,
Plut. Anton. 66., removed to the hippodrome at Constantinople according
to a schol. in the Palatine manuscript. Creuzer zur ArchaoL i. s. 47.]
3. A dog scratching his ear, an excellent work, in Naples. Splendid
molossi, Cavac. i, 6. Mon. Gab. 43. ^Volf of Belvedere, a gigantic animal.
Myron's cow §. 122, 2. comp. PCI. vii, 31. Tore Farnese §. 157,, bronze in
Venice, S, Marco i, 47. Bronze in Dresden (after Strongylion ?) Meyer
Gesch, Tf 9 c. Fine bulls on coins of Epirus, Gortyna, §, 350, R. 5, 351.
R, 4. BuUs which have xxpiirxg on their backs Uke camels Arist. H, A.
viu, 29, gibberes, like those of Cyprus, Serv. Georg, i, 138,, Syria, Caria,
PUn, viii, -45., deformis scapulis torus eminet, Calpurnius vii, 61., comp.
a coin of Gordian at Ephesus in Tristan T. ii. The goat, which figures in
the primitive history of Macedonia, is magnificently represented on coins,
Mionnet SuppL iii. pl. 9, 4 — 6. Giustiniani goat. Fine bronze of a cha
mois, M. Borb. i, 51. Bronze rams at Palermo, Gethe Werke xxvii. s. 121.
[both from Syracuse perfectly aUke, and two simUar ones are said to have
been sent to Spain in the time of the Spanish supremacy.] On the aries
gutturatus, in Florence and Rome, a treatise by Ad. Fabroni. Calydo
nian boar, in Byzantium, mentioned by Nicetas p. 357. comp. Anth. Pal.
XV, 61. ; a very fine one, M. Flor. iii, 69. Fine wild-swine on coins of
Clusium, .ffitolia, N. Brit, 6, 25. A sow suckUng, PCI, vii, 32, ; comp. §,
418. R. 3. Swine, resembling those of China, on gems, Impr. d. Inst, i,
51. 52. Sow with young, ibid, iii, 65. Lions at Venice from the Peirseus
of Athens, S. Marco ii, 48. 49. §. 253. R. 2. Farnesian lion, M. Borb. ix.
front. Splendid figures on coins and gems, comp. Jen. LZ. Erg. 1815. s.
290. Lion hewn out of the rock, in Ceos, in Brondsted Voy. i. p. 11.
SimUar ones here and there in Greece. On the tombs of heroes (Ptolem.
Hephsest. p. 147. Bekker), for instance, of Hector on the tab. Iliaca and
of Leonidas at Thermopylse. Lion on coins of Miletus y^eav yiyxg. Anthol.
Pal. vi, 256. J. de Witte Ann. vi. p. 343. Lioness with a young lion

624 SUBJECTS FROM THE REST OF NATURE.
Impr,. iii, 54. On the conformation of the lion (of Syrian race), bull (bos
urns), boar (sus ..Slthiopicus) on the temple of Olympia, Geoffrey, St.
Hilaire Rech. au sujet de quelques fragm. P. 1833. [vagaries ; see Bon
ner Kunstmus. 2d ed. p. 168.] Colossal lion at Chseronea, Dupr6. Voy.
pl. 17. Lion from Platsea, L. 708 b. Bacchian panther on coins with
thyrsi or lances in its jaws. Battle of panthers and Uons, powerfuUy de
signed, Laborde Vases ii, 21. Comp. above §. 322. E. 4. 427. R. i. Tigers
are more rare than panthers and leopards. Elephants as torch-bearers on
coins of the Seleucidse, comp. Sueton. Cses. 37. Camels with foals, of
ivory, Buonarr. Medagl. p. 366. [Neapels Ant. Bildw. Marmore no. 499.
Rhinoceros ibid. no. 509.] An assemblage of animals of ancient art, with
eagles, peacocks and storks, PCI. vii, 26 — 34. Bouill. iii, 96. Clarac pl.
350. An eagle with a serpent, Nicetas de stat. c. 8. Ictinus' owl, Lobeck
Aglaoph. p. 973. Fine young stag in bronze, M. Pourtal6s p. 20., from
the neighbourhood of Sybaris, the casting defective. [One the size of life
in black marble, in the Museum of the Lateran.]
4. The Homeric and Hesiodic descriptions, the archaic vases and
Clusinian vessels, the Btruscan bronzes, the earlier coins and engraved
stones show the prevailing taste for battles of wild animals. (The so-
called .Egyptising vases are satisfied with mere coUocations.) The mode
of introducing them is often quite in the style of arabesques.
1 434. INFERiORkindsof animals, marine-animals and polypi,
were chiefly treated in a style which rather strives to repre
sent the bold and picturesque forms of such natural objects in
a general way, than the accurate conformation of the particu-
2 lar species. In like manner, we may say that in the entwined
PLANTS in vase-paintings, as well as in the garlands and fes
toons of decorative architecture and vase-work, although there
are manifold deviations from the objects imitated in individ
ual features, yet the spirit and character of the vegetation are
3 often profoundly seized. But in all compositions of difl'erent
animal forms, which were partly introduced from the East,
but were developed with genuine Hellenic sentiment, there is
especially displayed a spirit which conceived natural life, in
its creative fulness of power, with equal truth and boldness;
hence such forms present themselves to us as real and actu-
4 ally existing beings. A totally different spirit from this sim
ple feeling of nature breathes in the grtlli of later times
on gems ; wit in the combination of things completely diff'er
ent, often also an allegoricaUy expressed reflection, here lie at
the foundation.
1. V. the sea-animals on vases (which are often entirely painted over
with them), for example Millingen Un. Mon. 10. Yet there were also
even under Phidias' name the most accurate imitations of bees, flies ci
oadse (comp. §. 169. R. 2.), and rare kinds of animals also are often faith
fully represented in antiques, Blumenbach Commentatt. Soc. Gott. xvi.
p. 184. Painted cobwebs, Philostr. ii, 28.
2. See as to Greek vases MiUin i, 16. 22. ii, 32. 39. ; Eoman works in

