1143
95
THE LIBRARY
OF THE
SITY OF
UNIVERSITY
REGENTS
ORINIBUS
ARTIGOS
MINNESOTA
Wilson Library
لة
ط

66
65
24
23
22
21
20
19
Arear Ford
Patris Fion
Fuglebary
North Cape
Art
John's Fiord
Snachall
Dranga Jökul
Isafiardar dupliord
ORD
Glama Jok
s Fiord
RDESTRANDS SF,
BREIDA
Vendwerdarness
Olafsvik
Snocheld
Flater
Kaldadernes
PLORDils Fiord,
Thorsnes
Helgafell
SAFEFIELD
Stappen
Arctic Circle
grims
PAGASTRINDAP FLO
Hana Fiord
Skagen
Steingr
RIDINGA FIORDUNGIR
Tivam Fiord,
Fidedals au
Skaga Flord
Grimsey
2 Siglu Fiord
Jolafsfiord
Hofsos
Skagastrand
Ho lum
Blandau
Thing
Eya Fior
EY AFIORDS
Flatey
Eyafardarau
Holar
VATNS
SKAGAFIORDS
Herads Votn
NORDL END UN GA
SYSSEL
Hofs Jökul
Hruta To
SYSSEL
DALE SYSSEL
Braidabelstadr
SYSSEL
Eldborg
Mountain
lylar dal
SYSSEL
64
18
17
16
Refsnes
Skialfande Fiord
Axar Fiord
Husevik
Graniadarstadir
Leirhnukr
Liosa Vain
Laxau
Jokulsau
Thistil Fiord
DRE OR THINGOE SYSSELS
13
15
14
SYSSEL
Langanes
Mid Fiord
NORTH
Smorfield
Smiorvatns Heide
MULE
Vapna Fiord
Jokulsau a
Brueradsfloi B
ingaros
Lagerfliot
SYSSEL
Borgar Fiord
FIORDUNGR
Odaada hraun
Trolladynger
Herdubreid
Holmahan
Eskiford
MULE
Reidaren
Reidar Fiord
HAOS
Bulanstindr
Diupavog Beru Fiord
fta Fiord
Fiord
66
65
Loon
Austerhorn
Westurhorn
Horne Ford
FAXA
FIOR D
Geirfugla Skiaer
Skagen
Reikianes
24
23
Baula
RE SYSSEL
Western
Skarsheida
Borga
Hvitaw
Reikholt
BORGAR
Leiraa
Kialarnes
Videy L
Essian
Hafna Fiord
Bessastadi RETRIAVIK
TORD
S
Lange
Jökul
Bald Fokul
Eiriks Jokul
Jokul vitaar
SYSS.
Vatn
SSEL
SYSSEL
Snio fell
Thrande Jökul
Klofa Jökul
FIORDUNGR
Hofs Jökul
SKAPTAAFELL S
EAST
Fiske Vatn
WEST
Breidamark Jökul
Jökul
SYSSEL
SUNLENDING
Skialdbreid
ARNES
Almanna
SYSSEL
Haukadal
pargin Geysers
Thin
Vativ
Reikkimi
GULDBRINGE SYSSEL
Eldey
Krusivik L
Grindavik
22
Skalholt
Kaldadernes
Skaptar
SKAPTAAFELLS
Torfa Jökul Sida Jökul
RANGARVALLE
Markarfliot
Hekla
Oda Breidabolstadr
Westmanna P
Heymaey
AND SYSSET
21
Tindfiall
SYSSEL
Kirkiubaer
Medalland
Katlegia Jökul
Eyafialla lök
Mydals
Jökul Thy kkabaer
Dyrholar
Kudafloit
Portlands Huk
20 Longitude West 19 from Greenwich 18
Skaptaa
Napsvoln R
Skeidarae Jökul
Oreafa
Jökul
Skeidarau
Ingolfsholde
ICELAND.
17
16
15
14
13
64
ICELAND, GREENLAND,
AND THE
FAROE ISLANDS.
By James Nicke

2N
-
View of the coast near Stapų en
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS.
329 & 331 PEARL STREET,
: RANKLIN SQUARE.
ΑΝ
HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE
ACCOUNT
OF
ICELAND, GREENLAND,
AND THE
FAROE ISLANDS.
J.
AMAND
NEW YOPV:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
.329 & 331 PEARL STREET
FRANKLIN SQUARE
1875.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New-York
WILS
WILS
AMH4355
DL305
1875
ADVERTISEMENT
BY THE
AMERICAN PUBLISHERS.
IN its physical features, Iceland is unquestion-
ably the most remarkable of all countries. Nor
are its history and the character and institutions
of its inhabitants less worthy of notice; for here,
on these desolate and scarcely habitable shores,
learning flourished at a time when it was almost
extinct in the more favoured portions of Europe.
Greenland and Faroe are likewise distinguished
by very striking peculiarities, especially the for-
mer; and their history is inseparably connected
with that of Iceland. In this admirably-written
volume, a very complete account is given of all
these countries. The work has been carefully re-
vised by the American editor, who has judiciously
emitted some of its details, that were devoid of
interest to the general reader.
New-York, April, 1841.
H. & B.
PREFACE.
In this volume we have attempted to delineate
three of the most singular and interesting countries
on the face of the earth. Situated in the stormy
ocean of the North, and far from the modern seats
of civilization, Iceland, Greenland, and Faroe have
nevertheless long attracted the notice of the student
of man and of external nature. The first of them
is distinguished not less by its remarkable scenery
and the frequency of the most awful and majes.
tic phenomena, than by the peculiar character, the
curious history, and the literary remains of its peo-
ple. The physical features of the second, though
less terrible, are perhaps equally grand, while the
degraded condition of its native population, con-
trasted with the inhabitants of the two others, pre-
sents us with a striking proof of the beneficial in-
fluence of learning and religion in preserving even
the corporeal powers of man from degenerating.
In Faroe, also, we behold a group of islands, the
wild and rugged aspect of which might seem to
have destined them only for the retreat of savages
or pirates, transformed by the same causes into the
abode of a mild, peaceful, and virtuous race.
iv
PREFACE.
Though united by position, and in ancient times
by origin and frequent intercourse, still their com
plete disunion by the ocean, and the varied course
of their history and affairs, render it more proper
to consider these countries separately. We ac
cordingly commence with Iceland, presenting an
outline of its physical condition and more interest.
ing localities. Its magnificent chains of snowy
jökuls, its volcanoes with their appalling eruptions,
its hot springs and jets of boiling water, its lakes,
rivers, and fiords, its singular climate and curious
meteorological appearances, are all successively
described. The discovery and colonization of this
lonely island, the customs, laws, mythology, and po-
litical institutions of its pagan inhabitants, are next
noticed. To these succeed their conversion to
Christianity, the changes thereby produced, and the
causes that led to the composition of those histor-
ical and poetical works which shed a solitary ray
of light on that dark age, and still charm the learned
of modern times. But with its subjugation to the
Norwegian yoke a new scene opens, rendered more
melancholy by its contrast with the past; and we
gladly hurry over the mournful relation of the phys-
ical evils, the neglect and oppression which then
crushed the spirit of the nation; dwelling with more
pleasure on the benefits derived from their com-
merce, on the happy events of the Reformation,
PREFACE
V
when some gleams of their ancient fire again burst
forth, and on the brighter prospects opened to them
for the future. In a concluding chapter we en-
deavour to present the reader with a general view
of the physical, social, moral, religious, and literary
condition of the people, which, when compared with
that formerly given of their pagan state, will en-
able him to estimate the influence of climate, as
modified by a considerable degree of civilization,
on the corporeal and mental organization of man.
Greenland, as it offers fewer objects of interest,
is described with less minuteness. Its interior, oc-
cupied by vast fields of ice, present little to detain
us, and it is chiefly its coasts and fiords, on which
most of the settlements are situated, that are calcu-
lated to attract the attention of the general reader.
We accordingly notice their more remarkable ap-
pearances, as also those of the surrounding ocean,
with its icebergs, currents, and tides, the proble
matical structure of the land, and the various at-
mospherical phenomena, especially the effects of
the intense cold, the splendid displays of the aurora,
and the curious distortions produced by unequal re-
fraction; concluding with a short view of the more
important settlements scattered over the extensive
shores of that vast region. The position and his-
tory of the Icelandic colonies on the Greenland
coast, their discovery of America, and the causes
B
vi
PREFACE.
which probably led to their extinction, together with
the recent attempts made for their recovery, partic-
ulary the philanthropic labours of the venerable
Egede and his successors, are next considered,
The origin, appearance, character, manners, and
actual condition of the Esquimaux in that dreary
land are also discussed, together with the prospects
of advantage which the European missions and
commerce hold out both to them and to the mother-
country.
Nearly a similar order is followed in regard to
Faroe. After describing the general features of
the whole group, the precipitous cliffs and isolated
rocks, tenanted by innumerable flocks of seafowl;
the lofty hills, paved with basaltic columns, and
stripped by the tempests of every vestige of vege.
tation; the valleys, traversed by mountain cata-
racts, on whose banks the natives place their solitary
habitations; the moist, inconstant climate, and the
various peculiarities of the individual islands, we
proceed to notice the history and character of the
people, with their political, social, and commercial
relations.
The importance of these subjects is best seen in
the variety of works which have been published
concerning them, in nearly all the languages of Eu-
rope, from the voyage of the Zeni to the recent
splendid volumes of Gaimard and his coadjutors.
PREFACE.
vil
The natives of Iceland have not been behind in this
path, and some of the most valuable treatises on its
history, antiquities, and physical features are from
their pens. Of these we shall only mention the
Landnamabok, the writings of Are Frode and Snor-
ro Sturleson, with the annals and sagas in ancient
times; and, more recently, the various works of
Arngrim Jonas, Torfæus, Finnsen, Olafsen and Po-
velsen, Stephensen and Finn Magnusen. In other
countries the labours of Anderson, Von Troil, Mal-
let, Schlosser, Müller, Garlieb, Gliemann, Von
Nidda, Legis, Marmier, and Gaimard have also di-
rected the attention of the public to this island;
while in Britain, the publications of Stanley, Mac-
kenzie, Hooker, Henderson, Barrow, and the Amer-
ican Wheaton, show the interest it here excites.
The accounts of Greenland are also very numerous,
but it is sufficient to mention the names of Torfæus,
Anderson, Egede, Crantz, Saabye, Giesecke, Ross,
Parry, Scoresby, and Graah, with the "Antiquitates
Americanæ," and the "Historical Monuments of
Greenland," by the Royal Society of Northern An-
tiquaries at Copenhagen. Regarding Faroe, the
books of Torfæus, Debes, Landt, and Hassel, the
memoirs of Mackenzie, Allan, and Forchhammar,
with the recent travels of Graba, are chiefly worthy
of consultation. To these and many other shorter
notices, scattered through various English and for-
Vill
PREFACE.
eign periodical works, the author has been indebted
for the materials of the present volume, and his
more particular obligations to each will generally
be found in the Notes.
The Maps have been carefully prepared from
the best sources, and the Engravings are principally
designed to illustrate some of the most remarkable
natural appearances described in the work.
EDINBURGH, August, 1840.
CONTENTS.
AINS.
CHAPTER I.
Physical Geography of Iceland.
Situation and Extent.-General Appearance.-Coasts.-MOUNT
Jökuls. Formation and Appearance of Glaciers.-
Mountain Chains.-Sneefield.-Central Desert.-Volcanoes,
Hekla.-Eruption of, in 1766.-Krabla and the Myvatn.-
History of Volcanic Phenomena.-Submarine Eruptions.-
Volcano of the Skaptar Jökul.-Quantity of Matter ejected
--FIORDS. General Character. Utility to the People.
Principal Fiords. — RIVERS.-Jökul Rivers.- LAKES. Not
numerous. Myvatn.-Thingvalla Vatn.- HOT SPRINGS.--
Geyser.-History of it.-View of an Eruption.-Strokr.-
Theory of Geysers and Analysis of Water.-Ale Springs.-
CLIMATE.-Seasons.- Temperature.-Winds.- No Change
in Climate.-Ancient Woods and Agriculture.-Ice.-Extreme
Cold.-Mock Suns.-Falling Stars.-Effect of Climate on An-
imals and Vegetables.-Drift Wood
Page 13
-
CHAPTER II.
Topography of Iceland.
Ancient and Modern Division of the Island.-- South Amt.--Rei
kiavik, History and Appearance.-Videy.-Printing-office.-
Reikianes. Essian.-Reikholt Snorra-laug.-Cave of Surt
shellir. Skalholt, deserted Appearance of. Thingvalla.-Al
mannagiaa.-Westmanna Islands.-Portland.-Kirkiubaer.-
North Amt.-Diupavog.-Eskifiordr.-Vale of the Lagerfliot.
-Husevik, curious Statue.-Grimsoe, unhealthy Climate.-
Holum. Antiquities.-West Amt.-General Appearance.-
Mode of travelling in.-Winds.-Inhabitants.-Salt-works.
-Flatey.-Sneefield. - Helgafell.- Stappen.― Londragur.—
Elldborg.-Baula
CHAPTER III.
69
Colonization of Iceland, and History of the Heathen
Age.
Peculiarities of Icelandic History.-Not the Thule of the An
cients.-Naval Expeditions of the Old Scandinavians.--Nad
X
CONTENTS.
dod discovers Iceland.-Gardar.-Rafna Floki.-Papat, or
British Christians.-Ingolf, Founder of the Republic.-Mur-
der of Leif.-Causes of Emigration.- Mode of conducting it
-Government.- Division of the Island.- Hreppa.- Poor-
laws. Herads.- Godar.- Hereditary Magistrates.-Courts
of Justice.-Old Oath.-Lagmann.-Althing.-Christian Col-
onists.-Thorwald, first Missionary.-Olaf Tryggvason.—
Thangbrand.-Gissur.-Debate in the Althing.-Conversion
of the Nation.-Heathen Manners.-Religion.-Temples.-
Sacrifices.--Superstitions.-Trials by Ordeal.-Single Com-
bat.-Piratical Expeditions.—Treatment of Women.-Hous-
ės.-Feasts
Page 87
CHAPTER IV.
Independent and Literary Age of Iceland.
Influence of Christianity.-Attempts to Subjugate the Island.--
Olaf.-Harald Hardrade.--Appointment of Bishops.-Tithes.
-Marriage of the Clergy.-Chief Magistrates.-Defects of
the Constitution.-Feuds of the Chiefs.-Wars of the Stur-
lunga. - Snorro Sturleson.- His Connexion with Norway.
-Contests with other Leaders.-Assassination.-Character.
-Events after his Death.-Burning of Flugumyra.-Subju-
gation of the Island.- ANCIENT LITERATURE.-Character of
the Colonists.-Traditions.-Ancient Skalds.- Influence of
the Climate.-Of Public Assemblies.--Political Character of
Sagas.-Refinement of Language. How preserved before
Writing was introduced.- Runes. Subjects treated of.-
Manner of collecting Information.-Number of Songs.-Myth
ic Sagas.-Historic.-Heimskringla.-Are Frode. Sturlun-
ga Saga.- Landnamabok. - Poetry. Fictitious Sagas.-
Skalds.-Language of Poetry.-Resemblance to the Anglo-
Saxon
CHAPTER V.
-
126
Modern History of Iceland.
Changes occasioned by Loss of Independence.-Extinction of
Literature. Stability of Language.-New Laws.-Disputes
of the King and Clergy.-Papal Exactions.-Crusaders.—
Hakon V.-Misfortunes in the Fourteenth Century.- Voyage
of the Zeni.-Commerce with England.-English Bishops.--
John Gerriksen.-Destitution of the Island. Governor slain
by the English.-Christian wishes to pledge the Island to
them.-Advantages of this Trade.-Religious Condition.—
Morals of the Clergy. Superstitions.- Reformation.-Op-
posed by Jon Areson.-His Execution.-Suppression of Mon
CONTENTS.
X1
asteries. Translation of Bible.- Gudbrand Thorlakson.
Arngrim Jonas.-Pirates in the Seventeenth Century.-Com
merce.-Trials for Witchcraft.-Smallpox in 1707.-Iceland-
ic Revolution --Conclusion
Page 161
CHAPTER VI.
—
•
Character and Present Condition of the Icelanders.
Descent.- Unity of Character.-Appearance.- Disposition.-
Hospitality. Piety.-General Education.-Employments in
Winter. Reading Sagas.-Amusements.-Music.-Fishing.
Hay-harvest. Sheep-shearing. Journeys. — Collecting
the Iceland Moss. Food. Dress.-Houses.- Population.
-Births, Deaths, and Marriages.- Diseases.- Property.-
Agriculture.-Commerce.-Government and Law.-Taxes.-
Ecclesiastical Establishment.-Revenue of Clergy.-- Char-
acter.-Education.-School of Bessestad.-Literary Habits.-
Present State of Literature.-Theology.-Classical Learn-
ing. Science.-History.-Poetry
•
•
192
tion.
GREENLAND.
CHAPTER VII.
Description of Greenland.
Opinions of the Ancients.-Form and Position.-Coasts.-Hills.
-Interior.-Fiords.-Iceblinks and Icebergs.-Currents and
Tides.-Springs.-Rivers.-Is Greenland a Continent?-Cli-
mate.-Temperature.-Seasons.-Aurora.-Unequal Refrac-
TOPOGRAPHY.-Arctic Highlands.-Disco Island.-
Baal's River.-Frederic's Hope.-Frobisher's Straits.-Ju-
liana's Hope.-Sermesoak.-Fredericksthal.-Cape Farewell.
-East Coast.-Graah's Voyage.-Ivimiut.-Taterat.-Pecu-
liar Appearance of the Natives.-Nennortalik.-Griffenfeldt's
Island.-Ekallumiut, the Greenland Paradise. —Colberger
Heide.-Scoresby's Voyage.-Gale Hamke's Land.-Proof of
its being inhabited.-Jameson's Land.-Traill Island.-Situ-
ation of the Ancient Colonies
. 229
•
CHAPTER VIII.
History of Greenland.
Discovery by Gunniborn.-Colonized by Erik Raude.-Conver-
sion to Christianity.-Leif.-History of Vinland.-Biarne.-
X11
CONTENTS.
Thorwald slain by the Skrellings.-Thorfinn.-Other Voya
ges thither.-Vinland, America.-Subjugation of Greenland
Government.-Bishop's Voyages to the North.-Loss of
Colonies.-Erik Walckendorff attempts to recover them.-
Voyages of Heinson, Davis, Lindenow, Danel, &c.-Mission
of Hans Egede.-Difficulties and Success.-Egede's Return
Home. Benefits of the Missions.-Natives.-Origin and Ap-
pearance in the country.-Ancient Inhabitants of America.
Character.-Vanity.--Morals.- Religion.-Conjurors.-Gov-
Sciences. -Language.-Food.-Houses.-Tents.
-Dress.-Boats.-Family Relations.-Amusements.-Buri-
als.-Employments.-Commerce. Conclusion
ernment.
·
Page 263
FAROE.
CHAPTER IX.
Description and History of Faroe.
Situation and Extent.-Appearance.-Precipices.-Hills.-Riv-
ers.-Springs.-Sea.-Whirlpools.-Climate.-Limit of Ag-
riculture.-Temperature of Air and Springs.--Winds. To-
POGRAPHY.-Fugloe.-Bordoe.-Oesteroe.-Curious Rocks.
-Stromoe.-Thorshavn.-Kirkeboe.-Bird Mountain.-Vaa-
goe. Myggenæs. Skuoe. Store Dimon. - Dangerous
Roads.-Suderoe. HISTORY.-Discovery.-Sigmund Bres-
teson.-Conversion of the Natives.-Subjugation by Norway.
--Pirates.-Reformation.-Plundered by Privateers. INHAB-
ITANTS.-Appearance.-Character.- Morality.- Hospitality.
Dress. Employments. - Fishing. Catching
Whales. Seals.-Bird-catching.-Agriculture.-Gardening.
-Cattle.-Population.- Diseases.-Commerce.- Ecclesias-
tical Condition.-Civil Government
-Food.
310
ENGRAVINGS.
Map of Iceland
VIGNETTE--View of the Coast near Stappen.
The Great Geyser .
MAP of the Faroe Islands
•
To face the Vignette.
·
Page 57
To face Page 316
HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE
ACCOUNT
OF
ICELAND, GREENLANL
AND THE FAROE ISLANDS.
-
CHAPTER I.
Physical Geography of Iceland.
Situation and Extent.-General Appearance.-Coasts.-MOUNT«
AINS. — Jökuls. - Formation and Appearance of Glaciers.-
Mountain Chains.-Sneefield.-Central Desert.-Volcanoes.
Hekla.-Eruption of, in 1766.-Krabla and the Myvatn.-
History of Volcanic Phenomena.-Submarine Eruptions.-
Volcano of the Skaptar Jökul.-Quantity of Matter ejected.
--FIORDS. General Character. Utility to the People. -
Principal Fiords. RIVERS.-Jökul Rivers.- LAKES. Not
numerous.- Myvatn.-Thingvalla Vatn.- HOT SPRINGS.--
Geyser. History of it.-View of an Eruption.-Strokr.-
Theory of Geysers and Analysis of Water.-Ale Springs.-
CLIMATE. Seasons.Temperature.-Winds.- No Change
in Climate.-Ancient Woods and Agriculture.-Ice.-Extreme
Cold.-Mock Suns.-Falling Stars.-Effect of Climate on An
mals and Vegetables.-Drift Wood.
*
No region of the globe will, to the attentive eye,
be found destitute of objects fitted to gratify an en-
lightened curiosity. Thus, the countries we are
about to describe, though at first they may seem
barren and uninviting, will, on a closer considera-
tion, display many of the most singular and magnifi-
cent phenomena of nature, amid scenes of wild
14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
grandeur unknown in more fertile lands, contrasted
with pictures of gentler beauty, not the less pleasing
that they are unexpected. It is the same with the
people who inhabit them; their strikingly peculiar
character exhibiting many dark and gloomy features
of savage life, relieved by virtues seldom observed
in more advanced stages of society. Though de-
prived of every other attraction, those lonely islands
would deserve attention, inasmuch as they mani-
fest the power of the human race to adapt themselves
to all situations, and to provide the means of sub-
sistence in circumstances apparently the most unfa-
vourable. The political and literary history of Ice-
land presents us with still higher views, proving that
there is no place, no physical condition, in which
mankind are necessarily barbarians; that the rudest
and most uncultivated countries, the most desolate
and inhospitable regions, may become the abode of
nations participating in the noblest qualities of our
common nature; that the chill winds and snow-clad
rocks of the North cannot quench the fire of the
poet's imagination, nor blight that feeling of devo-
tion which leads man everywhere to recognise the
presence and power of his Creator.
Iceland is, next to Great Britain, the largest island
in Europe, its surface being about a fifth part greater
than that of Ireland. It lies in the midst of the
Northern Ocean, and, as it approaches nearer to
Greenland than to any European country, is by
many geographers regarded as belonging to America.
Having, however, been first discovered and peopled
from Europe, and being in other points more closely
related to this continent, it seems proper to consider
it as forming a portion of the eastern half of the
globe. It is situated between 13° 20′ and 24° 31′ of
west longitude, and between 63° 23′ and 66° 33′ of
north latitude, being nearly in the same parallel with
the Bay of Trondheim in the Old World, and with
Behring's Straits and Baal's River in the New. Its
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
15
most northern point, Refsnes, between the Axar and
Thistil fiords, scarcely touches the arctic circle,
while the North Cape, though in most maps placed
considerably to the north of this line, does not reach
it. The greatest extent of the land is from east to
west, measuring from the two most distant points,
Fuglebiarg and Reidaren, above 320 miles; its breadth
from Reikianes to Langanes is 300, and, at an aver-
age, about 180 miles. It is calculated to contain
nearly 38,230 square miles, of which, however, only
a ninth part, or 4250 miles, is inhabited; the remain-
der being covered with naked mountains of ice, or
valleys rendered equally desolate by lava and volcan-
ic ashes.*
Few countries present a more repulsive aspect
than this land of snows, which, even in its external
figure, bears the marks of those convulsions that
have deformed its surface. It looks almost like the
fragment of some former world that has alone esca-
ped destruction; and its appearance would seem to
confirm the opinion which regards it as a portion
torn from the bottom of the sea by the expansive
energies of fire. Its dark rugged coasts sometimes
rise into lofty precipices, against which the ceaseless
waves beat in vain; at other times, the rocks, rent
asunder, give place to long narrow fiords, in whose
calm waters the mariner, escaping from the stormy
ocean, finds a safe retreat. The southern side alone
is flat and sandy. But there, also, numerous shoals,
quicksands, and breakers expose the poor fishermen
to great danger, and render it almost impossible to
land in safety. From Hammar Fiord to Ingolfshofde
* Gliemann, Beschreibung von Island (Altona, 1824), p. 7, 8,
9. Great inaccuracy prevails in the old maps regarding the po-
sition of Iceland; most of them, as above stated, placing the
North Cape in far too high a latitude. According to Olafsen's
map, its extent would be 56,600 square miles (2665 German
miles); Egger's reduces it to 29,838 (1405 German miles).—
Hassel, Erdbeschreibung, vol. x., p. 218.
16
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
long banks of sand, some of them nearly two miles
broad, guard the shore, and in other parts numerous
rocks or skerries defend it from the waves.
The attention of the spectator, approaching this
polar island, is usually first arrested by the snowy
mountains or jökuls.* Long before the coast is
visible, they rise like small white clouds in the dis-
tant horizon, becoming more distinct in their outline
as he draws nearer the land, until they are at last
plainly recognised as a mass of lofty mountains.
Sneefield, though by no means one of the highest
of these, is seen even beyond the Westmanna Isles,
more than 140 miles off, towering far above the in-
tervening country; and Sniofell, on the other side
of the island, is visible when distant nearly one hun-
dred miles. Notwithstanding the cheerless appear
ance of these piles of everlasting snow, they are,
from their colossal grandeur, objects of great beau-
ty and sublimity. When irradiated by the beams of
a bright sun, they shine forth in extreme splendour,
glistening with the most dazzling lustre, and tinging
the whole atmosphere with a golden hue.†
na.
* This word means "ice" or an icy mountain," and is Ge-
rived from Jaki, "a fragment of ice." Similar words are found
in other languages; as the Jaa of Finland, in Lapland Joa, the
Hungarian Jeg, and even the Persian Jach. The Jocher of the
Swiss, though similar in sound, has probably a different root.
In Norway these icy fields are called Gykl, and in Lapland Jeg-
In the Alps they have different names in different countries,
being named Käs near Salzburg, Ferner in the Tyrol, and in Sa
voy Ruize or Glacier, by which last they are generally known in
this country. The higher parts of these mountains are in gen-
eral covered with snow, the ice beginning at a lower elevation,
seldom exceeding 7000 to 9000 feet, most frequently at from 4000
to 5000, and even so low as 3300. It is a curious fact, that the
miners in Saxony and the Hartz, who first received their art
from Sweden, still call the ice-like crystals found in the drossy
cavities in the copper-mines, and those concentrated from the
vitriolic water, Joekel or Joekelgut, but without any knowledge
of the meaning of the word.-Anderson's Nachrichten, p. 2.
Landnama, p. 492. Hoffmann's Erde, p. 168.
+ Olafsen's Reise. theil i., p. 152. Krug von Nidda, Karsten's
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
17
The mode in which these jökuls are produced
closely resembles that of the glaciers of the Alps
and Pyrenees, though the climate, from its low tem-
perature and abundant moisture, is here far more
favourable to their increase. The rounded forms
of the trachyte mountains permit the snow that falls
in great profusion during the winter months, and in
smaller quantities even in summer, to rest on their
tops and sides. The oeams of the sun in the hot
season, though strong enough to melt part of this
during the day, are not sufficiently powerful to pre-
serve the temperature of the water above the freez-
ing point; and, sinking down into the under portion,
it is again congealed, and binds the whole into a
solid body of ice. The fogs from the surrounding
ocean, which are attracted towards these mountains,
and condensed in the form of snow on their cold
summits, augment and consolidate the mass. When
the jökul is once begun, its smooth, shining surface,
reflecting the sun's rays, diminishes still farther
their dissolving influence. The principal situation,
therefore, for the formation of these glaciers is
near the line of perpetual congelation; where the
sun in the day has power to melt the snow, but not
to keep it fluid during the night. The ice thus pro-
duced, though hard and thick, is seldom as pure as
that which is formed in the usual manner; but con-
tains numerous particles of earth, sand, and even
small stones, either carried thither by the winds, or
washed down from the rocky peaks which pierce
its surface, and has in the warm months, except
when covered by new snow, a dirty gray colour. It
also contains many round or elliptical cavities filled
with air, generally of small dimensions, though
sometimes half a foot in diameter. In summer, a
variety of circular holes, from one to three feet in
Archiv., vol. vii., p. 456. Henderson's Iceland (2 vols. 8vo, EZ-
inburgh, 1818), vol. ii., p. 31, 136.
18
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
diameter, run in a winding direction into the ice,
and are usually filled with very cold clear water of
a pleasant taste. These are probably produced at
first by some stone or other substance which is
more easily warmed than the ice; and, when wa-
ter is once thus formed, it continues to descend, ow-
ing to its greatest density being at seven or eight
degrees above the freezing point. The newly-form-
ed fluid, being thus lighter than at the top, ascends,
and the latter descends, in a perpetual circulation,
till the whole mass of ice is penetrated. Equally
curious are the black pyramids of sand cemented
by the congealed water, which rise like immense
sugar-loaves, four, eight, and even sixteen feet above
the surface, and are found on most of the jökuls.
Happy would it be for the inhabitants did these
icy fields remain in the places where they are first
formed, only dooming the summits of the mount-
ains to perpetual sterility. But year after year the
accumulating snows add to their bulk, till, the re-
sistance offered by the surface on which they rest
being overcome, they invade the plains, laying waste
the narrow fields and scanty pastures of the na-
tives. Thus instances frequently occur when the
Icelander, returning after years of absence in a for-
eign land to spend the evening of his life in the home
of his childhood, find its once green valleys a deso-
late wilderness of ice. Often, too, where the de-
clivities are more abrupt, the snow, suddenly losing
its equilibrium, rolls down with tremendous force,
and a noise which, heard in the stillness of night, re-
sembles distant thunder. The internal fires glow-
ing in the bosom of many of these jökuls frequent-
ly hasten this catastrophe by destroying the slight
hold the ice has on the mountain; and, converting
the under-stratum into water, it is all floated down
into the valleys. It seems to have been in this way
that the Breidamark Jökul, now twenty miles iong
by fifteen broad, and 400 feet high, was formed.
It
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 19
fills a wide plain surrounded by high hills, where,
till the eleventh century, or even later, was a beau-
tiful vale adorned with grass-fields, woods, and
farms. In the thirteenth, and especially the four-
teenth century, all the volcanoes in this quarter of
the island were in motion, and the adjoining country
was completely desolated by floods of water min-
gled with ice. Of this plain, first inhabited by Hrol-
laug, a nephew of the far-famed Rollo of Norman-
dy, only a narrow strip of sand remains, and even
this relic the glacier and the ocean seem about to
destroy. This jökul consists of whitish-gray ice,
divided from north to south into long narrow bands,
from which project numerous pyramids, closely re-
sembling masses of saltpetre. On the eastern bank
of the Breida river Olafsen saw a wall of ice nearly
sixty feet high, penetrated by round holes one or
two feet in diameter, from which clear cold water
was gushing out. When seen by this traveller, the
Jökul river, the shortest, yet most dangerous in Ice-
land, was five miles long; but when Henderson vis-
ited it fifty years after, its course was reduced to
one mile. The inhabitants still point out the ruins
of a church, and the tombstone of a renowned war-
rior who dwelt here in more propitious days.
*
Most of these jökuls are found in the two paral-
lel chains which, separated from each other by a
deep valley, cross the island in a direction from
northeast to southwest. These mountains have
had great influence on the physical as well as civil
condition of the country, and give to it, exclusively
of the northern peninsula, nearly an oblong form.
The more extensive of these chains is that on the
southeast, which, commencing with the Smorfield near
the Vapna Fiord, extends to Sniofell, whence, spread-
ing out into the Thrande and Hofs Jökuls, it almost
* Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 52; th. ii., p. 90, 91, 120.
derson, vol. i., p. 237-244. Landnama, p. 302, 307.
Heu
20
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
touches the shore in the valleys of the Alfta and
Horne Fiords. Farther south follow the Klofa Jo-
kuls, said to cover not less than 3000 square miles,
and remarkable for their constant encroachment on
the land which separates them from the coast.
The strip of sand, here usually not a mile broad, is
diminishing every year; and it is feared that even
the present dangerous path, which is the only com-
munication between East and South Iceland, will
soon be intercepted. Towards the west the chain
is prolonged by a continuous plateau of ice, known
under the various local names of the Skeidaræ, Si-
da, Skaptar, Torfa, and Myrdals or Katlegia Jökuls,
till it ends on the coast with the Oester Jökul, which
forms one of the first landmarks to those approach-
ing Iceland from the south. The whole length of
this range of mountains is above 200 miles. Only
three of its more remarkable summits-Oraefa, 5927
feet, the highest mountain in Iceland; Smorfield,
5755. feet; and Eyafialla, or Oester Jökul, 5685 feet
-have been measured; but others, Torfa, Skaptar,
Sida, and Skeidaræ, mentioned above, seem little
short of this last, and Sniofell, seen from the sea at
the distance of nearly one hundred miles, must
therefore considerably exceed 5000 feet.*
The other chain of jökuls follow the northwestern
border of the central valley, and, from its position
in the interior, is less known than the former. In
the south it begins with the Skialdbreid, or "Broad-
shield," northward from the Thingvalla Vatn, and is
succeeded by the immense icefield known as the
Bald, Eiriks, and Geitländs Jökuls, whose dazzling
snows present a striking contrast to the dark lavas
that fill the greater part of the plain. The Hofs Jökul,
seventy miles long, at the sources of the Oe or Eya
Fiordsdæ, terminates this range, the whole length
* Krug von Nidda, Karsten's Archiv., vol. vii, p. 449, 456.
Henderson, Introd., p. 9. Glieman's Island, p. 90-103.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 21
·
of which is only about a hundred and twenty.. No
certain information has been communicated respect-
ing the height of this ridge, which, however, when
compared with the former, from the top of Hekla,
situated between them, seems by no means inferior
to it, and may therefore average more than 5000
feet.*
Other mountains of this character occur in the
northern part of Iceland, of which the Glama and
Dranga Jökuls are the most remarkable. These
seem merely the more lofty points of a semicircular
group, which forms the nucleus of that singular pen-
insula; but, owing to their remote situation, they
are little known. Sneefield, between the Breida
and Faxa Fiords, is also mantled with perpetual
snow, and from its isolated position appears one of
the loftiest and most magnificent elevations in the
island. Its height is not well ascertained, Olafsen
and Povelsen making it 7052 feet, while Mackenzie
reduces it to 4558-both from trigonometrical
measurements. As the instruments of the two
former were confessedly very imperfect, the result
obtained by the latter is probably nearer the truth,
which we may assume at about 5000 feet. The
mountain is distinctly visible from Reikiavik, and the
view from its summit is noble and commanding.†
The external form and linear arrangement of these
rocky masses leave little doubt of their volcanic ori-
gin: a fact which is confirmed by the mineralogical
character of their contents wherever they have been
examined. Still more terrible proof has in many in-
stances been given, when the latent fire within their
bosoms has burst forth with sudden fury, rending
* Krug von Nidda, Karsten's Archiv., vol. vii., p. 457. Olaf-
sen's Reise, th. ii., p. 133.
Hen-
Krug von Nidda, Karsten's Archiv., vol. vii., p. 468.
derson, vol. ii., p. 36, 42. Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 144-154,
202. Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland (4to, Edinburgh, 1811),
p. 1^2.
C
22
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
the icy sheet which had previously concealed all in-
dications of its existence. Some of the most de-
structive eruptions have proceeded from jökul mount-
ains; but we shall reserve our notice of them till
we come to treat of these phenomena in general.
Between the snowy chains now described lies the
great desert of Iceland, whose unknown regions
form the scene of many superstitious terrors to the
natives; and, indeed, the lonely and desolate aspect
of this district can scarcely be exceeded by any
other on the earth. Age after age, volcanoes on vol-
canoes have poured their stony floods over its sur-
face, till it has become almost entirely one black
scorified field. Immense masses torn from the
neighbouring mountains, and wide chasms every-
where interrupt the progress of the traveller, while
the magnetic influence of the rocks renders the com-
pass useless as a guide. Long tracts of volcanic
sand, interspersed with huge insulated fragments of
lava, can scarcely be said to diversify the scene. In
these wastes no springs of water refresh the travel-
ler, who, as in the deserts of Arabia, must carry a
supply along with him. No bird, no beast, scarcely
a plant, or even the humble moss, relieves the tedium
of the journey, or mitigates the feeling of loneliness
that weighs upon his spirit. Where the internal fires
have been most active, hills are tossed on hills in the
wildest confusion, of which even the tempestuous
ocean furnishes but a faint image. In other quar-
ters, magnificent glaciers of green transparent ice oc-
cur, while the volcanic scoria with which they are
often mixed exhibit a strange contrast, though one
strikingly characteristic of this land, where fire and
ice seem ever conjoined, and yet ever contending for
the mastery.*
* In the appropriate words of the old poet :
Sed, quamvis nimio fervens exuberet aestu,
Scit nivibus servare fidem, pariterque favillis
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
23
Little information has been obtained regarding the
interior of this region, as few travellers have lately
penetrated beyond the tracks that skirt its margin.
In former times there were more of these paths
crossing from the one side of the island to the other,
deeper into this desert, but they have been long neg-
lected, and the enterprise of the natives is not such
as to excite hopes of their being again frequented.
It appears, however, to form a plateau of no great
elevation, from ninety to one hundred miles wide,
extending across the country from northeast to south-
west. In this plain rise low rocky ridges, separating
it into smaller valleys, though their height is too in-
considerable, compared with the huge lateral chains,
to break its uniformity as a whole. These ridges
run from southwest to northeast, parallel to the
mountains on its sides, and, seen from the top of
Hekla, appear like furrows on its surface. In its
centre is a long narrow valley, stretching from shore
to shore in the same direction. This desert is only
visited by the natives in the summer months, when
the women pitch their tents on its borders while
gathering the fiallagrass or Iceland moss. But even
then their dread of robbers, or other still more for-
midable, though imaginary beings, with whom their
fancy peoples the wild, seldom allows them to pene-
trate far into the interior. The flocks of reindeer
which sometimes issue from it might afford reason
to conclude that it contains portions less barren than
those which are at present known.*
We have already noticed the volcanic nature of
the jökuls on the side of this plain; and numerous
Durescit glacies tanti secura vaporis,
Arcano defensa gelu, fumoque fideli
Lambit contiguas innoxia flamma pruinas.