AEABESQUES, LANDSCAPE. 625
Cavaceppi, Piranesi's Vasi and elsewhere. The difficulty of distinguish
ing different kinds of plants on ancient works of art is remarked by
Sprengel, Hist, rel herbarise i. p. 29. Imitations of fruits in wax, §. 305.
B. 4,, and in rhyparography [rhopography] §. 163. R. 6. 210. R. 6. 211. R.
1. Ant. Ere. i, 9. 11. 45. 47. and many others.
3. Marcel de Serres Ueber die Wunderthiere der alten Kunst, Bibl.
univ. 1834. Fevr. p. 160. also finds much truth to nature in these fantastic
compositions, — The sphinx on the coins of Chios as well as Gergis, Streber
Miinchner Denkschr. PhUol. i. s. 200. (an allusion to the SybU) is that of
Bgypt, only more slender, and winged [as in Burip. Phoeniss. 809,]. Grif-
fms §. 361. at the end. Tragelaphi and other grotesque animal figures
on the vases §. 76. E. 2. 171. E. 2., comp. 238. E. 4. Such were esteemed
on sUver vessels 'ev vqoropi.ri Juven. i, 7. Beckh, Staatsh. u. s. 306, On
the composition of the protomse of different animals on gems and coins
(Uon and buU, buU and goat, and the like, often with wings) §, 241. E, 3,
The winged sow of the Clazomenian popular legend (.Sllian H, A. xii, 38.)
is even found on very old gold ooins of the city, M. Brit, xiii, 23, A fine
panther with wings and homs killing a stag, Woburn Marb. 11. Two
griffins on a stag, Impr. d. Inst, iii, 91. — The monster on the waUs of
AmphipoUs, Cousinery Voy. pl. 8., bears some ^semblance to that on the
coins of Alexandria, Bckhel SyU. tb. 6, 15.
4. The GrylU (§. 163. E. 3.) chiefly in jasper, Lipp. i, ii, 517 ff. SuppL
ii, 413 — 428. Eaponi tv. 52. Tassie p. 709. Impr. d. Inst, iu, 48. iv, 67.
68. They are also found on coins, especially of Signia, Steinbuohel Al
terth. s. 78. 144. 244. They sometimes spring from the conjunction of
Bacchian masks with other countenances. — The representations of ani
mals, especiaUy insects, in human occupations, in mural paintings and
gems, are not to be taken in the spirit of the animal apologue, but only
as sports.

2. ARABESQUES, LANDSCAPE.
435. The living and genial conception of nature which
pervades ancient art was well adapted for arabesques (§. 24.
R. 2.), the age of which in Greek art reaches very far back ;
on the contrary landscape in the modern sense was just as
little suited to the ancient style of art ; we only find it at a
later period and on a small scale. Greek art required of its
subjects an intimate relation, a close connexion of life and
form, of spirit and embodiment; everything in it received pre
cisely thereby a decided character, a distinct physiognomy.
The mysterious boding twilight of spirit which the landscape
breathes into us, must have seemed to the ancients, from their
tendency of mind, incapable of artistic development; their
landscapes therefore were generally conceived rather in a play
ful manner than with earnestness and feeling ; the pleasing
effect of a variety of buildings and pleasure-grounds, and nume-
2 E

626 SUBJECTS FEOM THE BEST OF NATUEB.
rous figures, is everywhere preferred, in the Herculanean pic
tures, to the impressiveness of solitary scenes of nature. Their
paintings of nature also gave occupation to a scientific atten
tion, from their map-like survey of extensive tracts of country,
and furnished a pictorial chorography and ethnography.
1. The age of Arabesques {dv^epix in Homer, afterwards caUed (pvrdqix
and ^alxqix) is proved especially by the vases ; pretty nearly the same ara
besques in vase-paintings, as M. Blaoas pl. 25., — sports of humour, where
every interpretation is questionable, — and in terracottas of the Brit. Mus.
tv. 14, 22. 18, 31. their rich development in after times through Roman
mural paintings, §. 210 sqq., candelabra, §. 302. R. 3., and other vessels.
For the history of Arabesques H. Hase Palseologus s. 90, [Gruber De
scription of the plates of fresco decorations and stuccos in — Italy, with
an essay on the Arabesques of the Ancients as compared with those of
Raphael and his school, by Hittorff L, 1844,]
2, See §, 209, 4, Of the nature of landscape was the Vetus pictum
Nymphseum exhibens ed, L, Holstenius (ex sed. Barberinis), R, 1676.
Harbours, §. 296. R. 6, Labyrinthus, Mseander, Fest. Non, VUlas in the
sea, GeU. N, Pomp. vign. ©, The picture, Winok, M, I. 208., is an exam
ple of how much the ancients required human Ufe and the works of man
in landscape. Yet they sometimes succeeded in producing in a smaU reUef
a truly rural and solitary impression by means of a couple of merely in
dicated trees and rocks, and a few clambering goats, for ex. L. 387. BouiU.
iii, 67, 9. Clarac pl. 144. Comp. the Athenian reUef tablet, Walpole Trav.
last pl. ; such little scenes recal the ancient rhopography §. 163. R, 5. Re
presentation of an habitual mood of the mind (sense) by the imitation
of a corresponding mood of nature (truth), the main problem of the art
of landscape painting. Cams Briefe ueber Landschaftmahlerei Lpz. 1836.
2. Aufl, Br, 3, s, 41,
3, See in Philostratus the paintings of the marshy country i, 9,, the
very ingeniously conceived one of the Bosporus i, 12, 13, of the Islands
ii, 17,, among which could be recognised the Cyolades Ceos, Tenos, Delos
and Rheneia, Melos, Siphnos and Naxos, comp, §, 384, R. 4, These had
certainly a great resemblance to the mosaic of Palestrina §, 322. R. 4.
Another but more mythological representation of Bgypt, on the Egyptian
goblet, §. 315. R. 5. Visconti PCI. iii. tv. c. Others more comic, Brit.
Mus. Terrac. 36. Egyptian landscapes were in much favour at Rome,
especiaUy in mosaic, somewhat Uke the Chinese pictures at the present
day, PCI. i. p. 14. n. Gardens of Alcinous on coins of Corcyra. Treatise
by CeL Cavedoni.
According to Bustath. ad Dion, p 87. painters were wont to give
hiUs the form of lions and other animals. At Antioch there was a so-
called Charonian head hewn out of the rock, Malalas p. 205. Tzetz. Chil.
ii, 920.

AMULETS, SYMBOLS. 627

o. amulets, symbols.