Claudian., Rapt. Pros., lib. i., v. 165–169.
* Henderson, vol. i., p. 64-73, 348, 363; vol. ii., p. 198-203.
Krug von Nidda, Karsten's Archiv., vol. vii., p. 427; vol. ix., p.
248. Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 68, 73, 122.
24
PHYSICAL GEÛGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
cones of a similar origin are spread over its surface
of which the best known are Krabla and Hekla, the
former closing its opening on the north, while the
latter shuts it on the south. Hekla, or, as it is call-
ed in the country and in the old annals, Heklufiail,
though by no means the most distinguished among
the Icelandic mountains either for its height or pic-
turesque appearance, has attracted the chief atten-
tion both of the natives and strangers. Its neigh-
bour, the Trehyrning, or Three-horned Mountain,
though only 2860 feet high, is said far to surpass it
in beauty. But the situation of the former, near the
most frequented part of the island, and in sight of
vessels sailing to Greenland and North America, the
frequency of its eruptions, and its facility of access,
have all contributed to this celebrity. Its height, ac-
cording to the measurement of Messrs. Ohlsen, Ve-
tlesen, and Frisack, is 5110 feet, and its circumfer-
ence at the base from fifteen to twenty miles. It
lies completely insulated from all other elevations,
in the midst of the valley we have described, and is
about thirty miles from the coast. It contains little
solid rock, consisting chiefly of fragments of lava
and scoriæ mingled with ashes, pumice, and half-
melted stones, cemented together by the streams of
liquefied matter that have issued from its sides. Near
the foot it is surrounded by glazed walls or cliffs,
from forty to seventy feet high, composed of beds
of lava, up which travellers, in many places, have to
clamber on their hands and feet.
The shape of Hekla is nearly that of a regular
cone, the sides of which rise at an angle of 350 with
the horizon, and it is divided near the top into three
peaks, the one in the middle being the highest. The
craters form hollows in the sides of these, and, to-
gether with many fissures, are generally filled with
snow, though the outline of the elevation and the in-
ternal warmth prevent it from accumulating in such
quantities as on other mountains. When Macken-
PHYSICA!
- 25
GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
zie ascended it in 1810, steam was constantly rising
from the central peak, and the heat was so intense,
that, on rerдoving some of the exterior stones, those
below were found too hot to be handled, and a ther-
mometer placed among them rose to 144°. Its sides
are scarred by numerous ravines, serving as beds for
the winter cataracts, and have been formed either
by streams of lava, or those torrents of water or
melted snow which sometimes, though more rarely
here than on some other volcanoes, accompany an
eruption. The most remarkable of these chasms is
one on the western side, which extends from the top
to the bottom of the mountain, and resembles a val-
ley filled with heaps of melted substances, large
masses of which still hang threatening on its de-
clivities. This hollow was probably formed by the
eruption of 1300, when the old annals relate that
Hekla was rent to the very centre; its present ap-
pearance arising from its being partially filled with
the debris from the sides, and the sand and ashes
with which volcanic ejections generally close.
The beautiful and fertile plain which formerly sur-
rounded this famed volcano is now overflowed by its
fiery flood, or buried under immense heaps of cin-
ders, pumice, sand, and ashes. For nearly ten miles
around, no grass or other plant grows; and the ruin-
ed walls of the farmhouses and enclosures still seen
amid the windings of the torrents, tell the 'melan-
choly tale of days of prosperity which seem passed
for ever. The most extensive field of lava lies to
the south, spread out towards the Tindfiall, and is, as
it were, sown with a vast number of small cones,
rising only a few hundred feet above its surface, yet
easily recognised as of volcanic formation from the
deep red colour of their craters. The most remark-
able of these, the Raud-oeldor, composed of small
red half-melted stones, has an oblong form, and a
crater in the middle 180 feet deep, and 840 in cir-
cumference. These hillocks have all co-operated
28
RE
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
in producing this immense sea of molten earth; the
eruptions having oftener proceeded from those small
channels which pierce the plain in various directions
than from the central opening. This is not peculiar
to the locality now described, as the loose and
crumbling sides of volcanic mountains are frequent-
ly unable to resist the pressure of a column of lava
four or five thousand feet in height.
Hekla seems to have been in a state of repose
for some time previous to the arrival of the Norwe-
gians, and to have remained in the same condition
more than a century afterward. Many of the old
annalists place the first outbreak in the year 1104,
'5, or 6; but others make it a hundred years earlier.
Most authors reckon twenty-three eruptions in all;
others, with whom Stephensen agrees, only eighteen.
The interval between them has varied from six to
seventy-six years, the average period being about
thirty-five. But it is not to be supposed that lava
has on all these occasions flowed from the mount.
ain, its discharges being often confined to sand and
pumice, which are, however, almost equally destrur-
tive to the adjacent country.*
The last eruption of this mountain, in 1766, was
remarkable for its violence. Four years before it
took place, when Olafsen and Povelsen were there,
some of the people were flattering themselves with
the belief, that, as there had been no outbreak from
the principal crater for upward of seventy years, its
energies were completely exhausted. Others, on
* The dates of the eruptions are as follow: 1004, 1029, 1105,
1113, 1157, 1206, 1222, 1294, 1300 (the last two are said to have
been extremely violent, and to have continued during a whole
year), 1340, 1374, 1390, 1436, 1510, 1554, 1583, 1619, 1625, 1636.
1693, 1728, 1754, 1766-1768. Von Troil's Letters (original edi
tion, Upsala, 1777), quoted by Henderson, vol. i., p. 343. The
difference in other authors probably arises from only counting
those from the central crater. Vide Gliemann, p. 102. for other
tists.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 27
the contrary, thought that there was, on this account,
the more reason to expect that it would soon again
commence. The preceding winter had been re-
markably mild, so that the lakes and the rivers in
the vicinity scarcely froze, and were much dimin-
ished, probably from the internal heat. On the 4th
of April, 1766, there were some slight shocks of an
earthquake; and early next morning a black pillar
of sand, mingled with fire and red-hot stones, burst
with a loud, thundering noise from the summit of the
mountain. Masses of pumice, six feet in circum-
ference, were thrown to the distance of ten or fif-
teen miles, together with heavy magnetic stones,
one of which, eight pounds in weight, fell fourteen
miles off, and sunk into the ground, though still hard
ened by the frost. The sand was carried towards
the northwest, covering the land four inches deep
150 miles round, impeding the fishing-boats along
the coast, and darkening the air, so that at Thingore,
140 miles distant, it was impossible to know wheth-
er a sheet of paper was white or black. At Holum,
155 miles to the north, some persons thought they
saw the stars shining through the sand-cloud. About
midday, the wind, veering round to the southeast,
conveyed the dust into the central desert, and pre-
vented it from totally destroying the pastures. On
the 9th of April the lava first appeared, spreading
about five miles to the southwest, and on the 23d of
May a column of water was seen shooting up in the
midst of the sand. The last violent eruption was
on the 5th of July, the mountain, in the interval, hav-
ing often ceased to eject any matter; and the large
stones thrown into the air were compared to a
swarm of bees clustering round the mountain-top.
The noise was heard, like loud thunder, forty miles
distant, and the accompanying earthquakes were
more severe at Krisuvik, eighty miles westward,
than at half the distance on the opposite side. The
eruptions are said to be generally more violent du
28
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND..
ring a north or west wind than when it blows from
the south or east, and on this occasion more matter
was thrown out in mild than in stormy weather.
Where the ashes were not too thick, it was obsery-
ed that they increased the fertility of the grass
fields; and some of them were carried even to the
Orkney Islands, the inhabitants of which were at
first terrified by what they considered showers of
black snow.*
This remarkable mountain has been long associa-
ted with the superstitions of the natives, to which
its awful phenomena give a great degree of coun-
tenance. The lower orders still regard it with ter-
ror, and few of them have ever ventured to ascend
its summit, or even to accompany strangers as.
guides. Pits full of burning sulphur and mud, boil-
ing springs, and openings whence smoke and flames
continually issue, are the more natural dangers by
which they endeavour to induce the traveller to fore
go his purpose; and, when these prove ineffectual,
they relate to him stories of the mountain-birds
shaped like ravens, but with iron bills, which attack
all intruders on their domain. Its crater is the en
trance to Hela's dark abode, and in the gloomy re-
gions beneath the Icelanders have fixed "the place
where the souls of wicked persons are tormented
with fire; for they will tell you that they see some-
times whole troops of infernal spirits carrying the
damned souls into the abyss of this mount, and
returning back again to fetch more. Blefkenius
says, this is generally observed after some bloody
battle has been fought in some place or other."
Though the intercourse with strangers may have
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 138-140. Finsen's Efterretning
om Tildragelserne ved Bierget Hekla (Copenhagen, 1767). Bar-
ry's Orkney Islands, p. 13,
+ La Peyrere's Account of Iceland, Churchill's Voyages, vol.
ii., p. 365. Compare Arn. Jon. Brov. Com., p. i., sect. 7, 8,
Hakluyt, vol. i., p. 522-526, 558-562.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 29
somewhat modified these superstitions in this vicin-
ity, they are still found in all their force in the re-
moter parts of the island.*
If Hekla, with its surrounding scenery, forms the
wonder of the southern extremity of the great cen-
tral valley, Krabla, the Myvatn, and the neighbouring
mountains, are no less remarkable in the northern.
Though, from their situation in a remote and thinly-
peopled part of the country, they are less known,
being seldom visited by travellers, they embrace
some of the most extraordinary volcanic appear-
ances in the island. The analogies between the
two extremities of the central plateau are very stri-
king, both being principal seats of igneous activity,
and both distinguished by lofty volcanoes, boiling
springs, and large lakes. The Myvatn forms the
centre of subterranean agency in this district, and a
semicircular group of mountains, which, like the
fragments of a gigantic crater, surround its shores,
has almost throughout been recently in a state of
eruption. The northern bank of the lake is covered
with rough black lava, running into the water in nu-
merous fantastic promontories, and divided by wide
fissures, over one of which, sixty feet deep, there is
a natural arch, now used as a road. On the west
rise barren hills separated by sandy wastes and an
extensive moor, intersected by numerous red cones,
giving place in the south to dark mountains, and re-
lieved in the east by the Namar, or sulphur-mines.
where clouds of smoke recall to the mind the cause
of the surrounding dosolation.
The highest of these connected summits is Rafn-
tinnufiall, or the Obsidian Mountain, so named from
the occurrence there of this beautiful mineral, form
ing three immense beds near the summit. Next to
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii, 133-140. Mackenzie's Travels, p.
236, 245-254. Henderson, vol. i., p. 340–344 Krug von Nidda,
Karsten's Archiv. v 1. vii o. 462-165 471.
30
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
it is Krabla, which like Hekla, seems to consist of
matter thrown from the crater, principally pumice,
sand, and soft earth, diversified by beds of yellow
sulphur and a few misshapen rocks. From the
looseness of its composition, this eminence has late-
ly suffered much diminution in height.* In the sur-
rounding plain, and even in the mountain itself, are
many fens interspersed with boiling pits of sulphur
and mud, two of which, on the southeastern side, are
named Viite, a contraction of Helviite, from their
supposed connexion with the infernal regions. One
of these, seen by Olafsen, had the form of a vast ket-
tle filled to within thirty feet of the brim with viscid
bluish water, only visible when the wind carried
aside the dense vapour constantly ascending from
its surface, and cast an acid slime on the banks.
This seems to be an old crater, as well as the one
visited by Henderson, which lies about 700 feet be-
low the summit. The latter is a deep pit or basin,
about three hundred feet in circumference, filled with
a mixture of water, sulphur, and bluish-black bolus,
continually boiling, and every five minutes throwing
up a jet from the centre. This rose at first to about
twelve feet, increasing by leaps to thirty, when it
rapidly declined, and was preceded by a smaller
spout from another part of the pool. The sides,
composed of red earth and sulphur, are so extreme-
ly soft, that it is dangerous to approach the margin.
“The horrors," says the last-named traveller, “of
this wonderful pool are absolutely indescribable.
To be conceived, they must be seen; and, for my
part, I am convinced that the awful impression they
left upon my mind, no length of time will ever be
able to erase.". About a mile northwest from Kra-
* Gliemann says that it is composed of sandstone and slate-
clay (schieferthon), covered by sand, pumice, and ashes; but
the statements of Olafsen and Henderson agree with the above
description.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 31
bla, to which it is connected by a narrow ridge, lies
Leirhnukr, lower than either of the former, and said
to be inaccessible from the fens and sulphurous pits
which surround its base. Before the eruption of
1724-30, it was entirely covered with grass; but it
now appears consumed and corroded by fire, and is
considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in
this part of the island.
This eruption, in which the two mountains last
named performed the principal part, is regarded as
one of the most violent and prolonged that ever hap-
pened in Iceland, and was still fresh in the memory
of several persons when Olafsen and Povelsen vis-
ited that district. Though everything around bore
marks of the agency of internal fire, yet neither of
them was known as a volcano, and the stunted birch-
es which had taken root in the crevices, and the
white moss that clothed the surface of the lava,
seemed to give assurance that their igneous resour-
ces were all exhausted. But, as in the case of Ve-
suvius of old, which they resemble in so many of
their phenomena, this lengthened period of repose
was only the prelude to more terrible convulsions,
and for five years the mountains raged as if with the
concentrated energy of centuries. The steinaa, or
stone flood, as the natives expressively named the
ava that issued from Krabla, divided itself among
the valleys into many arms, the largest of which,
urteen miles long and above two broad, entering
ne lake, destroyed the fish, and caused it to boil
many days. Another approached Reykiahlid, burn-
ing up the farmhouses in its progress, but spared the
church, turning aside when within two feet of the
wall of the burying-ground. During the day, the
fiery stream burned with a blue sulphurous flame.
* This very curious fact of the lava-currents being turned
aside by some seemingly very slight obstacle, has frequently
been observed on other occasions.
32
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
half concealed by the smoke. But at night it as
sumed a bright glow, colouring the whole heavens
red, while the clear sparks from it, and the fiery
matter thrown from the top of the mountains, pro-
duced a continual lightning visible in the most distant
districts. Sometimes the current ceased, and the
outer rind congealed; but a fresh supply of fluid
soon burst it up, carrying the fragments along like
masses of ice on a river. These detached portions,
twisted in all directions, at times produced figures
as beautiful as if carved by some skilful artist.
Often, on highly inclined places, the crust had suf
ficient consistency to remain standing, while the
more fluid portion in the interior passed on; and
thus were formed long vaults, curiously glazed with-
in, and adorned with splendid stalactites hanging
like icicles from the roof.*
Many other volcanoes are met with in this quarter
of the island, but we shall only name two, Herdu-
breid and Trolladynger, situated considerably to the
south, in the midst of the desert country. The first
is a very high mountain, almost four-cornered, and
surrounded near the top as by a wall; the second,
about thirty miles distant, is less elevated, and separ-
ated into three peaks. Both have been frequently
in combustion, and have together produced the Odaa-
da-hraun, or Horrid-lava, one of the most extensive
tracts of this substance in Iceland, but their remote
situation has prevented them from producing much
injury.t
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 54-61.
149–160, 171–179. Gliemann, p. 95, 96.
sten's Archiv., vol. vii, p. 467.
Henderson, vol. 1., p.
Krug von Nidda, Kar-
† Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p 73. Gliemann, p. 94. Few lan-
guages seem richer in names for the different forms of mount-
ains than the Icelandic: jökul is appropriated to mountains cov-
ered with ice; isolated rocks or hills are named fell or fiail ;
when the cliffs are as it were heaped one on another, hiaud;
steep cones, npr or haup; small kacbs or knolls, hial; and
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
33
·
The preceding account of the Icelandic mountains
shows that most of them are of a volcanic nature,
and from the native history we learn the frequency
with which they have manifested this character.
Most of them seem now to be in that state of inter-
mittent activity, in which more or less violent par-
oxysms occur at intervals of longer or shorter dura-
tion, and, but for the uncertain length of these peri-
ods, we might consider some as in a state of com-
plete repose. These alternations of movement and
rest seem common both to the separate members
and to the whole system, there being many years in
which the island remains undisturbed, while at other
epochs it appears as if entirely devoted to the fury
of contending elements. The most terrible of the
volcanoes known in ancient times were Hekla, Ora-
efa Jökul, and the Katlegia, to which have been
added Krabla, Leirhnukr, and Skaptaafells, which
commenced only in the 18th century. The earliest
record of an eruption is that of the Elldborg, in the
western part of the island, said to have happened
in the 9th or 10th century. This was followed by
one from the mountains in Guldbringe Syssel in the
year 1000, at the time when the Althing was deliber-
ating as to the reception of the Christian religion.
In the 11th century, Hekla appeared in a state of
violent commotion, which extended in the middle of
the 12th to many other mountains, devastating the
land from north to south, being accompanied by de-
structive earthquakes. In the beginning and at a
later period of the 13th century, the southwestern
quarter was particularly excited, while in the mid-
dle of the succeeding one, the island was desolated
by the most terrible convulsions, concluding in 1391
if
high mountain-plains, moar. Capes are named nes or naes;
they end in a high narrow promontory, hafd; and if with a sin-
gle high mountain, horn. These explanations will show the
import of the names imposed on many places by the first set-
tlers.
34
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
with a violent earthquake, felt over the whole coun-
try. From this date till the beginning of the 16th,
the volcanoes were comparatively quiet, but at that
period, and at the close of the century, they raged
both in the south and north. The 17th century was
again an interval of partial repose, in which only
the southern ones were active; but the 18th proved
that their energies had undergone no diminution, by
eruptions even more violent than those of the 14th.
Between 1720 and 1730, the same mountains were
in incessant action, accompanied by earthquakes,
while in the north, Krabla and Leirhnukr began
their devastations; in the years 1753 and 1755, the
Skeideræ and Katlegia Jökuls poured out every va-
riety of volcanic matter; in 1766, Hekla again com-
menced, and the destructive outbreak of the Skap-
tar in 1783 closed these frightful scenes. From that
time till 1821, with the exception of some slight agi-
tations, and probably a few inconsiderable eruptions
in the desert parts of the country, no displays of vol-
canic action occurred. But on the night of the 20th of
December in the year just named, the lofty Eyafialla
Jökul, the movement of which in 1612 was the only
one hitherto known, burst its icy covering, and be-
gan to cast forth ashes, stones, and dust, accompa-
nied with a strong flame. It continued till January
throwing out great quantities of pumice ashes, which
covered all the surrounding fields; and in February,
1822, a lofty pillar of smoke still rose from the cra-
ter. In June of the following year it again began
to burn, and on the 26th of the same month de-
stroyed a part of the adjacent land; but, after pour-
ing out some streams of water in the beginning of
July, it was once more quiet. In this month, also.
the Katlegia, after 68 years of repose, threw out
sand and ashes, covering nearly 100 square miles of
ground. In July, 1825, both sides of the island were
visited by earthquakes, accompanied by destructive
hurricanes and floods; while on the 13th of Febru-
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
35
ary, 1827, there was an eruption of the Skeideræ
Jökul.
Such displays of volcanic fury have not been con-
fined to the dry land, but have invaded even the
channels of the sea. Many of the eruptions in the
latter have without doubt been concealed by the
waters, and passed away without any memorial, as
those only which were most distinguished for vio-
lence could appear on the surface. The Westman-
na Islands, in the line forming the prolongation of
the southern chain of jökuls, bear evident marks of
igneous action, consisting almost entirely of lava
(a stream of which seems to have flowed from Hel-
gafell in Heymaey), and are said to have ejected
volcanic matter since the land has been inhabited.
But Cape Reikanes and the islands near it, which
form, as it were, a continuation of the northern mount-
ain-chain, present more decided tokens of internal
combustion, and the sea in their vicinity has, as the
natives describe it, been several times on fire. The
Sturlunga Saga relates that this occurred in the 13th
century more than five times, producing great chan-
ges in the islands. In 1340, and 1422, the same
phenomenon appeared; and in 1583 flame was seen
rising from the deep by a ship from Bremen. It was
again in action in 1783, when a new island rose
from the ocean, but vanished the next year during a
violent earthquake. The quantity of pumice thrown
out was so great as to cover the waves for 100 to
150 miles round. About 1831, also, ashes were
thrown out in such abundance, that some of them
fell in Reikiavik, causing great alarm to the inhabi-
tants.*
* Landnama, p. 68. Gliemann, p. 105-195. Olafsen's Reise,
th. ii., p. 171, 223, 224. Barrow's Visit, p. 91. Von Hoff, Ver
zeichniss von Erdbeben, &c. Poggendorf's Annalen, 1824, et
seq. The dates of four eruptions in the 13th century are given
in the Icelandic Annals in Langebek's Collections, viz.: 1211,
accompanied by an earthquake; 1226, darkness at midday; 1238;
36
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
As a particular example of the ravages produced
by these terrible convulsions of nature may give
the reader a clearer and more vivid idea of their
action than any general description, we shall select
the eruption of the Skaptar Jökul in 1783; it having
been not only very violent, but the one of which we
possess the fullest and most authentic accounts.
The preceding winter and the spring of that year
had been unusually mild, and nothing seemed to
foretel the approaching danger till towards the end
of May, when a light bluish fog was seen floating
along the ground, succeeded in the beginning of June
by earthquakes, which daily increased in violence
till the 8th of that month. At nine on the morning
of that day numerous pillars of smoke were noticed
rising in the hill country towards the north, which,
gradually gathering into a dark mass, obscured the
atmosphere, and, proceeding in a southerly direction
against the wind, involved the whole district of Si-
da in darkness, showering down sand and ashes to
the depth of an inch. This cloud continued to in-
crease till the 10th, when fire-spouts were observed
on the mountains, accompanied by earthquakes.
Next day the large river Skaptaa, which in the
spring had discharged a vast quantity of fetid water,
mixed with gravel and dust, and had lately been
much swollen, totally disappeared. This event
was fully accounted for on the 12th; a huge cur-
rent of lava had burst from one side of the volcano
and rushed with a loua, crashing noise down the
channel of the river, which it not only filled, but
even overflowed, though in many places from four
to six hundred feet deep, and two hundred broad.
The fiery stream, after leaving the hills, threatened
to deluge the low country of Medalland, when a
1240, in which year there was also an earthquake, the sun ap-
peared red, and a pestilence followed. Vide Langebek's Script.
Rer. Dan., tom. iii., p. 77, 86, 93, 94.
:
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 37
lake that lay in its way intercepted it during several
days. But at length the incessant torrents filled the
basin and proceeded onward in two streams: one to
the east, where its progress was for a short time
arrested by the Skalarfiall, up which, however, the
accumulating flood soon forced its way, rolling the
mossy covering of the mountain before it like a
large piece of cloth. The other current directed
its course towards the south, through the district of
Medalland, passing over some old tracts of lava,
which again began to burn, while the air in its cav-
ties escaped, with a strange whistling noise, or
suddenly expanding, threw up immense masses into
he atmosphere to the height of more than 120 feet.
The waters of the rivers, swollen by the melting of
the jökuls in the interior, and intercepted in their
course by the glowing lava, were thrown into a
state of violent ebullition, and destroyed many spots
spared by the fire. In this district the liquid matter
continued to flow till the 20th of July, following
principally the course of the Skaptaa, where it
poured over the lofty cataract of Stapafoss, filling
up the enormous cavity the waters had been hol-
lowing out for ages. During the whole of this erup-
tion, the atmosphere was filled with mephitic va-
pours, or darkened with clouds of ashes, by which
the sun was either concealed from the miserable in-
habitants, or appeared like a blood-red globe, adding
to their terror and consternation.
The molten elements had so long confined their
fury to the Skaptaa, that the inhabitants of the east-
ern district on the Hverfisfliot, though much incom-
moded by the showers of ashes, hoped to escape
a more immediate visitation. But on the 28th of
June a cloud of sand and smoke caused so thick a
darkness, that in the houses at noon a sheet of
white paper held opposite the window could not be
distinguished from the black walls, while red-hot
ɛtones and dust burned up the pastures, poisoned
D
38
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
the waters, and threatened to set fire to the dwell-
ings. On the 3d of August, a thick vapour rising
from the Hverfisfliot, the entire disappearance of its
waters, and a foaming fire-stream, which on the 9th
rushed with indescribable fury down its bed, overflow-
ing the country in one night to the extent of more
than four miles, converted the fearful anticipations of
the natives into dreadful realities. The eruptions of
sand, ashes, pumice, and lava continued till the end
of August, when the volcano appeared completely
exhausted; but flames were still seen in February,
1784, and thick clouds of smoke even in July of that
year. The whole catastrophe closed in August with
an earthquake of such extreme violence that men
were thrown to the ground.
The immediate source whence this enormous mass
of matter issued is entirely unknown, being situated
in that great central desert of sand and snow which
none of the natives have ever penetrated; and no
traditions of any former occurrence of this kind
have been preserved. Some persons who went up
into the mountains during the continuance of the
eruption were, in consequence of the thick smoke,
compelled to return, and subsequent attempts met
with no better success. It is not even known
whether the current that flowed down the Skaptaa
and that in the Hverfisfliot proceeded from the same
crater. It is, however, probable their sources were
different, though closely connected.
The extent of the lava can only be accurately
known in the inhabited districts. The stream that
flowed down the Skaptaa is calculated at about fifty
miles in length by twelve or fifteen at its greatest
breadth; that in the Hverfisfliot at forty miles in
length by seven in breadth. In the narrow channel
of the Skaptaa it rose to 500 or 600 feet, but in the
plains its extreme height does not exceed 100, and
in many places is only eight or ten feet. From its
mmense thickness, it was a long time in cooling,
L
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
39
being so hot in July, 1784, twelve months after the
eruption, that Mr. Stephensen could not cross it,
and even then sending up a thick smoke or steam.
In the year 1794 it still retained an elevated tem-
perature, emitting vapours from various places, and
many of its crevices being filled with warm water.
This long retention of heat will appear the more
extraordinary when we consider the numerous
globular cavities and fissures it contained, permit-
ting a free circulation of the water and atmosphere.*
The destructive effects of this eruption were not
confined to its immediate vicinity, vast quantities of
sand and ashes having been scattered over the re-
moter parts of the country, and some conveyed to
the Faroe Islands, a distance of nearly 300 miles.†
The noxious vapours that for many months infected
the air were equally pernicious to man and beast, and
covered the whole island with a dense fog, which ob-
* The mass of matter ejected on this occasion must have
been enormous, and gives no countenance to the opinion that
the igneous agents operating on the earth are diminishing in in-
tensity. Assuming the average breadth of the first current at
six miles, and of the second at three, both probably below the
truth, the one would cover 300 square miles, the other 120, or
420 in all. With an average depth of fifteen yards, the com-
bined mass would contain 420×3097600×15=19,514,880,000,
or nearly twenty thousand million cubic yards. But this com
prises only that portion which flowed into the inhabited dis-
tricts, while it is likely that an equal or greater quantity re-
nained heaped up around the crater, or flowed off into the un-
known regions of the interior. To this must also be added the
pumice, sand, and ashes, scattered not only over the whole isl-
and, but to a distance of 300 miles round, in such abundance as
to destroy the fisheries in the neighbouring seas. With these
additions, the entire mass of matter would amount, we may be-
lieve, to fifty or sixty thousand millions of cubic yards, exceed-
ing the solid contents of Hekla, which, if six miles in the di-
ameter at the base and 1700 yards high, would contain nearly
fifty thousand millions (49,537,270,000) of cubic yards. This is
probably larger than any individual mass of the older igneous
rocks known to exist.
†This also happened during the eruption of Hekla in 1693
40
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
scured the sun, and was perceptible even in England
and Holland. The steam rising from the crater, or
exhaled from the boiling waters, was condensed in
the cooler regions of the atmosphere, and descended
in floods that deluged the fields, and consolidated the
ashes into a thick black crust. A fall of snow in
the middle of June, and frequent showers of hail-
stones of unusual magnitude, accompanied with tre-
mendous thunder-storms, tearing up huge fragments
of rock and rolling them down into the plains, com-
pleted the scene of desolation. The grass and oth-
er plants withered, and became so brittle that the
weight of a man's foot reduced them to powder;
and even where the pastures seemed to have recov-
ered, the cattle refused to touch them, dying of ac-
tual starvation in the midst of the most luxuriant
herbage. Small unknown insects covered many of
the fields, while other portions of the soil, formerly
the most fertile, were changed by the ashes into
marshy wastes overgrown with moss and equiseta.
A disease resembling scurvy in its most malignant
type attacked both men and cattle; occasioned in
the former, no doubt, by the want of food, and the
miserable, often disgusting, nature of that which
alone they could obtain. Many lived on the bodies
of those animals which had perished from hunger
or disease, while others had recourse to boiled
skins, or substances still more nauseous and un-
wholesome. The numerous earthquakes, with the
ashes and other matter thrown into the sea, caused
the fish to desert many parts of the coast, while
the fishermen, seldom daring to leave the land, en-
veloped in thick clouds during most of the sumner,
were thus deprived of their usual stock of winter
provisions. We cannot better conclude this fright-
ful catalogue of evils than by the following sum-
mary of the numbers of men and cattle that more
or less immediately perished by reason of them
in two years.
The most oderate calculation
+
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 41
makes these amount to 1300 human beings, 19,482
horses, 6801 horned cattle, and 129,937 sheep.*
The fiords, which, bursting through the rocky
barrier that guards the coast, run far up into the in-
terior, constitute a most characteristic feature of
Icelandic scenery. They have a great similarity of
form, so that the description of the general features
of one may serve equally for that of all the others.
Having probably been at first rents or chasms pro-
duced by the original upheaving of the island, their
length is often very disproportioned to their breadth ;
some of them being scarcely two miles wide, yet
extending twenty-five or even thirty into the coun-
try, and continued still farther by narrow vales,
down which the mountain-rivers find their way to
the sea. Lofty ridges, running out into the ocean
and ending in precipitous headlands, separate then
from each other. In the neighbourhood of the Rode
and Beru Fiords these assume their most magnifi.
cent appearance, attaining an elevation of nearly
4000 feet, though their average height on other
parts of the coast is only about half that now
named. So sudden is the rise of these mountaire,
that it is no uncommon thing to find precipices 1000
feet high, from the top of which a stone may be
cast into the sea. The fiords are thus shut in on
both sides by perpendicular walls of rock towering
up to a tremendous height, whose summits are
clothed with perpetual snows, or veiled in dark
clouds. All around seems dead; no trace of life is
* Stephensen says 9336 men, 28,000 horses, 11,461 cattle.
and 190,488 sheep; but his numbers are thought exaggerated.
The description in the text is chiefly abridged from this gentle-
man's "Account of the Eruption" published at Copenhagen
in 1785, which will be found translated in Hooker's Journal,
vol. ii., p. 124-261. Comp. Henderson, vol. i., p. 272-290; Glie-
mann, p. 107-109. The violent earthquakes in Sicily and Ca-
labria were almost synchronous in their commencement and du
ration with this eruption. The first shock was felt on the 5th
February 1783, and they continued till the following May.
•
42
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
visible. Man and all that he produces vanish amid
the mightier works of nature. Woods and the
higher classes of the vegetable creation are entirely
ivanting, and the naked rocks are too steep for even
the hardy birch or stunted willow to fix their roots.
No sound is heard save the billows dashing on the
craggy shore, no motion seen but the cataract rush-
ing down the rugged cliffs.
Such is the general appearance of the fiords, and
the repulsive aspect they present; yet here does the
Icelander choose his dwelling, unappalled by the
rocks which threaten every moment to crush him by
their fall. The island is nowhere thickly peopled,
but these friths and their connected valleys are
more so than any other portion.
Here grassy
meadows are found in the immediate vicinity of
the sea, and here, therefore, the natives can cor-
bine those two sources of gain which alone the se-
vere climate leaves open to them. On their shores
are the finest pastures for the cattle, while their wa-
ters are a favourite retreat of the cod, the most es-
teemed of the fish caught on the coast. In them
also the sea is calm and less exposed to storms, so
that the fishermen carry on their employment with
greater safety and convenience. Another advan
tage of these situations is, that the fiords, entering
deeply into the land, are like canals, connecting the
interior with the coast, and greatly facilitate both
internal and external communication. Merchant
ships sail up these inlets, and find a safe natural
harbour, where they supply the wants of the na
tives and receive their produce in return. The
most fertile portions of the island are thus brought
thirty or forty miles nearer the ocean, and one
boat will with ease transport more goods in the
same time than thirty horses could do on their mis-
erable roads. We need not, therefore, be surprised
that the inhabited country, where the fiords exist,
stretches far up into the interior, and that where
PHYSICAL, GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 43
they are wanting, it is confined to a narrow strip
along the coast.*
This peculiar formation of Iceland renders trav-
elling remarkably difficult and even dangerous, the
road continually ascending or descending the lofty
ridges separating the fiords. Many of these are
never free from snow even in summer; and the trav-
eller who, in climbing the steep side of the hill,
was fainting under the oppressive heat, on gain-
ing the icy summit is pierced through by cold
winds. The tracks which cross these heights are
often nothing more than hollows cut by some mount-
ain-torrent in the precipitous rock: paths fitter for
the goat or chamois than for men or loaded horses.
But the sagacity with which these animals find
their way through such fearful ravines is truly sur-
prising, leaping from ledge to ledge, or sliding down
amid the crumbling fragments. Accidents, how-
ever, frequently occur, when the horse and its rider,
hurled over the precipice, are dashed to pieces long
ere they reach the bottom.
The principal inlets on the west coast are the
Faxa Fiord, fifty-six miles broad and thirty-seven
long, extending between the promontories of Rey
kianes and Sneefield, and the Breida Fiord, to the
north of the latter, about forty miles wide and sixty
long. Both of them separate into many smaller
ones in the interior. In the northwestern peninsula
are numerous fiords of inferior magnitude, as the
Patrix, the Arnar, twenty-eight miles long, and the
great Isafiardardiup, running forty-six miles into the
land towards the southeast. On the northern coast
these bays mostly follow a southerly direction, in-
clining a little to the east, or nearly at a right angle
to the jökul chain. Of these we shall only notice
the Skagastrander Floi, ending in the Hruta, Mid.
and Huna fiords, the Eya Fiord, forty-two miles long
*
Krug von Nidda, Karsten's Archiv, vol. vii, p 426-430, 152.
44
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
and ten or twelve broad, and the Axar and Thistil
fiords, between which is the most northern point of
Iceland. There are many on the east coast, but
none equal in size to those we have named on the
north; the more remarkable are the Vapna, fourteen
miles long, the Reidar, eighteen miles, and the Be-
ru. We may here mention, that the depth of water
in the interior of the northern fiords has of late
greatly decreased, so that many harbours formerly
frequented are now altogether inaccessible. This is
no doubt partly owing to the debris carried down
from the land, but the effect must also be ascribed
to other causes, which we shall notice in connexion
with similar phenomena in a subsequent part of
this work.
As already observed, these fiords are in general
connected with rivers, which form, as it were, their
continuation into the interior; but where the central
parts, as in Iceland, are almost destitute of inhabi-
tants, these natural roadways are of less importance
than in more favoured lands. Their course is sel
dom of any considerable length, none of them ex-
ceeding 100 miles, but they are broader and deeper
than might be expected in such circumstances.
Those proceeding from the ice-mountains are often
flooded even in the summer, and throw serious ob-
stacles in the way of travellers, as there are no
bridges and but few ferry-boats; in which case they
must be forded on horseback, in doing which the
rider's life necessarily depends on the strength of
his steed and its practice in swimming. Many of
the larger streams cannot be crossed even in this
manner, and the road has therefore to follow their
banks until they divide, or enter a glacier, on which
slippery and dangerous path they may be passed
over.
The rivers are of two kinds, which may easily be
distinguished by the colour of their waters; those
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND
45
which issue from the glaciers, the jökulsaa* of the
natives, being rendered white by the particles of
clay or pumice which they bear down on their cur-
rent. Many of these, especially on the south of the
island, are of vast magnitude and rapidity, and pre-
sent a strange spectacle where they burst from be
neath their snowy canopy, carrying along with them
immense masses of ice. Their course is often ex-
tremely short, that of some of the widest and most
dangerous not exceeding six or eight miles. The
stream from the Breidamárk Jökul, which Hender-
son found great difficulty in fording, though spread
out into several branches, is only one mile from its
source to where it falls into the sea.t
The remaining rivers have little to distinguish
them from those of other lands. From the rapidity
of their course none of them are navigable, and
the same cause produces many sublime waterfalls,
though without the accompaniment of woods, which
adds so much to the charms of those in more fertile
climates. Some small streams, such as the Fossa
or Cataract River, form almost a continued succes-
sion of cascades, the water only escaping from one
dark pool to plunge headlong into another. In the
deep gullies cut in the course of ages, the snow pro-
tected from the sun often forms fantastic arches,
beneath which the current is seen to descend.
The only river of any size on the west coast is
the Hvitau or White River, often called the Hvitau
i Borgarfirdi, to distinguish it from others of the
same name. It is formed by the union of three
springs, of which the northern or Norlingafliot runs
a considerable distance under ground. Though only
forty-six miles long, this jökul river is from 200 to
300 feet broad, and so deep and rapid in the lower
part of its course as to be quite unfordable.
* All rivers are named Aa or Au, or Elv.
+ Henderson, vol. i, p. 238.
E
46
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
The northern side of the island has very numer-
ous rivers, of which the most considerable are the
following: The Blandau, from a branch of the
Lange Jökul, has bluish water, and a course of about
forty miles, falling into the sea in the Blöndu Oos.
Next follow the Herads Votn, sixty-five miles long,
and the Eyafiardarau, about thirty; after which we
meet with the Laxau, issuing from the Myvatn, of
the same length as the latter, but with a breadth of
400 to 600 feet, whose white waters run in a bed cut
out of the lava rocks, amid which it forms many
rapids. The Jökulsau i Axarfiordi, the largest riv-
er in this part of the country, rises on the western
side of Sniofell, and flows with a muddy stream over
a very uneven bed, through which it foams and roars.
It has a considerable breadth, and is so deep as
to be crossed only in boats, and, after a course of
eighty-five miles, pours its contents into the Axar
Fiord. Though receiving few tributaries, it is still
so large that seals are frequently found in it.
The eastern side has but few large rivers, and
these mostly run in a north or northeasterly direc-
tion, while the smaller ones flow nearly due east.
The most remarkable is the Jökulsau a Bru, or
Bridge River, which, rising to the north of Sniofell,
falls, after a course of fifty-six miles, into the Bay
of Hieradsfloi. Its waters are of a dirty brown col-
our, and, receiving the tribute of thirty-eight other
streams, it is of considerable depth and size. It is
crossed only at three places; at one by a ferry, which
is dangerous from the strong currents and breakers
in the water; at another by a bridge, the only one
in Iceland, which has, on this account, given its
name to the river. It was built in the year 1698, is
five feet broad, but now much dilapidated from age.