436. We conclude with a hasty notice of the amulets of 1
antiquity, which from their nature everywhere transgress the
limits of art, nay are even in direct contradiction to the artistic
sense. The dreaded invidia, according to the belief of antiquity,
was with so much the greater certainty warded off", the more re
pulsive, nay disgusting the object worn for that purpose; and
the numberless phallic bronzes, although originally symbols of
life-creating nature, had afterwards, however, only this mean
ing and aim. The eye, the foot, the hand variously applied, 2 :
are to be met with in symbolical and superstitious significance ;
all the limbs of the human body were modelled without par
ticular signification as consecrated offerings to Esculapius for
recovery from sickness. Figures from the Egyptian religion 3 i
and Alexandrine eclecticism are otherwise by far the most
usual on amulet stones. — Fulness of life, health and bloom 4 \
were most usually denoted in the later period of art, by the
CORNUCOPIA, which was also doubled, as an independently exist
ing symbol. Where a secret sense is given to mathematical 5 »
lines and figures, arbitrarily or from philosophical crotchets,
all artistic activity completely vanished with the natural
unity of the external and internal.
1. The phaUus on houses in Pompeii with the inscription, hie habitat
felicitas, is weU known. Perhaps the oldest amulet of the kind is to be
seen on the waUs of Alatrium, Dodwell Views pl. 92. [The Editor found
a simUar one on a waU of the Homeric city Antheia.] An ithyphaUic
figure was probably caUed tychon as a symbol of Tyche. Probably the
ordinary fixuxxviov, fascinum, before work-shops was also the same, Pol
lux vu, 108. {yeTioix nvx, turpicula res). Comp. Bettiger Amalth. ui. s.
340. Arditi II fascino e Pamuleto centre del fascino presso gli antichi.
N. 1825. 4to. II fico is often combined with phalli as an amulet. Ant.
Ere. vi, 99. PhaUi alati. But death-like figures served this purpose, and
a kind oi grasshopper, which might be regarded as a larvaUs imago, is said
to have been erected before the acropolis by Pisistratus as a xxrxx'iivn,
fascinum. Hesych., comp. Lobeck Aglaoph. p. 970. Hence the grasshop
per in aU sorts of human occupations on gems, Impr. d. Inst, ii, 93. 96.
2. The mulus oculus is most interestingly represented in the reUef
Woburn Marbles 14., comp. MiUingen Archseol. Brit. xix. p. 70. where it
is exposed to every kind of insult and filth. In a similar way we see
it attacked by many sorts of animals on gems (Lippert Suppl. ii, 466.
Caylus V, 67. vi. 38, Kopp, Palseogr, iu. p. 604, and Expl, inscr. obso. in
amuleto. Heidelb. 1832.), which are aU to be referred thereto, and not
to eye-healing. Pedes votivi,, entwined with serpents, with Capricorn
thereon as a propitious sign, and the inscription, faustos redire, Passeri,
Luc. fict, ii, 73, Feet, as signs of presence at places of pilgrimage. Amu
let hands in Caylus iii, 63. Causseus M, Rom, vi, 11-14 etc. Hands of

628 SUBJECTS FEOM THE BEST OF NATUEB.
concord, dextrse, Caylus v, 55, 4. Montf iii, 197. Enclasped hands, often
on gems and coins. Ears of corn growing out of them, tropsea along with
them. On limbs as consecrated offerings for convalescence, C. I. 497 sqq.
1670. Some of the sort in the Brit. Museum. A person is puUed by the
ear, with the inscription pcvnpioveve, in gems and coins, Bettiger's Op. p.
116 sq.
3. On amulets, works written by Gaffarel, Arpe and others. Even
physicians, as Alexander of Tralles, recommend medicse gemmse. The
figure of Serapis was a customary phylacterion. One of the best works
of the kind is the stone with Horus-Harpocrates on both sides and the
inscription: Meyxg ' ilqog ' A'ttoXT^uv' Aq^roxqxrrig eviXxrog ra (poqovvrt, Bck
hel Pierr. grav. pl. 30. Impr. d. I. ui, 99. 100. Abraxas §. 408, 8.
4. Cornucopia, entwined with serpents, on ooins of the Bylliones, per
haps in reference to Cadmus. N. Brit. 5, 12. The double horn, which so
often occurs on coins with boys' heads, (with the heads of Epiphanes
and Callinious on coins of Commagene,) was called lixeqxg, Athen. v. 202
c. Kramer Ueber den styl der gemahlten Thongefasse s. 127. Lippert
Suppl. ii, 398. According to Athen, xi. 783 c. the cornucopia was also
called 'Euixvrog; comp, however v, 198 a.
5. On the pentalpha especiaUy Lange in Bett. Archseol, u. Kunst i. s.
56, — The mystery types on early Greek coins regarding which see Stieg
litz Unterh, u. s. 17., are so in reality only to a very small extent. The
figure of the three revolving feet, which was formerly taken to be a sym
bol of Trinacrian Sicily, is found to have been of far more extensive use,
especially on coins of Cilicia, Pamphylia and Cyprus, and on Panathenaic
vases, and does not seem to be yet satisfactorily explained. On coins of
Panormus the three legs. Medusa's head in the middle, ears of corn be
tween. Torremuzza Sicilise numi tb. 68. 59.

629

INDEX OF NAMES OF ARTISTS AND SCHOOLS OF ART.

(JVie greater numbets denote the paragraphs ; R. the Remarks.)

Accius Priscus 209. E. 1.
Acesas 113. R. 1.
Acestor 112. E. 1.
Acragas 159. E. 1.
Admon 200. R. 1. 315. R. 2.
.ffiginetan school 332. R. 2.
.aiginetes 154. E.
Mhus 200. R. 1.
jEtion of Amphipolis, carver 154. R.
379. R. 4.
jEtlon, painter 211, 1. and R. 1.
Agasias, son of Dositheus IST"". E. 3.
 , son of MenophUus 157*. R. 3,
Agathangelus 200. R. 1,
Agatharchus 135. E. 1. 136, 2.
Ageladas 82. E. 113. R. 1. 393. E.
1. 410. R. 2. ,3*7.<* 3
Agesandrus 156. R. 1.
Aglaophon 134. R. 1. 135. R. 1, 405.
E. 5.
Agoracritus 112. R. 1. 117.
Agrolas 62. E.
Alexander of Athens 210. E. 6.
Alexander, son of king Perseus lS4. R.
Alexis 112. E. 1.
Alcamenes 112. E. 1. 117. 119, 2.
366, 5. and E. 5. 372, 2.
Alcimachus 139. E. 2.
Alcon 307. E. 4.
Aloisius 194. E. 5.
Alypus 112. E. 1.
AmphUochus 149. E. 2.
Amphion (?) 139. E. 2.
 of Cnossus 112. R. 1.
Amphistratus 124. R. 1.
Amyclseus 82. R. 89. R. 3.
Anaxagoras of .dilgina 82. R.
Anaxandra 163. E. 1.
Androcydes 187. E. 4.
Andronicus Cyrrhestes 153. E. 4.
160, 5.
Androsthenes 112. E. 1.
Angelion 82. E. 86. E.
Antenor 82. E. 88. E.
Anthemius 194. E. 4.
Anthermus 82. E.
Antheus 154. E.
Antidotus 189. E. 2. 141. E. 1.
Antigonus 35. E. 1.
Antimachides 80. R. 1, 4.
Antiochus 154. E.
Antipatrus 159. R. 1.

Antiphanes 112. E. 1.
Antiphilus 163. E. 1. 3. 4. 412. E. 2.
Antistates 80. E. 1. 4.
Antistius Labeo 209. R. 1.
Antorides 163. R, 1.
Apaturius 209. R. 3.
ApeUas 112. R. 1.
ApeUes 85. R. 1. 130. R. 1. 141.
142, 1. 319, 7. and R. 2. 406. R.
2. at the end.
of Colophon 189. R. 2.

Aphrodisian school 203. R. 1.
Aphrodisius of TraUes 197. R. 2.
ApoUodor 191. E. 1. bis.
ApoUodorus, brassc. 124. E. 1.
of Athens, sciagrapher

185. E. 1. 136. 137. E. 2. 415. E.
1. at the end 416. E. 1.
ApoUonides 315. E. 2.
ApoUonius 385. E. 3.
son of Nestor 160, 4. and

E. 5.

-of Tralles 157. E. 1.

Arcesilaus 376. E. 3. 391. E. 5.
 son of Tisicrates, painter
163. E, 1.
 plastes, brass-caster, and
sculptor 196, E. 2,
 son of Aristodicus 82. R.
 — of Paros 135. R. 1.
Archennus 82. E. 384. E. 2,
Archias of Athens 112, R. 1.
of Corinth 152. E. 1.

Archimedes 152, E. 1. bis.
Ardices 74, E,
ArelUas 208. E 1.
Aristandrus 112. E, 1.
Aristeas 203. E. 1.
Aristides, brassc. and archit. 112, E, 1.
 of Thebes, painter 139, 4.
and E, 2, 140, 1. and R. 1, 165.

R, 2.

- son of Aristides 163. E. 1.
• brother of Nicomachus 163.

E. 1. 8.
Aristodemu.s, painter 139. E. 2.
 brass-caster 154, E.
fi-om Caria 211. E. 1.

Aristodicus 807. E. 1.
Aristogiton 124. E. 1.
Aristocles, son of Nicomachus 163.
R. 1,
 son of Cleoetas 112, R, 1.

630

LIST OF ARTISTS

Aristocles of Cydonia 82. E.
 of Sicyon 82. E, 393. E, 1.
Aristolaus 139. E. 2. 141. E. 1.
Aristomedes 82. E.
Aristomedon 82. R. 88. E.
Ariston 163. E. 1.
Ai-istonidas 806. E. 3. 412. E, 3. at
the end p. 568.
Aristophon 185, E. 1.
Arrachion 87. B. 1.
Artemidorus 209. E. 1.
Artemon 411. R. 1.
 painter 163. E. 1.
 sculptor 197. E. 2.
 Periphoretos 121. E. 3.
Ascarus 82. E.
Asdepiodorus 139. E. 2.
Asopodorus 112. E. 1.
Asteas 410. E. 4. p. 556.
Athenseus 154. E.
Athenion 189, E. 2. 141, E, 1. 861.
E. 2. 413. E. 2.
Athenis 82, E.
Athenian School of Painters 135,
Athenodor, son of Agesander 156. E, 1.
Athenodorus, brass-caster 112, R. 1.
Atticion 203, E. 1.
Atticus 205. E, 2.
AttiUanus 208. E. 1.
Attic School, younger 360, 1.
Attic Clay-statuaries 72.
Aulanius Euandrus 196. E. 2.
Aulus 200. E. 1. B.
Bathycles 85. R. 2.
Batrachus 180. R. 2.
Beda 154, R,
Boethus 159, E. 1, 415. R. 1.
Brietes 137, E, 4.
Bryaxis (of Athens, sculptor and
brassc) 124, E, 1. 128, 4, 5. and
E. 5. 146. E. 151. E. 1. 158. E.
1. bis.
Bularchus 74. E,
Bupalus 82. E.
Byzes 58. C.
Calamis 112, 1. and E. 1.2. 197, 4.
359. E, 6. 433. E. 2.
Callseschrus 80, E. I, 4,
CaUicles 112. R. 1.
Callicrates 109. E. I, 2.
 the Lacedajmonian 159. 2.
CaUimachus Catatexitechnus 108. E.
3. 112. R. 1. 123. and E. 1.
CaUistonicus 124. E, 1.
CaUistratus 154. E.
CaUiteles 82. E.
CaUixenus 154, E,
CaUon of JEgma 82. E. 89. R. 2.
 of Elis 112. R. 1.
Calynthus 82. R.

Canachus of Sicyon 82. E. 85. E. 1.
86. E. 164. E, 1, 374. E. 3. 393.
E. 1, 394. E. 2.
 of Sicyon, the younger 112.
E. 1.
Cantharus 154, E.
Carmanides 139. E, 2.
Carpion 35. E. 1. 109. I, 2.
Celer 190. E. 2. '
Cephisodorus 196, E. 2.
Cephisodotus 112. E. 1. 393. E. 2.
Cephissodonis 124. E. 1. 135. E. 1.
874. E. 5. 6.
Cephissodotus 124. E. 1. 126. E. 4.
Chalcosthenes 72. E. 2.
Chsereas 124. E. 1.
Ch£erephanes 168. E. 3.
Chares 154. E. 155, 1.
Chaj-madas 74. R.
Chartas 82. E.
Cheirisophus 359. E. 5.
Cheirocrates 149. E. 2.
Chersiphron of Cnossus 35. E. 1. 80.
E. I, 1.
Chimarus, v. Julius.
Chionis 82. E. 89. E. 3.
Chryses 194. E. 4.
Chrysothemis 82. E.
Cimon 99. and E. 1.
 Engraver 317. E. 2.
Cleagoras 135. E. 1.
Cleanthes 74. E.
Clearchus 82. E.
Cleisthenes 107. E. 3. 135. E. 1.
Cleiton 112. E. 1.
Cleomenes of Naucratis 149. E. 2.
 son of Apollodorus 160,
8. and E. 3.
 son of Cleomenes 160, 4,
and R, 4.
KJ.£»^jv»5 415. E. 1. p. 581.
Cleon 124. E, 1.
Cleophantus 74. R. 75. E. 1,
Cleoetas 106. E. 4. 112. E. 1.
Clesides 163. E. 1.
Cleudorus 317. E. 2.
CUtias 415. E. 1.
Cocceius, T. Auctus 190. E. 1. ii.
Colotes, scholar of Phidias 112, K,
1. 121. E. 3,
 scholar of Pasiteles 196. E, 2,
 of Teos 137, R. 4.
Coponius 196. E. 2. 199. R. 9.
Coroebus, potter 62. R.
 architect 109. R. I, 5.
Corybas 163, E, 1.
Cossutius 158. E. 4. 180, 4.
Craterus 197. E. 2.
Crates 149. E. 2.
Cretan School 359, 5.
Critias 82. E. 88. E.
Crito 204. E. 5. 422. E. 7.
Cronius 315. R. 2.
Ctesibius 152. R. 299. k.

AND SCHOOLS OF ART.