The third passage, named At Fara i Klofa, is accom-
plished by means of a wooden box hung on two
ropes stretched across the gulf, in which a man sits
and either draws or pushes himself over. The river
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
47
has high rocky banks, and is from forty to sixty feet
wide, yet it often overflows and produces great de-
vastation, as in the year 1625, when it rose more
than thirteen yards above its usual level.
Another singular river in this quarter is the La-
gerfliot, issuing from Sniofell, which rises from the
middle of the valley, down which it flows for fifty-
six miles. Its waters are white, but pure, and it has
often a depth of fifty fathoms, with a breadth of 360
to 600 feet. From Skridukloster to Rangaros, a dis-
tance of thirty miles, it is from 4000 to 5600 feet
wide, interspersed with numerous small but fertile
islands, and has altogether the appearance of a lake.
The rivers on the southern coast are almost all
jökul streams, with the short course and magnitude
characteristic of their class. The Napsvotn from
Skaptaa Jökul, twenty-three miles long, has, for the
last fourteen miles, a breadth of two and a half.
The Hverfisfliot, which formerly joined it, is, since
the eruption of 1783, almost dried up. The same
fate happened to the Skaptaa, which, for the last ten
miles of its course, was nearly three broad, but whose
diminished waters now find a channel for themselves
to the north of the lava-current. An opposite effect
was produced on the Jökulsau a Solheima Sandi,
commonly named, from its sulphurous odour, the
Stank-Elven, which, before the catastrophe of 900,
was only a small brook. The Markarfliot, remark-
able for a similar peculiarity, especially in the spring
months, is also a jökul-elv, which, running down
from the Torfa, separates into many arms. Its west-
ern branch receives the two streams named Rangua
from the neighbourhood of Hekla, which have often
changed their channel during the earthquakes to
which that district is so subject, and particularly in
the year 1294.
A little westward from this we pass the Thiorsau
and Hvitau, each of them about seventy miles long.
The former rises near the Hofs Jökul, abounds in
48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELANU.
salmon and trout, and in one place, where it crosses
a lava-bed, forms numerous falls and rapids. The
latter, issuing from the Lange Jökul, is a noble river,
flowing through the lake of the same name, which is
surrounded by magnificent glaciers. It receives on
the right, by the Fliotsau, the waters of the Geysers,
and frequently overflows its banks. As it is crossed
by the great road from the north of Iceland, and is
frequently impassable for weeks, travellers are often
reduced to great straits when the food they had pro-
vided for their journey is consumed; there being no
place in the deserts where they can obtain a supply,
nor even sufficient pasture for their horses.* The
Kaldau, to the south of Reikiavik, is one of the most
singular rivers in the island, and the last we shall
mention. It issues in a considerable stream from a
large basin near the Helgafell, and, after holding a
westerly course of ten miles, suddenly vanishes in a
bed of cavernous lava. It probably appears again
in the Hafna Fiord, where a plentiful body of water
has been observed flowing from the land into the sea.
Though rich in rivers, Iceland is by no means so
in lakes, its fractured surface seldom offering any
hollows in which they can be formed. The Mivatn,
named from the immense swarms of moschetoes
(Culex pipiens) that frequent its shores, is one of the
most remarkable in the whole country. It lies in a
situation, the loneliness of which is only broken by
the flocks of waterfowl that inhabit its banks and
islands. Its greatest length is seven miles, and its
circumference about twenty; but it has been so fill-
ed up with the stony floods poured into it from the
surrounding volcanoes, that its depth seldom exceeds
twenty-four feet. It contains thirty-four islands,
mostly composed of lava covered with grass and the
angelica, which are favourite breeding-places for the
* Gliemann p. 36. Mackenzie, p. 237. Henderson, vol. i.,
p. 66.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 49
eider-ducks. From the deep fissures in its bottom.
issue numerous hot springs, sending up frequent
dense columns of steam, which show the yet un-
ceasing activity of the internal fires. These are the
usual retreat of the forelle or trout, which abound
in the lake, and are considered, fatter and more deli-
cate than any other in the island. This sheet of
water, though shallow, never freezes, probably from
the vicinity of the volcanic foci.*
In the interior of the country, about forty-five
miles northeast from Hekla, lies the large lake Fiske
Vatn. It has no visible outlet, and was formerly
much frequented for its fish by the inhabitants of the
southern districts; but its shore is now abandoned,
and only a few fragments of their huts remain.
Farther west is the Hvitaar Vatn, nine miles long
by seven broad, to the south of which we find the
Apa or Laugar Vatn, so named from its being always
lukewarm. The Thingvalla Vatn, on whose banks
the Althing was formerly held, is the largest lake in
Iceland, being from twenty-five to thirty miles in
circumference. It is very deep, in some places
above 100 fathoms, and contains abundance of fish,
which may be caught during the whole year.
was much altered during the earthquake of 1789,
the northeastern side sinking, while the opposite or
southwestern shore rose, so that some parts former-
ly more than twenty feet deep were left almost dry
-a circumstance by no means uncommon in the
island.†
It
Next to its volcanoes, the hot springs, warm
baths, and mineral waters render Iceland one of
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 54. Henderson, vol. i., p. 159.
Gliemann, p. 39.
† Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 94, 140. Gliemann, p. 40. Many
instances are mentioned by the Danish travellers of rivers dis
appearing or changing their course, and the same is said to have
happened to the Myvatn. See Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., o. 144
145, &c. Glieman, p. 25.
50
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
the most interesting countries in the world.* No-
where does the subterranean agency of Nature dis-
play its powers with a more lavish hand or in more.
varied forms; and the hot springs alone are suffi-
cient to arrest the attention of the philosophical stu-
dent on this lonely island of the Northern Ocean.
Certain of these cast up a thick column of water
to the height of more than 100 feet, with a noise
that seems to shake the surrounding country. In
some this happens constantly, in others at stated
intervals, and in a third class irregularly, while al-
most all of them deposite a stony matter (silicious
sinter), which forms both the basin and pipe. This
property finally leads to their destruction, the forma-
tion increasing more and more, till the opening is
closed, and nothing of the spring remains but a small
cone or hill formed of the flinty concretion. They
are found in all parts of the island, some, like those
on the Torfa Jökul, even sending up clouds of steam
from amid fields of perpetual ice. The very ocean
that surrounds the coast is not free from them, and
in the northern portion of the Breida Fiord, studded
with innumerable islands, the water in many places
is sensibly elevated in temperature by their action
The coast near Husevik is also remarkable for the
hot springs that well forth from its bottom, and cause
great injury to the nets of the fishermen. In this
place we can only notice a few of the more striking,
the peculiarities of which have rendered them ob-
jects of general admiration.
Of these the Geyser and its surrounding wells are
the best known, and those, too, of which we have
the most authentic accounts. They are mentioned
in some of the oldest writings of the country, but
* Hot springs are named in Icelandic hverar; warm baths or
standing waters, laugar; and the mineral wells or acid springs,
oellkildar, i. e., ale-wells. The term reik, “
The term reik, "smoke," Scottice
"reek," which forms so cominon a portion of their name, refers
to the steam or vapour which rises from them.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
57
not as being particularly wonderful; and hence the
time of their first appearance is involved in obscu-
rity. They seem, indeed, to suffer great alterations,
from the earthquakes so common in this part of the
island; a circumstance which also accounts for the
differences found in the descriptions of travellers.
About the middle of the 17th century the eruptions
seem to have followed regularly every twenty-four
hours; but a hundred years afterward this periodical
action was found to have ceased, and no certain in-
terval elapsed between them. Amid the many dis-
turbances produced by the earthquake of 1784, the
Geyser regained its regularity, though the period
was considerably shortened, there being four great
ejections in the twenty-four hours. Olafsen and
Povelsen, who visited it before this event, found
only one spring in motion, which propelled the wa-
ter to the height of 360 feet, and it was said some-
times even to surpass this elevation. The first jet
was preceded by a noise like that of a cannon-shot
repeated six times, during which the ground quiver-
ed as if about to burst; afterward each report was
succeeded by a gush of water, of which, as the whole
continued ten minutes, and three seconds intervened
between them, there must have been 200 in all.
The diameter of the basin was fifty-seven feet, and
s depth seventy-two; but they could not measure
that of the lower openings, as the fluid constantly
rose when they let down the plummet. This terri-
hed their guide, who thought it was caused by the
pirit of the abyss, who was angry with them for
prying into the mysteries of his dwelling. * The
water at that time possessed its petrifying qualities,
and they saw not only vegetables, but even bones
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 146-149. The height of the jet,
though not impossible, is probably exaggerated, none of the re-
cent accounts approaching it; neither has the rising of the wa
ter in the pipe when anything was let down been confirmed by
later writers.
52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
of sheep and other animal substances, converted into
stone. At some distance to the west were other
hot springs, two of them with high banks, and from
six to eight fathoms deep. One of these was said
to have formerly been named Geyser, and to have
thrown out its contents with a vast force, but to have
been closed up by an earthquake at the time the
present one opened.
The next traveller who gives an account of the
Geysers is Von Troil, who visited them in 1772, and,
from a measurement with a quadrant, estimated the
height of the column at ninety-two feet. He was
followed in 1789 by Sir John Stanley, who observed
several eruptions, the highest ninety-six feet, and
first mentions the new Geyser, or Strokr, which
threw the water up a hundred and thirty-two feet.
In 1804, Lieutenant Ohlsen found the great outbursts
succeeding each other every six hours, and rising
to 212 feet; while the Strokr continued to cast up a
column 150 feet high for two hours and ten minutes.
Hooker, in 1809, estimates the column at a hundred
feet; while Mackenzie, the following year, makes it
ninety, with an interval of thirty hours between each
jet. The eruptions of the Strokr occurred every
twelve or fourteen hours, and lasted half an hour or
more, the water on one occasion rising seventy feet.
When Henderson was there in 1815, the Geyser had
again altered; its great jets following at distances
of six hours, and attaining a height of seventy or
eighty, and once of 150 feet: those of the Strokr
lasted one hour, with an intermission of twenty-four,
and he found that he could produce one at any time
by throwing stones into the hole. In 1834, Barrow
had to wait thirty-five hours before he was gratified
by the spectacle of one of the great jets, which he
thinks must have ascended seventy or eighty feet.*
* Von Troil's Letters, p. 14. Stanley, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.
vol. iii., part 11., p. 127-153. Ohlsen, Gilbert's Annalen, vol xliii.
Hooker, vol. i., p. 157. Mackenzie, p. 225. Barrow's Iceland,
n
193
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 53
The diversity of the statements here given shows
that the Geysers vary much in their phenomena from
time to time, which accounts for the discrepances in
the relations of those who have visited them. The
most recent descriptions are those of Barrow and
Krug von Nidda; and as that of the latter author is
particularly valuable from his scientific character,
we shall chiefly adopt it as our guide. The Hauk-
adal, in which these springs are found, is a valley
about a mile in breadth, bounded on the north by the
Bald Jökul, and on the south by a chain of hills six
or seven hundred feet high. Its surface is a marshy
meadow, through which several small brooks wind
their way to join the Hvitau. The icy shield of the
jökul terminates the view on the north, while on the
south the three snow-clad peaks of Hekla tower
above the rocky wall of the plain. On the north
side of it is a hill about 300 feet high, and half a
mile long, separated by a narrow defile from the ad-
joining mountains, from which it appears as if torn
by violence. A little south of this elevation, which
slopes gently towards the level ground, lie the far-
famed fountains. In the space of a few acres, more
than fifty hot springs can be counted, all distinguish-
ed by some peculiarities, though their vicinity to the
mighty Geysers has almost left them unnoticed.
They are of two kinds: the one filled with hot wa-
ter, clear as crystal; the other giving vent to warm
vapours, occasionally accompanied with a very small
quantity of fluid, which is always muddy. These
last are confined to the summit or acclivity of the
hill, while the others are only found in the plain at
its foot.
·
The Geyser, the most remarkable of these singu-
lar wells, is situated on a mound of silicious tuffa
and sinter formed from its deposites, twenty-five or
thirty feet high, and 200 in diameter. On its sum-
mit is the basin, sixty feet across, and six or seven
deep, at the bottom of which is the pipe, ten feet
54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. OF ICELAND.
Uy
•
wide at the mouth, but gradually narrowing to sev
en or eight, with a perpendicular descent of seven-
The interior of the basin and pipe is smooth
and polished by the constant action of the water,
but the outside of the former is incrusted with beau-
tiful flower-like groups of crystals, which have a
most deceiving resemblance to cauliflower. Small
jets, preceded by five or six explosions, and rising
to nearly twenty feet, took place every two hours:
and, in the intervals, the water filled only about
half the basin, and was quite still, with a tempera-
ture of 1540, though immediately after the commo-
tion it was near the boiling point.† When our au-
thor arrived at the Geyser, an intelligent peasant
from the neighbouring cottage told him that a great
eruption had occurred shortly before, and that they
only happened once in twenty-four or thirty hours,
and he had accordingly to wait till next day. Du-
ring the night, the small spoutings waked him sev-
eral times, but nothing extraordinary followed until
half past six the following evening. He was stand-
ing on the margin of the basin, when a hollow, rum-
bling sound, succeeded by twelve or fifteen thunder-
ing explosions, producing a violent quivering motion
in the ground, drove him from the spot, which seem
ed as if about to burst. Turning at a little distance,
he beheld a thick pillar of vapour shooting like an
arrow to the clouds, and surrounding a body of wa-
ter rising with a fluctuating motion to the height of
eighty or ninety feet. Some veins of the fluid rose
* Mr. Barrow makes the diameter of the basin fifty-six feet
by fifty-two, and its depth four; the pipe at the mouth, eighteen
and a quarter by sixteen, diminishing to ten or twelve, while
the depth is from sixty-seven to seventy. Marmier, in 1836,
says that the basin was fifty-two and a half feet wide, and sev-
enty-five deep; he had to wait two days for one of the large
eruptions.
It is stated in the Comptes Rendues, that M. Lattin found
the temperature of the great Geyser 255°, at a depth of sixty
feet, and that of the Strokr 233°, at forty feet.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 55
above this, or streamed in arches from the cloud.
Sometimes the steam divided, and revealed the
aqueous column shooting upward in innumerable
rays, spreading out at the top like a lofty pine, and
descending in a fine rain. At other times it closed
in thicker darkness round the centre, veiling it from
the eye of the spectator. Often the giant powers
of the fountain seemed exhausted, and the pillar ap-
peared about to sink into the earth, when again the
thunder rolled in the deep, and the vapours burst
forth, rising to the sky.
The eruption continued about ten minutes, when
the water sunk down into the pipe, and the whole
was again in repose. On looking into the basin, it
was completely empty, and the water far down the
tube was slowly ascending. Experience and the
assurances of the natives told him that this splen-
did phenomenon would not recur till the following
day, before which he had to leave the place. But
in a short time another spectacle of equal beauty
and sublimity attracted his admiration.
The new Geyser or Strokr, about 150 paces south-
west of the former, which had hitherto remained
inactive, began to display its powers. This spring
rises from a small mound four or five feet high,
forming a border at the mouth of the tube, which is
five feet in diameter, and filled with water to within
ten or fourteen of the surface. A thick cloud of
smoke suddenly burst forth, succeeded by a liquid
column, which was almost immediately dissipated
by the violence of the eruption into fine spray, and
rose to an immense height. From time to time,
jets shot upward more than a hundred feet, and
some large stones which had been thrown in were
cast out with great violence, rising almost out of
sight, several of which ascended so perpendicularly
as to fall back into the basin, serving for balls to
this gigantic jet. The water was soon exhausted,
but the clouds of steam continued to escape, with a
56
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
whistling or hissing sound, three quarters of ar
hour, when the eruption ceased, and the fluid re
mained boiling in the tube as usual.
It is not completely determined whether these
eruptions, which are at once more beautiful, and en-
dure for a longer period than those of the Geyser,
are, like them, regular in their times of occurrence.
Reasoning from analogy, we should expect them to
be so, though the intervals, amounting, it is assert-
ed, to two or three days, are much longer than in
any of the others. Its explosions do not appear to
depend in the least on those of the Geyser, each re-
maining unaffected during the activity of the other
and, indeed, all the thermal springs around seem,
from their various levels, to be quite unconnected.
The fountain named by Sir John Stanley the
Roaring Geyser, from its continual noise, in his
time threw out the water every four or five minutes
to a height of thirty or forty feet, and with such
violence that it was "shivered into the finest parti-
cles." By the earthquake of 1789, however, the
tube of this spring was destroyed; and there now
only remains a considerable opening, from which a
stream of gas issues at short intervals with a loud
noise.*
* Krug von Nidda, Karsten's Archiv, vol. ix., p. 247–257.
The common theory of these springs is well illustrated in the
accompanying engraving. It is supposed that there is a cavity,
A, under ground, communicating with the pipe by a descending
channel, in which heated vapours may collect until they have
acquired force sufficient to expel the incumbent waters. The
frequency and violence of the eruptions will thus depend on the
size of the cavern, the rapidity of the formation of steam vary-
ing with the temperature of the earth and the superincumbent
pressure from the column of water in the pipe. For the inter-
mediate small eruptions of the Geyser we must suppose anoth-
er smaller cavity, B, more frequently filled and discharged.
The different appearances of the Strokr and Geyser depend on
the capacities of their basins, the ascending column being prob
ably not water alone, but a mixture of this with steam; a sup
position which removes some difficulties connected with this
;

The Great Geyser.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
59
Many other thermal springs, which our limits will
not permit us to notice in detail, are spread over the
surface of the island. Near Reikum, south of the
Thingvalla Vatn, more than a hundred of them are
found stretching in a line along the bottom of he
valley, and are, next to the Geysers, the most re-
markable in Iceland, though far inferior in mag-
nificence. In Guldbringe Syssel they are very nu-
merous, some of them, more especially those near
Krisuvik, depositing sulphur. The neighbourhood
of the Myvatn and Krabla is also distinguished by
several, which we have already noticed; and near
Husevik hot springs also occur, presenting phenom-
ena similar to those of the Geysers, but on a much
smaller scale. The mineral waters of Sneefieldnes
are known in Iceland on account of their slightly
intoxicating power and acid taste, which have pro-
cured for them the name of Oellkildar, or ale-wells.
These qualities are communicated to them by car-
subject. The following are analyses of the water of the Gey-
ser by Dr. Black, and of that from Reikum, which most resem-
bles it, by the same distinguished chymist and by Klaproth, the
quantity of water in each being 10,000 grains :
Soda
Geyser.
0.95
Reikum.
Reikum.
0.51
Carbonate of Soda
1.04
Dry Sulphate of Soda 1.46
1.28
1.73
Muriate of Soda .
2.46
2.90
2.93
Silica
5.40
3.73
3.10
Alumina
0.48
0.05
10.75-Black. 8.47-Black.
8.80-Klap
It is a curious fact, that Dr. Turner, in his analysis of water
from the hot springs of Pinnarkoon and Loorgootha in India,
found that their solid contents were essentially the same with
those above, namely, silica held in solution by free soda.* That
the same component parts prevail in volcanic productions, and
that these mineral springs are only found in the vicinity of vol
canic or other igneous rocks, proves the opinion of their rela
tion to be well grounded.
*Edin. Journal of Science (1528), vol. ix., p. 95
60
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
bonic acid, which they contain in great profusion;
along with which are found carbonate of lime, and,
in some instances, the carbonate, muriate, and sul-
phate of soda. It is worthy of notice, that no ther-
mal springs similar to those just mentioned are at
present to be discovered in this peninsula, though
the silicious deposites still remaining prove them to
have formerly existed. In the valleys of the Nor-
dur, Thuer, and Hvitaaes, parallel to the volcanic
line of the Sneefield promontory, very many of
these are seen depositing silicious matter and exha
ling sulphurous acid gas.
When we consider the situation of Iceland, in the
midst of an open sea, which in general exerts a fa-
vourable influence on climate, and also its position
relatively to other lands, we might expect to find it
enjoying a milder sky than some of the facts already
stated would seem to indicate. But the sea-breezes
too often, instead of elevating the thermometer, cast
on the shore immense fields of drift-ice, which pro-
duce the most intolerable cold. We need not, there-
fore, be surprised to learn that this island, though al-
most entirely in the temperate zone, approaches in
climate nearer to the polar regions. In it there are
only two seasons in the year, the summer and win-
ter, following so closely on each other that spring
and autumn cannot be said to exist. The natives
reckon the commencement of the former from the
Thursday between the 18th and 24th of April, and
that of the latter from the Friday between the same
days of October. But in this division they are found
to have allowed a greater length to the warmer por-
tion of the year than the seasons themselves will
* Mackenzie, p. 396-401. Some interesting remarks on the
nature and distribution of the thermal and inineral waters o
Iceland will be found in Krug von Nidda's paper in Karsten's
Archiv. fur Mineralogie (vol ix., p. 247-284), translated in Jame-
con's Phil. Journal (vol. xxii, p. 90–110. 220–226), and a very full
ist of them is contained in Gliemann's Beschreibung (p. 42-60`
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
61
justify; the severe cold continuing after this period,
so that even in June the fiords may be rode over on
the ice. It is a common observation, both there and
in Greenland, that their mildest winters are those in
which the greatest cold prevails throughout the rest
of Europe.
The frost is most intense during the first three
months of the year, when the sky is usually clear;
but on the coast this rigour is lessened by the sea-
breezes, though only in a small degree. In winter,
in the south, the temperature averages from 20° to
24° Fahrenheit, and in clear weather is often so low
a3 12° or even 5°; while in summer it ranges from
45° to 73°. At Reikiavik, according to M. Arago, the
minimum temperature observed in twelve months
was -1.66°, the maximum in the same period being
only 71.6°; but this is probably owing to the prox-
imity of the sea, the waters of which rarely vary
above two degrees.* It often, indeed, exceeds these
points, descending in winter to -13° and even —26°,
and rising in summer to 82°; and at Borgar Fiord,
in the sun, it has been observed as high as 104°,
compelling the peasants to leave their work during
the middle of the day. The annual mean tempera-
ture at Bessastadir, near Reikiavik, is 39.2°, but in
the centre of the island it is not more than 36.5°,
and in the northern parts only a little above the
freezing point. The thermometer, according to the
Danish travellers, is highest at noon, when it imme-
diately begins to descend; and this is so regular that
they sometimes determined the hour by it. The
barometer, as observed for two years by Horrebow,
ranged from 28·06 inches to 30 64. Mackenzie found
it from 28.01 to 30'5; the minimum, according to
M. Arago, is 27.85 inches; and its greatest variation
in five years is said by Olafsen to have been nearly
three inches.†
* Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, tome xvi. (1837), p. 283.
+ Gliemann, p. 12. Hooker's Travels, vol. ii., p. 226. Olaf
F
62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
As happens in other islands, the weather is sub
ject to frequent mutations, seldom remaining the
same so long as two or three days. Even in the
middle of summer snow and hail occur, and in the
end of June it often freezes during the night, while
the temperature in the day is above 70°. The va-
riations of the barometer are likewise numerous
and sudden, falling or rising nearly two inches in the
course of twenty-four hours. Nor are its changes
so closely connected with the weather as in other
lands, being often low when this is good, and high
when it is the reverse. It has also been observed
of the thermometer, that it is sometimes lower du-
ring a thaw than in a frost.
The violent gales are more destructive to vegeta、
tion in Iceland than even the extreme cold. The
wind blows almost constantly, being seldom still
longer than a few hours; and so much are the in-
habitants accustomed to this, that they call it calm
when it is only a moderate breeze. The heavier
gales tear up trees and shrubs, strip the earth of its
green covering, and, loosening the rocks from the
mountains, hurl them into the valleys. Whirlwinds
are not common, except in the Hval Fiord below the
Thyrill Mountain, but sudden gusts cause great dan-
şer to the fishermen in the narrow friths. The
outh winds are much dreaded in the north, from
he quantity of sand and ashes they waft along from
he central districts, darkening the sky and destroy-
ing the pastures. These clouds, also known in oth-
er parts of the island, and named mistur or wind-
mistur, are carried many miles, colouring the sky
Mackenzie's Trav-
sen's Reise, th. i., p. 4; th. ii., p. 7, 156–158.
els, p. 470–481. Horrebow's Natural Hist. of Iceland (Lond.,
1758), p. 204–206. The numbers in this last author are given in
French inches (26 4-12 and 28 9-12), but we have reduced them
to English. Arago's number is 26 inches 1-6 lines, and he states
that the lowest it has been observed at Paris is 26 inches 25
ines (27.93 Eng. inches), reduced to zero.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
63
brown, red, and sometimes black. During such tem-
pests, the air, whistling through holes in the rocks,
produces the most singular tones, as of a natural
Eolian harp.*
The greatest advantage which the winds bring to
Iceland is the dispelling of those dense fogs that
gather on the land, sometimes covering only the
nountain-tops, at other times only the valleys.
These froströg, as they are called, are most com-
mon during the prevalence of sea-breezes passing
over large fields of drift-ice. The clouds are then
low, and the sky above blue and clear, when the
cloud-bow is sometimes seen like a bright arch, in
which the prismatic colours are seldom discernible.
In winter, the most usual winds are the north and
northwest, which increase the prevailing cold; in
summer, these alternate with the milder ones from
the northeast, east, and southeast.
Rain and hail are very frequent, while snow is
comparatively uncommon, and its flakes are remark-
able for their hexagonal form. Thunder is seldom
heard, though oftener in some parts of the island.
than in others, and in winter than in summer. Light-
ning is more common, and at times destructive, es-
pecially in the vicinity of subterranean fires and vol-
canic mountains.† The laptelltur, best known in
the western parts of the island, is a very curious
phenomenon, seen only in winter, during a strong
wind and drifting snow. At night the whole sky
seems on fire with a continual lightning, which
moves very slowly. This appearance frightens the
* Gliemann, p. 13, 16. Olafsen, th. i., p. 2, 208, 265; th. ii., p.
13, 14.
Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 16, 61, 97, 162. This phenome-
non, and some others formerly mentioned, seem to establish a
more intimate relation between the interior of the earth and its
external atmosphere than is generally admitted. M. Arago states,
that from the 21st September, 1833, to the end of August, 1835,
thunder was only once heard at Reikiavik.
64
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
Jaures excessively, and they often lose their cattle
by it, as the terrified animals, running about to avoid
it,fall over the rocks.*
·
An opinion has been very generally entertained,
that the climate of the northern regions of the earth
has in modern times greatly deteriorated, and the
history of Iceland has often been appealed to in
proof of this position. In a very interesting article
by the late Sir John Leslie, contained in a former
volume of the Edinburgh Cabinet Library,† the gener-
al question has been lately considered, and this the-
ory shown to be quite unfounded. We shall, there-
fore, only bring forward here a few of the numerous
facts relating to this island which go to support his
view. The names of Snioland and Iceland, given to
it by the first discoverers, and the reasons assigned
for these appellations, show that it was then as
much infested by summer snows and icebergs as at
the present time; the latter fact being confirmed by
the conflicts of the colonists with the polar bears,
only brought thither by the ice. The stunted growth
of the birch forests, which, covering the whole island,
enjoyed a better soil and more protection than at
present, strengthens the same conclusion. The trees
were indeed so small, that it is noticed as something
extraordinary, that two of the settlers were able to
construct a vessel of native wood sufficiently large
convey them to Norway. Even for building their
ouses and temples, they seem to have been depend-
unt either on drift-timber, or on that imported from
the mother-country. That those of the settlers who
had come from agricultural districts attempted to
raise grain, was only natural, and there is proof that
it sometimes succeeded. But this success was mere-
ly partial, in good years and warm situations; and
* Gliemann, p. 15. Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 208.
+ For the article referred to, see Polar Seas and Regions, chap.
i. No. XIV.of Harpers' Family Library.
.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
65
there is reason to believe that, with equal skill and
industry, the same might still be accomplished, as it
was in the south in the time of Arngrim Jonas.
That the attempts of Frederic V., about the middle
of the last century, to reintroduce agriculture into
the island failed, is undoubtedly true; but this was
caused by want of knowledge and perseverance on
the part of the natives, and the high expectations of
the Danish peasants, who were disappointed at not
raising crops equal in quality to those of Jutland.
According to Olafsen, the corn ripened as well as it
ever does in the Faroe Islands, and, as he says, there
is no proof that grain fully ripe and hard ever grew
in Iceland.*
Nothing has a greater effect on the temperature
than the vast shoals of Greenland ice that in some
years beleaguer its shores; but this appears to have
been equally abundant in former times as at the
present day. The worst season ever known in the
island was that of 1348, when the sea all round was
so completely frozen that they could ride from one
promontory to another. In the beginning of the
same century (1306), the ice on the northern coast
lay thirty feet deep the whole summer; and that this
was no new occurrence is shown by the years 1261
and 1233, in which it is said never to have been dis-
solved. We find, too, that in 1615 the ice surround-
ed the whole shore, and in 1639 came along the east
side to Reikianes, while in 1695 it reached even to
the Borgar Fiord. In the last century, the years
1717, 1742, 1784, 1792, were remarkably severe,
though not so intensely cold as 1348; and these
* Arn. Jonas Crymogea, p. 52. Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 182-
189, where a very curious account of these and some other at-
lempts may be found. He thinks that the moist and inconstant
weather had more effect on the imperfect ripening of the grain
than the want of heat.
† Annal. Isl. Langebek Scrip. Rer Dan., tom. iii., p. 91, 103,
127.
66
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
facts, to which many similar might be added, show
there is little reason to think that any considerable
change, either for better or worse, has taken place
in the climate of Iceland.*
The remarks here made leave no doubt that the
temperature varies much in different years; and to
this we must add, that the relative situation of the
land has more influence than its extent from north
to south seems at first to warrant. The northern
coast is sensibly more frigid than the southern, and,
when beset with ice, the cold is sometimes extreme-
ly intense, changing the summer into winter. In
the beginning of June, 1757, it was a hard frost at
midday, even under the clear rays of the sun, and
the grass had not then begun to grow. The cold
during the preceding year was still more severe;
snow fell on the 26th of June nearly two feet deep,
under which the grass indeed sprang, but was not
fit to be mowed until the end of August, when the
ice left the coast. The winter of 1753, '4 was the
most piercing the oldest inhabitants could recollect.
The living horses ate the dead; they even tried to
appease their hunger by the wood of their stalls,
earth, and other such substances. The sheep, also,
tore the wool from each other's backs. The very
rocks were rent with the cold, and cracks were
found in the earth forty fathoms long. Some small-
er spots, from their vicinity to the jökuls, are ex-
posed to such evils every year; as, for example,
Sneefield Strand, at the foot of the Dranga Jökul,
which in the beginning of September was covered
with thick snow, while on the opposite side of the
Isa Fiord it was sunshine and summer. In the
neighbourhood of the warm springs frost is almost.
unknown, but the weather is generally very incon-
stant.f
样
​* Olafsen, th. ii., p. 157, 159.
Gliemann, p. 12.
+ Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 274; th. ii., p. 14, 15. Glieman,
p. 20.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND. 67
The longest day in the southern part of the island
is twenty hours; in the northern, more than twenty-
three and a half; and from May to September there
is no night. At the winter solstice the sun is seldom
seen, yet the refracted beams give a full light. In
the height of summer the solar disk appears always
above the horizon, but of a dark-red colour, and im-
parting little warmth. From the obliquity of its
rays, the heat does little more than melt the crust
of frozen earth, which is usually four feet thick.
In the long winter nights, on the other hand, the
whiteness of the ice and snow, the light of the moon
and stars, and the fitful gleams of the aurora, com-
pensate in no small degree for the want of the
brighter luminary.
The Northern Lights, though not peculiar to Ice-
land, are seen frequently, and with great brilliancy;
sometimes covering the sky with yellow, green, and
purple flames. This light, reflected from the snow
or ice, is also a remarkably beautiful phenomenon,
as well as the cloud-bow and laptelltur formerly
mentioned. Halos both of the sun and moon are
well-known, and mock-suns are so frequent that the
natives have names for the different varieties.
In
the severe winter of 1615, it is related that the sun,
when seen, was accompanied by two, four, five, and
sometimes even nine of these illusions. The effect
of atmospherical refraction in elevating distant ob-
jects is familiar to the Icelanders, who call it upphil-
lingar, and regard it as a presage of good weather.
Fireballs are most common during earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions, and falling stars are seen at all
times.*
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 161, 162. An extraordinary dis-
play of these last is noted in the old annals (Langebek, tom. iii.,
p. 34) as having been observed on the fifth of the kalends of
November, in the year 977. This circumstance is curious, as
connected with the recurrence of this phenomenon, which has
of late years excited so much attention. The date, allowing
for difference of style, would be the fourth or fifth of that month.
68
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
That this severe and inconstant climate can have
no beneficial effect on any of the organized objects
placed within its influence, will easily be believed.
The vegetable and animal kingdoms both suffer from
it, and manifest its inhospitable nature by the pau-
city of their species as well as by their diminutive
size. Even the human race, though, from their ra-
tional endowments, better qualified to guard against
its immediate effects, are yet compelled to own its
all-powerful sway. To it they must adapt their
mode of living, their food, dress, and employments,
and this its indirect operation produces the most im-
portant results. These, however, are more closely
connected with a subsequent part of our inquiry, and
it is sufficient here to have alluded to them.
With all its disadvantages, there is one benefit
which the Icelanders derive from the ocean which
perhaps more than compensates their other priva-
tions. It is only in some seasons that the ice which
it bears on its bosom remains so long as to prove
highly prejudicial, but every year it casts on the
shore vast heaps of drift-wood, which supply the
natives with fuel and materials for building. This
timber appears to come from two directions; the
current from the northern coast of Asia bringing it
from the east, and the American or Mexican Gulf
stream from the southwest. Owing to the general
course of these, it is found in greatest quantities on
the northwestern side. The fiords in Strande Sys-
sel receive it in most abundance, and in many of
them it is seen piled up several yards thick, partly
covered with sand or wild plants, and is often quite
fresh. Trees, with their bark and roots, are also
very commonly found in good condition, having,
from being enveloped in ice either before or soon
after they fell into the water, been preserved from
injury and waste. The wood on the northwestern
coast consists of the pine, Scotch fir, lime-tree, birch,
willow, mahogany, Campeachy wood, and the cork-
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
69
tree; on the east are found Scotch fir, silver-fir,
birch, willow, and juniper; on the coast near Lan-
ganes, the Scotch and silver fir prevail. Associated
with these come dead whales and seals, which are
a great prize to the poor inhabitants. These have
probably been killed by the icebergs, which often
move faster than a boat can row, and, when dashing
together, sometimes by their friction set fire to the
wood contained in them.*
CHAPTER II.
Topography of Iceland.
Ancient and Modern Division of the Island.--South Amt.-Rei-
kiavik, History and Appearance.-Videy.-Printing-office.—
Reikianes.-Essian.-Reikholt Snorra-laug.-Cave of Surt-
shellir.-Skalholt, deserted Appearance of.-Thingvalla.-Al-
mannagiaa.-Westmanna Islands.-Portland.-Kirkiubaer.-
North Amt.-Diupavog.-Eskifiordr.-Vale of the Lagerfliot.
Husevik, curious Statue.-Grimsoe, unhealthy Climate.-
Holum.-Antiquities.-West Amt.-General Appearance.-
Mode of travelling in.-Winds.-Inhabitants.-Salt-works.
-Flatey.-Sneefield.-Helgafell.- Stappen.- Londragur.-
Stappen.-Londragur.-
Elldborg. Baula.
ICELAND, according to the old constitution, was
divided into four quarters, named, from the four
cardinal points of the compass, the Sunlendinga,
Westfyrdinga, Nordlendinga, and Austfyrdinga Fi-
ordungr. This distinction, founded on the natural
peculiarities of the country, continued till the erd
of the last century, and is still recognised in all
works descriptive of the island. But in 1770 it
was formed into two amts or provinces, to which, in
* Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 264, 271-273. Gliemann, p. 66.
70
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
1787, a third was added, the western quarter retain-
ing its former dimensions, while the eastern was di-
vided between the north and south. Each of these
is subdivided into syssels or counties, of which the
south contains seven, the north and west six each,
and these are again cut up into hreppar or parishes,
every one of which, by the old laws, ought to con-
tain at least twenty farmhouses.*
South Iceland, including the southwest corner of
it, though situated under the mildest climate, is by
no means the most beautiful or fertile portion. The
volcanic eruptions, of which it is the principal scene,
have torn up and deformed its surface, while its
soil is in general far from being rich or productive.
It is separated from East Iceland by the Solheima
Sand, from the north by the great mountains and jö-
kuls, from the west district by the Borgar Fiord and
Hvitau, and comprehends about 3500 square miles.
The population in 1801 was 17,159, but five years
afterward it had decreased to 16,511. This province
contains Reikiavik, the principal, or, rather, the only
town in the island, which is placed on the south-
eastern side of the Faxa Fiord, in a low narrow
plain, enclosed on the right and left by two small
hills, and behind by a lake. It consists of only two
streets, one along the coast, and another running at
right angles from the west end of it, distinguished
by the public buildings. These are the church, con-
structed of stone, covered with tiles, and not in
very good repair; the prison, erected in 1759; and
the houses of the governor, bishop, and some oth-
ers. The private dwellings, with one or two ex-
ceptions, are built of wood, in the Norwegian fash-
ion, in the midst of small gardens enclosed by turf
walls. This town is only of recent origin, though
its name occurs in the early history of the island as
the residence of Ingolf, the first colonist; and in
J
* Hassel Erdbeschreibung, vol. x., p. 233. Gliemann, p. 184.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
71
Olafsen's time, the foundation of the house where
he drew his ship ashore was still pointed out. At-
tention seems to have been first turned to this
place in the middle of the last century, when a com-
pany for the carrying on woollen manufactures was
established there by the king. They received a
grant of money, and also of the farm of Reikiavik,
on which to raise their buildings, and to try the ex-
periment of growing corn. In 1806, the number of in-
habitants was 446, of whom twenty-seven were con-
fined in the prison, and at present it is about 700: a
miserable population for the capital of an island more
extensive than Ireland. It is, however, the largest
town in the country, and contains the supreme
court of justice, the Royal Icelandic Society, insti-
tuted in 1794, a branch of the Icelandic Literary So-
ciety, formed at Copenhagen in 1816, a Bible Soci-
ety, one of the results of the mission of Dr. Hen-
derson in 1815, and a public library, commenced in
1821, and now containing above 8000 volumes: in-
stitutions which prove that the inhabitants have not
forgotten their wonted literary aspirations.