631

Ctesidemus 139. R. 2.
Ctesilaus 112. R 1. 121. 157.'* E. 2.
Ctesilochus 163. E. 1. 3.
Cydias 139. E. 2. 319. R. 2.
Cydon 121. D.
Dffidalidro 70. R. 2.
Dsedalus 68. R. 2. 3. 70. 81. R.
 of Sicyon 112. E. 1. 123,3.
Dahippus 154. E.
Dalion 315. R 2. 402. R 3.
Dameas 82. E. 87. E. 1.
Damocritus 124. E. 1.
Damophilus 82. R 180. R 2. 819.
R5.
Damophon 124. R 1. 312. E. 2.
Daniel 207. E. 5.
Daphnis 109. E. HI, 15.
Dsetondas 154. E.
Decius 196. R 2.
Decrianus 191. R p. 175. 197. R 3.
Deinias 74. E.
Deinochares 149. E. 2.
Deinocrates 80. R I. 1. 149. and E.
2. 151. E. 2.
Deinomenes 112. E. 1.
Deinon 112. B. 1.
Demeas 112. E. 1.
Demetriusof Athens 112. R, 1. 123.
and R, 2, 135. E. 3.
 of Ephesus 80, E, I, 1,
-, goldsmith at Ephesus 197,

E. 2.

- roi^ay^K^as 182. E. 2,

Democopus-MyriUa 106. E, 2.
Democritus 107. and E. 2.
Demophilus 135. E. 1,
Diagoras 87. E. 3.
Dibutades 53. E. 1. 62, E, 63, R
72. E, 2.
Diogenes 163. E. 1,
•  of Athens 196, E. 2.
Diognetus 211. E. 1.
Dionysius, painter 208. E. 1.
 of Argos 82. E,
 of Colophon 135, 3, and
E, 1, 3.
 sculptor 160. E, 2,
Dionysodorus 112. E. 1.
Dioscurides 209. E, I. 425. R 1.
Dipoenus 70, E, 2. 82. E, 84, E, 2.
DiyUus 82. R 89, E. 3.
Dontas 82. R 308. E. 3. 410. R. 5.
Dorotheus 209. R. 1.
Dorycleidas 82. E. 85. E. 1.
E.
Echion 124. E. 1. 139. E. 2. 140. R 3.
Eetion 154. R 308. R 3.
Endoeus 70. R 2. 82. R. 368. E 4.
Epeius 70. R. 4.
Ephesian artists 157"'. E. 3.
Ephorus 139. E. 2.

Epictetus 428. B. 1.
Bpiinachus 162. R. 1.
Epithermus 149. R 2.
Erateus 149. R 2.
Ergotimus 416. E. 1.
Erigonus 163. E, 1.
Erophilus 200. R 1.
Euffinetus 317. E, 2,
Euanthes 396. R 2, 414. E, 3,
Eucadmus 112. E. 1.
Eucheir 75. E. 1,
Eucheirus 82, E.
Eucleidas 124. R 1. 317, R 2.
Eudoms 107. E.S.
Euenor 135. E. 1.
Eugrammus 75. E. 1.
Eumarus 74. E.
Eumelus 211. E. 1.
Eumnestus 196. R 2.
Euodus 200. E. 1.
Eupalinus 81. E.
Euphranor, Aristides' (Aristo's) Scho
lar 163. E. 1.
35. R 1. bis. 124. R 1.

129, 1. and R 2. 3. 130. and E, 2.
4. 139. E, 2. 140, 3, and E. 3.
141. E, 4. 366. R 5. 398. E. 2.
405. R 3. 409. E. 1.
Euphronides 124. R 1.
Euphronius 415. E. 1.
Eupolemus 109. E. H, 10. 11.
Eupompus 137. E. 4.
Euripides 135. R. 1.
Euryalus 62. R
EuteUdas 82. E. 87. R 1.
Euthycrates 154, 1. and R.
Buthymides 257. R. 7.
Eutropus 207. R 5.
Eutyches 200. R 1.
Eutychides 146. R. 154. R. 158. E. 5.
Euxenidas 137. E. 4.
Execias 412. R 1. F.
Fabius Pictor 182, 2. and E. 2.
FabuUus 209, 6. and E. 1.
Fuscns 822. E. 4. G.
Galaton 163. E. 3.
GaUienus 207. R 7.
Gitiadas 82. E. 89. E. 2.
Glaucias 82. E. 87. R 3.
Glaucion 189. E. 2.
Glaucus of Argos 82. E.
 of Chios 61. 311. E. 2.
Glycon 129. R 2. 160, 4. and E. 5.
Gnseus 200, R 1,
Gorgasus 82, E, 180, R, 2. 319, E 5.
Gorgias 112, E, 1, H,
Hadrianus 191, E,l, 203,R, 1. 211,E,1.
Harmatius 372, E, 5,

632

LIST OF ARTISTS

Harmonides 56. R.
Hecatodorus 124. E. 1.
Hegesias 82. E.
Hegias 82. R 118. E. 1.
Helena 168. R 1. 6.
HeUas 217. B. 7.
Helicon 113. E. 1. bis.
Hephsestus 58,
Heraclides of Ephesus 157'*. E. 3.
872. E. 5.
.  of Tarentum 152. E. 1.
 from Macedonia 163. E. 1.
HeracUtus 209. E. 1. 322. R 4.
Hermodor 180. R 2. bis.
Hermogenes 109. E. Ill, 17. 18.
Hermocles 154. R. 155. R. 3.
Hermolaus 197. R 2.
Heron, son of Libius 149. E. 2.
 the HydrauUst 152. E. 2.
Herodotus 124. R 1.
Hiero 196. R 2.
Hilarius 211. R 1.
Hippias, about 01. 110. 124. R 1.
 about OL 114. 124. E. 1.
Hippodamus 111. and E. 1.
Hippys 389. E. 3.
Hiram Abif 239. E. 8. 240. E. 5.
bis.
Hygiemon 74. E.
Hypatodorus 124. R 1. 370. R. 4.
Hyperbius 62. R I& J.
Icmalius 56. E.
Ictinus 85. E. 1. 109. E. I, 2. bis.
5. n, 12. 433. R 3.
Idseus 137. E. 4.
.Toannes of Byzantium 194. K. 4.
Ion 124. E. 1.
Isidor of Miletus 194. E. 4.
 the Younger 194. E. 4.
Isigonus 154. E.
Ismenius of Chalcis 139. E. 2.
Julianus Argentarius 194. E.S.
Julius Chimarus 197. R. 2.
 Miletus, Qu. 192. E. 1.
L.
Laerces 58. E. 1.
Lala 163. R 4. 208, 3. and E. 1.
Learchus 70. E. 2. 71.
Leochares 124. E. 1. 128, 1. 4. 5.
and E. 1. 5. 151. E. 1. 860. E. 1.
Leonidas 189. E. 2.
Leontion 139. E. 2.
Leontiscus 163. E. 1.
Leostratidas 196. E. 2.
Lesbothemis 393. R. 1.
Libon 109. E. II, 9.
Ludius 209, 4. and R. J.
Lycius of Eleutheraj 112. E. 1. 122.
E. 5. 345. E. 9.
Lysias 196. E. 2.
Lysicrates 108. E. 4. 845*, 7.
Lysippus 124. E. 1. 129. and R,

ISO. and R. 1. 2. 4. 332. R. 2.
393. R. 2. 399. R. 3. 410. 1. 3.
and R. 4. 420. R. 4. bis.
Lvsistratus 124. R, 1, 129, 5. and R, 5,
M.
Malas 82. R
Mandrocles 99. R. 1.
Mani 248, R 8.
Mechopanes 139. R 2. 141. R 1.
Medon 82, E. 85. E. 1,
Melanthius 189. R. 2, 140, 4.
Men^chmus 85. R 1. 82. R 85. R 1.
Menalippus 153. E. 4.
Menelaus 196. E. 2.
Menestratus 124. E. 1.
Menodorus 127. R 3. 197. R 2.
Menophantus 377. E. 1.
Mentor 124. E. 1. 159. E. 1.
Metagenes 35. E. 1. 80. R I, 1.
109, E, I, 5,
Meton 111, 2. and E, 2.
Metrodorus, painter 163, E, 1. 182.
E, 3. brass-caster 172, E. 2.

Micciades 82, E,
Micon of Athens 135, E, 1. 2, bis
319, E, 5.
 of Syracuse 154, E.
Midias 414, R 2.
Mnesicles 109, E. I, 8, 121, E, 3.
Mustius 191. R 1.
Mutius 188. E. 2.
Mydon 168. R 1.
Myrmecides 159, 2.
Myron 112. R. 1. 122. 859. R. 6.
410, 1.
Mys 112. R. 1. 116, 3. 311. R. 4.
N.
Naucydes 112. R. 1. 123, 3.
Nealces 163. R. 1,
Nero 197. R, 2,
Neuantus 317, R 2,
NicEearchus 410. R, 9,
Nicanor 185. R. 1.
Niceratus 112. R. 1,
Nicerus 163, R 1,
Nicias 139. E. 2. 140, 5. 141. E.
4. 810. E. 5. 819. R 2. 5. 409.
E. 3.
Nicodamus 112. E. 1.
Nicolaus 204. E. 5. 422. R 7.
Nicomachus 139. R 2. 163. E. 4
395. E. 2. 416. R 1.
Nicophanus 163. E. 1. 3.
Nicosthenes 427. E. 2. 3.
Novius Plautius 181. E. 5.
O.
Olbiades 163. E. 1.
Olympiosthenes 124. R 1. 393. E. 2.
Olynthius 149. E. 2.
OmphaUon 163. E. 1.
Onassimedes 806. E. 5.
Onatas 82. E. 83. R 3. 85. E. 4.

AND SCHOOLS OF AET.

633

89. R 3. 112. E. 1. 135. and E.
1. 359, 6. and E. 6.
Onesas 425. E. 1.
Onesimus 369. E. 2.
Orsippus 77. R. 2. P.
Pacuvius, M. 182. R 2.
Pamphilus, scholar of Praxiteles 124,
R 1.
 scholar of Eupompus 139,
2. and R, 2. 3.
Pansenus 115. R 1. 135, R, 1, 2,
319. R 5.
Pantias 112, E, 1.
Pantuleius 203. R 1.
Pffionius of Ephesus 80. R. I, 1. 109.
E. in, 15.
 of Mende 112. R 1. 119,
2. and R 2.
Papias 203. R 1.
Parmenion 158. E. 1.
Parrhasius 35. R 1. 116, 3. 187.
E. 1. 2. 3. 4. 138, 2. and E, 2.
139, 1. 141. E. 1. 318, R 395.
R 8. 409. E. 1.
Pasias 163. R 1.
Pasiteles 35. E. 1. 196. E. 2. 310.
E. 2.
Patroclus 112. E. 1.
Pausanias 168. E. 1. 3.
 of ApoUonia 124. R 1.
Pausias 189, 4. and R 2. 140, 2. and
E. 2. 163. R 4. 319. E. 5. 320.
E. 2.
Panson 137. E. 4.
Pedius 208. R 1.
Peirasus 68. R 2.
Perdix 70. R 2.
Pergamenian artists 157,'*
Pergamus 200. R 1. 315. E. 2. 885.
E. 4.
Periclitus 112. R 1.
PerUaus 82. E.
PeriUus 82. E,
Perseus 163. E. 1.
Phidias 102. 112. R 1. 113 sqq.
and E. 118, and E. 4. 121. 122, 5.
308. R 3, 312. E, 1, 324, E. 1.
328. R 2. 352, 4, 354. E, 5. 374.
E. 5. 6. 399. E. 3. 400. E. 1.
434. R 1.
Pheidon 98. and R 1.
PhiUscus 160. E. 2. 398. E. 2. bis.
Philochares 139. E. 2.
Philo, architect 35. E. 1. 109. E.
I, 5. 152. E. 1.
 , brass-caster 124. E. 1,
Philoxenus 163. R I, 4, 6.
Phoenix 154. E.
Phradmon 112, E, 1, 121.
PhryUs 135. R 1.
Phrynon 112. E, 1,
Pinus, Corn. 209, E, 1,

Piso 112, R 1.
Piston 154, E.
Pixodarus 80. E. I, 1.
Polycharmus 377. E. 5.
Polycles the Elder 124. E. 1. 128, 2.
and R 2. 393. E, 2.
the Younger 154, R 160,

E. 2.
 , sons of 154. E.
PolycUtus 106. R 2. 112. E, 1.
120. 121. 122, 5. and E, 5. 312.
R 1. 350. E. 6. 352. 5, 6. 422,
E. 7. 423. E, 3, 4.
 the Younger 112. E. 1.
, sons of 112. E, 1.

Polydectes 197. E. 2,
Polydorus 156. E. 1.
Polyeuctus 154. R
Polygnotus 112, E. 1. 134, 135. E.
2. bis. 3. 139, 4, 319. R 5, 415.
E. 2. at the end.
Porinus 80. E, I, 4.
Poseidonius 196. E. 2.
Posis 196. E. 2. 305. R. 4,
Pratinas 365. R 5.
Praxias 112. E. 1.
Praxidamas 87. E. 1.
Praxiteles 124. and E. 1. 125. R 4.
126, 1. 127. 128, 6. 130. R 1
151. R 1. 357. E. 4. 358. R. 2.
365. R. 5. 381. R. 2. 398. R 2.
410. R 4.
 the Younger 1 54. R.
a worker in vases 196. R. 2.

Proclus 322. R. 4.
Prostatius 322. R. 4.
Protarchus 891. R. 5.
Protogenes 189. R. 2. 142.
PtoUchus of -iEgina 82.
 of Corcyra 112. E. 1.
Publius 209. E. 1.
Pyreicus 163. E. 5.
Pyrgoteles 131, 2. and R 2.
Pyromachus 112, E,l, 154. E, 157*
394, 1. and E.
Pythagoras 112, 1, 3. and E, 1, 3,
351. R. 4. 414, R, 3.
Father of 97. R, 2,

Pytheas 196. R. 2.
Pytheus 109. R. IH, 16. 151. R. 1.
Pythias 154. R.
Pythis 124. R. 1.
Pythocles 154. R.
Pythodorus 197. R. 2. 852. R. 4.
 alius 197. R. 2.