The harbour is one of the best in the island, hav-
ing excellent ground for anchoring, and being pro-
tected from the heavy swell by a number of small
islets. The commerce of this place is considerable;
and, besides the packet from Copenhagen once a
year, it is visited by many merchant-ships from
Denmark and other countries. From the 25th of
June to the end of July an annual fair is held, fre-
quented by the natives of North and West Iceland,
when they carry thither oil, fish, tallow, butter, fox
and swan skins, and other native produce, which
they exchange for meal, iron, linen and cotton cloth,
tobacco, spirits, coffee, and similar luxuries. These
strangers live in tents, and the town during their
stay has an appearance of bustle and activity very
unlike its aspect throughout the remainder of the
year.
72
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
On a rising ground in the neighbourhood is placed
an observatory, built in the year 1774. It is in lon-
gitude 21° 55' west of Greenwich, and in latitude
640 8' north. At a little distance in the bay is the
island of Videy, where was formerly a monastery
founded in the year 1226, and on which Chief-jus-
tice Stephensen, so well known for his hospitality
to strangers, latterly resided. It possesses now the
only printing-press in the country, which, though it
belongs to the government, is rented to the occupier
for 200 crowns a year. On the mainland, in the
vicinity of the town, are also several hot springs,
from which its name is derived.*
·
On a promontory running into this bay a little far-
ther south is Bessastadir, where is now the only
Latin school in the island. Hafna Fiord, one of the
small trading stations, and formerly much frequent-
ed by the English, consists of a few houses lying
below a lava-cliff. This we may consider the com-
mencement of the southwestern promontory which
ends in Cape Reikianes. The whole district bears
evident marks of volcanic fires, and some of its
mountains have lately been in a state of activity: a
remark which applies also to the small islets or
rocks of Elldey and the Geirfulga Skiaer, forming,
as it were, its continuation into the sea. On the
southern coast are the small fishing village of Grin-
davik, and Krisuvik, celebrated for its hot springs
and sulphur mines.
On the western coast, north of Reikiavik, is
Saurbær, near which the first Christian church was
built by Oerlyg Rapson, a scholar of Patrick, bishop
of the Hebrides, and dedicated by him to St. Co-
lumba. The mountain Essian, south of Hval Fiord,
is remarkable for its precipitous cliffs, 2700 feet
high, which run along the shore several miles with-
* Henderson, vol. i., p. 10-12, vol. ii., p. 159, 169. Macken-
zie, p. 79-83, 204.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
73
Ou varying in elevation. Akkrefell, now well
known from the interesting geological description
given of it by Mackenzie, lies on the north of this
frith, and, though somewhat lower, is yet similar in
structure and appearance. At its foot is situated In-
dreholm, where are some fine-wooled Spanish.
sheep, and a curious water-mill, said to be the only
one in Iceland.* Farther north is Leiraa, where
there was formerly a printing-office in a miserable
wooden building in the midst of a bog. Here some
books were published in the native language, among
which Sir George found a poetical translation of
Pope's Essay on Man.†
Reikholt in this district, on the south side of the
Hvitau, is well known to the lovers of ancient Ice-
landic literature as the residence of the famous
Snorro Sturleson, and the place where he was as-
sassinated. The remains of the virki, or fortifica-
tions which he erected to protect himself from his
numerous enemies, are still pointed out to the trav-
eller. But the Snorra-laug or bath, formed by the
waters of one of the hot springs which have given
a designation to this spot, is a still nobler monu-
ment of his ingenuity. This, according to the Land-
nama, was used as early as 960, but was so much
improved by the celebrated historian as to receive
his name. It is fifteen feet in diameter, and con-
structed of hewn stones closely fitted and cement-
ed with a kind of bolus found in the vicinity. It
is also paved with similar stone, and surrounded
by a bench formed of the same material, and capa-
ble of holding upward of thirty persons. Though
600 years have elapsed since its formation, the
structure is nearly as perfect as at first, and is often
used by the natives.‡
* Hooker, vol. i., p. 286.
+ Mackenzie, p. 135, 145, 153. Krug von Nidda, Karsten's
Archiv., vol. vii., p. 445.
‡ Landnamabok, p. 160. Henderson, vol. ii., p. 142.
74
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
•
But this specimen of the skill of the old inhabi-
tants is surpassed in interest by one of those won-
derful productions of subterranean fire which are
found everywhere in this country. We mean the
cavern of Surtshellir, the largest and most remark-
able, both in its appearance and origin, in the whole
island. It lies in a tract of distorted lava which
has flowed from the Bald or Geitlands Jökul north-
ward into one of the sources of the Hvitau. In
describing this cave we shall follow the account of
the Danish travellers, which is the most circum-
stantial, and agrees in all important points with
those of more recent visiters. At the entrance
they found the roof fallen down about a gunshot in
length, so that in this part it resembled a long rent,
twenty or thirty feet deep, covered with pieces of
broken lava. At the end of this was a dark open-
ing thirty-six feet high and fifty-four wide, forming
the mouth of the real cave, which has generally the
same dimensions. Here they lighted a large wax
candle, brought with them from Copenhagen on pur-
pose, and proceeded into the interior, the roof of
which was hung with stalactites, its walls glazed,
and its floor covered with fallen fragments. They
next passed a hole in the roof, and soon after came
to two side-openings running at an acute angle with
the main approach. The one on the right contained
some bones of oxen and stones placed as if for a
fire, but nothing else worth noticing; the other, on
the opposite side, is larger and more curious, and is
named the Viiget or Intrenchment Cave, from a wall
built across it at a little distance from the entrance.
As it is about eight feet above the floor of the prin
cipal vault, and is darker, it formed the most secure
retreat for the robbers and other outlaws who in
former times frequented this place, and is mentioned
as such in the Sturlunga Saga.* In it they found a
* B. v., cap. 46.
:
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
75
number of bones of sheep and oxen, retaining their
original form and colour, but so much decayed as
scarcely to bear their own weight, and easily crum-
bled by the fingers. It is fifty fathoms long, and
in the middle there is a small pool of water, nearly
two feet deep, but frozen at the bottom.
After leaving this chamber they proceeded far-
ther into the great cavern, when they soon encoun-
tered a wall dividing it into two apartments, one of
which, however, soon terminated. In the other
they passed some more openings in the roof, and a
pool of water, also frozen at the bottom, which had
stopped Olafsen on a former visit, being then too
deep for him to ford. To this point the walls had
been found glazed and the roof adorned with various
stalactites of lava, but here both of these appear-
ances vanished. After passing the fourth opening
the ground descended rapidly, the darkness increas-
ed, the air grew thick and close, and the cold be-
came more intense. The floor was covered with
ice, formed of curious five and seven sided cones
or prisms, having much the appearance of the
second stomach of a ruminating animal. At last
they came to a heap of stones, near which was a
piece of birch-wood retaining its form, but quite de-
cayed and broken in two, showing that some time
previously this place had been visited by men.
They repaired this pyramid, and left on it two
coins, together with their seals impressed on wax.
Henderson found the larger coin (the smaller, as he
supposes, having fallen down among the stones),
and also the impressions in wax, though nearly ob-
literated. About 220 paces farther on they reach-
ed the end of the cave, stopped up with stones;
upon which they returned, carefully pacing the dis-
tance to the last opening in the roof, where they
got out, and measured the remainder above ground.
According to this estimate, the whole length is 5034
feet, or rather less than an English mile, to which
76
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
it must nearly approach, as there are several wind-
ings in the interior.
This cave was famed even in the first ages of
Icelandic tradition, when it was believed to be in-
habited by a giant named Surtur or the Black, in
honour of whom one of the skalds, named Thor-
wald, composed a song and sung it at the mouth of
the den. This jotun is probably that mythological
person, the god of fire, to whom the Edda ascribes
the destruction of the world, and who could scarcely
have found a more appropriate dwelling. The fable
probably arose from the name of the retreat, which
properly is Hellerin Sortur, or the Black Cave.. In
the tenth century it found more dangerous inmates
in a band of robbers named Hellismenn, who took
up their abode here and lived on plunder, but who
were at last waylaid in a neighbouring valley and
slain. The peasants, however, still regard it as the
abode of spirits, and never venture to explore its
dark recesses. *
In this province, on the southern side of the
chain of jökuls, are some remarkable places. Hau-
kadal, where are the geysers already noticed, is
also famous as the birthplace of the historian Are
Frode, and near it are the remains of a bath dedica-
ted to St. Martin. Farther south is the old episcopal
see of Skalholt, in a plain full of springs, near
the union of the Bruarau with the Hvitau. This
was the first establishment of the kind in Iceland,
having been founded in 1056; but the prelate, as
already noticed, now resides in the capital, and the
cathedral, said to have been the most magnificent
building in the country, has been replaced by a
small wooden church. The relics of the first bish-
op, St. Thorlak, whose name is or was lately in the
calendar, were, together with his coffin, long pre-
* Olafsen, th. i., p. 127-135, and plate xv., which contains a
ground-plan. Henderson, vol. ii., p. 189-198. Landnamabok
p 46, 220.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
vay vay
served here. This ancient capital of Iceland, the
Athens of the North in the middle ages, is now a
miserable hamlet inhabited by three families. The
traveller, turning round the corner of a hill, is sur-
prised when his guide exclaims that here was the
residence of the learned and pious of former days!
But its glory has now departed; and the large bury-
ing-ground, with its tombs, alone tells of its previous
comparative greatness !*
At some distance westward, and on the banks of
the lake formerly described, lies Thingvalla, the
court valley, the scene of many of the most interest-
ing recollections of the Icelanders. It is a wide
plain composed entirely of lava, the different layers
of which are seen in the sides of the rents and fis-
sures that everywhere intersect it. On the east and
west it is bounded by two of the largest of these, the
Hrafnagiaa and the Almannagiaa, running parallel to
each other at about ten miles' distance, and is divi-
ded by the river Oxeraa. The general assembly of
the nation was instituted at this place in the year
928, and continued to be held here in the open air
till 1690, when a house was built for that purpose;
but in 1800 it was transferred to Reikiavik. The con-
sistory for ecclesiastical matters was convened on the
east side of the river; the political court, or Lavret,
on the west. The inhabitants still point out the
law-mount or Lagbierget, where causes were tried;
the island Thorlevsholm, in the Oxeraa, on which
criminals were beheaded; the pool in the same riv-
er, where female offenders, sewed in a sack, were
drowned; and, finally, a high rock on the east side
of the Almannagiaa, from the top of which such un-
fortunate persons as were condemned for witchcraft
were precipitated into the burning pile. The road
to the north still crosses this lonely plain, winding
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 228. Hooker's Travels, vol. i.
p. 197-201.
G
78
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
among the fissures in the lava, or descending the
stair-like chasms by which alone they can be crossed.
But the assemblies that formerly enlivened it are
now no more; and in this "spot of singular wild-
ness and desolation, on every side of which appear
the most tremendous effects of ancient convulsion
and disorder, Nature now sleeps in a deathlike si-
lence amid the horrors she has formed."*
The country to the southwest of the Hvitau is a
great plain, watered by the Thiorsau, Rangau, and
Markarfliot, and, unless where wasted by the erup-
tions of Hekla or Tindfiall, is fertile, though liable,
from its lowness, to be overflowed by the rivers.
Breidabolstadr, and Odda, the residence of Sæmund
Frode, the author of the old or poetic Edda, are the
only places worthy of notice in this district. Near
the coast are the Westmanna Eyar or Islands, so
named from ten Irish slaves who took refuge here
after killing their master, Thorleif, in the year 875.
They are fourteen in number, but only four are cov-
ered with grass, and only one inhabited. This and the
rest of the group are mostly lava, amid rocks of which
is the harbour usually frequented by foreign vessels
for the purposes of the fishery. From their unprotect
ed situation, these islands were much exposed to the
depredation of pirates; and in 1627, some Barbary
corsairs landed upon them, killed the priest, Jon
Thorstensen, one of the best poets of his time, and
carried away many of the natives. After this, a
small castle was built, which has now fallen into
ruins. †
The Syssels of West and East Skaptaafells, com-
prising the greater part of the south coast, are the
most thinly peopled in the island, the soil being al-
most entirely destroyed by ice or by the lava of the
jökuls, while the numerous sandbanks and break-
* Mackenzie, p. 318, 209. Olafsen, th. ii., p. 171, 227. Hen.
derson, vol. i., p. 31.
↑ Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 131. Gliemann, p. 195.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
79
ers prevent the successful prosecution of the fishery,
Portland's Huk, latitude 63° 25', is the most south-
ern point in Iceland, but remarkable for nothing else.
Near it is the moutain Dyrholar, rising from the flat
sandy beach, and named from the two door-looking
holes which pierce its summit. Thykkabaer was
formerly a convent of Augustin monks, founded in
1169, while the Benedictines, in 1185, took posses-
sion of Kirkiubaer, where is a curious group of ba-
saltic pillars, on one of which, placed at the church
door, an ancient Runic inscription is engraved. Here
the Papar, or believers in the gospel, had formerly
dwelt, and no heathen dared to reside on this holy
spot, as they were sure to sicken and die. Ketell
Fifiski, a Christian settler, at last took possession
of it, and built a church here, probably the first in
the island. Ingolfshofde is famous as the place
where the first colonist landed in Iceland, and re-
sided for some time; and on a hill named Godaberg,
in the vicinity, is seen an old pagan altar. The only
other place we shall notice is Loon, near the Wes-
turhorn, the dwelling of Ulfliot, author of the first
system of Icelandic law.*
The Northern Amt or Province contains the whole
of the ancient division of that name, together with
the most populous part of the former eastern quar-
ter, known as the Mule Syssels. It is separated from
the Southern Amt by the desert and mountains of
the interior, and from the western by a line drawn
along the valley of the Hruta Fiord to the sources
of the Hvitau and Bald Jökul. Its extent is about
3500 square miles, and it contained, in 1801, 16,075,
and in 1806, only 15,860 inhabitants. The Mule
Syssels, on the east coast, are intersected by nu-
merous fiords, on whose banks the dwellings of the
natives are scattered in greater profusion than in any
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 72, 124. Gliemann, p. 198-201
Landnama, p 143, 310.
80
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
other part of Iceland. Diupavog, on the Beru Fiord,
shut in by the lofty Bulandstindr and the sea, is a
small trading village, remarkable for its curious trap
veins, or devil's walls, as they are designated by the
neighbouring peasantry. At some distance in the
sea is the island Papey, where the Christian fisher-
men are said to have dwelt, and, though only about
a mile in diameter, is the largest on that coast.
Eskifiordr, one of the four towns of Iceland, lies in
a tolerably fertile plain, at the foot of the Holmafiall,
a curious, four-sided, pyramidal-looking mountain,
about 3000 feet high. The Rode or Reidar Fiord
forms here a good harbour, and the town carries on
a considerable trade.
The vale of the Lagerfliot, commonly called the
Herred, is accounted one of the most beautiful and
fertile districts in the country. The river, like a
peaceful lake, flows down the centre, adorned with
many small islets, while on its sides the grass fields
alternate with clumps of birch, willow, and juniper.
The first of these trees is often seen twenty feet
high, and wood fit for building houses is only found
here. The streams of lava, which have desolated
so many of the finest parts of Iceland, have not yet
forced their way into this peaceful retreat, where the
farmhouses are seen in close succession, without
those frightful deserts that divide them in other
quarters. Numerous passes lead through the hills
into the valleys on the south coast; and it often hap-
pens that the inhabitants of these have to enter the
Lagerfliot by one ravine and leave it by another, be-
fore they can go into the next vale, as the mountain-
wall that divides them is on some occasions alto-
gether impassable.*
Notwithstanding its situation, the northern coast
has many advantages over the southern and even
* Olafsen s Reise, th. ii., p. 60 Krug von Nidda, Karsten's
Archiv., vol. vii., p. 433.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
81
the western parts of the island. The climate is but
little inferior, the soil is deeper, the vegetation more
luxuriant, and reaches higher up the sides of the
hills, which are freer from snow. It is also inter-
sected by many fiords and rivers, in which fish are
very abundant, and its inhabitants. in good seasons,
are thereby well supplied with food. We have al-
ready mentioned the most considerable friths and
rivers, and also the volcanic phenomena of the My-
vatn Lake and its neighbouring mountains, so that
we have only to notice a few of the more remarka-
ble localities. Husevik, on the eastern side of the
Skialfande Bay, is one of the principal trading towns;
but, as the coast is thirty feet above the level of the
sea, and the landing thereby rendered difficult, all the
goods must be conveyed to and from the ships by
means of a crane. Here Gardar landed in 864, and
from the huts which he erected for passing the win-
ter the place received its present name. The warm
springs at Graeniadarstadir, in the stream flowing
from which the trout are said to become so fat that the
natives cannot eat them, and the small lake of Liosa
Vatn, which ebbs and flows with the tide, are the most
curious phenomena in this part of the country.*
Akureyre or Eya Fiord is, next to Reikiavik, the
most important commercial station in the island,
and possesses a good harbour. It contains about
twenty edifices constructed of wood, three of which
are warehouses, and near them are some gardens
The chief articles of export are salt beef, fish, oil,
tallow, wool, woollen goods, and skins. Being sit-
uated at the end of the long, narrow Eya Fiord, it
is often difficult for ships, particularly in spring, to
reach it, owing chiefly to the numerous mountain-
torrents that fall into the bay. The depth of water
is usually eighty fathoms, and the position of the
town is in lat, 65° 40′ 30″ N., long. 18° W. from
* Olafsen's Reise, th. ii, p. 9. Gliemann, p. 208, 209.
82
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
Greenwich. On a hill in the vicinity is an old church,
in which is a curious statue cut out of wood. It is
the size of life, and represents a man crowned, with
nis face to the altar, and his right foot on the neck
of another lying on the ground. The figure is said
to be that of St. Olaf trampling on one of his hea-
then foes; and this king is believed to have sent it
along with the materials of the church.*
Siglu Fiord, on the promontory westward from
the Õe Fiord, is one of the best fishing-stations for
herring, which usually arrive on the coast in im-
mense shoals in the months of June and July; and
it is said that one hundred and fifty barrels are often
taken at a single haul. Hofsos, on the eastern side
of the Skaga Fiord, is a trading station, but with a
bad harbour, and little frequented.† Holum, at some
distance from the coast, is beautifully situated in the
rich valley of Hialtadal. The place now consists of
a few edifices, the most remarkable of which is the
cathedral, built of red sandstone, with a wooden tow-
er, and the house of the last bishop, also of wood,
and the only one of two stories in the island. The
church was repaired in 1757, and is one of the best
in the country. The altar-piece, cut out of wood,
represents the crucifixion, and is said to have been
a present from the pope to Jon Oegmundson, the
first bishop, who was elected in 1106. Northward
of this edifice is a long hollow way, formed by the
last Catholic prelate, Jon Areson, as a retreat from
his enemies. Before the altar is the tombstone of
Gudbrand Thorlakson, the translator of the Bible
whose memory is still revered by his countrymen
for his pious and benevolent labours. In the print-
ing-office here he completed the first edition of the
Scriptures in his native tongue, and two other im-
pressions afterward followed. The bishopric, and
also the school, which was founded at the same pe-
*
Olatsen, th. ii., p. 8.
† Mackenzie, p. 234, 235.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
83
riod, after existing nearly seven centuries, were sup-
pressed in 1801, being united with those in the south,
to the great inconvenience of the northern province.
At Hof, in the neighbourhood, is an old heathen
sacrifice-stone; and south of it, at Aas, a Christian
church was erected in 985, fifteen years before this
religion was established by the Althing.*
Only a few other places in this province are any
way remarkable, as the small trading-town of Ska-
gastrand, on the east side of the great bay of the
same name; and Breidabolstadr, on a small lake,
where the first printing-press was erected, in 1543,
by Jon Matthieson, a Swedish priest. A little south-
ward from this, on the Videdalsau, is an old castle,
almost the only thing of the kind in the island. It
stands on a basaltic rock about sixty feet high and
400 yards in circumference, with a fine spring of
water in the centre, and is thought to have been
erected either during the wars of the Sturlunga, in
the 12th and 13th centuries, or, more probably, at a
still earlier period.†
The West Amt comprises the whole of northwest-
ern Iceland, and corresponds with the more ancient
division of the Westfyrdinga Fiordungr. It is the
smallest of the three provinces, containing only
about 1400 square miles, and a population which in
1806 amounted to 13,978, being almost exactly the
same as it was five years before. Besides Snee-
fieldnes and the other districts on the Faxa and Bre-
ida Fiords, it includes the whole peninsula, which is
almost detached from the rest of the island, the dis-
tance from the Gils Fiord to the opposite coast be-
ing only seven miles. The inhabitants, accordingly,
have little intercourse either with their distant
countrymen or with strangers, and retain more of
the original manners of their Scandinavian ances
tors than are found in the other districts.
* Henderson, vol. i, p. 105-113. Gliemann, p. 216.
Mackenzie, p. 235. Olafsen, th. ii., p. 64. 65.
84
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
As already mentioned, this peninsula is visited by
few strangers, and those are generally of a charac-
ter that renders them very unwelcome to the natives,
being criminals who take refuge in this wild district,
where the magistrates cannot exercise their full au-
thority. Travellers, on this account, are regarded
with suspicion and even terror by the simple in-
habitants, many of whom have never been out of
their own parish. Their principal employments are
feeding cattle, fishing, and manufacturing articles
from the drift-wood found on the coast, which they
execute with great neatness, and in former times a
considerable trade in this kind of commodity was
carried on with no small advantage. On the eastern
shore there are no places worth noticing till we
reach the North Cape, which is about 1800 feet high,
and, like most of the surrounding hills, composed
of naked rocks. The country on the other side,
named the West Fiords, has, from the number of
those inlets by which it is intersected, been com-
pared to an outspread hand, though this can give no
idea of the immense quantity of smaller or second-
ary fiords that pierce it in every direction. The
largest is the Isafiardardiup, the northern side of
which is almost entirely covered by the lofty Snae-
fiall, while the south is fertile, and contains clumps
of birch and mountain-ash, the latter sometimes six-
teen feet in height. At Reikianes, a little eastward
of Vatns Fiord in this bay, a salt manufactory was
established in 1773. There were at first three pans,
which were afterward increased to thirty-two, and
warmed by the water of a spring in the neighbour
hood, with a temperature of 1910 Fahrenheit. But
this adventure, an almost solitary instance of the
Icelanders turning these fountains to any use, was
persevered in only thirteen years, when it was fina`-
ly abandoned.*
* Giemann. p. 230.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
85
in Bardestrands and Dale Syssels, on the north
and east of the Breida Fiord, there are few remark-
able places, with the exception of the island Flatey,
which is distant about ten miles from the coast. It
formerly contained a monastery, and in it, about the
year 1440, the celebrated manuscript known as the
Codex Fiateyensis was written, which was afterward
carried to Denmark, and deposited in the Royal Li-
brary at Copenhagen. Many groups of small ba-
saltic island, mostly uninhabited, lie in the bay
around it.
In
The promontory of Sneefield stretches nearly fifty
miles into the sea, with a breadth varying from ten
to twenty-five. A high mountain-range, probably a
branch of the northern jökuls, runs along it, and ter-
minates where the other meets the waves. This
chain is closer to the northern coast, where it forms
numerous elevated points, while on the south a
more extensive tract of flat land intervenes.
some parts this tract is sandy, though in general
wet and covered with an abundance of fine grass.
It was from one of the islets in the Hvam Fiord,
near Breidabolstadr, that Eric the Red sailed in 983
for the discovery of Greenland. To the westward
of this is Helgafell, one of the greatest heathen tem-
ples in Iceland, where a remarkable sacrifice-stone
is still seen. Thorolf, one of the first settlers in this
place, believed that after death himself and relations
would inhabit this mountain; on which account it
acquired so sacred a character that no one was per-
mitted to kill any species of animal on it, or even to
drive them off when they took refuge there. Here,
also, one of the provincial courts was held, until the
place was desecrated by blood shed in a quarrel.*
The coast near Stappen, a small trading-town,
presents some of the most singular and beautiful
rock scenery in the island. The Londrangar, two
* Henderson, vol. ii., p. 68. Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 194.
II
86
TOPOGRAPHY OF ICELAND.
natural obelisks rising from the sea, first meet the
traveller from the west, of which the largest is 240
feet high, and only about thirty-five broad at the
base. The rocks at Stappen nearly resemble those
of Staffa in the Hebrides. Curious groups of ba-
saltic pillars, generally vertical, at other times in-
clined or horizontal, and worn by the waves into
fantastic forms, line the coast, presenting an object
of great interest to the geologist. Not less curious
is the Saunghellir or Singing Hole, which is visited
by all travellers. It is an egg-shaped cavity, hol-
lowed out by the wind in a sandstone cliff, and is
fifteen feet high by ten broad. The entrance is by
a small opening, and the inside is covered with in-
scriptions, mostly rhymes and magical characters,
among which Olafsen observed the date 1483. When
one sings or hums gently, the vaulted roof echoes
the notes in a murmuring, melancholy tone.*
Myre Sissel, which alone remains to complete our
circuit of the island, receives its name from the
marshes that abound in its western and southwest-
ern districts, to such an extent as to make many
places impassable, unless in winter, when they are
frozen over.
It, however, contains the finest mead-
ows in the country, on which the grass is some-
times found more than four feet high. This re-
gion, lying in the line which joins Sneefield to the
central jökuls, contains many volcanic cones, hot
springs, and other marks of the agency of internal
fires. In Hytardal is the volcano of Husafell, where
the lava forms numerous caves, some of them of
great extent; and near this is also the Elldborg or
"fortress of fire," so named from the resemblance
of its crater to the walls of a castle. On West-
ern Skarsheide there are also seven curious cones,
formed of fragments of vitrified lava, and extending
* Olafsen, th. i, p. 145, 146. Henderson, vol. ii., p. 36, 46
Mackenzie, p. 173-175. Landnama, p. 75.
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND.
87
in a direct line from east to west. The Baula
Mountain in this syssel has hitherto proved inacces-
sible; and the natives believe that on its summit is
an entrance to a rich and beautiful_country, con-
stantly green, abounding in trees, and inhabited by
a dwarfish race of men, whose sole care is feeding
their flocks of sheep.*
CHAPTER III.
Colonization of Iceland, and History of the Heather
Age.
Peculiarities of Icelandic History.-Not the Thule of the An
cients.-Naval Expeditions of the Old Scandinavians.-Nad-
dod discovers Iceland.-Gardar.-Rafna Floki.-Papar, or
British Christians.-Ingolf, Founder of the Republic.-Mur-
der of Leif.-Causes of Emigration. Mode of conducting it.
-Government.- Division of the Island.- Hreppa. Poor-
laws.- Heralds.- Godar.-Hereditary Magistrates.-Courts
of Justice.-Old Oath.-Lagmann.-Álthing.- Christian Col-
onists. Thorwald, first Missionary.-Olaf Tryggvason.-
Thangbrand.-Gissur.-Debate in the Althing.-Conversion
of the Nation.-Heathen Manners.-Religion.-Temples.-
Sacrifices.--Superstitions.-Trials by Ordeal.-Single Com-
bat.-Piratical Expeditions.-Treatment of Women.-Hous
es.-Feasts.
THE history of Iceland is distinguished from that
of every other nation by some singular and striking
peculiarities, arising, for the most part, from its ait
uation and physical constitution. Separated from
other countries by a wide and stormy ocean, it p
sesses no internal riches to induce strangers to seer
out its lonely shores. With the exception, there
fore, of a few transitory incursions of some wan
* Hooker, vol. i., p. 290.
88
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
dering bands of pirates, no hostile fleet has ever ap-
proached its coasts. Its intercourse with foreign
tates has been thus nearly confined to the peaceful
relations of commerce, and even these have been
limited to a few of the neighbouring kingdoms. The
internal distribution of the population, living in small
unconnected hamlets, divided by long tracts of des-
erɩ country, or almost impassable mountains; the
vant of large towns; and the scarcity of provis
ons, which rendered it impossible for even a few
hundred men to remain congregated in one place
for a short period without producing a famine, have
also impressed a peculiar aspect on its history.
War, properly speaking, has been unknown, the
petty feuds and combats of the early chieftains
scarcely deserving that name. Even these soon
ceased; for the turbulent spirit of the ancient North-
men, which had been encouraged by the freedom
of their first institutions, gradually disappeared un-
der the security of a foreign government. In its
annals, accordingly, we find few of those events
which fill so large a portion of the chronicles of
other countries more densely peopled, and placed
n more immediate contact with rival powers. The
contests of man with man gives place to the picture
of man struggling with the elements-the tempest,
the volcano, and the earthquake-for a miserable
existence, and yet preserving amid all the vicissi-
tudes of his lot the advantages of civilization, liter-
ature, and religion. These facts impart a moral
interest to the history of Iceland, and invest it with
a charm it would not otherwise possess. The most
incurious cannot look with indifference on the spec-
tacle of a people, seemingly condemned by nature
to spend their lives in laborious poverty and igno-
rance, becoming the poets and historians of the
age, and creating a national literature amid the per-
petual snows and lava-fields of this remote island.
Even the record of the physical calamities. the fam-
:
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 89
ines, pestilences, and volcanoes that have ravaged
this devoted land, thus acquire an additional inter-
est from our admiration of the energy of spirit
which could preserve the love of science under the
pressure of such complicated misfortunes. The
history of this community is also of importance, as
teaching us never to despair of humanity; and
proving that no outward circumstances can pre-
clude the cultivation of literature, and the elevation
of the popular character by the arts of social life.
Notwithstanding the praiseworthy diligence of the
native annalists, the ancient history of Iceland has
not escaped those doubtful questions which abound
in the early records of almost every nation. The
Greek geographer Strabo relates the voyage of a
citizen of Marseilles, named Pytheas, to some of the
most distant parts of Northern Europe, and, among
others, to the island of Thule. Relative to that
country he brought back many wonderful reports,
some of which are undoubtedly fabulous, while oth-
ers contain much truth, though often exaggerated
or distorted. Of this kind are his statements re-
specting the length of the day and night, which he
makes equal to six months each, and also to the ex-
istence of a chaos of earth, sea, and air, there form-
ing the boundary of the universe. This last has
been supposed to be descriptive of those dense fogs
by which the Northern Ocean is often obscured for
many days. He is understood to have lived about
the period of Alexander the Great; and many ob-
scure notices of Thule are found in the subsequent
Greek and Roman authors. Notwithstanding the
skepticism of Strabo, who considered the whole
story as fictitious, much discussion has been em-
ployed in modern times with the view of determin-
ing the various points of the voyage, and especially
the locality of Thule, the supposed utmost limit of
the habitable world. A passage in the venerable
Bede has caused many learned men to give this hon.
90
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
our to Iceland, and believe that the Greek had visit-
ed its shores. But that this hypothesis is ground-
less, appears from the descriptions of Thule in the
classics, which, while they omit the most char-
acteristic features of Icelandic scenery, contain
many things quite inapplicable to this country.
From its almost constant conjunction in these an-
cient authors with Britain, there is every probability
that this land, if it ever had any fixed locality, and
was not merely an indefinite name for the northern
regions of the earth, must be sought among the isl-
ands on the north or west of Scotland. Without
farther notice, therefore, of the ancient Thule, we
will now pass on to the first discovery and coloni-
zation of Iceland transmitted to us by the native
historians.*
The numerous bays or fiords that intersect the
Nerwegian coast rendered some kind of navigation
indispensable to the inhabitants. All the intercourse
* Much of the disputation about Thule seems to have arisen
from authors not distinguishing the countries known under this
name at different times. In Strabo, Tacitus, and the other
Greek and Latin authors, down to Claudian, it seems to have
been some part of Britain, inhabited, if we may believe the last
by Picts.
"Maduerunt Saxone fuso
Orcades; incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule.
Scotorum cumulos flevit glacialis lerne."
DE QUART. CONS. HON., v. 34–36.
The expression of icy Frin in union with Thule is curious, as
scarcely even a poet who had heard of Iceland, with its jökuls,
would apply this term to Ireland. In the time of Procopius and
Jornandes, Thule was transferred to Scandinavia, the western
part of the empire being then nearly forgotten. At a still later
period, the monkish historians, Britain and the North being now
too well known, conferred the name on Iceland.*
* In the account of the voyage of Pytheas handed down to us by an
cient writers, it is related that this navigator, after passing round Albion
(Britain), took a northeasterly course, and in six days reached a country
called by its inhabitants Thule. If this statement be correct, it would
seem, from the direction and the time in making the voyage, to point to
some part of the coast of Norway as the true Ultima Thule--Am. Ed.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 91
of those ferocious pirates, calling themselves kings
of the sea, the island, or the cape, who then ruled
those regions in almost total independence on the
nominal sovereign, was conducted by water, on
which also they had their petty wars and plundering
expeditions. These soon led them beyond the lim-
its of their own land, and, directed only by the stars,
they made their way to every shore where there
was a foe to conquer or despoil. In their rude-
ly-constructed vessels they spread dismay through
France and Britain, taking permanent possession of
the Hebrides and Shetland. In one of these wan-
dering excursions, in which the winds or the waves
were frequently the sole guides, the Faroe Islands
were discovered, and, from their convenient harbours
and position, they became a favourite retreat of the
vikmgr, or sea-robbers. One of these, Naddod or
Naddoc, who had there found a refuge from the nu-
merous enemies his piracies had created, was, when
returning from Norway in 861, driven by a tempest far
from his course. He seemed lost in the vast ocean,
when an unknown land rose from the waves, to-
wards the eastern shore of which he directed his
vessel. Entering a bay, afterward distinguished as
the Reidar Fiord, the wanderer ascended the mount-
ain of the same name to obtain a view of the sur-
rounding country, that he might ascertain whether
it were inhabited. But all was still and silent; no
sound was heard, no smoke rose above the thick
woods that covered the valleys, no sign of man was
visible. Disappointed in his expectation, he imme-
diately set sail for Faroe, and a heavy shower of
snow having fallen on the mountains as he was
leaving the coast, he named his discovery Snæland,
from this untimely appearance.
The next whom fortune conducted to the shores
of that island was a Swede named Gardar, who
usually resided in Denmark; but, having fallen heir,
through his wife, to some property in the Hebrides,
22
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
hosaled hither in order to recover it. On this
voyage he also, after passing the Pentland Frith.
was driven by a violent storm westward into the
ocean, and at last reached the eastern coast of Ice
land. Here, following the counsels of his mother,
who was accounted a prophetess, he found a good
harbour near the present Austerhorn. From this
place, sailing round to the north, he entered the
Skial Fiord, where he built a house, in which he
passed the winter, at a spot called, on this account,
Husevik. This took place in the year 864; and,
having in the following summer completed his cir-
cumnavigation, he returned home. He gave a very
favourable account of the new region, which, having
now been proved to be an island, was named after
him, Gardarsholm.
These two discoverers of Iceland had visited it
only by chance, and contrary to their own inclina-
tions; but its fame, now diffused through the North,
impelled the adventurous Floki to explore its un
known shores. Though a pirate by profession (v:.
kıngr mikil), and accustomed to long voyages, the
ntried path he had now to pursue induced him to
have recourse to supernatural direction, the compass
being still unknown to these daring mariners
fore leaving his residence in Norway, he offered a
great sacrifice to his tutelary deity, and, consecra
ting three crows, with a mixture of prudence and
superstition, carried them along with him as the
mides of his future progress.* He touched at Shet-

Be.
* The crow was always a sacred bird in the North; but, as
few or none are found in Iceland. the poets and magicians there
made he raven supply its place. Those authors who wish to
cast doubt on these early records, represent this story as bor
>wed from that of Noa2m the Sacred Writings. But, besides be
similarity, we ray mertion that the inhabitants of Taprobane
Ceylon arcstated by Pliny to have used the same artifice when
averag the Indian Ocean.-Vid. Hist. Nat., lib. vi., cap. 22.
* The peasants of Sweden stijl have a superstitious respect for t
APPAL NEÀ cousider it sinful to kill one.-Am. Ed.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 93
land and Faroe, and, at a considerable distance from
the latter, suffered one of the birds to escape, which
directed its flight towards the islands they had last
left. Judging that these were still the nearest land,
he continued his voyage for some time, when he
had recourse to a second for advice. It rose to a
great height in the air, but, perceiving no rest for the
sole of its foot, returned to the ship, frightened by
the expanse of waters. The third, freed some days
afterward, proved more propitious, winging its way
to the wished-for shore, where Floki, following its
flight, soon arrived. Like his predecessors, he first
touched on the eastern coast, and, sailing thence
along the south and west, at fast landed at Vatns
Fiord, in Bardestrand. Here he intended to settle;
but having, in his eager pursuit of the fisheries, neg-
lected to collect sufficient food for his cattle, they all
died during the winter; and, disheartened by this loss,
he resolved to abandon the island. He, however,
spent the next summer in exploring the country, to
which, on account of the quantity of drift-ice he en-
countered in some of the northern bays, he gave
the name of Island or Iceland, which it has ever
since retained. Having passed a second winter
near Hafna Fiord, he returned to Norway in the
spring, where his ingenious method of directing his
voyage procured him the surname of Rafna Floki.*
None of these adventurers had yet formed any
permanent settlement in the island, though Floki
subsequently took up his residence there. It seems
to have been then entirely uninhabited, as they make
no mention either of having experienced opposition
in landing at the different points, or of seeing any
people in their explorations on shore. When the
Norwegian colonists, however, some time afterward,
settled in the country, they found in many places
* Landnamabok, p. 5-10, Torf. Hist. Nor., tom. 1., p. 94-99
Crymogea, p. 9, 10
94
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
signs of former visiters; consisting of books in the
Irish language (baekor Irskar), of bells, crosiers, and
various other articles. From these relics it has been
supposed that the adventurers must have been Chris-
tians either from the Western Isles of Scotland or
from Ireland; but, as they left no remains of houses
or churches, they were probably no more than tem-.
porary residents. Some imagine that they were
fishermen or pirates, who had taken up their abode
there only for a few weeks or months in the summer,
while others believe them to have been monks, who
sought for that holiness in the remote islands of the
ocean which they could not find in communion with
their fellow-men.*
Neither the repulsive name which Floki had con-
ferred on Iceland, nor the still more unfavourable
reports of its soil and climate which he spread
abroad on his return, prevented others from follow-
ing in his steps. This was no doubt partly owing
to the different account received from his associates,
one of whom, Thorolfr, asserted that the richness
of the soil was such that the very "grass dropped
butter." The immediate cause of the next emigra-
tion, however, was one of those quarrels ending in
bloodshed, only to be avenged by blood, so common
* Landnamabok, p. 2. Crymogea, p. 21. These strangers
were called Papa by the heathen colonists, it is said from Papa,
the pope. This derivation, however, seems doubtful, as a tribe
of the same name are mentioned along with the Petti as inhab-
iting the Orkneys, where they were extirpated by the North
men. The islands of Papey, on the southeast coast of Iceland,
of Papay in Orkney, and many other places, are supposed to be
named after them. The whole of their history is involved in
obscurity, and perhaps the old annalists had their reasons for
saying as little about them as possible.- Barry's History of the
Orkney Islands, p. 106, 107. The story of the conquest of this
island, along with the Scandinavian kingdoms, by Arthur and
his successor Malgo, found in Galfridus Monumetensis (Geoffrey
of Monmouth), has as little truth or probability as that of the
ariny of 120,000 soldiers sent from these countries, or islands, as
he calls them.-Vid. Hakluyt, vol. i., p. 1-3.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 95
in these times of war and violence. Ingolf and Leif
were two cousins whose fathers had been obliged to
leave their native province for murder; and the
friendship of the parents, which descended to the
children, was rendered more close by the mutual
love of Leif and the fair Helga, Ingolf's sister.
The two companions had joined in a piratical ex-
cursion with the three sons of Atli Jarl, one of the
most powerful of the Norwegian nobles; and, re-
turning with great spoil, which was divided among
them, it was agreed that the confederates should
continue their expeditions together the following
summer. At a feast given by the cousins in the in-
tervening winter, Holmstein, one of the sons of Atli,
vowed, according to the custom of the country, that
he would either wed Helga or no other. Leif was
not slow in manifesting his displeasure at this dec-
laration; and having soon after married the lady,
with the consent of her brother, he thereby pro-
voked still more the hatred of his rival.
The opponents having met in the spring, a battle
ensued, in which Holmstein was slain, after which
Leif and his friend set out on a plundering excur-
sion. On their return they were attacked by Her-
stein, another of the brothers, who was also defeated
and killed. After these repeated murders, Norway,
where the relations of the deceased were very nu-
merous, was no longer a safe residence for the two
cousins, who had been condemned to banishment.
Fitting out, therefore, a long ship, they set sail to
explore that land now well known by the adventures
of Floki. They arrived there in 870, wintered on it,
and, satisfied that, with all its disadvantages, it was
preferable to their former abode, returned to Nor-
way to prepare for their final departure. While In-
golf was disposing of their effects at home, the other
made a voyage to Ireland, whence he returned with
an immense booty and a famous sword, from which
he was afterward named Thorleif, or Leif of the
96.
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
sword. Owing to these delays, the year 874 arrived
before they were ready to depart; and in that sum-
mer they sailed with their families and friends to
lay the foundation of the Icelandic republic. Ingolf,
unlike his associate, who never sacrificed to the
gods, was not devoid of the superstitions of the pe-
riod, and not only consulted the oracle before leaving
his native land, but also took with him the conse-
crated pillars of his former house.* These, on ap-
proaching the island, he committed to the waves,
determined to be guided by their motion in choosing
his new abode. But, being separated from them by
a sudden storm, he was at first forced to land on a
promontory on the southeastern shore, named from
this event Ingolfshofde, where he remained three
years. At the end of that time, his servants, whom
he had sent in search of the pillars, found them cast
on the beach, near Reikiavik, the present capital,
whither Ingolf, in obedience to the supposed divine
admonition, immediately removed, notwithstanding
the remonstrances of his servants, who had seen
many spots more enticing on their voyage along the
coast. In the interval, Thorleif had also built him-
self a house at a place named Thorleifshofde, where
the next spring he began to cultivate the ground.
Having only one ox, he compelled his slaves, part
of his Irish plunder, to draw the plough; by which
་
* Named Ondvegis sulur or Setstokkar: these were two long
pillars set up on each side of the principal seat, projecting about
six feet beyond the roof, and having the figure of the favourite
idol carved on the top. This seat was generally opposite the
entrance, and the fire was placed in the middle of the house.
The higher these pillars were, the more honourable was the
master of the house accounted, and frequent quarrels were oc-
casioned by them. Such was the passion for this ornament,
that one of the first colonists sacrificed, or, as it is said, gave his
son to Thor, on condition that he would procure it for him.
The god, it is stated, was propitious; and a tree, twenty-one
fathoms long and two in circumference, was floated to the
shore.-Landnamabok, p. 134. Comp. p. 498, 501. Olafsen's
Reise, th. ii., n. 39.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE.
97
Harsh treatment they were so enraged, that, having
waylaid him and his friends in a wood, they put
hem all to death. Ingolf, on hearing of his misfor-
une, exclaimed, "What an unworthy fate for a
orave man, to fall by the hands of ignoble slaves!
out such I have ever seen to be the lot of those
who despise the sacrifices." Though disconsolate
for the loss of his relative, and left, as it were, alone
in a desert, he did not spare the murderers, but, pur-
suing them to the Westmanna Islands, where they
had taken refuge, cut them all off. Having thus
avenged the slaughter of his friend, he returned
home and appropriated to himself all the country
from the river Olvusa to the Hval Fiord.*
Ingolf did not long remain without companions in
his island-dwelling; for the ambitious projects of
Harold Haarfager, who, not content with the author-
ity enjoyed by his predecessors on the Norwegian
throne, endeavoured to reduce to complete subjec-
tion the inferior kings or jarls, and to impose a
heavy tribute on them, caused many of their number
to look for peace and freedom in other lands. The
extensive bays and numerous islands that surround
the Norwegian coast, especially in the vicinity of
Trondheim, were the spots where the ancient spirit
of the North and a generous love of independence
had struck the deepest root. When, therefore, the
decisive battle of Hafurs Fiord had destroyed all
hopes of liberty at home, the chiefs who escaped
that bloody day heard with joy that their bold coun-
trymen had settled in a land whose waters swarm-
ed with fish, whose mountains were clothed with
* Landnamabok, p. 10-19. Aræ Frodes Schedæ, p. 6, &c.
Torf. Hist. Nor., tom. ii., p. 99-103. Crymogea, p. 18-21. The
tomb of this old chieftain is still pointed out on Ingolfsfiall, e
high hill on the bank of the former river. It overlooks the sur-
rounding bygds, and he chose it, as he said, that at the resur
rection he might have a better view of the land of which he had
been the first inhabitant.—Olafsen's Reise, th. ii., p. 132.
I
98
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
wood, and where "men had nothing to fear from the
oppression of kings or tyrants." While the reasons
for emigration were principally felt by those sea-
born heroes who had most to dread from the ven-
geance of the victorious monarch, it was only they
who could undertake the voyage; and as this ad-
venture often consumed five or six months, it could
not be attempted except by those who were pos-
sessed of large ships, and able to provide sufficient
stores. Hence the persons who colonized this isl-
and were not the mere refuse of the mother-country,
but the best and bravest of Norway's sons, who,
proud of the freedom they had inherited from their
fathers, sought to secure it amid the icy deserts of
the North.
Numerous chiefs, accompanied by their friends
and dependants, continued to flock towards Iceland
for sixty years, when, the causes of emigration
having ceased, and the best ground being occupied,
it gradually stopped. Among these adventurers
there were many Swedes and Danes, and several
natives of the British isles, from whom some of the
present inhabitants claim their origin.* The emi-
grants from Norway were at one time so numerous.
that Harold, fearing the depopulation of his king-
dom, forbade any one to leave it without permis-
sion, and imposed a tax of five aura or ounces of
fine silver on all who went to settle in the new col-
ony. But the king's orders were of little avail;
those who had dared to oppose his arms not being
much inclined to respect his edicts or proclama-
tions.†
* Landnamabok, p. 26, 29, 30, &c. Henderson's Travels,
vol. ii., p. 132.
+ Landnamabok, p. 379. Are Frodes Schedæ, ch. ii., iii.
The colonists usually took the Shetland and Faroe Isles m
their way; so that the voyage must have been from seven to
eight hundred miles long, performed in vessels little better than
cpen boats. As there is no mention made of any shipwrecks,
the pious Arngrim Jonsen ascribes their preservation to the mi
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 99
The manner of conducting these colonies was
singularly characteristic of the people and the pe-
riod. The chief was generally some celebrated pi-
rate or rebel, who found it no longer safe to reside
in his native land. He was accompanied by his re-
lations and other freemen who had been his associ-
ates in former marauding excursions, and were still
ready to follow him in any adventure. Having dis-
posed of all their immoveable property at home, and
collected their servants, slaves, and cattle, they em-
barked along with their whole family. The more
superstitious also carried with them part of the ma-
terials of the temple dedicated to their favourite
deity, and particularly the earth from below the al-
tar on which the images of Thor or Odin stood.
The situation of the new settlement, too, was usual-
ly committed to the choice of the same divinities,
manifested by the agency of the winds and cur-
rents. As soon as they came within sight of land,
the commander of the ship, invoking Thor, cast into
the sea the sacred pillars which had adorned the
paternal seat in their former mansion; and wherever
these were thrown on shore, there the gods were
raculous interposition of Providence, guiding them, like the Is-
raelites of old, from Norwegian slavery, through the immense
and raging ocean, to this Canaan of the north: Sine amusio,
et pyxide nautica, vel gnomone Magnetico, huic orbi non
dum cognito; sine antlia, ad sentinandas naves, nondum his in-
venta hominibus. Ut manifestius appareat, primarum coloni-
rum successus, singulari Dei favore directos esse.-Vid. Spec.
Isl.. p. 86, 87, which may almost be translated in the following
words of an old English poet :
"What should we do but sing His praise,
That led us through the watery maze,
Unto an isle so long unknown,
And yet far kinder than our own.
Where He the huge sea-inonsters racks,
That lift the deep upon their backs;
He lands us on a grassy stage,
Safe from the storms a
tyrants' rage.""
The Enigrants, by And Marvel
100
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
understood to have decreed that the new colony
should be established.* Their first employment
was to take solemn possession of a portion of the
unoccupied land, either by surrounding it with fire,
or by raising heaps of stones on its boundaries.
This territory the leader afterward divided among
such of his followers as were freemen, reserving
part for himself.†
In these customs we see the true spirit of the en-
terprise, and the germe of the future constitution of
the republic. It formed no nest of pirates, but a
new land to be cultivated in peace, where, accord-
ing to the old custom of the North, every man might
live in his own district (herad), under his own chief
Many of the first settlers had, however, taken pos
session of larger tracts of ground than they could
make use of in any reasonable time; and, as the
evil effects of this soon became apparent, the inhabi-
tants, following the advice of King Harold, allowed
no man to appropriate more land than he could sur
round with fire in one day.‡
As long as there was room enough in the isl-
and, and no man needed to encroach on his neigh
bour's possessions, this patriarchal form of govern-
ment, under their pontiff-chieftains, sufficed for all
the wants of the state. None of the original col-
onists had so much power or influence as to endan-
ger the liberty of the others, and each occupied that
portion of ground which pleased his fancy in per-
fect independence. Almost all were of Norwegian
* Many instances of this are found in the Landnamabok (p.
14, 20, 210, 298, 354), the Eyrbyggia (p. 8), and other sagas.
+ Landnamabok, p. 207, 230, 315. Hist. Eccles. Isl., vol. i.,
p. 8-10.
‡ Landnamabok, p. 322. The manner in which this was done
was either for a man to run round the boundaries with a torch,
setting fire to the grass at the extremities; or a fire was kin-
lled in the centre at six o'clock in the morning, and the chief
occupied as much ground as he could encompass before the
same hour in the evening, keeping always in sight of the smoke.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE, 101
descent, and united by the bonds of kindred or of
friendship, often in those ages a most enduring tie.
Amicable compacts were long the only ones here
known; and quarrels that could not be composed
by the mediation of mutual friends, were soon de-
cided by the sword. But when the inhabitants be-
gan to press on each other, these independent tribu-
nals were found insufficient to preserve the order
of society, and the necessity of some common gov-
ernment, some general laws, and a supreme court
of appeal, became apparent. In their native land
they had been accustomed to assemble at the Thing,
ncar the idol temple, to celebrate the great feasts
that marked the close of the harvest, as well as the
season of Jule, or the beginning of winter. These
meetings, which were, indeed, almost indispensable
in such a thinly-peopled land, still continued among
the colonists, and on them they modelled their po-
litical institutions. Thorstein, the son of Ingolf,
first convened his countrymen at Kialarnes, in the
southern part of the island; but the regular assem-
bly, or Althing as it was called, was instituted by
Ulfliot, to whom the Icelanders intrusted the impor-
tant charge of providing them with a form of gov-
ernment. Though already in his sixtieth year when
his wisdom and integrity procured him this distin-
guished honour, he undertook a voyage to Norway,
That he might study to more advantage the institu-
toas of the parent country. Here, during three
years, he sat at the feet of Thorleif the Wise, and,
his return to Iceland, framed, with the aid of
Grim Geitszor, a code of laws which in the year
928 was accepted by the national assembly, now
transferred to "Thingvalla.*
The Icelandic legislators, following the natural
roundaries of the land, divided it into four parts or
fiordungar; each of these was again d.vided into
* Landnamabuk, p. 299, 300. Crymogea, p. 56, 75, 80.
I
102
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
three, except the northern, which, on account of its
size, was separated into four, in each of which
there were three principal temples or hoffs; and
these thirds were again subdivided into smaller sec-
tions or hreppar, generally ten in number, and near-
ly corresponding to the modern parishes. In every
one of these divisions there were magistrates, in
whose election the popular voice had more influence
than in the mother-country. As the laws of Ulfliot
were not committed to writing till nearly two cen-
turies after his death, there is considerable difficulty
in pointing out the limits of the authority and the
duties of these officers. The inferior magistrates
were the hreppstiorar, of whom five were chosen
by the people in each hreppar or parochial division.
They were required by the law to be men of wis-
dom and integrity, and to be possessed also of a
certain amount of fixed property, unless the former
qualities were so conspicuous that this last con
dition might be dispensed with. Besides distribu-
ting justice to the inhabitants of their district, they
supplied, in some measure, the place of censors,
having charge of the public morals and the care of
the poor. In a country where the bounties of na-
ture are dispensed with so sparing a hand, and where
it requires the utmost exertions of every individual
to provide even necessary food and clothing, pover-
ty, when caused by negligence or crime, was held
as a political offence. The statutes on this subject
form one of the most curious portions of Icelandic
legislation, in which the influence of physical situa-
tion is most clearly manifested. These laws were
for the prevention of pauperism, and the support of
those who had, without any fault of their own, fall-
en into want. For the first they provided by depri
ving culpable paupers of all the rights of citizenship,
and excluding them from the assemblies of the peo-
ple; denying to those children who had been brought
up by begging all claims to inherit property, until
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 103
they had gained their food for three years by more
honourable means; forbidding any one to relieve
beggars, and subjecting them to arbitrary punish-
ments so severe as sometimes even to cause their
death.*
For the second they instituted a scheme
of ensuring property against those accidents to
which it was most exposed; whereby the inhabi-
tants of each hrepp were bound to assist in repair-
ing the loss sustained by any of their number, in
cases of fire or the destruction of their cattle by
storms or pestilence, a jury being appointed to esti-
mate the damage within fourteen days. When,
notwithstanding these precautions, any one was re-
duced to want by old age, disease, or unavoidable
contingencies, the magistrate saw him provided for
by his relations, or, if these were unable to do it, at
the public expense. But, in order that the hrepps
might not be too heavily burdened, they could ex-
clude any one from settling within their bounds who
was likely soon to become dependant on such aid.†
The next superior magistrate was the prefect of
the provinces or herads. As the extent of these di-
visions generally corresponded to the original divis-
ion of the land among the leaders of the colonists,
so did this office closely resemble that of these sa-
cerdotal chieftains. They were at once the judges
and the priests of their respective districts, presiding
in the provincial assemblies, and administering the
religious rites in the temples of the gods. Their
office, in the language of the country, was called
godard, and themselves godar, or hofgodar, remind-
ing them that they, like the deity whose name they
bore and whose laws they dispensed, should be mod-
els of wisdom, justice, and virtue. This station be-
ing in general heritable, the son succeeding the fa-
ther, has caused the Icelandic republic to be consid
* Tit., de pup., cap. 33. Crymogea, p. 67, 68
+ Arn Jon Crymogea, p. 69-71.
104
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
ered an aristocracy. The privileges connected with
it were not important, and the revenue was very
limited. It could be sold, and was often taken in
stead of the fine imposed for an offence. Most of
the profit of this office arose from the small tribute
paid by each farm to the temple,* part of which went
to support the building and supply the sacrifices, and
the remainder was considered as a compensation to
the holder for his expenses in attending the Althing.
Other sources of revenue were presents from those
whose cause he supported, and a duty imposed on
each ship that stopped to trade in his territory.
But, generally speaking, his principal income arose
from his large private possessions, and his influence
was almost entirely of a personal nature. Hence
it often happened that some other powerful chief
not only obtained more authority in the province
than the godar himself, but had a larger body of de-
pendants, as is related of Olaf Paa after his return
from his far-fained expedition to Ireland.
In these higher, as also in the inferior divisions,
general meetings of all the inhabitants were com-
monly convened once a year at the principal temple.
Extraordinary ones were held at other times and
places when necessary, particularly on the occur-
rence of any murder or duel. The warning to at-
tend these assemblies in the heathen period was a
wooden mallet or Norway axe, named Thor's ham-
mer (hamar Thors), afterward changed into a cross,
which, like the fiery signal of the Highland clans,
each farmer was bound to forward to his neighbour,
with a notice of the time and place of gathering.
Most disputes were decided in these popular coun-
cils, where power and the influence of friends were
* Laxdala Saga, cap. 8. Müller, Island. Hist., p. 10, 11.
Arn. Jon. Crym., p. 72. Landnamabok, p. 301. It says that in
the heathen times every one "gefa toll til hoffins sem nu til
kyrkio tiund;" that is, "gave toll or tribute to the temple, as
now tithe or teinds to the church."
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 105
often of more avail than truth or equity. Before a
trial, the judges, parties, and witnesses were all
sworn to act in their several places without guile,
fraud, or injustice. The form of administering the
oath was this: On the altar of each temple lay a
silver ring weighing at least two ounces; this the
judge dipped in the blood of a buil slain in sacrifice
and each in his turn touching it, said, "So help me
Freyr and Niordr, and that Almighty As (God), as
in the present cause I shall act rightly, truly, and
conformably to the laws."* No one, when called
as a witness, was at liberty to refuse to give his tes-
timony, whoever did so being prohibited from ever
afterward acting in that capacity, and from calling
any honourable person to testify in his behalf. At
the same time, the parents and other near relations
of the parties were excluded from appearing.†
The next higher magistrate was the lagmann or
lagsogumann, that is, the promulgator of the law.
He was the supreme judge of the island, and presi-
dent of the general assembly or Althing. His office
was thus twofold; he having the right, in union with
the other chiefs, to declare and explain the law, or
even to alter and amend it; while, as first magis-
trate, he was not only bound to enforce it, but to
take care that it also should be observed by his in-
ferior officers. During the two centuries that the
laws of Ulfiot were preserved by tradition, he was
their great depositary, it being part of his office to
recite them annually in the national assembly; and
when they were subsequently committed to writing,
the authentic copy was confided to his care.
He
was at first chosen for life, though afterward for a
*The original is, "Healpi mer sva Freyr oc Niördr oc hinn
almattki As." By the last As or God is generally understood
Odin, the leader of the Esir or Asiatic conquerors of Scandi-
navia. Perhaps it was a kind of compromise between his wor
shippers and the party who still adhered to the more ancient
Thor.
+ Crymogea, p. 61. 71, 72, 76-78. Landnamabok, p. 300.
106
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
•
shorter period, and was always regarded as the
head of the republic, time being dated from the year
of his election. His authority, which was not great,
was almost limited to the sitting of the Althing.
This assembly, the main point of national union,
was, as we have already mentioned, annually held
on a level plain, near the shores of the Thingvalla
Lake, the place of meeting being pointed out by a
rugged insulated rock, named the Lagbierget or Law
Mount. It generally commenced about the middle
of May, and continued fourteen days; every free-
holder having a right to attend, and to give his opin-
ion on all the questions brought forward. This
privilege was highly valued by the people, and those
who did not avail themselves of it were despised
and reproached by their neighbours. In this court
all matters connected with the general interests of
the island were discussed; the decisions of the in-
ferior courts revised; disputes between two or more
of them decided; and here any of the subordinate
magistrates might be tried, and, if found guilty, de-
prived of their office. The lagmann was chosen by
this assembly, and Ulffiot is sometimes accounted
the first of that order, though properly it was not
till 930, two years after the introduction of his laws,
that it was instituted. Thirty-one persons are re-
corded in the annals as having held this appoint-
ment during the 332 years that the republic existed;
and of these, seven, among whom is Snorro Sturle-
son, author of the Edda, were twice chosen.*
* The names and date of election of those before the intro-
duction of Christianity were Rafner, 930; Thorarin, 950; Thor-
voll Mane, a grandson of Ingolf and son of Thorstein, who first
called an assembly, 970; Thormod, son of the last, 983; and
Thorgeir, in whose time heathenism was abolished, 996.-Ain.
Jun. Crymogea, p. 73-75, 80, 81. An. Island. Reg. Langebek
Script. Rer. Dan., tom. iii., pass. Aræ Frodes Schedæ, p. 15
Wheaton's History of the Northmen, p. 36-41. Another court
was held, on some occasions, in the quarters. named Fiordunga-
thing; but it is little known, and seems to have had no regula
place in the constitution.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 107
Such were the institutions and government of the
Icelandic commonwealth, which, though formed in
what we are wont to consider an age of ignorance
and barbarity, is worthy of more attention than it has
obtained. "But fame," it has been well observed.
"is not the portion of indigent nations, especially
when remote, unconnected with the rest of mankind,
and placed under a rigorous climate."* The reputa-
tion of the poets and historians who sprang up un-
der its sheltering influence, and whose writings shed
a solitary gleam of light over that the darkest period
of European history, might have merited for it a
better fate. They have, indeed, in some measure
rescued it from oblivion; but this was effected rath-
er because they illustrated the history of other lands
than of that which gave them birth. Many things
in these institutions were undoubtedly borrowed
from the ancient customs of the parent-land: a proof
of the wisdom of the legislator, who sought not what
was new, but what was useful, and fitted for the na-
tion he had to deal with. The habit of meeting in
courts at certain seasons, to confer on the public weal,
was common to all the tribes of Scandinavian de-
scent, and had a deep root in the social dispositions
of the people. In Iceland, the scattered situation of
the inhabitants, and their lonely life, rendered it still
more necessary and desirable. But here they as-
sumed a freer character than in Norway, where, from
time immemorial, the most powerful proprietors had
nominally acknowledged the superiority of the king.
If the reins of authority were too loosely held, and
violent, ambitious men were sometimes able to set
the power of the magistrate at defiance, the same, it
ought to be remembered, happened in an equal or
even greater degree in all the other countries of Eu-
rope. If part of the stability of their political organ-
ization is to be ascribed to the peculiar circumstan-
* Mallet's Northern Antiquities, vol. i., p. 154.
108
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
ces of the settlers, it is nevertheless remarkable as
the first instance of a free nation united solely by
moral ties, and a knowledge of their mutual interests
There was no external interference, which, by exci
ting a spirit of patriotism, might contribute to consol
idate its strength. It relied solely on its internal
principles, and a deep-felt reverence for the law;
and it is probable that, but for foreign interposition,
it might have subsisted a still longer period, and re-
covered from the effects of those intestine dissen-
sions which hastened its fall. These arose from
what appears to have been its greatest defect-the
want of any counterpoise or check to the power of
the hereditary magistrates or aristocracy.*
The next event of importance in the history of the
island is the introduction of Christianity. Several
of the original colonists professed that religion, and,
though exposed to the persecution of their heathen
brethren, adhered to it till their death. But these
few proselytes do not appear to have converted any
of their countrymen; and even their own children
relapsing to the old faith, are known to have twit
temples, and sacrificed to the heathen idols. The
first missionary in Iceland was Thorwald Kodranson,
who, having during his travels abroad been baptized
in Saxony by a bishop named Frederic, persuaded
the latter to accompany him on his return to his na-
tive land. Here Thorwald converted his father and
family, and, along with the stranger, made many
journeys through the island to promulgate their opin
ions. They met with much opposition and many
strange adventures, one of which we shall relate, as
illustrative of the belief and manners of the age. In
* “Aussi régna-t-il long-temps en Islande plus de liberté et de
sûreté que dans aucun état de l'Europe; et, lorsqu'on se rappelle
que cet état démocratique fut fondé dans l'âge de la barbarie, on
ne peut refuser son admiration à la sagesse qui presida à la fon.
dation de la colonie d'Islande."-Depping, Hist. des Expéd. Mar.
des Normands, tom. ii., p. 51.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 109
the year 984, some time after his return, Kodran-
son celebrated his marriage with much splendour.
Among the guests were two Berserker, named
Hauke, more celebrated för their pretensions to ma-
gical powers than for their respect to religion, who
challenged the Saxon to a trial of strength on the
part of their respective deities. Confident in the
goodness of his cause, the latter did not decline the
contest, which was to be decided by the parties walk-
ing uninjured through a large fire. The bishop, ·
sprinkling it with holy water, destroyed the efficacy
of the Berserker incantations; and the magicians,
according to custom, entering the flames with drawn
swords in their hands, were instantly consumed.
The priest is said to have succeeded better, as not
even his clothes were touched by the fire. His op-
ponents were buried in a neighbouring cave, whose
name of Haukagill still preserves the tradition of
their fate.*
儒
​Their success in converting the nation was by no
means commensurate with these miraculous endow-
ments. When Thorwald endeavoured to persuade
the Althing to embrace Christianity, the heathen
party not only rejected his proposal, but engaged
poets to turn him and his religion into ridicule; a
weapon characteristic of the time and country.
Thorwald slew two of them whose satires had been
most severe, close to the tent where the bishop was
sitting, so absorbed in his studies that some drops
of their blood fell on his book without interrupting
him. He afterward reproved the too hasty zeal o!
his associate, though with little effect, as he nex.
year killed another of his opponents in Norway,
* Landnamabok, p. 199. "Such incidents make an invariable
part of the history of a rude age, and the chronicles which do not
afford these marks of human credulity may be grievously sus-
pected as deficient in authenticity."-Scott's Abstract of the
Eyrbyggia Saga, Illustrations of Northern Antiquities (4to. Edin-
burgh, 1814), p. 483.
110
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
:
whither he had, along with the prelate, been com-
pelled to retire by their machinations. This un-
christian conduct dissolved the friendship between
him and his spiritual father, who, returning to his
own land, concluded his life in works of charity and
devotion; while Thorwald, after many wanderings,
entered the service of the Emperor Basilius at Con-
stantinople, and at last died in a monastery he had
erected.
The next attempts to Christianize the Iceland-
ers were made by the Norwegian king Olaf Trygg-
vason, who endeavoured to convert, not only his
own subjects, but also those colonists connected
with them by language and descent. His first agent
was Stefner, a native of that island, who had been
his companion in his former wanderings, and who,
on sailing thither, found his object thwarted by a law
passed in the Althing against all who should oppose
the popular deities. Notwithstanding this obstacle,
he began to demolish with violence the temples and
images in some of the provinces; and, being tried
for his imprudent conduct, was banished to Norway.
The lightness of the punishment shows the increas-
ing influence of the Christian party, which was more
plainly seen on the arrival of his successor Thang-
brand. This missionary, it is said, was preceded by
many strange prodigies, which, in accordance with
the genius of the age, foretold the momentous change
which was to ensue; and hence, on landing, he was
very ill received by the heathen, who again had re-
course to magic and poetry to oppose his progress.
Though a priest, Thangbrand did not hesitate to
take vengeance on the most satirical of the poets,
and the conjuror also fell a victim to the resentment
of one of his companions; but his violent temper
engaged him in new broils, till at last he returned
to Norway, accompanied by the most influential men
of both parties. Here he complained to Olaf of the
injuries he had sustained from the heathen; and the
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 111
king, glad of a pretence to promote his own wishes,
threatened to put those of them present to death
unless they would consent to be baptized. To this
alternative they were glad to submit; and four of the
noblest and best connected being retained as hos-
tages, the others were dismissed.
Early next spring (A.D. 1000), the Christians re-
turned to Iceland, where they arrived immediately
before the meeting of the Althing. The people were
still so adverse to their cause, that they were com-
pelled to proceed thither on foot; and, on approach-
ing Thingvalla, they learned that their enemies had
surrounded the assembly with armed men, to pre-
vent them from attending. Upon this the leaders,
Gissur and Hialti, secretly assembled their friends
and dependants, proceeded with them, drawn up in
order of battle, to the court. Here they found the
pagans ready to receive them, and everything seemed
to threaten a decision of the controversy by the
sword; but the heathen, though warlike and superi-
or in numbers, hesitated to attack the determined
band of their opponents, who, entering the valley,
were gladly received into the tents of their friends.
Next morning, mass having been performed on the
Oxeraa by Thormod, a priest who had accompanied
them from Norway, they advanced into the centre
of the valley in slow procession, headed by two large
crosses, which they set up in a fissure of the Lagbi-
erget, or rock sacred to the laws. The court having
assembled, Gissur and Hialti addressed the people,
exhorting them to turn from their vain idols to the
Supreme Ruler of the universe. This discourse nat-
urally excited an extraordinary tumult in the assem-
bly, each party proposing resolutions in favour of
their own religion, and mutually renouncing all in-
tercourse with their opponents. In this state of af-
fairs, a messenger rushed into the midst of the com-
batants, crying out that fire had burst from the bowels
of the earth, and was consuming all before it; upon
112
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
which one of the idolaters started up, exclaiming that
this was a manifestation of the wrath of the offended
deities against the impious despisers of their power.
This speech was about to produce a great effect on
the assembly, when Snorro, till then an adherent of
the heathen, seeing in the blasted cliffs and valleys
around a refutation of the argument, cried out, “With
whom then were your gods angry when the rocks
on which we now stand were a glowing torrent?"
His words, for all the people knew that the surround
ing lava had flowed before the island was inhabited,
changed the temper of the multitude; and the hez-
then, disheartened by the defection of one of their
most powerful supporters, were glad to dissolve the
court.
Neither party was idle during the remainder of the
day and the following night. Halli of Sida having
declined the dangerous honour, the Christians, for
sixty ounces of silver, induced Thorgeir of Liosa
Vatn, at that time chief magistrate of the island, and
hitherto a strong supporter of the pagans, to propose
resolutions favourable to their cause. Receiving the
substance of these from Gissur and Hialti, he re-
tired to his tent, where, shutting himself up, he pre-
tended to be awaiting some oracle or revelation.
The heathen, in the mean time, consulted on th
best mode of repelling their adversaries, and resolved,
by an extraordinary sacrifice, to propitiate their dei-
ties, to whose anger they ascribed their misfortunes.
They therefore vowed, provided they obtained the
victory, to immolate to these cruel gods two of the
most illustrious citizens of each quarter of the isl
and. This barbarous intention having been commu-
nicated to the believers, Hialti, that they might not
be outdone in zeal, proposed that an equal number
should consecrate themselves to the true God, not
by a violent death, but by holy, pious lives, devoted
to the conversion of their countrymen, which was
immediately agreed to,
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 113
When the court met on the following day, Thor-
geir, rising up, addressed the people in an ambigu-
ous and conciliatory strain. He pointed out the
danger of dissension and internal war in a country
like theirs, and the necessity of concord and agree-
ment in religious matters. Both parties, for differ-
ent reasons, applauded his speech, and, promising to
abide by his decision, requested him to promulgate
what decrees seemed best fitted to promote this end.
Thorgeir then brought forward the resolutions he
had received from Gissur, that all the inhabitants of
Iceland should become Christians, and receive bap-
tism; that the heathen temples and idols should be
abolished and destroyed; and, lastly, that all open
idolatrous worship should be punished by a fine.
To conciliate the other party, he permitted them, in
conformity to the old customs, to expose their chil-
dren, to eat horseflesh, and to worship their former
gods in private; stipulating, at the same time, that
all the ancient laws not inconsistent with Christian-
ity should continue.* To these conditions both par-
ties, bound by their previous agreement, were com-
pelled to assent; and the whole nation would have
been baptized at once, had not the inhabitants of the
northern and eastern quarters refused to be immersed
in cold water. These recusants, however, were sub-
sequently admitted into the church at the thermal
springs of Laugardal. Idolatry did not long survive
its public rejection, and the concessions to it just
Torf. Hist. Nor., tom. ii, p. 378-381, 397, 417-435. Aræ
Frodes Schedæ. The power of exposing their children was
granted to parents both by the Greek and Roman laws, in the
most civilized periods of these nations. It was seldom practised
in the north, and chiefly by the poorest of the people, a rich man
incurring much obloquy for so doing. It never happened if the
father had taken the child in his arms or sprinkled it with water.
-Müller, Island. Hist., p. 146 T'he custom of eating horseflesh
was prohibited in Germany by Pope Gregory III. in 731, and by
a council in England in 787, which also forbids cutting off thei
ears or tails.
114
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
mentioned soon fell into disuse, and were unani-
mously repealed.
This sudden conversion of a whole people had
undoubtedly been prepared by the improved knowl-
edge of the Icelanders, as well as by their increas-
ing disbelief in the old deities. This skepticism is
shown in the repeated desertions of their supporters,
noticed in the preceding narrative, and some sin-
gular illustrations of it occur in the histories of
the early chieftains. Ingolf's grandson, Thorkell,
lagmann of the island at the time of the first mis-
sionary, and universally respected for his virtue and
integrity, when he was seized with a fatal disease,
and felt the hand of death upon him, ordered his
friends to carry him into the open air, where, com-
mending his soul to that God who formed the sun,
he expired. With still more marked distrust in the
ancient faith, Rolf, the son of Helgo, when his fa-
ther consulted the oracle where he should place his
residence, asked him, if Thor had commanded them
to winter in the Dumbshaf or icy ocean, whether
he would have obeyed.* The minds of the people
were thus prepared for the reception of a purer and
more rational faith, and many seem to have adhered
to the old worship rather for the indulgences it of-
fered to their sensual inclinations than from any
convictions of its truth. Hence Christianity needed
only toleration to obtain an easy victory; and idol-
atry, no longer favoured by the state, expired with-
out a struggle. With the new religion, a new pe-
riod in the social development of Iceland also com-
mences, during which it attained its highest pitch
of intellectual acquirements and renown.
the worship of Thor and Odin, many strange super-
stitions, many singular customs and opinions pass
ed away, or left but a faint shadow on the minds of
the vulgar. Before concluding this chapter, wo
✓
* Landnamabok, p. 19, 229.
With
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 115
shall therefore collect a few of the more remarka-
ble features of society during that early period.
The religion of the ancient Icelanders was the
same with that which prevailed throughout all the
nations of Scandinavian descent. The fundamental
ideas of the whole system were the existence and
perfection of one supreme God, the Allfader; the im-
mortality of the soul; and a future state of retribu-
tion, according to the eternal laws of morality. But
this belief was too simple and sublime to content
such rude minds, and on it was erected a cumbrous
and complicated system of mythology. This seems
to have originated, not so much from a deifying of
the powers of nature, as from a desire to explain
that contest of good and evil, of virtue and vice,
everywhere apparent in the physical and moral uni-
verse. Unable to impute evil to the all-good, all-
powerful Being, or to place a rival near the Al-
mighty's throne, they conjured up an inferior order
of tutelary deities, to whom they ascribed the ori-
gin of this mingled scene: gods born with the earth
only to perish in its ruins. These partook more of
human weakness, and were sullied with a larger
share of the passions and vices of their votaries,
than they dared to ascribe to the All-father. They
could be thwarted in their purpose, disappointed in
their hopes, and their struggle with the powers of
darkness, the cause of all present evil, was to issue
in their final destruction. Did we not know that
this system existed among the Scandinavians before
the peopling of Iceland (and in all probability it
was brought with them from the Asiatic cradle of
Odin and his heroes), we might be apt to trace
much of it to the peculiar phenomena of that island.
The awful spectacle of the volcanic eruption, when
the quivering earth threatens to burst asunder and
be dissolved, while the lightnings flashing from the
lurid clouds and the incessant roll of the thunder
betoken the sympathy of the firmament with the
116
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
lower world, would seem to have inspired those
sublime descriptions of the last fated battle of the
gods with Loki's giant brood. Nowhere was the
contest of the destroying and renovating powers of
nature more terribly displayed, and nowhere was
some theory to account for it more likely to be re-
quired or produced.
Twelve appears to have been a favourite number
with the northern nations. In their courts of jus-
tice there were twelve judges, whose places are
still marked by upright moss-grown stones; and in
their heaven we find the same mystic number of
superior gods and goddesses, each one having pecu-
liar attributes, offices, and powers, entitling him to
the fear or reverence of his votaries. First was
Odin, at once mortal and immortal, blessing and de-
stroying, the creator and preserver of the universe,
yet the terrible, the god of battles, the father of
carnage. It seems doubtful whether this deity was
merely the leader of the Æsir, exalted to a place in
heaven by his grateful followers, or whether, as his
varied attributes might seem to imply, he first as-
sumed the name, and then usurped the honours, of
a more ancient god.* Next to him in rank and au-
thority, though much superior in the esteem of
those rude warriors, was his son Thor, the god of
strength and of thunder. To him prayers and sac-
rifices were offered in the greatest profusion; to him
they especially looked for help in the hour of dan-
ger; and innumerable names of towns, rivers, mount-
* It is more inan probable that Odin or Wodin is the same
deity as the Budha or Boodh of the Indians, though the attri-
butes of the latter, who would not kill a fly, are very unlike
the stern god of the North. A comparison of the mythology
of the North with that of the Eastern nations, and the opinions
of those Manichean sects who disturbed the peace of the early
Christian Church, is well worth the trouble to those who are
curious in such matters. See Prichard's Egyptian Mythology,
and Beausobre, Hist. Manich.
**
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 117
ains, and heroes still attest the favour he enjoyed.*
Odin was also the parent of Niordr, ruler of the sea,
who, with his son Freyr, the god of wind and rain,
who guides the sun in his path, accompany him in
the ancient oath. With these came a crowd of oth-
er deities: Bragi, like the Grecian Apollo, inspiring
his worshippers with poetry, eloquence, and wis-
dom; Frigga, Odin's wife, whose offices correspond
to those of Juno; and Freya, the goddess of love,
and daughter of Niordr. But Balder, the most beau
tiful and virtuous of Odin's sons, is the subject of
the most poetical of these fables. On his fate, that
of the deities and the world they have formed de-
pends, and his death renders their dissolution inevi-
table. This melancholy catastrophe sheds a gloom
over the whole spirit of the Northern mythology,
and checks even the riotous joys of the celestial
banquet-hall. In dark, mysterious strains, the skald
sings the destiny of Odin, and of those departed
heroes whom he has associated in his joys and dan-
gers in the spacious abodes of Valhalla. Nor is
the hated thought dispelled by the remote image of
a succeeding age of brighter auspice, when the All-
fader, that mighty one whom they dare not name,
shall gather from the flaming world the wise and
virtuous of the earth, and call them to dwell with
him in fields of joy and bliss.