R.
Rabirius 190. R. 3.
Rhexibius 87. E. 1.
Ehodian artists 155 sqq.
Ehoecus 60. and E. 71. E. 1.
S.
Samian School of Artists 60. 71.

634

LIST OF AETISTS, <feo.

Samolas 124. E. 1.
Saturninus 200. E. 1, 204. E. 5.
Satyrus 151. E. 1.
Sauras 180. R 2.
Scopas 109. E. XL 13, 124. 125. 126,
Land E. 4. 128,4. 6. 151. E. 1.
158. R 1. 860, 1. 364. E. 4. 372,
7. 394. R 2.
Scyllis 70. E. 2. 82. E. 84. E. 2.
359. E. 5.
Scymnus 112. E, 1,
Serapion 107. E, 3,
Severus 190, E. 2.
Sicyonian School of Artists 74. 82.
163. E. 2.
Silanion 36. E. 1. 124. E. 1. 128, 3.
806. E. 3.
SiUax 135. R 1.
Simon 82. E. 135. E. 1.
Smihs 70.
Soidas 82. E. 85. E. 1.
Socrates of Athens 70. R. 2. 112. R. 1.
 of Thebes 82. R.
Solon 200. R. 1.
SopoUs 208. E. 1.
Sosias 143. E. 3.
Sosibius 863. E. 8. 379. R. 4.
Sosius 808. R. 4.
Sosocles 397. R. 5.
Sostratus of Chios 112. R. 1.
 of Cnidos 149. R. 2. 3.
 of Rhegium 112. R. 1.
 brass-caster 124. R. 1.
Sosus 163. R. 6.
Soter, Jul. 822. E. 4.
Spintharus 80. E. I, 5.
Stadieus 112. R 1,
StaUius 153, E. 4,
Stasicrates 149. E. 2,
Statilius Taurus 188, R 4.
Stephanus 196. E, 2.
Sthenis 124. E. 1.
Stomius 82. E,
Stratonicus 154. E, 159, E, 1. 385.
R 4. g,
Strongylion 124, E, 1, 806, E, 1.
393, E, 433, E, 3.
Stypax 112. E, 1, 121. E, 3,
Syadras 82, E.
Synnoon 82. E. T.
Taleidas 99, E, 3. No. 2.
Talus 70. E. 2.
Tauriscus 157. E. 1. 159. E. 1.
Tectseus 82. E, 86, E,
Telchines 70.
Telecles 60. E. 70, R 4,
Telephanes of Sicyon 74, R,

Telephanes the Phocean 112. R. 1.
247. E. 6.
Telesarchides 67. R.
Teucer 196, E, 2.
Teucrus 410. E, 7.
Thaletio, Junius 196. E, 2.
Theodorus (several) 35. E. 1. 55.
E. 60. and R 70. E. 4. 80. R. I,
1. 97. R 2. 159, 2. 291. R 5.
bis. 307. R. 4. 308. E. 5. 415. E. 1.
(OL 118.) 163. R 1.

Theodotus 182. R 2.
Theocles 82. E. 85. E. 1. 410. E.
4. p. 556.
Theocosmus 112. R 1.
Theomnestus 139. E. 2.
Theon 139. E. 2. 142, 2.
Theophilus 311. E. 2.
Thericles 112. E. 1. 298. E. 1.
Therimachus 124. R 1. 189. R. 2.
Timagoras 185. E. 1. 138. E. 3.
Timanthes 137. E. 4. 138, 8. and E. 3.
the Second 168, R 1.

Timarchides 125. R 4. 154. E. 160.
R 2. ter. 360, E. 1.
sons of 154. E.

Timarchus 124. E. 1. 345*. E. 4.
Timocles 154. R. 160. E. 2. ter.
Timomachus 207. E. I. 2. bis. 412.
E. 5. at the end. 415. E. 1. p. 584.
416. E. 2. p. 589.
Timotheus 124. E. 1. 125. E. 4.
128, 4. 6. 151. E. 1.
Tisagoras 307. E. 4.
Tisandrus 112. E. 1.
Tisicrates 154. E.
Tlepolemus 196. E. 2.
Tryphon 315. E. 2. 391. E. 5. 9.
Turpilianus Labeo 209. E. 1.
Turrianus 171, 3. and E. 3.
Y.
Vitruvius 35. R 1. 189. 3.
X.
Xenseus 149. E. 4.
Xenocles 109. E. I, 5. bis.
Xenocrates 35. E. 1. 154. E.
Xenophantus 203. E. 1.
Xenophon 124. R. 1.
Z.
Zenas 205. R 2.
Zenodorus 197, 8. 4.
Zenon 203. R. 1.
Zeuxiades 154. R.
Zeuxippus 135. R. 1.
Zeuxis 130, 2. 136. R. 1. 137. and
R 4. 138, 1. E. 1. 139, 1. 318.
E. 362. E. 4. 410. E. 4.
Zopyrus 196. E. 2.

FULLARTON AND MACNAB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.