It is probable that an allegorical interpretation of
these mythic histories prevailed among the more
highly-gifted individuals; but the great mass of the
people must ever have received them in a literal
sense. Their evil effects in encouraging the violent
manners and sanguinary habits of the age, were lit-
tle, if at all, counteracted by the associated belief in
* Probably a third or fourth of all the persons mentioned in
the Landnamabok have some reference to this deity in their
His worship. it is thought, was established in the North
previous to the arrival of Odin, and he continued the favourite
deity both in Norway and Iceland.
names.
K
118
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
the immortality of the soul and a state of future
retribution. These salutary truths were so overlaid
with fictions, that they were completely obscured,
or perverted to an evil purpose, and thus deprived
of their beneficial influence on society. The reli-
gious principles of the human mind were turned
away from their proper object, and wasted on hurt-
ful superstitions. The ignorant saw the working
of some superior power in the most common phe-
nomena of nature, and animated every object with
an invisible agent. Hence the numerous methods
for predicting the future, and the various forms of
worshipping the mountains, woods, and streams.*
But these opinions did not remain a mere inac-
tive superstition, without manifesting themselves in
bloody rites, opposed to all the principles of hu-
manity. Huge temples rose to the honour of the
deities, of which two are said to have been 120 feet
long and 60 broad, in addition to which there was a
small chapel or shrine, in which were placed the
images and altar; the latter being covered on the
top with iron, to resist the fire that was constantly
kept burning. Here also were preserved the sacred
ring, and a brazen caldron or vessel, to receive the
blood of the victims, which was then sprinkled on
the devotees. The sacrifices were in general bulls
or white horses; but in cases of greater moment,
nobler offerings were employed to appease the
offended gods. Before the shrine of the temple at
Kialarnes (one of those mentioned above) there
was a deep pit or well, the Blotkellda, in which the
human victims were drowned. At Thorsnesthing, in
Western Iceland, the Blotstein, or stone of sacrifice,
still remains, and, according to popular tradition,
the stain of blood upon it can never be effaced. It
is of an oval form, somewhat sharp above, and over
* Landnamabok, p. 66, 68, 100, 169, 341.
tom. ii., p. 149.
Torf. Hist No.,
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 119
this the miserable victims had their backs broken
before they were slain. Similar stones are found in
many other parts of the land, particularly in the
northern quarter.
Besides the public and private worship of the
gods, according to the old established rites of the
country, there were many magic arts, practised
only by a few, and regarded with suspicion, or ex-
pressly forbidden in the laws. Of these, the Disa-
Blot, or worship of the Disen or goddesses who
preside over the fates of men, and the Alfa-Blot, or
that of the spirits of the land and water, who give
success in housekeeping, were the more common and
in best repute. The oldest and most powerful rites
were, however, the Seidur, in which, by means of
charms muttered over the fire, or verses composed
in a peculiar manner, persons either present or ab-
sent were bewitched, deprived of reason, or ren-
dered unfortunate during their whole lives. This
was considered as degrading its professors, and de-
clared by Odin himself as unfit for gods or men,
and therefore only practised by the females of both
races. So much was it detested by the greater part
of the community, that Harold Haarfager burned
his own son for this offence, together with the
whole Seidur society to which he belonged. It was
forbidden in the old Icelandic laws, and those con-
victed were tied up in a sack, stoned to death,
burned, and their ashes cast into the sea.
reason assigned for this mode of punishment was,
that their spectres might not disturb the living; for
Odin had affirmed that he could call these forth
from the tomb. The runes, originally nothing more
than a species of writing, were supposed by these
rude nations to contain something supernatural,
some secret charm of great power. These charac-
ters are said to have been introduced by Odin, who
* Crymogea, p. 61-65, Landnama, p. 94. Olafsen's Reise
th. i., p. 194; th. ii., p. 64.
The
120 · COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
taught that by them he could heal diseases, quench
fire, appease storms, arrest an arrow in its course,
or awake the spirits of the dead; while other
forms ensured to his followers success in war, re-
vealed secrets, or procured them the love of their
mistresses. Similar spells were in frequent use,
engraven on the prows of their ships, the handles
of their swords, or worn like an amulet on the
body.*
Such are a few of these curious superstitions and
ceremonies, of which not the least singular part is
the universal belief they received. We now feel it
difficult to conceive how the strongest minds could
have been so convinced of their truth as to live in
constant terror of their influence; far less, how a
father could, on such a ground, be induced to destroy
his child. But the whole of these ancient histories
are full of them; and they appear in some measure
like the drapery in which every incident must be
attired. They, in fact, form one of the most interest-
ing chapters in the annals of the human race, and
merit more attention than is usually bestowed on
them. This short notice cannot better be concluded
than with the following remark of Arngrim Jonas:
"These things have been related, not in vain, or to
disgrace my nation; but that we, the descendants of
these men, may be excited to consider seriously
how much we owe to the divine goodness which
has freed us from this more than Cimmerian dark-
ness, illuminating our minds with a ray of diviner
light."+
·
Connected with these superstitions were the trials
by ordeal or single combat, modes of appealing to
the deity practised in almost all rude and credulous
*The Runic characters were sixteen in number. In form
they are said to be not unlike certain inscriptions discovered
among the ruins of Persepolis, and are believed by some to
have been of Phoenician origin.-Am. Ed.
† Crymogea, p. 65. Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 248-250..
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 121
nations, and not unknown in the mythology of the
Greeks.* The most remarkable of the former was
employe when any person accused of some secret
crime wished to exculpate himself by oath, or to
establish his veracity when asserting anything of
great importance on his sole authority. An oblong
piece of turf was then cut from the ground and set
up like an arch, under which he had to walk; if the
turf did not break, he was accounted innocent, or
his testimony worthy of being believed.
Under a
similar arch, supported, however, by their spears,
covenants were often entered into, the parties min-
gling blood drawn from their hands; and this was
more particularly the case in those confederations
for mutual defence or revenge so common in these
disturbed periods. Duels were also very frequent
after the country was fully peopled; for at first they
acted on the advice of Erik of Gudala on such an
occasion, "that it became not men to fight with
each other while there were so few of them in the
and." These contests were increased by the sin.
gular custom which permitted any one to dispossess
his neighbour of his farm, unless the latter chose to
defend it by single combat. The antagonists were
usually confined within a certain space, from which
they were not permitted to recede; and whoever
first drew blood was accounted the conqueror, and
became heir to all the effects of the vanquished.
His friends, nevertheless, had a right to appeal from
this decision, unless the victor slew, with a single
blow, a bull brought to the spot. In this manner
Egill Scallagrim obtained great possessions; but
* In the Antigone of Sophocles (v. 270) we have the follow
ng allusion to this custom:
Ημεν δ' ἕτοιμοι καὶ μύδρους ἄιρειν χεροῖν,
Καὶ πῦρ δίερπειν και θεοὺς ὁρκωμοτεῖν.
"Prepared we stood to grasp the glowing iron,
To walk through fire to swear by all the gods."
122
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
the custom was abolished in the beginning of the
eleventh century. There was a still more curious
mode of contest, in which the combatants, being
enclosed in a large vessel, shut above, were only
armed with short sticks. In a duel of this kind,
Thorgisell Orabein is said to have slain Randid, a
celebrated Scottish warrior, in Caithness.*
Though many of the emigrants had been celebra
ted before leaving Norway as vikingr or pirates, yet
similar pursuits seem never to have prevailed in Ice-
land. Its distance from those coasts which were
chiefly inviting to plunderers, and the want of mate-
rials for building the long ships used in war, were
doubtless the principal causes of this abstinence.
The Icelandic forests consisted of short-stemmed
trees, almost completely useless for ship-building ;
so that it is mentioned in the Landnamabok as a rare
occurrence, that Avang occupied land where trees
grew of which he formed a vessel. The driftwood
from Asia and America was seldom sufficiently abun-
dant to supply this deficiency, and even merchant
ships were bought in other lands. Hence, those
who might desire to undertake piratical expeditions
had to proceed to Norway, where alone ships and
men were to be found. Besides, such exploits had
now fallen into disrepute, and even the name of vi-
king began to be used as a reproach. Of those who
still frequented the sea, the peaceable were convert-
ed into traders, while the warlike and adventurous,
like the knights on land, ranged the ocean, seeking
for pirates to destroy, or for the weak whom they
might protect. The Icelandic people, accordingly,
* Arn. Jon., Crym., p. 100, 149. Landnama., p. 70, 96, 211,
314, 371. In the first period of the colonization we only read
of the duel of Geirmund with Kiallak, and some time after of
those of Thorstein Thorskabitr with the relations of the latter.
-Land., p. 94, 127. Eyrbyggia, p, 22.
† Land., p. 29. The same is related of Hialte Skeggeson in
'he Kristni Saga, p. 68.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 123
even at this period, were by no means that band of
rude, unpolished freebooters which some have cho-
sen to represent them. On the contrary, for centu-
ries before their emigration, they had formed a con-
nected society, the customs and manners of which
they carried with them to their new country. As we
have already seen, their judicial forms were suffi-
ciently determined, if not by written laws, yet by old
traditionary custom; and the whole process depend-
ed on many formalities, the omission of one of which,
or even of a single word, was enough to vitiate any
accusation. This close adherence to ancient habits,
still a peculiar feature in the Icelandic character, ex-
tended even to private life, and the manner of re-
ceiving friends, of conducting nuptial and other en-
tertainments, and even of courtship, were fixed by
established usage. Along with a love of ornament,
some taste for the fine arts had developed itself, not
merely in regard to their arms, but in their dress and
houses. All were inspired with the sentiment of hon-
Dur; and a desire to excel in poetry, history, and elo-
quence was universally diffused. To this, in their
own country, was added a knowledge of agriculture,
ship-building, and commerce, none of which, for phys-
ical reasons, long survived their emigration.
One unfavourable point in the constitution during
this period was the prevalence of domestic slavery.
But the unfortunate beings, often prisoners of war,
who had been reduced to this state, were not wholly
unprotected by the law; their lives being valued at
twenty ounces of silver, while that of a freeman was
estimated at a hundred, or, if a man of family, at three
times that sum.
The condition of the weaker sex has always been
accounted one of the surest criterions of the state of
civilization and morality among a people. The re-
spect shown them by the Scandinavian nations is
probably unexampled in any country unenlightened
by the true religion. Polygamy, though not prohib-
124
COLONIZATION OF ICELAND,
ited, was far from being common. Fathers, or other
near relations, could give the young women in mar-
riage; but they were oftener left at their own dispo-
sal. Besides their dowry they received a present
from their husbands, which remained their own prop-
erty, and was retained by them in case of a divorce:
and this separation took place whenever the wife ex-
pressed her wish to that effect in a prescribed man-
ner before witnesses. Harsh words, or any appear-
ance of abuse, as a slight blow given half in jest, was
deemed a sufficient reason for such a determination;
and it is said that, by using their privilege, they ob-
tained complete authority over their spouses. Wives
and daughters frequently accompanied their husbands
or fathers to the Althing and other popular assem-
blies, and were always present on festive occasions,
where they generally had their own seats or rooms,
though sometimes they sat mingled with the other
guests. With the exception of some supposed witch-
es, we never hear of women being injured, even
when complaining most loudly against those who
had slain their relations, and endeavouring to procure
revenge for their death. The heroes delighted in
their praise, while the skalds sung their fame, and the
honourable titles of the female sex compose a con-
siderable portion of the poetical phraseology.*
In other points the Icelanders differed little from
their Norwegian brethren, or even from their de-
scendants of the present day. Thus their houses
were composed of wood and turf, or of stones ce-
mented with clay, those of the wealthier being lined
with boards, on which were frequently carved the
warlike achievements of their ancestors. These
dwellings were warmed by fires of wood, and of
surturbrand or peat; the last, it is said, being ori-
ginally introduced by Einar, an Orcadian jarl, in the
time of Harold Haarfager. The fire was enclosed
* Müller, Island. Hist., p. 142, 148, 149.
AND HISTORY OF THE HEATHEN AGE. 125
in stones, on which occasionally water was thrown,
the steam diffusing the heat through the house.
These buildings were seldom of large dimensions,
though some are described as being 120 feet long by
60 broad. Their food was principally fish and the
produce of their herds; their drink whey, or beer
imported from abroad. They often carried their
hospitality to great excess, spending their whole
fortune on a single entertainment. At their father's
funeral, the sons of Hialte feasted 1200 persons du-
ring fourteen days, and Olaf Paa 900 for an equal
time. Their employments were nearly the same
with those of the present inhabitants, except that
they sometimes attempted to raise a little grain,
which is now almost unknown.*
* Crymogea, p. 49-54. Landnama., p. 127. Some other de·
tails of the Scandinavian Mythology, and the manners of the
allied nations on the European continent, inay be found in the
work entitled Scandinavia, vol. i., p. 84, Edinburgh Cabinet
Library. In Pigott's Manual of Scandinavian Mythology, the
reader will find the subject farther illustrated by some interest-
ing translations from Oehlenschlager's poem on the Gods of the
North. Legis' Alkuna is also an important work, as comparing
it with that of the Slavic nations.
L
126 INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
CHAPTER IV.
Independent and Literary Age of Iceland.
Influence of Christianity.-Attempts to Subjugate the Island.-
Olaf. Harald Hardrade.-Appointment of Bishops.-Tithes
-Marriage of the Clergy.-Chief Magistrates.-Defects o
the Constitution.-Feuds of the Chiefs.-Wars of the Sur
lunga. - Snorro Sturleson.- His Connexion with Norway
Contests with other Leaders.-Assassination.-Character
-Events after his Death.-Burning of Flugumyra.-Subju-
gation of the Island. ANCIENT LITERATURE.-Character of
the Colonists.-Traditions.-Ancient Skalds.- Influence of
the Climate.-Of Public Assemblies.--Political Character of
Sagas.- Refinement of Language. How preserved before
Writing was introduced.- Runes. Subjects treated of.
Manner of collecting Information.-Number of Songs.-Myth-
ic Sagas.-Historic.-Heimskringla.-Are Frode. Sturlun-
ga Saga.- Landnamabok. - Poetry. Fictitious Sagas.-
Skalds.-Language of Poetry.-Resemblance to the Anglo
Saxon.
C
THE changes produced by the conversion of the
nation to Christianity were chiefly of that peaceful
kind which leave no record on the page of history.
Its civilizing influence gradually ameliorated the
rude manners of the people, and expelled those su-
perstitious rites and barbarous customs by which
they were formerly disgraced. Humanity was no
longer accounted a stain on the character of a chief,
as in the case of Olver Barnakarl, that is, "the chil-
dren's old man," thus named by his heathen contem-
poraries, because, in his piratical expeditions, he
would not join in their cruel sport of tossing the
captive infants into the air and catching them on
their spear points. The appeal to single combat,
which placed the weak entirely at the mercy of the
strong, was unanimously forbidden in 1006 or 1011
OF ICELAND.
127
by the Althing. The liberty of eating horseflesh,
a relic of their Asiatic origin, and intimately asso-
ciated with the religion of Odin, together with the
right of parents to expose their children, both per-
nitted on their first conversion, probably through
fear of famine, did not long survive. About ten
years after this, Olaf introduced the canon law, or
Kristinrett, into his own dominions; and, having
learned that various heathen practices still existed
in Iceland, he resolved to use his influence in abol-
ishing them. For this purpose he wrote to Skaptar,
at that time lagmann of the island, and to others of
the principal chiefs, on whom his representations
had the desired effect.*
His success in these matters seems to have en-
couraged St. Olaf to engage in a more arduous,
though less honourable undertaking. Descent and
language had always united the Icelanders to Nor-
way, and given its rulers considerable sway in their
national council. Many of the chiefs, indeed, pos-
sessed property in both countries, and a still greater
number of them had visited during their travels the
court of the king, where they were very kindly en-
tertained. As Iceland furnished a secure retreat to
many of their rebellious subjects, the Norwegian
monarchs seem to have regarded it with a jealous
eye, and it was probably some deeper motive than
the sarcasm of the poets that had induced Harald
Blaatand at a former period to threaten its subjec-
tion. This design was continued by Olaf, who, af-
ter the canon law which he had recommended was
received, sent them, as a present, materials for erect-
ing a church, together with a large bell, which long
remained in the place of public meeting. At the
same time, he invited several of the leaders to visit
him, on whom he conferred titles of honour, while
* Landnamabok, p. 363. Torf. Hist. Nor., tom. iii., p 63.
Crymogea, lib. i., p. 101.
128
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
others were gained to his interest by secret gifts.
When he had thus, as he thought, secured a suffi-
cient party in the island, he sent Thorarin, who had
been much in his service, thither in the spring of
1024, to persuade the islanders to acknowledge his
supremacy. His envoy landed on the Westmanna
Islands, and, proceeding to the Althing, which was
then assembled, saluted the people from the king,
who, he said, offered himself for their ruler, promis-
ing them, at the same time, his friendship and protec-
tion. The assembly, though taken by surprise, re-
turned a respectful answer to the royal message, in
which, however, they made no allusion to his pro-
posal. Thorarin, disappointed in this quarter, next
addressed himself to the inhabitants of the northern
district, whose friendship, he said, the king was par-
ticularly anxious to procure, and concluded by re-
questing them to grant him the small rock or island
of Grimse. After the assembly was dismissed, the
people of the North collected, and Gudmund of Mod-
ruvalla, to whom his majesty had sent a flattering
message, advised them to grant his request. But
his brother Einar, taking a different and wiser view
of the matter, showed that this island would only
prove a post whence the king's ships might harass
their coasts, and his emissaries spread bribes and
sedition over the whole country till it should be
compelled to submit to his authority. This reason-
ing prevailing, Thorarin, as a last resource, invited
several of the chiefs to visit his master; but, their
suspicions being now awakened, this honour was
declined, and it was only promised that a suitable
deputation should wait upon him next year.
Olaf, though displeased that the Icelanders should
resist his authority, now acknowledged both in the
Faroe Islands and Greenland, dissembled for some
time. Next season, the sons of some of the princi-
pal men being sent to him, he received them kindly,
and gave them lodgings in the palace. When, how
OF ICELAND.
129
ever, they wished to return home, he told them that
only one of their number, Geller, would be permit
ted, and that the others must remain as hostages
until their friends should comply with his wishes.
The youth was accordingly sent, and made known
to the Althing of 1026 the conditions prescribed by
the king. These were, that they should receive him
as their superior, accept the Norwegian laws, and
pay an annual poll-tax of money equal in value to
ten ells of cloth, which, even at that period, seems
to have been the circulating medium of the island.
He added both threats and promises; but the Ice-
landers, disregarding his persuasions, chose rather,
as they said, to continue his friends with independ-
ence than to lose their liberty and become his slaves.
The monarch, when he heard the result of his mis-
sion, began to treat the young nobles with a harsh-
ness not very consistent with his affected piety.
But his unjust designs were soon after brought to a
close by the victories of Canute the Great, which
deprived him of his throne and life.*
It is generally believed that Harold Hardrade, who,
soon after the death of Canute, obtained possession
of the Norwegian throne, made some attempts on
the independence of the Icelandic republic. But
these, though conducted with more secrecy, were
equally unsuccessful with those of his half-brother
St. Olaf; and the internal dissensions that succeed-
ed in the northern realms, prevented for some time
any endeavours of the Norwegian kings against the
liberties of their weaker neighbour.
Christianity had been established in Iceland about
half a century before any one was appointed bish-
op. The first advanced to that dignity was Isleif,
the son of Gissur, who had been so instrumental in
introducing this religion into the island; and, having
Crymogea, lib. iii., p. 196-199. Torf. Hist. Nor., tom. iii.,
p. 122-124, 132, 133.
130
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
been sent by his father to study at Erfurt in Germany,
he was, on his return, chosen by his countrymen to fill
this office. Wishing to procure the sanction of the
head of his church, he visited Rome in 1056, where
he obtained a letter from the pope requesting the
Archbishop of Bremen to consecrate him. On his
journey he is reported to have visited the Emperor
Henry and his son Conrad, whom he highly gratified
by the present of a Greenland bear; and, going home
the next year, he fixed his residence at Skalholt,
where he built a cathedral, to which he annexed a
school. It is a curious circumstance that the bish-
op was married, and was succeeded in his office by
his son, named Gissur, who, having also studied
abroad, and returning to Iceland in 1081, soon after
his father's death, was compelled by the pope to ac-
cept the vacant mitre. He was distinguished for
his gifts both of body and mind; and hence Harold
of Norway remarked that he was equally well qual-
ified for three things, either as a king to rule a na-
tion, as a general to guide an army, or as a bishop
to guide the church. His influence at home was so
great, that in 1097 he persuaded the Althing to con-
sent to the payment of tithes without one dissen-
tient voice. Like his predecessor, he also was mar-
ried; and continued bishop of the whole island till
1106, when the see of Holum was founded in the
northern provinces. The first prelate in the latte.
district was Ion Oegmund, who built a large church,
and also endowed a school, in which it would ap-
pear that the Latin language was taught. A story
is still preserved of the anger of the worthy founder
when he accidentally discovered one of the scholars
engaged in reading the elegant but seducing strains
of Ovid.*
The Icelandic clergy, as we have seen above, usu-
* Epistolæ et Amores Ovidii. Crymogea, lib. i., p. 105–108.
Scrip. Rer. Dan., tom. iii., p. 48, 49.
OF ICELAND.
131
ally repaired to some foreign university to complete
their education; and in this they only followed the
common custom of the country, no man being at all
esteemed till he had seen the manners of other lands.
As courtiers, soldiers, or merchants, most of them
had at some time or other left their native shores,
and the old northern proverb was long accounted
true in Iceland, "That the child brought up at home
is simple."* The pilgrimages to Jerusalem, that at
this time began to prevail in the North, had also a
great influence in increasing the practice now men-
tioned. But this intercourse with foreign nations
did not produce conformity to their customs; and
the ministers of religion continued to marry like
other citizens till the time of Thorlak, who succeed-
ed to the see of Skalholt in 1178. This prelate, who
had studied at Paris, on his return to his native land
condemned the marriage of the clergy. His prohi-
bition, however, had so little effect, that his imme-
diate successor, Paul Jonas, who traced his descent
from the Norwegian kings, disobeyed it, and the
priesthood seem to have maintained this right so
long as the island preserved its freedom. This is a
curious proof of the enlightenment and independence
of the Icelanders even in religion, and of the little
attention paid by the Vatican court to those distant
provinces of its spiritual empire.†
With the exception of some improvements made in
the laws, particularly in 1094 and 1118 by Bergthor,
the chief magistrate, who first reduced them to a
written form, afterward known under the name of
the Gragas code, few events of general interest for
a considerable time occur. The contests and ad-
ventures of individual chiefs, related with great mi-
nuteness in the sagas, scarcely belong to the history
* Heimskr er heimalit barn. The old word heimskr, simple-
ton or fool, seems to be derived from heima, home, in reference
to the same idea.
+ Crymogea, lib. i., p. 108-110.
132
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
of the island, and even the scene of the most inter-
esting of these transactions is placed in foreign
lands. Hence, until we approach the period when
the connexion of the private exploits of the leaders
with the national fortunes imparts to them a greater
importance, their annals contain little more than the
names and the dates of the election of the principal
magistrates. We have already given a list of these
officers before the suppression of idolatry, and shall
now add those who followed them during the inde-
pendence of the island :
1002 Gunnar.
1004 Skaptar.
1028 Steno
1032 Arnor.
1054 Geller.
1063 Gunnar.
1093 Bergthor.
1097 Markus, again.
1099 Gunnar.
1108 Ulfhedinn.
1116 Bergthor, again.
1122 Gudmund.
1135 Rafner.
1201 Haller.
1215 Snorro Sturleson,
1219 Teitr.
1222 Snorro, again.
1232 Strymer.
1236 Teitr, again.
1248 Olaf.
LIFE
1065 Kolbein.
1067 Sighvat.
1071 Geller, again.
1139 Fumo.
1156 Snorro.
1075 Gunnar, again. | 1171 Styrker.
1084 Markus.
1181 Gissur.
1251 Sturle Sieghvatson.
1252 Olaf, again.
1253 Teitr Einarson.
1259 Ketil, to 1262. *
What some might regard as the greatest theoret-
ical excellence of the Icelandic republic, became in
practice its principal defect, and, in a great meas
ure, the cause of its ultimate destruction. The re
straints imposed on the personal liberty and indi-
vidual action of the people were weak and power-
less when opposed to the fierce, ungovernable pas-
sions of a rude and warlike race. The proceedings
of a court of justice seemed a slow and dilatory
mode of redress to angry chiefs with weapons in
their hands. Revenge was therefore gratified in
spite of the laws; and when the offender was pow-
erful, or supported by numerous friends, the magis-
trate was unable either to exact obedience or to in-
flict punishment. This weak point of the constitu-
tion did not immediately appear on its first forma-
* Some difference exists in the lists given in the annals, both
in regard to names and dates. Compare Crymogea, p. 81, 82
Langebek's Script Rer. Dan., tom. iii., p. 138.
OF ICELAND.
133
tion; for, as the inhabitants of the island were then
nearly on an equality in wealth and power, none
had any reason to assume an undue superiority
over his neighbour. The common hatred of Nor-
wegian slavery, and fear of the king's authority,
with the bonds of mutual relationship, and reverence
for the law, prevented all contentions dangerous to
the unity of the state. Quarrels were, indeed, even
then of frequent occurrence; but the numbers of
those engaged in them were too small to disturb the
public peace. The interposition of friends or the
command of the magistrate generally produced
sume agreement, according to which the offending
party consented to pay a fine, or was banished for
a term of years from the island: a light punish-
ment to men who found a home on every sea and
plunder on every shore. But in the eleventh cen-
tury circumstances began to alter; the people, with
their old religion, lost also their reverence for the
laws that were associated with it, while they had
not received the new faith in such a manner as in
this respect to supply the place of the former. The
fiery spirits of the nation no longer found an outlet
in the piratical expeditions, which had now ceased;
the power of some of the families began to prepon-
derate, converting the aristocracy into an oligarchy;
and the custom was established of travelling to the
Things with large companies of armed men. In the
beginning of this period we read of Gudmund Rike
(the mighty or powerful) proceeding through his
district every spring with thirty followers, to admin-
ister justice to the inhabitants; but even this small
number created a famine when he remained long in
one place, and he was at last obliged to content
himself with six. Alliances of the great families
only increased this evil, and in the commencement
of the twelfth century we find Halflide Marson
coming to court attended by 1200 adherents, while
his opponent, Thorgils Oddeson, appeared with 700
134
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
to support his pretensions. Against such powerful
chieftains private individuals could no longer con-
tend, and the feeble voice of law and justice was
too often unheard amid the clash of arms. *
When hostile chieftains met in the public assem-
blies, protected and encouraged by such numerous
bands of armed dependants, it would have been sur-
prising if they had not come into collision with each
other, and settled their disputes at the point of the
sword. Such events frequently occurred, as, for
example, in 1163, when Halldor, a son of the pow-
erful Snorro Godi, was slain in the Althing, and the
seat of justice converted into a field of battle. From
that time these intestine feuds greatly increased in
violence and frequency, penetrating to every corner
of the land. Even the snows of the lonely mount-
ains were stained with the blood of the slain; a
conflict having taken place on the Ryda Jökul in
1167, and the annals of the succeeding years men-
tion many others. About the beginning of the twelfth
century, however, all the contests in the land were
conjoined with those of the three sons of Sturle,
the historian Snorro, Thord, and Sieghvat, the most
powerful chiefs of their time. This period has been
rightly named the Sturlunga age, and closes the his-
tory of the Icelandic republic amid scenes of treach-
ery and blood. An account of it still remains, writ-
ten by Sturle Thordson, one of the combatants,
with considerable elegance, great care, and remark-
able impartiality, though inferior in most points to
the Heimskringla, the celebrated work of his illus-
trious uncle. But the spirit of this unnatural war-
fare, ever present in the deeds of dark revenge and
daring cruelty it excited, deprives the story of much
of its interest. The events, also, are often quite un-
connected with each other, arising merely in some
* Kristni Saga, p. 124. The Sturlunga Saga gives Halflide
only 700, and Thorgils somewhat fewer. Such were the ar-
mies of Iceland! Vid. Müller, Island. Hist., p. 84.
OF ICELAND.
135
personal feeling of the leaders; we shall, therefore,
chiefly confine ourselves to those relating to the life
of Snorro, who, if in some degree guilty of his coun-
try's ruin, has in a measure repaid the injury by the
lustre which his works cast upon her name.*
As already mentioned, the office of godar or su-
preme magistrate and judge of the provinces was
hereditary in certain families, and was now almost
regarded as private property. By marriage and
other means, several of these appointments, togeth-
er with immense wealth, had been united in the per-
son of Sturle Thordson, who transmitted them to
his three sons. Had these been agreed among
themselves, they might easily have reduced the isl
and to subjection, and given to it a native sovereign;
but, far from accomplishing this, their mutual jeal-
ousy, ambition, covetousness, and revenge involved
themselves and their country in one common ruin.
Snorro, the most distinguished of the brothers, was
born in 1173, in Dale Syssel; but his father dying
when he was only five years old, he was brought
up in South Iceland by Jon Loptson, a grandson of
the famous Sæmund Frode, the author of the Older
or Poetic Edda. Here the young skald had an op-
portunity of accumulating those treasures of histor-
ical and mythic lore which his works display, and
probably acquired that literary taste which led to
their composition. At the age of twenty-two he
married the daughter of Bersa the Rich, whose pos-
sessions, added to his own, rendered him one of the
most powerful of his contemporaries, being able to
raise from his own estates eight or nine hundred
men. To preserve himself from the attacks of oth-
er clans with whom he was at enmity, he fortified
his favourite residence of Reikholt, and constructed
the bath which still remains a monument of his skill
and magnificence. In 1213 he was chosen lagmann
་
* Script. Rer. Dan., tom. iii., p. 61, 62, &c; Müller, Island.
Hist., p. 85.
136
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
!
or supreme magistrate of the island, and about the
same time engaged in those foreign connexions
which afterward proved so fatal to his peace and
life.
The Icelanders, though independent, had contin
ued to pay a certain deference and respect to the
Norwegian sovereigns, and, as a nation, often asked
their advice in regard to public affairs. Private in-
dividuals were still more closely connected with
them, as their court was the great field where they
might display their talents, and their service the
surest channel to wealth and fame. Many of the
Icelandic nobles were thus induced to visit those
monarchs, who, having never laid aside Olaf's de-
sign of subjugating their island, endeavoured to con-
ciliate their affections by presents and honorary
titles. The skalds were always the most welcome
guests, and it was in this character that Snorro first
appeared in Norway. He had composed an ode in
praise of Hakon Galin, a powerful and affluent jarl,
who sent him, in return, a rich suit of armour, with
an invitation to visit him. The bard travelled thith-
er in 1218, and was received with high favour by
Jarl Skule and the young king Hakon, but found his
first friend dead and his widow married to Askel,
the lagmann of West Gothland. He visited her
there; and remained nearly a year studying the sa-
gas and antiquities of the country, and collecting
materials for the history of the Swedish kings in-
serted in the Heimskringla. Returning to Norway,
he found Skule preparing an expedition against Ice-
land, to avenge the death of some merchants who
had been assassinated while trading there under his
protection. This design, if it had been carried into
execution, would probably have united the natives
in determined hostility to the Norwegians, and de-
stroyed all hopes of reducing the country otherwise
than by force. The king, foreseeing this, remon-
strated with the jarl, and the expedition was given
OF ICELAND.
137
up, though, with the same insidious purpose, it was
pretended that this forbearance was exercised only
at the solicitation of Snorro, who promised to pro-
cure justice to the injured parties. The poet is re-
ported, on this occasion, to have advised his host
rather to gain the friendship of the Icelandic chiefs,
especially of his own two brothers, and, through
them, to rule the rest of the nation. His majesty, it
is also said, gave the Icelander the title of his liege-
man or vassal, and in 1220 he returned home, osten-
sibly to protect the Norwegian traders, but, there is
reason to believe, with secret instructions to subject
the country to the royal authority.
·
Snorro, the year after his return, sent one of his
sons to the jarl as a hostage, at the same time in-
forming him that nothing had been effected towards
reducing the country, in regard to which he proba-
bly was never serious, merely intending by his prom-
ises to secure peace and friendly intercourse with
Norway. His presence, however, could not allevi-
ate the dissensions which now rent his native land,
in which, notwithstanding their profession, the min-
isters of religion bore a prominent part. His broth-
er, Sieghvat, had become involved in a quarrel with
the bishop of Holum, whose dependants had killed
one of his sons. Sturle, another of them, incensed
at his relative's death, attacked the bishop, turned
him out of his see, and, carrying him first to Grim
sœ, afterward banished him to Norway. The pre-
late, on arriving there, complained to the archbishop
of Bergen, who summoned his opponent to answer
for his conduct. Sturle went thither, was con-
demned, and sent to Rome for penance and absolu-
tion, which he obtained after being led naked to the
different churches, and scourged so as to draw tears
from the Roman ladies. On his return to Norway
he had a secret interview with Hakon, who, pre-
tending displeasure at the constant tumults and mur-
ders in Iceland, asked if it would be difficult to re-
138
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
duce it to subjection. He replied, that to a brave
man it would not; whereupon the king requested
him to undertake it: to which he consented, on con
dition that he himself should be made vicegerent,
and that art and wisdom should be employed rather
than force and bloodshed.
Hakon had now two agents in Iceland, but these
were by no means disposed to co-operate with each
other, and it is even doubtful whether either of them
was sincere in his promises. Sturle Sieghvatson,
on his return in 1235, found that Urækia, a son of
Snorro, had in his absence plundered his provinces
and seized on his property. He collected his adhe-
rents and proceeded against the father, who, unwill-
ing to contend with a relation, asked his brother
Thord to mediate between them; and, on this fail-
ing, he left Reikholt to his enemy, and retired to Bes-
sastadir. Sturle soon after defeated several other
of his opponents; and having, by a pretended recon-
ciliation, got hold of Urækia, put out one of his eyes,
and otherwise maimed him. Shortly after, the lat-
ter sailed to Norway, where, in 1237, he was follow
ed by his father and many powerful chiefs.
Snorro, on his arrival, attached himself to his old
friend the jarl, who then held his court at Trond-
heim, and was almost openly aspiring to the throne.
The Icelandic skald employed his poetic powers to
favour his patron's ambitious designs, composing
odes in his praise, and vindicating his right to the
crown. Intelligence from Iceland, where the pre-
ceding winter Kolbein and Gissur Thorwaldson had
defeated the Sturlunga párty, and slain Sturle, his
father Sieghvat, and three brothers, created in Snor-
ro a wish to return home; but he was forbidden by
the king, who declared him an outlaw. The jarl,
however, furnished him with the means of evading
this prohibition, and he sailed for his native land.
But the enmity of Hakon pursued him thither, se-
cret orders being sent to Gissur (who, though Snor-
OF ICELAND.
139
ro's son-in-law, was now one of his most implacable
foes, and head of a party devoted to the ambitious
monarch) to seize his person and send him prisoner
to Norway, on a charge of high treason; or, if this
could not be effected, to put him to death. Gissur's
passion or interest prompted him to adopt the latter
alternative; and, assembling a sufficient force, he
surprised him in Reikholt on the 22d of September,
1241, and deprived him of life.*
*
Snorro, who thus perished by the hand of an as-
sassin, is acknowledged to have been one of the
greatest and most learned of the Icelanders. His
countrymen love to compare him with the most cel-
ebrated of the Roman orators, to whom, both in char-
acter and fortune, he bore a striking resemblance.
Both were called to the highest offices in their na-
tive land by the voice of their admiring countrymen ;
both, amid the cares and distractions of political life,
soothed their labours by literature, and won its bright-
est honours from their less busy contemporaries;
both lived at a time when the bulwarks of freedom
were crumbling into fragments around them; and
both, taking an active share in the unnatural conflict,
fell victims to the success of their enemies. Like
Cicero, too, Snorro was distinguished for his power-
ful, fervid eloquence, and by his rank, wealth, and
talents, was entitled to the highest places in the
state. But his character was stained by avarice and
ambition, and he is accused of having often failed
to perform boldly what he had prudently contrived.
He has been charged with promoting the designs of
the Norwegian monarch against the independence
of his native land; but may be excused, even sup-
posing him to have countenanced this project, when
we consider that it was to avert the evils which a
hostile expedition, probably ending in complete sub-
* Torf. Hist. Nor., tom. iv., p. 146, 201-203, 211, 306. Script.
Rer. Dan., tom. iii., p. 82.
140
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
jugation, would certainly have produced. His sub-
sequent conduct proves that he had no desire to see
this traitorous object accomplished; and the dis-
grace of ruining their country finally devolved on his
opponents.
As the literary labours of Snorro will come under
our notice when treating of those of his contempo-
raries, we shall at present proceed with the history
of the political changes in the state. Gissur, after
the murder of his father-in-law, took possession of
all his property, and, having now the greatest power
in the island, banished his son Urækia to Norway.
The chief place among the Sturlunga party imme-
diately devolved on Thord Kakal, who, though he par-
tially avenged the death of his friends, had not pow-
er either to subdue his enemies or to procure a rec-
onciliation with them. After six years of petty
warfare, we find him and the leaders of the opposite
faction in Norway, where the papal legate had ar-
rived to crown the sovereign. To him both applied
for his influence relating to the affairs of the island;
but Thord was the favourite, and the king and car-
dinal resolved on sending him to his native land to
bring it under the authority of the mother-country,
it being wrong, according to the latter, that Iceland
alone, of all Christian nations, should refuse to obey
a monarch. The reasoning of the prelate prevailed,
though the fact referred to was false, for there were
many republics even in Italy; and, accordingly,
Thord, with Bishop Henry of Holum, was sent to
procure the submission of the islanders. The two
confederates did not long continue allied; and we
find the bishop once more in Norway, associated
with Gissur, his former enemy, and endeavouring
to persuade the king to transfer his authority to his
new friend. In 1253 Henry was again at court,
charging Gissur with faithlessness: an accusation
probably well founded, as the Icelandic chiefs seem
to have been constant in nothing save the gratifying
OF ICELAND.
141
of their ambition and revenge by servility to Hakon
and treachery to their country. In the autumn of
this year an event happened, which, as showing the
spirit in which these feuds were conducted, deserves
to be more fully related.
Gissur and the chiefs of the other party proposed
to end their disputes by the marriage of his son to
the daughter of one of their leaders. The affair was
arranged, and the nuptials celebrated at Flugumyra,
Gissur's residence, with great hospitality and rude
magnificence. He appears to have been sincere in
his intentions; but not so his foes, who wished to
lull his suspicions only that they might strike the
blow more surely. Several of the guests, in with-
drawing, warned him, in the dark and figurative lan-
guage of the land, to beware of the coming danger;
but their words were unheeded, and the family re-
tired to rest. Three nights after, forty armed men
surrounded the house, and, killing one of the senti
nels at the door, were forcing their way into the in-
terior, when they were repelled by the master, whom
the tumult had awakened. Afraid lest the neigh-
bours should come to his assistance if they remained
long, the conspirators set fire to the house, and his
wife, who, trusting to the respect due to her sex,
attempted to escape, was thrown back into the
flames. Gissur, meanwhile, had taken refuge in a
detached part of the dwelling, which, from the mode
of construction, had escaped the fire, and heard his
enemies consulting about his death. In the room
there was a large vessel full of sour milk, the usual
beverage of the country, in which he hid himself;
and his enemies, after searching the place and even
wounding him several times with their spears, de-
parted without discovering him, and were persuaded
that he had perished in the ruins of his home. Thir-
ty-five persons, including his wife and three sons,
fell victims to the fire or the sword, but the individ-
ual principally aimed at escaped to avenge their
M
142
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
death. In the following winter he slew seven cl
the leaders; and others of them received the reward
of their cruelty next summer in the island of Grim-
so, whither they had been followed by their impla-
cable foe.*
Deeds like these were but too well calculated to
alienate the minds of the people from their rulers,
and to induce them to look for that security and
peace under a foreign prince which were denied them
by their own institutions. Time, with its slow mu-
tations, had converted the Icelandic aristocracy into
the worst of oligarchies; and the powerful chiefs,
not content with governing their own provinces,
were stirred up by their insatiable ambition to usurp
those of their neighbours. The authority of the
laws was utterly despised, and all causes were de-
cided by violence and arms, while sedition, rapine,
and slaughter everywhere prevailed. In the more
ancient feuds some seasons of the year brought
peace, and, by mutual consent, the property and flocks
of the combatants were spared; but now all this
was reversed; summer and winter, night and day,
by sea and land, the battle was carried on; and the
design of the combatants being only to injure their
opponents, they plundered or destroyed whole prov-
inces, and in their deep revenge spared neither age
nor sex. While the feuds of the chieftains thus
seemed interminable, their constant reference to the
King of Norway, and their desire to strengthen them-
selves by his support, taught the people where to
look for protection: a feeling heightened by the de-
pendance of the clergy on the see of Trondheim.
Hakon knew well how to employ these incidents to
favour an event now almost a necessary consequence
of the course of things.
Relying upon these circumstances, and more es-
pecially on the disposition of the people, Hakon could
* Torf. Hist. Nor., tom. iv., p. 270, 271, 322--329.
OF ICELAND.
143
4
now treat for the surrender of the whole island in
an open manner. For this purpose he sent Bishop
Sigvard and a Norwegian nobleman of the same
name thither in 1254, and Ivar Egilson the following
year, who persuaded the inhabitants of the North to
pay tribute to him. But they did not long continue
in this resolution; and Gissur, who had returned to
Norway, was again, in 1259, sent to Iceland. He
had, however, but little success; and, finding him.
self hated by his countrymen, suspected by the king,
and weary of life, he retired to a monastery, where
ue concluded his days. Harald, or Hallvard Gulskor,
at last prevailed in inducing the whole island, in 1261,
to swear allegiance to the Norwegian monarch and
to pay him tribute, with the exception of the east-
ern quarter, which also submitted three years after-
ward. In thus accepting a sovereign, the Icelanders
did not resign their freedom; a regular contract be-
ing entered into, securing their ancient rights and
laws, free commerce with Norway, and government
by a viceroy it being also stipulated, that on the
infringement of any of these conditions, they should
be no longer bound by their oath.*
The manners and customs of the Icelanders du-
ring this period varied little from those of the pre-
ceding age, except in the abolition of some heathen
customs too much opposed to the spirit of Christian-
ity to survive its reception. Though the change
thus produced was highly beneficial, the religion of
peace had little effect in restraining the wild and
lawless spirit of the Northern chiefs; and the bish-
ops, whose influence might have done much, were
unhappily themselves too deeply involved in the fac-
The history of this surrender will be found in Torfæus's
History of Norway (tom. iv., lib. 4), under the various years of
Hakon's reign; and a very full account of the transactions fol-
lowing the death of Snorro in the fifth book (p. 305–336), and
also in the Crymogea, p. 199-208. For the terms of the con
tract see Torfæus, p. 334, and Crymogea, p. 107.
144
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
tions of the time to amend the nation either by pre-
cept or example. The most curious feature in the
social development of this period of independence
is the composition of those poetic and historical
works, which even yet impart a lustre to the faded
glories of the land, and, from the light which they
cast on the history of the neighbouring kingdoms,
possess a universal interest. Why the natives of
that remote and barren island should, at a time when
midnight darkness covered all other European coun-
tries, turn their attention to literature, and produce
works of so much real excellence, is a question wor-
thy of attentive consideration. Though several of
these were composed prior to the introduction of
Christianity, yet, as they were not committed to
writing till after this event, we have hitherto de-
ferred noticing them.
The first colonists of this island were men of no
ble birth, famed for their own deeds and those of their
ancestors. To this much importance was attached
in all the Scandinavian nations, and more particular-
ly in Iceland, where, as few opportunities of signal-
izing their personal prowess arose, this antecedent
proof of courage and a manly soul was proportion-
ately more valued. In Norway the name of the war-
like race was known to all the inhabitants of the
same Ting or province; and the green mound where
their ashes reposed, the ancient patrimonial pos-
session (odelshof), preserved their memory and en-
sured the renown of their descendants. But the
songs of the skalds alone could follow them to Ice-
land; they could not "bid the bones of their fathers
arise and go with them to a strange land." Their
' removal, however, from these more lasting memo-
rials, only made them cling the more closely to those
that remained, and the more anxious for their pres-
ervation; while the distance of the scene, and the
melancholy attached to home, when left for ever, in
pressed them the more deeply on their hearts.
In
OF ICELAND.
145
the altered circumstances of the people we may find
another reason: men accustomed to war, to blood-
shed, and to danger, sailing from shore to shore in
quest of plunder or of glory, now fed their flocks in
peace, or allotted to their servants their daily la-
bour. Like persons rescued from a stormy sea,
they would oft recall their by-gone days, and seek in
the stirring vicissitudes of the past a relief from the
vacuity of the present. Besides, their own acts were
intimately associated with those of their fathers,
whose feuds they had inherited, whose death they
had avenged, and from whose friends they had sought
and found support. In this way a perfect image of
the past would naturally spring up and be preserved
in the hearts and memories of the Icelanders; while
in Norway recent events obliterated the remem-
brance of the old, and the bloody wars of the Birke-
beinar almost annihilated the ancient families with
all their traditions.
We are not here concerned with the literature of
the other allied nations; but it is important to re-
mark that many skalds flourished in Harald's court
at the time when Iceland was colonized, and that
Jarl Einar then sang in the Orkney Islands. Verses
written by these authors still remain, and some beau-
tiful poems of Eyvind Skaldaspilder, the most famed
of the Northern bards, are yet preserved. But
Christianity took deeper root in these lands, and its
more violent contest with the old superstition im-
bittered the minds of the priests against all rem-
nants of the ancient mythology, which was insepar-
ably interwoven with the skaldic poems. The
same reasons of hostility did not exist in the new
country, where the struggle was less virulent and
protracted. To this favourable circumstance, cli-
mate and the mode of life of the inhabitants, which
left them many leisure hours, added their influence.
The hay harvest was soon collected, the fisheries
finished, and the cattle required but little care.
The
146
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
feuds occupied only a short time, but they compelled
the leaders to keep a number of followers around
them; while the social character of the people made
it the custom for all the inhabitants of a farm, how-
ever large, to assemble in one room. To these do-
mestic were added many public meetings, where a
whole district gathered together for amusement at
ball, or the hestething, where horses were provoked
to fight together; or for civil business at the differ-
ent inferior courts, and especially at the Althing.
In all these meetings the relating of sagas became a
common amusement, and the question was frequent-
ly asked if there were any wise man present who
could amuse them with new histories. Where this
talent is much practised and highly appreciated, it
is sure to develop itself, and many distinguished
sagamen (sagnamadr) are named in these narratives.
The political character, too, of their institutions gave
to these relations an importance they would not oth-
erwise have acquired, arising from the desire of fame
excited in the minds of the people, to which this was
a sure path. But the strongest incentive was found
in the rivalry of the chiefs, whose authority depend-
ed on the number of their adherents, and this, again,
on personal character and influence in the courts.
No one could defend his cause with success against
a more powerful opponent, and hence private indi-
viduals were glad, as in ancient Rome, to become
the clients of some chieftain. All the grandees,
therefore, were anxious to acquire a name which
gained them at once glory and an increase of power,
and this it was the skald's office to dispense. In
these disputes, also, the character of the leader,
whether he was warlike and enterprising, or well-
liked and had numerous relatives, was a question of
importance, not only to those who espoused his side,
but to his enemies. Hence the importance of these
sagas, and, at the same time, their peculiar character.
They are all historical; and, we may even say,
OF ICELAND.
147
some measure political; displaying close observa-
tion of the conduct and character, and the personal
appearance and dress of the chieftains: things of
moment in a land where it was necessary to recog-
nise at a distance one's friends or foes.
The first settlers in Iceland, we cannot doubt,
brought with them many songs derived from their
Norwegian ancestors. Probably the most ancient
of these were the mythic poems concerning Odin
and the Ais, after which we may place those of the
Volsung and Giukung. But the fabulous was soon
exchanged for the historical; and the long continu-
ance of the heroic age in Norway offered rich ma-
terials for the skald. He had not, like the Homeric
poets of Lesser Asia, to go back into a former age
for a theme worthy of his lyre. Actions were per-
formed every day fitted to inspire his muse, and
these he delighted to sing; but it is obvious that
this proximity to the period whence his subject was
taken must have had great influence on the manner
in which he treated it. Fettered by the present, the
skald seems never to have been moved by a law of
beauty, deeply yet darkly felt, such as led his Gre-
cian brethren to transform some historic incident
into one harmonious whole. The Northern muse
was more allied to the lyric than to the epic. When
some stirring adventure caught the poet's fancy, his
creative spirit unfolded itself in lofty tones; but this
was only for a moment, when, again entangled in
the course of events, it was revealed only in individ-
ual expressions, not in the general plan. But what
the longer sagas thus lost in poetic spirit and unity,
was more than compensated by their higher interest
and utility as authentic records of real events.
Some may, perhaps, doubt whether the Northern
language at that early period was so much refined
as to be fitted for compositions on such subjects;
but that it was so may be shown on indubitable
grounds, even although we should reject the verses
148
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
ascribed in the sagas to their ancient heroes. Many
songs of the skalds in Harald Haarfager's time still
survive, the style of which differs but little from that
used in the eleventh century; the change in man-
ners and ideas during these two ages having been
very slow and inconsiderable. Between this poetry,
however, and the earliest prose, there exists such a
difference, not merely in the metrical form and arti-
ficial arrangement, but also in the choice of words,
as proves this kind of composition to have been then
very old in the North. This early perfection of lan
guage was only what was to be expected from the
rank assigned to eloquence in the free constitutions
of Scandinavia, where the wise and powerful tongue
gained equal honour with the bold and skilful hand.
These sagas do not go far back; those of the col-
onists seldom beyond their father or grandfather.
Remarkable events of such recent date were easily
remembered, especially when embalmed in. the liv-
ing strains of a favourite bard; and, though only
preserved by memory, the circumstances in which
they were recited were often such as to ensure their
transmission to future generations. The hero's
court, whose own exploits or those of his immedi-
ate ancestor formed the subject of the poem, was
frequently the place where it was sung. At other
times it was on the battle-field, amid the assembled
warriors, as at Stikklestad (A.D. 1030), where St.
Olaf, collecting the skalds into the schildburg, where
the bravest of his soldiers fought around the royal
person, said, "Be here and see what is done; trust
not to others when you sing our deeds." On this
occasion the bards composed a memorial-song, each
improvising a stanza, which was at once committed
to memory by the men. On the eve of the same
battle, Thormod Kolbrun, at Olaf's request, sung the
Biarkelied on the death of Rolf Krake, part of which
still remains. The whole army rejoiced at the
well-known strain, calling it the whetstone of he-
OF ICELAND.
149
roes, and the monarch rewarded the skald with a
gold ring.
Neither were these verses trusted entirely to
memory; for, even before Christianity had intro-
duced the Roman letters, it was the custom to en-
grave them in Runic characters on wooden staves.†
Thus Halmund, when mortally wounded, says to his
daughter, "Listen faithfully while I relate my ac-
tions, and engrave this song upon a staff." In the
same manner, when Egill Scallagrimson, grieved for
his son's death, wishes to commit suicide, his daugh-
ter, to divert him from his purpose, says,
"I wish,
father, we had lived till you had composed a funeral-
song on our Bodvar, which I might cut in runes."‡
In this manner did the taste for such relations
spring up in the breasts of the Icelandic skalds. Had
* Heimskringla Saga af Olafi Hinom Helga, kap. 218, 220.
†The use of this mode of writing was very ancient in the
North, and probably brought with the Æsir from their Asiatic
home. The number of Runic inscriptions (above 1400) scatter-
ed through Scandinavia and Iceland, refute the theory of their
origin from the Roman letters at a recent date, to which they
have less resemblance than to the ancient Greek, Etrurian, and
Celtiberian alphabets. Tacitus, however, affirms that the Ger-
mans, in his days, were ignorant of the use of letters.-Tac.,
Ger., cap. 19. The story in the Sturlunga Saga (3 Thattr, kap.
7) of Ingemund, an Icelandic priest, who, in 1185, perished on
the coast of Greenland with six others, leaving an account of
his misfortune in runes, found with their bodies fourteen years
after, shows that they were then the most common mode of
writing, and the most likely to be understood. They were
chiefly employed in inscriptions on public monuments and
tombs, and in letters which were written on a wooden staff
(runakefle).* At last they fell into bad repute from being em-
ployed in magic rites, and were discouraged by the clergy.-
Müller, Island. Hist., p. 130–134. Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 248,
249.
‡ Grettis Saga, cap. 65. Egil Saga, p. 605. Müller, Island.
Hist., p. 20
*These staves were called buch-stav, from buch or bog (beech), the
kind of wood of which they were generally made, and hence the English
word book is probably derived.-Am. Ed.
150
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
their sagas been confined to the history of their own
country, however interesting as a curious fact in the
progress of civilization, they would probably never
have acquired their present fame. But the events
of their own land were too limited to exhaust their
powers, and their constant intercourse with the sur-
rounding nations introduced them to a wider field,
which they were not slow to cultivate. Notwith-
standing the remote situation of the island, they had
many opportunities of acquiring the requisite knowl-
edge; for Norwegian, and probably British mer-
chants, visited them every summer, and often re-
mained throughout the winter.* But in their travels
to foreign lands, whether for commerce or as sol-
diers and poets, they had still greater advantages.
The skalds, like the troubadours, were nobles and
warriors, and were received by the kings, to whom
they were often related, not like wandering minstrels
without a name or home, but as friends and counsel-
lors. They had the seat of honour in the court,
were consulted by the sovereign on all difficult oc-
casions, and rewarded with titles or valuable pres-
ents. Most of the 230 skalds who distinguished
themselves before 1157 were Icelanders; the circum-
stances of that nation being more favourable to their
peculiar vocation, while the princes were also better
pleased with praise from a foreign bard than from
one of their own subjects. The hope of fame or
profit thus led these islanders through every land,
from the shores of the icy ocean to the Mediterra-
nean, and from Britain to Constantinople and the
Holy Land. As they never failed to return to their
* The imports were meal, wood, linen, fine cloth, and tapes-
try; the exports, silver, skins, wadmal, and other coarse cloths,
with dried fish. The merchant usually resided with the chief of
the district, and, in return for his winter's lodgings, gave him a
present of a piece of English tapestry, or other costly goods.-
Müller, Island. Hist., p. 46, 47, with the authorities from the sa-
gas there quoted.
OF ICELAND.
151
native country, much historical matter was in this
way collected there, which, according to the habits
of the people, soon assumed the form of a saga.*
In this manner an immense number of these pro-
ductions accumulated in Iceland. Though endowed
with almost incredible powers of memory, the saga-
men must have sunk under the burden, and many of
these works would have been lost, had not some
other means been contrived for their preservation.
The blind skald Stuf is said to have sung on one
evening to Harald Hardrade no fewer than sixty
songs, and to have known four times as many long-
er poems. The length of some of these may be con-
jectured from what is related of Thorstein, who re-
cited to the same Harald an account of his expedi-
tion to Sicily, which he had learned from Halldor
Snorroson, one of the king's followers, and which
continued thirteen nights. No sooner, therefore,
were the Roman characters introduced with the
Christian religion, than they were gladly employed
to relieve the mind from this mass of traditional lore;
and when the poems were once committed to wri-
ting, many who would have hesitated to burden their
memories with them were glad to procure copies.
At what time this happened is not well ascertained;
but as schools were instituted soon after the conver-
sion of the island, both at Skalholt and Holum, it was
probably about the same period. Even in the twelfth
century books were composed, and the priests at
least possessed libraries; while the Sturlunga Saga
says that most of the events that took place in Ice-
land were recorded before the death of Bishop Brand
in 1201. The compilation of the Landnamabok, in
which are found the names of about 3000 persons
and 1400 places, proves the early existence of some
written documents, no power of recollection being
* There is a very curious treatise on the travels of the Ice-
landers, by Jon Erichsen, De Peregrinationibus Islandorum.
Torf., Hist. Nor., tom. iii., p. 333.
152
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
sufficient to retain such a number of detached partic-
ulars.
+
We are apt to regard these sagas as confined to
the history of Iceland; but this is an incorrect
view, as they embrace in their wide circle the
whole North, its language and customs, its annals
and religion. One class comprehends the events
of Scandinavia before the peopling of that island,
and, as being the most interesting, they have en-
gaged much of the attention of foreign authors
These, passing through a longer channel of tradi
tion, are less to be depended on than the more re
cent, and are impressed with a deeper mythic char
acter; though such as respect Norway are more
complete than those in regard to Sweden and Den-
mark. Greater confidence may be placed in those
that treat of events posterior to the colonization of
Iceland; and the religion, manners, laws, constitu-
tion, and language of the North, being then almost
uniform, we are enabled from such to form a true
picture of this heathen period. With the history
of the Icelanders, that of the other Northern colo-
nies is closely connected. The history of the Ork
ney Islands is related in the Orkneyinga Saga, pub-
lished by Johnson; of the Faroe Islands in that of
Sigmund Bresteson; and of Greenland in the saga
of Erik Raude, and others imbodied in Snorro's
great work. Regarding the Continental nations, the
Heimskringla of the last-named author has obscured
the fame and caused the loss of many documents
existing in his time, and employed by him in its
composition. Some others, however, still remain;
and these prove by comparison how faithfully he
has performed his task, and with how much truth
and elegance he has given us the story of three
hundred years. In this work we must regard Snor-
ro as more than a mere compiler. He has, indeed,
followed old traditions, as all who compose the his-
tory of the past must; but he has presented them
OF ICELAND.
153
as one consistent whole, correcting, adding, and
omitting, according to the information acquired in
his other researches. His style, simple and una-
dorned, often interrupted by quotations from the
skalds, expresses in a vivid manner those thoughts
and feelings to which his native tongue could alone
give utterance. To this work we are principally in-
debted for our knowledge of those Norman chiefs,
whose names made the kings of Europe tremble in
their palaces, and whose descendants now sit on the
mightiest of their thrones.*
Ölder than the writings of Snorro, though of less
general importance, are those of Are Frode. His
short treatise on the history of his native land, com-
piled after 1122, contains a comprehensive and well-
arranged outline of the principal events before his
time. He was the first of the Icelandic authors
who assigned fixed dates to events, and his narra-
tive far surpasses those of his monkish contempo-
raries on the Continent in sound sense and patriot
ic feeling. He composed a larger work, of which
only a few quotations, principally on genealogical
and chronological questions, remain. It appears to
have been a dry collection of the most remarkable
* The Heimskringla (that is, the orb of the world, so named
from its first words) was originally published in a Danish trans-
lation, by P. Clausen, in 1639. The original Icelandic, with a
Latin translation by Peringskiold, appeared at Stockholm, in
two vols. fulio, in 1697. But this edition is founded on corrupt
manuscripts. A more correct copy is that of Schoening, in
Icelandic, Latin, and Danish, in three folio volumes. There are
other smaller editions of the whole or part. His descendant,
Bishop Finn Johnson, wrote the first biographical notice of
him; a longer one, by Finn Magnusen, will be found in the
nineteenth volume of the Memoirs of the Scandinavian Litera-
ry Society (Copen., 1823).-See Depping, Biographie Univer-
selle, tom. xlii., p. 502-505 Snorro's other great work, the
Edda, is translated in the second volume of Mallet's Northern
Antiquities, and a very complete analysis of it will be found in
the work entitled Scandinavia, vol. i., p. 85, et seq., Edinburgh
Cabinet Library.
154
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
*
occurrences which took place subsequently to the
colonization of Iceland, in that country, and in Nor-
way, England, and Denmark, and was employed by
Snorro in the composition of his principal work.
Another production, of which we know little more
than the name, was a history of the Norwegian
kings from Harald Haarfager to Magnus the Good,
by Sæmund Frode, which is less seldom quoted than
Are's, and is thought to have been mostly chrono-
logical. Sæmund is also the reputed author of the
Older or Poetic Edda, though his title to this, as also
to the Odda Annals, has been disputed. Other his-
torical works of this period are well known, but
most of them, having assumed the form of annals,
were either incorporated with later treatises or have
altogether perished. The cause of this peculiar
mode of narration may be found in the detached
and unconnected nature of the events of Northern
history, consisting merely of individual facts united
only by the slender relation of time. It was re-
served for Snorro to combine the living spirit of the
northern Sagas with the widely connected views of
foreign literature, and thus to produce a classical
work which easily eclipsed all former attempts.
The success of this great author induced many
others to follow in the same path, the most distin-
guished of whom was Sturle Thordson, his brother's
son. He wrote, in 1284, the history of the civil
contentions of the island during the twelfth and thir
teenth centuries, which led to its final subjection to
the Norwegian kings. Though his friends were
deeply engaged in the earlier part of these transac-
tions, and himself in the more recent, he is generally
allowed to have been impartial in his account of those
melancholy occurrences. His work is the most ex-
tensive that remains to us of all that were composed
during this period of Icelandic history. In those
wars the noblest of her sons perished; and with
freedom the spirit that animated their literature fled
OF ICELAND.
155
for many ages.
But this belongs rather to the next
historical epoch, before entering on which we must
notice some of the other writings of this age.
*
Probably the most curious of the works of this
period which have been preserved is the Landnama-
bok, or a narrative of the origin of the Icelandic na-
tion. In this treatise we find an account of the first
discovery of the island, and a list of the colonists,
with their relatives and descendants. Such a com-
plete genealogical record of a whole nation is per-
haps nowhere else to be found, and is singularly
characteristic of the people, their family pride, and
love of minute information respecting their ances-
tors. It forms the surest authority for the earliest
history of the island, and, amid many uninteresting
details, frequently gives us curious glimpses of the
state of society. From the book itself we learn that
it was not the work of one author, but of many dis-
tinguished individuals in succession. The first of these
was Are Frode, or the Wise, a priest, born in 1068,
some of whose other performances we have already
mentioned. He was succeeded by Kolskeggr, whose
learning also procured him the same honourable ti-
tle, by Strymer Frode, Sturle Thordson, and some
others of less note. The finishing hand was put to
the whole by Haukr Erlendsen, who was several
times lagmann of the island, and died in 1334. Many
manuscripts of this work exist, and several editions
* An edition of the Sturlunga Saga, with notes, in four vol-
umes quarto, has been published by the Icelandic Literary Soci-
ety at Copenhagen (1817-1820), accompanied with an introduc
tion and a biographical account of Bishop Arne Thorlakson, ex
tending to A.D. 1320. The fate of the editors of this work is
singularly melancholy: the author of the notes, Gisle Bryngulf-
sen, was drowned in the prime of life; of two promising young
students who assisted him, one, Thorasen Oefiord, experienced
the same fate on his passage home, and the other, Sigurd Ste-
phensen, died soon after in early life. The same society have
published (1821-1830) a continuation of this work by John Es-
polin, entitled Island's Arbækur, or Iceland's Year Books, in
nine quarto volumes, containing the history from 1263 to 1743.
156
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
เ
of it have been published, though none of them, it
is said, particularly accurate: a circumstance the
more to be regretted, as many important facts in
Northern_history depend on its testimony. Like
most of the other compilations of the period, it con-
tains frequent quotations from the older poems, the
interpretation of which has exercised the ingenuity
of antiquaries.* :
Poetry seems in all nations to have preceded prose
composition, and often to have been carried to a high
state of perfection before the latter was even attempt
ed. This arises from the pleasure derived from
measured sounds, and the ease and certainty the
mind attains in remembering words arranged accord-
ing to a fixed law. Hence the tales of the skalds
and sagamen were formed and recited or sung ac-
cording to a peculiar metre. Though the natural ge-
nius of the Northern nations and their less excitable
temperament led them to prefer poems founded on
historical facts, in which the acquisition of knowl-
edge was combined with the charms of harmony, yet
ali were not of this kind. They had fictitious sagas,
in which both the hero and the incidents were the
creations of the poet's fancy, and where his power
and skill in describing character as well as in com-
bining events were displayed to the greatest advan-
tage. These romances, as they may be called, arose
at a late period in the literature of the North, when
* We are happy to learn that the Society of Northern Anti-
quaries at Copenhagen, who have done and are doing so much
to elucidate the early history of the North, are about to publish
a more correct edition of this work. To the same society we
owe a complete edition of the historical sagas of the Icelanders
recording events out of that island. The original text now
completed fills twelve large octavo volumes, under the title of
Fornmanna Sögur. The Danish translation of similar extent
is also complete, and seven volumes of a Latin version, entitled
Scripta Historica Islandorum de rebus gestis veterum Borea-
lium," have also appeared. This is said to be " Opera et studio
Sveinbjornis Egilssonii in Islandia :" an honourable testimony
to the literary character of the country.
OF ICELAND.
157
the reciting and composing of poems had become an
art, and the demand of novelty on the part of the
listeners could not be satisfied by real occurrences.
These sagas are, however, easily distinguished from
those that treat of real persons and events, by the
tone and style, the endeavour after effect, the im-
probability of the incidents, and by the fact that the
few genealogies which do occur differ from those in
the other sagas and in the Landnamabok.
Besides the Poetic Edda, the most extensive re-
mains of northern poetry are the verses quoted in
the sagas as sung on particular occasions by the
characters introduced. These are not confined to
the skalds, or even to men, but are put into the
mouths of women and girls, proving that poetry was
at that time a national accomplishment, and not con-
fined to the great or learned part of the people.
These fragments, of which above five hundred lines
are quoted in the Kenningar, or second part of the
Edda, are ascribed to various poets, most of them
natives of Iceland. The subjects of them also vary :
some, as Gunnlaug Ormstungas Saga, and especially
those of Kormak, sing the tender passion; others
are descriptive, but mostly they are historical, de-
claring the virtues of some hero, and, at times, of
the skald himself, or of his friends. Satire was also
a favourite mode of composition, and so prevalent
that it was found necessary to restrain it by statute.
As an instance of its power, it is told that the Ice-
landers, provoked by Harald Blaatand, king of Den-
mark, who had seized one of their merchant-ships.
made such severe verses on him that he sent a fleet
to ravage the island. This obliged them to make a
law by which any one who indulged in satire against
the sovereigns of Norway, Sweden, or Denmark,
should be subject to capital punishment.*
Owing to the depressed condition of the country
Mallet's Northern Antiquities, vol. i., p. 187.
N
158
INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE
during the following period, most of these works
have perished, and the names of their authors have
been almost forgotten. There are, however, many
whose fame time has failed to obliterate, and in the
Heimskringla and other sagas, some of which de-
scribe the actions of individual skalds, so much of
their history is related, that it has been said their bi-
ographies would fill many volumes.* Among the
most celebrated of these bards we find the names of
Ragnar Lodbrok, Egill Scallagrimson, and Eyvind
Skaldaspilder, whose works, though not produced in
Iceland, have been preserved exclusively by the na-
tives of that country. Of these the last is consider-
ed as holding the first rank among the Northern po-
ets, and his Hakonarmal is accounted one of his best
productions. He also composed an ode in praise of
the Icelanders, which so gratified the nation, that each
peasant contributed three pieces of silver, of which
they formed a clasp for a mantle, fifty marks in
weight, and sent it to the skald.† Other distinguish-
ed poets of this period were Olaf Hvitaskald, Siegh-
vat Thordarson, Thord Kolbeinson, and the famous
Snorro Sturleson, whose laudatory odes or drapa
gained him friends in every land.‡
Poetry, even at that early period, acquired a pecu-
liar form and appropriate diction, named Asa-mal, or
language of the gods. In the more recent specimens
the measure is extremely complicated, as the skalds
from the eleventh century delighted to exercise their
ingenuity in multiplying to an almost endless extent
the varieties of metrical systems. But with their
departure from nature and simplicity they lost much
of the true merit of poetical composition, and the fet-
* Müller, Ísland. Hist, p. 119.
+ Heimskringla, Harald Graafields Saga, kap. 18.
་
Henderson's Iceland, vol. ii, p. 353. Besides those in the
text, he also names Einar Skalaglam, Gunnlaug Ormstunga,
Marcus Skeggiason, Ottar Svart, and Sturk Thorarson, as cel
ebrated poets.
OF ICELAND.
159
*
ters they imposed on themselves marred at once the
harmony of the verse and the graceful freedom that
distinguished their predecessors. The oldest metre
was that called by them the fornyrdalag, or "the an-
cient lay," closely resembling in measure, cadence,
and alliteration, the poetical remains of the Anglo-
Saxons. It consists of short lines containing two or
three feet, the former predominating in the more
primitive poems; and traces of the more intricate
forms do not appear till the reign of Harald Haarfa-
ger. Its most prominent feature were the allitera-
tions it required, which constituted its chief ornament
and almost exclusive characteristic. Though found
occasionally in the poetry of other nations, this was
so far peculiar to the great Gothic family, that they
alone seem to have possessed a scheme of versifica-
don entirely founded on it. These alliterations sup-
plied the place of our rhyme, which, however, was
not altogether unknown, as several examples of it
are found in the old sagas, and in Egil's far-famed
poem, the Hofudlausn, or " Redemption of his Head."
It was in the use of rhyme or assonant syllables, ei-
ther occurring at the end or more frequently in the
middle of the lines and even of words, that the later
systems, of which more than 300 have been enumer-
ated, differed from the ancient. The most common of
these was the drottquaede, "the heroic verse," or
'king's song," used by the greater number of poets
ter the ninth century, consisting of lines of six or
eight syllables. Poetry was also distinguished from
prose by its circumlocutions, and bold, figurative im-
agery, which now seem far-fetched, and render it
extremely dark to a reader not thoroughly acquaint-
ed with the mythology and customs of the period.
Some of the poems, however, are very simple, as
those ascribed to women and children, while such as
were composed with the greatest care by the true
skalds are remarkably artificial and obscure. It also
possessed a vocabulary in some measure peculiar to
160 INDEPENDENT AND LITERARY AGE, ETC.
itself, the words of which were never employed in
prose or in common life. Many of these terms have
a striking resemblance to the Anglo-Saxon, and, in
all probability, were in common use at the time when
the two nations issued from their original abode, thus
forming fragments of that primitive tongue spoken
by the ancestors of all the Teutonic nations. This
circumstance by no means prevented the poetry from
being popular, and is a strong proof of its great an-
tiquity, its language remaining fixed, while that gen-
erally spoken was in a state of constant mutation.
The similarity of the Icelandic speech to the An-
glo-Saxon is not confined to poetical words and
phrases, but is also found throughout the whole of
its fabric, and even in regard to some of the letters,
such as the th of the Icelandic, which, though un-
known to most of the allied dialects, is common
enough in English. The reason of this resemblance
is easily found in history, whence we learn that not
only were the Saxons the nearest neighbours to the
Scandinavians, but that they were intermixed with
Jutes and Angles, who undoubtedly belonged to the
same race. Besides the resemblances common to
all the German and more Northern tongues, our own
will, for this reason, be found to possess many pe-
culiar to itself; and, even at the present day, the
Danish has more similarity to it than to the German,
and many antiquated expressions on the western
coast of Jutland are altogether English. This re-
semblance was preserved by the constant intercourse
between Britain and the Northern nations either for
peace or war, which continued till Canute united
them all under one common sway. Even before
this time, the Scandinavian language was known
in Iceland as the Danish tongue (Dansk Túnge).
It probably received this name at the time when
Norway was still divided into numerous independ-
ent states, and when Denmark was governed by a
Rolf Krake, a Ragnar Lodbrok, or some such pow
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
161
erful sovereign. A common language was then the
only point of unity in Norway, and this, not being
peculiar to her alone, was named from the more
puissant kingdom.*
CHAPTER V.
Modern History of Iceland.
Changes occasioned by Loss of Independence.-Extinction of
Literature.-Stability of Language.-New Laws.-Disputes
of the King and Clergy.-Papal Exactions.-Crusaders.-—
Hakon V-Misfortunes in the Fourteenth Century.- Voyage
of the Zeni.-Commerce with England.--English Bishops.-
John Gerriksen.-Destitution of the Island.-Governor slain
by the English.-Christian wishes to pledge the Island to
them.-Advantages of this Trade.-Religious Condition.--
Morals of the Clergy. Superstitions.- Reformation.-Op-
posed by Jon Areson.-His Execution.-Suppression of Mon-
asteries. Translation of Bible.- Gudbrand Thorlakson.-
Arngrim Jonas.-Pirates in the Seventeenth Century.-Com
merce.-Trials for Witchcraft.-Smallpox in 1707.-Iceland-
ic Revolution.-Conclusion.
THE history of Iceland, in some measure, closes
with the events related in the last chapter. By ac-
cepting the Norwegian monarch as sovereign, it
* For the above account of the ancient Icelandic literature,
the author is chiefly indebted to the very interesting treatises of
Bishop Müller (Ueber den Ursprung und Verfall der isländi-
schen Historiographie, and Ueber die Nationalitat der altnordi-
schen Gedichte). He has also consulted Henderson's able ap-
pendix on Icelandic poetry (Travels, vol. ii., p. 323-400), Whea-
ton's Northmen, p. 49-110, and Depping's Histoire des Nor-
mands, tom. i., p. vii.-xxix. In Conybeare's Illustrations of
Anglo-Saxon Poetry (Lond., 1826), Introd., p. xxxix., some cu-
rious remarks on the similarity of the Icelandic and ancient
Teutonic metres occur, and the remarkable coincidence of the
poetry of these nations, both in form and language, is illustrated
by a literal translation of Gudrun's Lay into Anglo-Saxon verse.
162
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
ป
was in reality reduced to a mere province of that
kingdom, though nominally maintaining the rank of
an independent state. The shores of the Thingvalla
Vatn might still be enlivened by the annual assem-
bly of the Althing, but the importance of this court
had perished with the national freedom, and scarce
any other employment remained than to register the
laws proposed for its reception. The very mildness
and equity of the royal government for many years
also contributed to destroy the influence of that
body, by increasing the public confidence in their
governors, and by giving the members no occasion
to complain. The power of the king also easily en-
abled him to suppress those feuds and tumults which,
during the last struggles of the aristocracy had
spread such misery in the land; and the people, en-
joying a degree of peace and security unknown to
them or their fathers, were speedily reconciled to
the foreign yoke.
The changes produced were not, however, all for
the better, nor of so pleasing a nature as the one
just mentioned. During the period of independence,
every man could turn his talents to account, and, by
participating in the national affairs, might hope to at-
tain distinction. But this was no longer the case
power, emanating from a prince in a distant land,
was less frequently conferred on persons of real
abilities, and, being supported by foreign authority,
had less need of their assistance. That inward vig-
our which formerly distinguished the Icelander had
now vanished; for the nation, no longer depending
on its own resources, trusted its lot to that higher
power to which it had become subject. The plain,
upright manners of their forefathers remained un-
corrupted, but the energy of mind which enlivened
them was quenched for ever.
Literature, which had formed the glory of the past
age, first felt the decline of this; for freedom no
longer led men to perform gallant deeds, or inspired
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
163
he poet's soul to sing their praise. The interest in
public affairs, much weakened during the feuds of
the Sturlunga, was now also completely superseded
by internal tranquillity. The skald ceased to relate
the history of his native land, for it no longer pro-
duced men or actions worthy to employ his pen.
The annalist could only fill up the list of ears with
a catalogue of the judges, or accounts of the fam-
ines and pestilences which now frequently ravaged
the country. But, before a century had elapsed,
even this lowest species of historical literature also
ceased; and from 1350, when the plague desolated
Iceland, no annals were composed till Biorn of Skard-
saa, about two hundred and fifty years afterward, re-
sumed the practice of recording passing events. The
skaldic songs on the warlike adventures of their con-
temporaries, so common even in the close of the
last period, were now changed into marriage-verses,
birthday poems, or, at most, humble rhymes in imi-
tation of the old sagas.
Neither did the taste for external history long
survive among the Icelanders. The welfare of the
country had suffered much during the civil wars ;
and as many estates, on its submission, came into
the possession of the Norwegian kings, the wealth
and leisure of the chiefs soon vanished. Commerce
likewise fell into the hands of strangers, the jour-
neys of the natives to other countries became less
frequent, and their knowledge of foreign affairs
more incomplete. At the same time, the congratu-
latory verses of the vassal-poet to his prince were
naturally less valued than the free skald's song of
praise to a stranger king. They no longer received
such rich rewards, and soon after both skald and sa-
gaman were banished from the court. Hence, as
Torfæus justly observes, Hakon, by subjecting Ice-
land, though he left his successors a more extensive
kingdom, at the same time injured their glory by
164
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
robbing them of the men who would have immor-
talized their name.