The foUowing Additions and Corrections, furnished chiefly by Professor
Welcker, were too late to be embodied in the Work.
Page 18, line 3 fi-om the bottom, after 1847 insert— " Heyne's Akademische Vor
lesungen iiber die ArchaoL der Kunst des Alterthums Braunschweig 1822
(containing chiefly the mythology of art)," and remove the bracket after
1847 to the end, placing it after published at all.
— 27, — 18, after eagle insert— Idem Alte Denkm'aler i. s. 3—19.
— 34, — 17, after /?iarf insert— xxiv, 15. Theodoridas ep. 7. and Leonidas
ep. 16. speak of this figure, and also Palseph. 9 seems to have it in view, xxi
tipiiic sSsa rapii^x x'vrm, see 'Welcker Alte Denkm. i. s. 216.
— 41,-10, after 408 insert — Gerhard Kunst der Phoenicier s. 14. not. 51.
58. s. 41. not. 58.
_ 49, _ 4, after Bupalus insert— Although four generations, which PUny
gives, by no means make up 60 Olympiads.
— 52,-8 from bottom, after 162 insert— E. Eochette Questions de I'His-
toire de I'Ait, p. 194 sq.
— 53, — 15 from bottom, for 17 read 23.
— 56, — 6, after 1829 insert— Welcker Alte Denkm. i. s. 30—66.
— 56, — 2 from bottom, after 69 insert — comp. Scharf Obss. on the pecuUari
ties of sculptures seen on the Monum. of ancient Lycia 1847.
— 62, before line 13 from bottom insert — 17*. The reUef with the murder of
..(Egisthus, §. 864. no. 8.
— 63, — 8 from bottom, after 5 insert — Mon. Ined. 38.
— 66, — 10 fr. b., B,(%er probably insert— fonj, and after Gr. dele A.
— 92, — 9 fr. b., after original insert — a torso of great beauty which was ex
cavated at Treves in 1847.
— 94, — 17, after 1806 insert— 'Welcker Alte Denkm. Th. i. s. 417—429.
And in line 18 for 35 read 85.
— 97, — 26, after sect. 1. insert — 'Welcker Alte Denkm. i, 204.
— 99, — 5, insert at the end — "Welcker Alte Denkm. i, 274.
— 102,— 11, for 149 read 151.
— 105, — 16 fr. b., after style insert — Sir Chas. Fellows' Account of the Ionic
Trophy Monument excavated at Xanthus. London 1848. 8vo. Col. Leake
in the Transactions of the Eoyal Society of Literature ii. p. 27. 37. 1847.
and on the Greek inscription Th. Bergk in Gerhard's Archaol. Zeitung
1847. s. 84*. "Watkins Lloyd Xanthian Marbles: the Nereid monument,
an Historical and Mythological Essay, London 1845. 8vo. contains no
thing that concerns the archseological question.
— 118, — 4, after Nero insert — Caylus in the M^m. de I'Acad. xxx, 442.
— 119, — 2, after 480 insert — Sillig PUnii Prsefatio et liber xxxv. 1849. p.
64 sq.
— 158, — 4 fr. b., after Campana. insert — Campana's tomb at Veil, with
fantasticaUy formed animals painted with variegated colours, is figured in
Canina's Antich. di Veii tv. 81. p. 75., important for the antiquities of art,
as are also the vases with animals found in Veii tv. 84. 85. p. 76., of the
second century of Eome and of Corinthian origin according to p. 80 sq.

636 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
Page 227, line 26, after Eosellini II. insert— advancement as regards industry,
from Eamesses V. (Sesostris) onwards decline.
— 336, — 1, for 17. 18. read 23. 24.
— 405, — 15, for 7 read 13.
— 405, — 30, for 15 read 22.
— 409, — 1 from bottom, for 11 read 17.
— 419, — 23. for 16 read 22.
— 453, — 27, for 15 read 14.

ERRATA.

Page 9, line 7, for iUusive read allusive.
— 15, — 15 from the bottom, /or Belloni rcarf Bellori.
— - 27, — 5, for Ulrick read Urlichs.
— 27, — 6 from bottom, place the [ before " A portion " in the next line,
— 49, — 20 from the bottom, for brass-cutter read brass-caster.
— 77, — 22 and elsewhere, /or Ulrichs read Urlichs.
— 80, — 10, for piliere die read pilieii dei.
— 113, — 9 from the bottom, /or Scheider read Schneider.
— 130, — 15 from the bottom, /or author's read author.
— 145, — 7 from the bottom, for Gozza read Gozzo.
— 171, — 18, /or bust read bustum.
— 177, — 5, /or description on rearf description. On.
— 206, — 15 from the bottom, /or as ;ead on.
— 215, — 12, place a ) after 167.
— 215, — 22, /or 30 rearf 140.
— 220, — 12, for xx^Tos read xuovos.
— 244, — 16 from the bottom, for an iron read a hammered.
— 258, — 14 from the bottom, de?c «Ae/iH s<op q/'i!cr Bamian.
— 276, — 23, for Campana read Campana's.
— 276, — 5 from the bottom, for Gabiis read Gabii.
— 285, — 18, /or the work read in progress.
— 287, — 16 from the bottom, for Eimes read Nimes.
— 289, — 4 from the bottom,/or 1844 read 1846.
— 299, — 1 from the bottom, for election read doctrine.
— 309, — 23, /)r nomines reodnominis.
— 338, — 5, insert a hyphen after mulo.
— 344, — 8 from the bottom, dele the comma after mira.
— 385, — 23, for Eomans read Eoman.
— 390, — 11, insert a) after ibid.
— 402, — 4, for than read that.
— 405, — 3, for refer read refers.
— 411, — 19, /or turning round read turned down.
— 427, — 29, /or Guathia read Gnathia.
— 437, — XQ, for pLxxuvos read pcxxavx?.
— 451, — 17, /or candelabra read candelabrum.
— 457, — 1 from the bottom, /or Viret read Vinet.
— 470, — 23, for Solionto read Solunto.
— 481, — 6, for totav. read to tav.
— 494, — 14, /or Zagrseus read Zagreus.
— 497, — 2 from the bottom, for Petronio read Petronia.
— 500, — 5 from the bottom, for pans read spans.
— 503, — 2 from the bottom, /or dsemonac read dtemonic.
— 517, — 12 from the bottom, insert a comma after enveloped.
— 523, — 10 from the bottom, for Nisyres read Nisyros.
— 524, — 8, /or Proel read ProcL
— 525, — 12, /or at Vaseggio reod in Baseggio's.
— 525, — 14 from the bottom, for on read in.
— 536, — 25, for in dolphins read on dolphins.
— 538, — 1, dele the a before Pacetti.
— 553, — 22, for ^ovnqtirxvros read crovn^orxros.
— 574, — 24, dele the comma after statue.
— 575, — 11 from the bottom, insert a ) after subject.
— 675, — 3 from the bottom, insert a comma after Naples.
— 581, — 28, /or thalamas read thalamus.
— 581, — 7 from the bottom, insert a comma after all instead of after war,
— 583, — 7, for grieves read greaves.
— 585, — 15 from the bottom, for Polymester read Polymestor.
— 594, — 18 from the bottom, for Harmonius read Harmodius.
— 605, — 24, dele the the before Dubois.

INTRODUCTION

SCIENTIFIC SYSTEM OF MYTHO.LOGY.
By C. 0. MiJLLEE,
Author of " The History and Antiquities of tlie Doric Race," Ac.
TKANSLATBD FROM THE GERMAN,
Br JOHN LEITCH.
8m I2s.
LONGMAN, BEO'WN, GEEEN AND LONGMANS.

" This work is one of the most valuable additions that could have been
made to our literature. It has been adopted almost universally as the basis of
all mythological speculations, and Mr. Leitch deserves the gratitude of his
countrymen for introducing it to those to whom it was inaccessible in the ori
ginal language." — Classical Museum.
"It is a model of phUosophical investigation, and one of the greatest contri
butions to historical science yet made. The translation is masterly." — ¦ West
minster Review.
"It is a matter of congratulation that we have now so good, readable, and
clear a translation as the onebp.fore us, of a work which is a valuable contribu
tion not only to a national hut to European literature in general." — Athenceum.
"In this work, so ably and elegantly translated by Mr. Leitcli, MiiUer has
given proofs of great learning, patience and sagacity. Indeed we regard him as
the first who has interpreted lijythology as it ought to be interpreted." — Fraser's
Magazine.

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