Even when the Icelanders, subsequently to this
period, travelled into Scandinavia, they found them-
selves strangers there. Through carelessness and
an increasing intercourse with Germany, the origi-
nal language had begun to change in Denmark in
the thirteenth century; in the following one this
corruption extended to Norway, and from the time
of the union to Sweden also. Thus, throughout all
the Scandinavian kingdoms, the Danish tongue grew
mute, and along with it the ancient sagas; while
in Iceland, separation from other nations, and the
perusal of skaldic songs and histories, secured the
continuance of its tones. This separation from
the rest of the world, both by place and language,
was a great means of preserving those old monu-
ments, towards which, as the last remnant of ancient
glory, the very isolation of the natives excited their
attention and increased their love.*
This short sketch of the extinction of the histor-
ical literature of Iceland will sufficiently account
for the meagerness of the succeeding portion of the
national annals. Hakon did not long enjoy the ter-
ritory which had cost him so much labour to win,
for he died in 1263, at Kirkwall in Orkney, whither
he had retired after his defeat at Largs by the Scot-
tish king. He was succeeded by his son Magnus,
surnamed Lagabaetir, or the law-mender, from his
zeal in reforming and consolidating the Norwegian
statutes, formerly contained in four separate codes.
His success in this undertaking induced the Iceland-
ers to entreat him to perform the same office for them.
With this request he complied, and introduced sever-
al changes, many of them merely verbal, but others
more important, as marking the improved spirit and
greater enlightenment of the age. Of this kind
* Müller, Island. Hist., p. 88-91. Torf, Hist. Nor., tom. iv.,
p. 367.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
165
were the omission of some of the severest enact-
ments against paupers; the mitigating of some
cruel punishments for trivial offences; and especial-
ly the forbidding the application of torture to fe-
males, which had previously been permitted in some
cases. This new code having been sent to Iceland
by Jon, who had formerly been lagmann, was on
this account named the Jonsbok, and received the
approbation of the Althing in 1272 and the following
year. The close of Magnus's reign was signalized
by disputes with the clergy, headed by the Arch-
bishop of Trondheim, whose power now almost sur-
passed that of the sovereign. These contentions,
however, scarcely affected Iceland, although, in the
agreement between the king and prelate, we find
the latter bargaining for a share in its commerce,
which, it may be presumed, had already become ¿
profitable speculation.
Under his successor, Erik the Priest-hater, these
disputes were carried to still greater lengths, and by
a royal decree the bishops of Iceland were deprived
of much of that authority which they had assumed
in all civil matters in the least degree connected with
religion; and also of a considerable portion of the
ecclesiastical lands, which had been in the possess-
ion of the laity before the Norwegian dominion, but
were subsequently recovered by the Church. For
these actions the king was much censured by the
Romish writers, and threatening letters were sent
him from the pontiff himself. But the dispute had
a greater reference to the kingdom of Norway, and
it was there that the battle was necessarily fought
The demands of the Archbishop of Trondheim, we
may however mention in passing, were of such a
nature, and encroached so deeply on the royal pre-
rogative, that we cannot wonder they were violently
resisted. In Iceland, the parties seem to have pre-
vailed alternately during some years, till the ques-
tion was finally settled in 1295, by Arnar, bishop of
0
166
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
Skalholt, who had gained the favour of the monarch
while accompanying him on an expedition into Sca-
nia. The points in dispute were generally com-
promised, both sides yielding to a certain extent;
and, with the exception of a few changes in the
laws, no other remarkable occurrence took place
during his reign.*
*
The spirit manifested by the clergy in this con-
test shows that they had now lost much of their
primitive simplicity, and that the power of the Ro-
man see was more fully established. Religion no
longer possessed that purity which distinguished it
during the aristocratic period, but was obscured by
legendary tales and miracles, while the celibacy of
the clergy and the worship of saints and images were
generally introduced. Poor though the country may
appear, it did not escape the papal exactions, and
during the thirteenth century the Icelanders were
several times requested to contribute towards the re-
covery of the Holy Land. At a former period, when
the spirit of the nation was yet unbroken, many of
them had joined Sigurd in his romantic expedition
to Palestine, and it is believed that others followed
in the train of that Danish prince who is immortal-
ized in the verses of the Italian bard. But at this
time the papal missionaries were less successful,
and of those who assumed the cross, few or none
had sufficient zeal to carry it to the Holy Land,
most of them purchasing dispensations. In the be-
ginning of the next century, the Bishop of Holum re-
ceived a brief from Pope Clement, enjoining a col-
lection for the crusades; to give greater effect to
which, a general remission was promised to every
one who should contribute: Peter's Pence had also
for some time been levied in the island, and a few
years later we again find the pontiff demanding sup-
plies. The influence of the clergy, even at that
* His queen, Margaret of Scotland, bequeathed a precious
garment to the cathedral of Holum, in Iceland.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
167
time, does not appear to have been great, the people
following their counsel only when it agreed with
their own views, and frequently opposing them with
violence. Hence the kings, though in general hos-
tile to the pretensions of the priesthood, were often
compelled to interpose their authority for the pro.
tection of the Church.*
In the beginning of the fourteenth century, the
Icelanders still manifested some portion of their
former love of liberty, and a determination to main-
tain their rights. Accordingly, on the accession of
Hakon to the Norwegian throne, before they would
consent to do him homage, the Althing demanded a
ratification on his part of the original contract. The
points on which they particularly insisted were, trial
by the island courts, native magistrates, better reg-
ulations regarding commerce, and equal privileges
with his other subjects. These rights being secured
to them, they declared their willingness to pay him
the tribute and obedience which had been agreed
on; but if not, they insisted that they should be
freed from the obligation of their oath of fidelity.
This question appears not to have been settled in
1306, when the Althing still hesitated about paying
taxes; but it must have been arranged soon after,
as in 1310 the king sent them wood to rebuild the
church of Skalholt, which had been destroyed by
lightning in the previous year.
Much of the history of this century is filled with
the relation of physical calamities which desolated
the land, and effectually subdued the spirit of its in-
habitants. The latter part of the former had been
marked by violent earthquakes, during which the
sky was darkened with clouds of sand, probably
from some volcanic eruption in the central desert.
These were followed by an unusual accumulation of
* Crymogea, lib. iii., p. 108–123, 129. An. Isl. Reg. Script.
Rer. Dan., tom. iii., p. 48, 111, 128, &c. Hist. Eccles. Isl., tom.
i., n. 571, &c. Torf, Hist. Nor., tom. iv., p. 271.
168
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
Greenland ice around the whole shores, along with
violent thunder-storms and repeated earthquakes.
One of the most remarkable of these happened in
the year 1339, which is said to have uprooted a hill
in the south from its very base, and to have opened
a boiling fountain 140 feet in diameter. It was also
felt at the same time in Norway, where it destroyed
fifty houses in one district. Hekla and the subma-
rine volcano of Reikianes were likewise in activity,
and, in 1345, several islands emerged from the wa-
ters of the Breida Fiord. These convulsions of na-
ture became less frequent towards the middle of the
century, but their place was occupied by a no less
frightful visitation. The black death, which deso-
lated Europe about that time, also reached Iceland,
and, between 1402 and 1404, a similar pestilence
swept off nearly two thirds of the population. Many
beautiful valleys are still pointed out where its rav-
ages have never been repaired, and the crumbling
walls of the cottages alone remain to tell that there
man once had his home. It is affecting to read the
simple narrative of these calamities in the native
historians, and to perceive how the bright image of
the past, forcing itself on their view, only deepens
the surrounding gloom.*
It was about the close of this century (1380 to
1400) that the voyage of the two Venetians, Nicolo
and Antonio Zeni, is said to have taken place. The
first of them was driven by a tempest on the coast
of a country which he calls Friesland, where he was
well received by Zichmni, the king of Porland, who
was then subduing it. They entered his service;
and, besides many other adventures, relate that this
prince, after conquering several of the neighbouring
regions, determined on assaulting Iceland, but was
induced to desist because he found it so well forti-
* Many instances of such valleys are noticed by Olafsen.--
Vid theil i., p. 140, 197, 269, &c. An. Isl. Reg., p. 123. Cry-
mogea, p. 123, 130.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
169
fied that he dared not attack it with his small, ill-
armed force. He, however, subdued seven other in-
ferior islands situated in the same sea, named Talas,
Broas, Iscant, Trans, Mimant, Damberc, and Bres,
on the last of which he built a fortress and left some
troops. To this narrative, which has acquired un-
due importance from the circumstance that the au-
thor is supposed, in a subsequent part of it, to refer
to America, it would be a sufficient objection to state,
that not the slightest hint of it is to be found in the
native historians. But, besides this, there is no pe-
riod in the history of the island when it was at all
fortified or able to resist even a weak armament;
and the excesses of the English traders, a few years
later, show that it was not by any means so defend-
ed at this time. Not less fatal to the story is the
fact, that not only are there no islands bearing the
names above mentioned (which, by-the-way, are
completely foreign to the Icelandic language) to be
found on its coast, but that, in truth, there are not
seven inhabited islands at all near it. These rea-
sons induce us to regard this part of the relation as
utterly unworthy of credit.
The commerce of Iceland in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries fell more and more into the
hands of strangers; the general depression of the
country conspiring with the want of proper ships to
produce this effect. In the several treaties with the
Norwegian monarchs, freedom of trade had been al-
ways one of the stipulations. Besides, the king was
bound to send six merchant-vessels to Iceland every
year; and the desire of the archbishop to participate
in this traffic proves, as we formerly observed, that,
notwithstanding the poverty of the country, it was
by no means unprofitable. The most interesting
branch of their commerce was, however, that carried
on by the English, which began to rise into impor-
tance about the commencement of the fifteenth cen-
tury. Fishermen from the British shores, as we
170
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
have seen, were in all probability the first discover-
ers of this remote island, and the introduction of the
Norwegian colonies does not appear to have inter-
rupted their intercourse. As a proof of this, it may
be stated, that English tapestry and linen are men-
tioned among the articles imported by the traders
who frequented it at a very early period. There is
also evidence that Icelandic ships visited the English
harbours during the reign of Henry III., and at the
epoch of which we are now treating this communi-
cation became more active and regular. The dried
fish, of which this island, previous to the discovery
of Newfoundland, was the great storehouse, appears
to have been the object principally sought after by
the English, and had been in common use in their
country from the beginning of the fourteenth centu-
ry. Soon after that time we find Edward III. grant-
ing several privileges to the fishermen of Blacknie
in Norfolk, and exempting them from his ordinary
service, on account of their commerce with Iceland.
The town of Lynne in that county also followed the
same trade, the voyage being usually made in a
fortnight. In 1412, it is mentioned in the native an-
nals, that thirty ships engaged in fishing were seen
off the coast at one time, although Erik of Pomera-
nia had the year before prohibited all strangers from
resorting to this part of his dominions without spe-
cial licenses. This regular permission appears to
have been procured by several of the English mer-
chants, while others chose to dispense with it; but
the traffic, meanwhile, continued to increase, so that
in 1415 there were no fewer than six of their ships
in the harbour of Hafna Fiord alone. In that year
Erik complained to Henry V. of his subjects fre-
quenting Iceland without leave, on which the latter
monarch caused proclamation to be made in all the
ports on the east coast, forbidding any person to go
there to fish, or for any other business, except what
was usual in ancient times. Notwithstanding this,
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
171
we find, in 1419, twenty-five English ships wrecked
on this coast in a dreadful snowstorm; whence it
is manifest that the commerce still continued, the
natives preferring their goods, which were both
cheaper and better than those furnished by the Dan-
ish monopolists. Even the Althing that year peti-
tioned King Erik against the prohibition of the Eng-
lish traders, complaining with but too much justice
that the inhabitants had not been supplied with for-
eign necessaries as was promised in the original
The petition was of course rejected;
but no measures having been taken to redress the
grievances which had occasioned it, the illicit trade
continued, often, it is alleged, with the secret con-
nivance, or even the direct permission, of the gov-
contract.
ernor.
*
During the next six years the English disgraced
themselves, and almost entirely forfeited the good
opinion of the natives, by the violence with which
they resisted the attempts of the Danish officers to
levy the duties, or to put a stop to the trade. Their
principal station was on the Westmanna Islands,
near which are the best fisheries, and where they
built houses, and conducted themselves in every re-
spect like masters, repelling by force every effort to
dispossess them. In the northern parts of the island
their conduct was marked by similar excesses; they
plundered the village of Bessestad four times, burn-
ing several churches, and carrying away everything
valuable. They also seized on some of the most
wealthy inhabitants, compelling them to pay ransom,
and even took two of the Danish officers prisoners
to England, where, on their liberation, one of them
presented a petition to the parliament complaining
of this unjustifiable treatment. But such were the
profits or attractions of this commerce, that his com-
Viga Glum Saga, p. 6. Hakluyt, vol. i., p. 122. Rymer's
Fœdera, vol. ix., p. 322.
172 MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
panion sailed to Iceland next year in an English ves-
sel, and again returned with it to that country; the
traffic continuing exceedingly active, notwithstand-
ing the prohibitions of both governments.
The great inducement to this trade on the part of
the English was the demand for stockfish, and on
that of the Icelanders the superior quality of the
British merchandise, especially of their strong ale.
This connexion was confirmed about the same pe-
riod by the appointment of several natives of Eng-
land to the highest ecclesiastical offices on the isl-
and. One of these was John Johnson, of Holum,
who, after visiting his native land several times, at
last resigned his bishopric, in which he was succeed-
ed by John Williamson, one of his countrymen. The
see of Skalholt was also connected with England by
its bishop, John Gerriksen, a Swede by birth, and
formerly Archbishop of Upsala, but who had been
deprived of it for bad conduct. He appears to have
gone first to Britain and thence to Iceland, whither
he was accompanied by two English priests and thir-
ty Irishmen. The manner of his death is worthy of
notice, as furnishing a striking picture of the social
condition of the island at this time. His brother
having been scornfully rejected by a young lady to
whom he made proposals of marriage, out of revenge
slew her brother, burned the farmhouse of Kirkebol,
in the southern division of the island, with all its in-
habitants. The lady, however, escaped, and, in the
true spirit of chivalry, vowed to marry whoever
would avenge her cause on the bishop. This was
accomplished by Thorward, a son of the rich Lopter
of Modruvalla in Oe Fiord, who the following year
arrived at Skalholt with an armed band on the even-
ing of St. Thorlak's Day. Soon after the mass was
begun he entered the church, seized the prelate, led
him out to the Bruarau, and, tying a stone about his
neck, or, as others have it, sewing him up in a sack,
cast him into the raging stream. Thirty of his for
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
173
eign attendants were at the same time put to death
in the cathedral itself; and yet such was the lawless
state of the country, that all these atrocities went
unpunished.*
Still more important for the island was the use
which the bishops made of their connexion with
England as a pretext for procuring liberty from Hen-
ry VI. to continue the trade. One of them affirmed
that he was afraid to go so far to visit his see, and
wished to send the master of a vessel thither to in-
quire into its condition and to collect the first fruits.
If we may believe a petition from the Bishop of Skal-
holt to the English government in 1440, the island
was then in a very deplorable situation; the com-
merce with Norway was almost entirely stopped,
and no cloth, bread, or salt, no wine, beer, nor, in-
deed, any liquor, except milk and water, was to be
found in the country. Such was its wretched con
dition, that he expresses his fear lest, unless supplies
were received from England, divine service, the cel-
ebration of the communion and of baptism, would
soon cease. On these representations, two mer-
chants were permitted to send ships thither with
the necessary articles, and to receive its produce in
return.†
Things continued in this state during the remain-
der of Henry's reign, the trade being partly licensed
and partly carried on in opposition to both govern-
ments. In 1453, Christian I., who had manifested
great zeal in suppressing the tumultuous bands of
armed men who wandered about the country killing
and plundering the peaceable inhabitants, gave a com-
mission to Biorn Thorleifson to prevent all English
*Arngrim Jonas, and the Annals of Iceland and of the dio
cese of Skalholt, place the death of the bishop in 1432, which is
probably correct; Olafsen in 1434; and Prof. Magnusen in 1443.
Crym., p. 134. Olafsen, th. ii., p. 230. Athenæum, No. 512, p.
596.
+ Rymer's Fœdera, vol. x., p. 762.
174
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
:
or Irish from frequenting Iceland without the royal
permission, and to enforce the payment of the du-
ties. Biorn about this period had taken possession
of the vacant see of Skalholt, from which he was
only expelled by the authority of the king and the
threatened excommunication of the archbishop. In
1456, when returning from a voyage to Norway, he
was wrecked on the Orkneys, deprived of his goods,
and detained a prisoner for some time. Next year,
however, he reached his own country, and, being
appointed governor, endeavoured to levy the duty of
six per cent. imposed on English merchandise; but
in this attempt he lost his life, having been attacked
by the British traders at the harbour of Rif, and
killed with seven of his followers. His wife Olöff
escaped in a fog, leaving her son Thorleif in the en-
emy's hands. When she received the mangled body
of her husband, which the foreigners sent her cut in
pieces, this high-spirited woman declared that she
would shed no tear for him, but take care that his
death should not be unavenged. Having, therefore,
first ransomed her son, she put on a coat of mail,
attacked, and, after a bloody contest, defeated¸the
strangers, taking fifty of them prisoners and seizing
three of their ships. She generously spared their
lives, and soon after restored them to liberty; after
which she went to Denmark, where the king, by way
of retaliation, captured four vessels from London and
Bristol. The English retorting in the same manner,
a war ensued between the two countries; it was,
however, carried on with little spirit, and concluded
with a truce in 1469, converted in 1474 into a peace,
by which things were placed on their former foot-
ing.*
Ships from other nations seem also to have fre-
quented Iceland about this time; and from his son's
life we learn that the celebrated Columbus was on
* Crymogea, p. 136, 139. Olafsen, th. ii., p. 231.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
175
that island, or Tyle, as he calls it, in 1477. It has
been supposed, and not without some show of prob-
ability, that he might here have heard of the discov-
ery of America or Vinland by the Northmen. In
opposition to this conclusion, however, we shall
merely refer to the labour which it cost the great
navigator to get his plans put in execution, and to
defend them from the accusation of being the mere
dreams of a disordered fancy.
Columbus takes notice of the English trade in
fish; and in 1490 we find this traffic confirmed by
a treaty concluded at Copenhagen, in which, besides
the usual freedom of commerce on both sides, it is
expressly stipulated "that the English merchants
and fishermen may freely repair to Tyle on paying
the customary dues and getting their licenses re-
newed annually." The compact was published in
Iceland by the chief magistrates Thorleif Biornson
and Theodorick Pining, the latter of whom had some
time previously been appointed to clear these seas
of the English; and the fact that a contagious dis-
ease was said to have been conveyed to the island
in 1493 in a bale of English cloth, proves that its
privileges were not neglected. In 1518 there were
360 of their traders in the harbour of Hafna Fiord
alone, who, as appears from the complaints of Chris-
tian II., had not laid aside the violent habits of their
predecessors. This monarch was only precluded
by the events which deprived him of his crown
from pledging Iceland to the same people for a sum
of money. Had this happened, it would probably
have remained annexed to the British empire, and
it is curious to speculate on what might subsequent-
ly have been its fortune.* As it was, the trade con-
tinued very brisk during the first half of the sixteenth
century; and though it declined towards its conclu-
sion, we find Elizabeth, in 1595, writing to Christian
Crymogea, lib. iii., p. 143.
176
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
IV. to permit a merchant of Harwich to repair to
the Westmanna Islands for fishing, as in former
years. To this the Danish monarch answered, that
her subjects had only been prohibited because they
would not comply with the ancient treaties; but
that, if they were willing to observe the conditions,
they should be free to fish, except in the above-men-
tioned port, which was now, as in past times, ap-
propriated to the use of his own court.
Even so
late as 1615, the fisheries there employed 120 British
vessels, and this continued till it was ruined by some
new regulations concerning salt in 1782. We have
treated this subject at some length, not merely be-
cause it is connected with the commercial history
of England, but also on account of its important in-
fluence on the fate of Iceland. In the opinion of a
high authority, the English trade would have been
conducted peacefully and advantageously if the Dan-
ish monopolists and government had not interfered;
and Iceland was only rescued from that destruction
which involved the sister colony in Greenland by
British merchants, who, in spite of the prohibition,
supplied it with articles absolutely necessary to the
existence of its inhabitants.*
In tracing the commercial relations of Iceland,
we have, for the sake of connexion, passed over
some other events of an ecclesiastical character
closely connected with the Reformation, to which it
will now be necessary to advert. Mildness and pa-
* Professor Finn Magnusen on the English trade to Iceland,
in the Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed. Athenæum, No.
512, p 595. Many of the treaties will be found in Rymer's Fœ-
dera, vol. ix., p. 322; x., p. 416; xi., p. 264, 273, 555; xii., p-
375, 381; xvi., p. 275; and the licenses, ibid., vol. x., p. 645,
659, 682, 711, 762. A curious remnant of this commerce is found
in the English and French words that still occur in the Ise Fi-
ords and the northern part of Bardestrands Syssel, and which
are unknown in other parts of the island. These districts and
the south were the chief seats of this traffic.-Olafsen, th. 1.,
p. 246.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
177
tience seem to have been by no means characteristic
of the Icelanders; even the females long retained that
love of war which distinguished their heathen state.
Hence the clergy, though many of them were far
from being models of Christian meekness and piety,
often found it impossible to maintain their authority
over their turbulent flocks. It appears that Biorn
Thorleifson was not the only chief who, towards the
middle of the fifteenth century, had usurped the rev-
enues of the church, and required the royal authori-
ty to restrain his violence. Indeed, complaints on
this head seem to have been mutual, as we find,
about 1480, both the king and the archbishop inter-
fering; the former to repress the exactions of the
clergy, the latter to procure the payment of their just
dues. If we may judge from the number of their
attendants, the bishops were at that time the most
important men in the island, as, by a kind of sump-
tuary law passed in 1513, they were allowed thirteen
followers, while the governor and lagmann were re-
stricted to ten.
Many of the prelates and inferior clergy were,
here as in other parts of Europe, men whose lives
disgraced the profession they followed; and thus,
by lessening the respect of the people for the old
faith, they involuntarily promoted the change that
was about to occur. Of this character was Gotts-
chalk, appointed to the diocese of Holum in 1500,
who, having quarrelled with John Sigismund, elected
lagmann in 1512, left no means untried to procure
his destruction and that of his whole family by ac-
cusing him falsely of various crimes, for which he
even got them condemned. His wickedness, how-
ever, was discovered, and himself exposed to uni-
versal reprobation. He died in 1520, and was suc-
ceeded by Jon Areson, a bold, unscrupulous man,
and the great opponent of the Reformation, whose
vices appear to have been redeemed by some good
qualities. His colleague Oegmund, the bishop of
178 MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
Skalholt, was strongly suspected of being privy to
the murder of Theodorick van Mynden, in 1539,
with eleven of his companions, though it was never
proved, and he purged himself of it by oath in the
general assembly of the nation.
*
Where the manners of the clergy were such, little
religion could be looked for among the people. It
consisted more in outward rites than purity of heart
or conduct. The sagas still continued to be read,
to which the more pious, the Bible being unknown,*
added the Lilia or Lilly, a Messiad of the fourteenth
century, containing about one hundred verses. This
poem, written in a simple style, contains, along with
many superstitions, such a fulness of true Christian
poetry, that it cannot be perused without interest
even at present. At that period it was so highly
esteemed that many read it at least once a week,
and some even repeated it every day as a creed or
prayer. Another work tending to preserve a knowl-
edge of the sacred history and its truths was the
Stiorn, "government or direction," written in 1255,
by Brandr, abbot of Thykkabaer. But all these
could not compensate for the want of the Scriptures,
and the people were degraded by the most childish
credulity. We formerly mentioned the magic cer-
emonies of the heathen period, and we may now
add, that those which prevailed before the Reforma-
tion were scarcely less gross and absurd. Super-
stitions which, in other lands, were left to the igno-
rant or designing, were here, from the thirteenth
century to the Reformation, accounted among the
learned sciences, and especially practised and en-
couraged by the clergy. Nor were these looked
upon as any way wicked or disgraceful, being dig-
* Bishop Jonson supposes that, in many instances where it is
said that people were sworn on the holy book, all that is meant
is only an image of it cut in wood or cast in a mould, several
of which remained in the church of Skalholt even in his time
-Hist. Eccles. Isl., tom. ii., p. 183.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
179
nified with the name of Holy Magic (magia religio-
sa), and those addicted to them were called Manne
Lärder or Kunnattumenn, that is, wise men, a name
which they still retain among the common people
During the two centuries prior to the age of Luther,
the time when the power of the church and the num-
ber of the monasteries was greatest, prosecutions
for witchcraft, so common in more ancient times,
almost ceased; this kind of superstition, unless when
employed to injure some person, not being account-
ed worthy of censure. These wise men pretended to
the power of healing all manner of diseases, of caus-
ing the veins to open, the blood to spring out, and of
again closing them; of curing men possessed by
evil spirits, and of exorcising these emissaries of the
prince of darkness. A certain formula and arrange-
ment of words were prescribed in every case for
accomplishing such feats. They used, also, certain
objects, especially such as were in some way con-
nected with religion or the Church, as bells, altar-
cloths, holy water, incense, and candles; and to
these were added signingar or benedictions, the sign
of the cross, and certain psalms or prayers, which,
when either read or worn on the breast, were es-
teemed infallible remedies against most accidents.
With all this they united a belief in the supernatural
power of healing possessed by particular plants,
stones, and animals. It is melancholy to reflect,
that such superstitions were not only permitted, but
practised by the most enlightened part of the nation.
What must have been the state of the illiterate,
when those appointed to instruct them in their duty
could teach that such things were not only innocent,
but even holy and divine!*
The Reformation, which had extended to most of
the Northern states of Europe, soon found its way
into Iceland. Though the intercourse with other
Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 217, &c. Crymogea, lib. iii., p.
139--144.
180
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
lands was less constant and active than in former
times, yet many of the natives, especially those in-
tended for the Church, travelled to Denmark, or
studied at the universities of Germany. On their
return, these individuals proved the means of private-
ly diffusing the reformed doctrines among their
countrymen, which were accordingly soon adopted
by many influential and enlightened persons.
One
of the most distinguished of these was Oddur Gotts-
chalkson, a son of the Bishop of Holum, lately men-
tioned, but who had been brought up in Norway
from his sixth year. He afterward went to Ger-
many, where he became acquainted with Luther,
whose views he embraced. He returned to Iceland
with Bishop Oegmund, and remained some time in
the service of this violent opponent of the Reforma-
tion, from whom, however, he carefully concealed
his opinions and the New Testament, which he
kept in his possession with the intention of trans-
lating it. He associated himself with his two friends
Gissur and Gisle, both of them converts to the re-
formed faith, and afterward bishops of the Lutheran
Church. In order to conduct his work with greater
safety, he constructed a chamber in a cow-stall,
where he translated the Gospel according to St.
Matthew, and subsequently completed the whole at
Reikum, whither he had gone on leaving Skalholt.
But his companion, Gissur Einarson, had still great-
er influence on the progress of religion. Christian
III., who favoured the Lutheran doctrines, had in
1540 sent Christopher Hwitfeld to Iceland, who re-
ceived anew the oath of allegiance from the inhab-
itants. On his return to Denmark, he took along
with him Oegmund, now old and blind, who had pre-
viously resigned his see, and appointed Gissur in his
place. The opinions of the king thus became well
known as favouring the reformers, and the new
bishop, a learned, pious, and energetic man, soon be-
gan to make innovations. In 1541 he gave the cler-
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
181
gy liberty to marry, and confirmed the precept by
his own example. The mass and other ceremonies
were next abolished, as we learn from a letter he
sent to his majesty the following year, complaining
that the people were now refusing to pay the usual
tithes and revenues to the Church. During his life
the Reformation made great progress in the South;
his upright, pious conduct, and consistent, straight-
forward character overawing all opponents. He was
succeeded in 1547 by Marten Einarson, a man of
great merit, but unfitted by his gentle disposition to
command respect from a fierce, turbulent people.
He was, however, one of the best sacred poets of
the time, and his hymns, some of which are still ex-
tant, show him to have been more adapted for the
quiet and secluded pursuits of literature than for
contending with the storms of his elevated station.
Jon Areson, the bishop of Holum, resembled him in
his love of poetry, but was violently opposed to the
changes introduced into the Church. This prelate,
who inherited the fierce, intractable spirit of the old
Northern chieftains, whose blood flowed in his veins,
was an enterprising, active man, and, though un-
learned, distinguished for popular eloquence, love of
the national literature, and as being almost the last
votary of the skaldic muse. Hostile to the new
opinions, whether from policy or principle, he had
only been prevented by dread of Gissur from openly
taking a decided part against them. This obstacle
was now removed, and he began to act in a manner
which, manifesting more courage than prudence,
led him into a kind of rebellion, justified, as he
thought, by its motives. About 1530 he had induced
a Swedish priest, Jon Matthieson, to come to Ice-
land with a printing-press, to aid in the distribution
of his writings against the reformers; little thinking
what a powerful instrument he was putting into the
hands of his opponents, or the use that was soon to
be made of it in diffusing the Holy Scriptures.
P
182
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
Other means that he now employed were of a
kind better suited to his natural character. Taking
arms, he set himself at the head of his Norrlanders,
who were much attached to their bishop, and, ma-
king an incursion into the South, took Marten pris
oner, and carried him to Holum. He, at the same
time, having dug up the body of the last prelate as
an apostate from the faith, cast it into the ditch as
unworthy of Christian burial, and conferred the
bishopric on his son Biorn. The king now ordered
him to Denmark; but he refused to obey, and pro-
ceeded to excommunicate a chieftain, though he
did not belong to his diocese. A royal mandate for
apprehending him having now arrived, he was seized,
in 1550, by the chief whom he had anathematized,
in his own house, which he had occupied with an
armed force, and seemed by no means inclined to
leave. He was conveyed to Skalholt; and there
being no vessel ready to take him out of the island,
and none daring to keep him in it, he was, on this
pretext, tried by the Althing, and condemned along
with his two sons. Ari, the eldest, formerly lag-
mann of the island, was offered his life, but would
not promise to forego his revenge; the bishop him-
self would not consent to live unless they spared
his sons; Biorn entreated mercy, but was told that
if two such brave men as his father and brother
must die, it was fitting he should bear them compa-
ny. All three were therefore compelled to lay their
heads on the block; and though Christiern, at that
time governor of the island, consented to the exe-
cution, the act was far from being generally ap-
proved. In the North, the stronghold of the Catho-
lic religion, where Areson was very popular, it was
peculiarly odious; and some of the inhabitants, in
the following winter, making an incursion into the
South, slew Christiern, and thirteen others who had
been most active in the death of their bishop.
The death of this churchman, however, soon led
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
183
to the extinction of the papal authority in Icelana,
which had been chiefly supported by his influence.
There was now no man to head the party; and
though the Danish monarch, terrified at the appear
ance of rebellion which his proceedings had dis-
played, sent some soldiers into the island, their
presence was not required to restore tranquillity.
The spirit of the ancient Northmen had undoubted-
ly been once more awakened, but it was only for a
moment, soon again to sink into the slumbering
apathy of ages. Some great event, or the presence
of some man of superior talents, could alone rouse
them into action; but the excitement once over,
indifference and inactivity had again possession of
their souls. Paul Hwitfeld, therefore, who was
sent, in 1552, to punish the actors in the late tu-
mults, found it an easy matter to establish the Prot-
estant faith; and Olaf Hialteson, having been ap-
pointed to the see of Holum, used great diligence in
reforming the Church, in which he was assisted by
Marten, now restored to liberty. The schools,
which had latterly been almost annihilated, were
not only restored, but also farther endowed by the
liberality of the king; and in 1558, the last trace
of the old religion was abolished by the suppress-
ion of the monasteries. Of these there were no
fewer than nine on the island, namely, four in the
north, three in the south, and one in each of the
other districts. It was at first intended to establish
public schools in place of these foundations, but
this philanthropic design was not put in execution,
and the government was content with restoring the
two old ones.*
The influence of this great event on the morals
and literature of Iceland was similar to that exer-
cised by it in other parts of Europe, modified, in-
deed, by peculiar circumstances and a limited so-
* Arn Jon., Crym., lib. iii, p 145-148. Olafsen's Reise, th.
i., p. 231 Rheinwald's Repertorium, vol. i., p. 158.
184
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
ciety. In regard to the former, one great benefit it
produced was the abolishing of the privilege of sanc
tuary claimed by the Church, in virtue of which the
greatest criminals were protected, till, having ob-
tained absolution, they were again let loose on the
public. The spell that fettered the literary spirit of
the nation was now dissolved, and, though prevent-
ed by the altered circumstances of the surrounding
countries from attracting that attention which was
drawn to their labours in former days, the works of
her sons were neither few nor unimportant. Most
of their writings have relation to the events of their
own country; and, as the affairs of Iceland did not
for some time attract the notice of European read-
ers, their fame was confined to the land which gave
them birth. In the former period of their litera-
ture-they had shone alone, and there was no bright-
er luminary to withdraw the spectator's eye; now
the surrounding nations had not only equalled but
surpassed them; and, busied with the mighty events
constantly springing up around themselves, they
had no leisure to attend to the labours of this small
unconnected community.
The first work that engaged the attention of the
Icelanders was the rendering of the Scriptures into
their own language. The translation of the New
Testament by Oddur, already mentioned, was print-
ed at Copenhagen in 1540, accompanied by the pref-
aces and a few notes from Luther's German ver-
sion. Some other portions of the Bible followed,
but it was not till 1584 that the whole of it was giv-
en to the people in their vernacular tongue. This
great benefaction was due to Gudbrand Thorlakson,
who was born in 1542, and chosen bishop of Holum
when only thirty years old. This office he retained
fifty-six years, and was so assiduously employed in
labouring for the welfare of his countrymen, that
even at the present day his name is never mention-
ed but with the utmost affection and respect, He not
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND
185
only completed the translation, adopting the parts
formerly published, but, having bought the press
introduced by Areson, assisted in printing it with
his own hands. The expense was partly defrayed
by the bishop, and partly by a present from the
king, aided by a tax levied on all the churches in
the island. This version was made, not from the
original languages, but from the German one of Lu-
ther, and in 1584 the work appeared in a folio vol-
ume. He afterward published an edition of the
New Testament in octavo; and in the course of his
long life, eighty-five works, mostly theological, writ-
ten either by himself or under his superintendence,
issued from the press.*
Another distinguished literary character of this
period was Arngrim Jonas, the friend, and, for a long
time, the assistant in his episcopal office of Bishop
Gudbrand. From his lonely residence in the north
of Iceland, this learned and laborious man sent
forth twenty-six works on various subjects, in the-
ology, law, history, and philology, chiefly illustra-
tive of the antiquities of his own and the neigh-
bouring countries. They are, for the most part,
composed in remarkably pure and elegant Latin, in
the use of which he surpassed all his contempora-
ries. At this time, too, the national annals, the se-
ries of which had been interrupted for more than
two centuries, were renewed by Biorn of Skardsaa,
who wrote those from 1400 to 1645 with a tedious
minuteness by no means justified by the importance
or interest of the events related. Besides these, he
was also the author of some other works, though
none of them of great celebrity.
The progress of the seventeenth century is prin-
cipally marked by adverse events, physical evils,
and the rapacious violence of man, all united tc
waste this miserable island; while the wretched in-
* A list of them will be found in the Hist. Eccles. Isl., tom
p. 378-381. Vide Henderson's Travels, vol. ii., Appendix i,
ii..
186
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
habitants, long unaccustomed to the use of arms,
could offer no effectual resistance even to a small
band of pirates. The oppression they suffered from
these marauders was extreme, no part of the coast
being for a moment secure from their attacks. It is
a melancholy fact, that the majority of them were
French or English, as if the two most powerful and
civilized of the European nations had combined to
oppress the poorest and most helpless, and to visit
on their descendants the evils which had been en-
dured from the ancient Northmen. In 1627, some
Algerine corsairs, too, who found their way to that
remote region of the ocean, spread universal dismay
round the whole coast. After plundering many.
places in the south and east, they landed on the
Westmanna Islands, burned the church and other
houses, and carried away captive all the inhabitants
whom they had not massacred. The clergyman,
Jon Thorstensen, murdered by one of his own coun-
trymen who had joined the invaders, is still looked
upon as a martyr, both in the islands and in other
parts of the country. He was a pious man, as well
as one of the best sacred poets of the period, and is
well known by his translations in verse of the book
of Genesis and the Psalms, which have been print-
ed. A tower was afterward built to protect the in-
habitants, but at this time the pirates got safe off,
taking with them nearly 400 of the miserable na-
tives. Olaf Egilson, another clergyman, was re-
leased after two years' captivity; but most of the
others pined away their lives amid the scorching
sands of Africa, in vain regret for the snowy mount-
ains of their northern land. Accordingly, when,
after the lapse of nine years, the Danish govern-
ment, moved by their calamities, redeemed them
from slavery, only thirty-seven were found to have
survived, and even of these no more than thirteen
ever returned to their long-wished-for homes.*
* Hist. Eccles. Isl., tom, iii., p. 80-83 Olafsen's Reise. th.
ii., p. 131.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
187
From about the period of the Reformation til
this epoch, the commerce with the island was
chiefly in the hands of the Hanseatic republics,
especially the merchants of Hamburg and Bremen.
But these having been accused of abusing their
privilege, Christian IV. determined on remedying
the evil; and, to effect this purpose, he deprived
them of their rights, and instituted a Danish com-
pany, by whom it was ostensibly monopolized till
the middle of last century. They are said at first
to have conducted the trade on better principles, but
the inhabitants soon found that they had only chan-
ged their oppressors. The English fishermen, who
continued to frequent the coast, and from 1640 to
the end of the century often wintered in the island,
supplied the natives with many articles. The French
and Spaniards, who went there for the whale-fish-
ery so late as 1768, also acted in the same manner;
and as all these nations frequently hired Icelanders
to assist them in their operations, this clandestine
commerce was much facilitated.*
It is a curious circumstance, that a superstitious
belief in magic arts seemed to increase after the
Reformation; a fact which may probably be ac-
counted for on this ground, that forinerly such pur-
suits, being permitted, passed over without any spe-
cial notice, whereas now, being visited with pun-
ishment, they made more noise, and hence the
increase was more apparent than real. Another
cause was the encouragement which the pretenders
to these supernatural powers received from some
of the authorities and more learned men on the isl-
and, who, by means of them, increased their influ-
ence over the minds of the common people. Cer-
tain of these persons encouraged the belief that
they themselves were also possessed of similar
arts, and not a few even of the clergy seem to have
* Olafsen's Reise, th. i, p. 198.
188
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
perished as victims of the law.* The time when
this imaginary crime was visited with most severi-
ty was from 1660 to 1690, in which thirty years
sixteen persons, mostly from the West Fiords, were
burned alive. At the close of this period the au-
thorities became more enlightened, and a law was
passed that no person accused of sorcery should
be capitally punished by the Heimthing or native
tribunals, all such cases being referred to the king.
This proved the deathblow of witchcraft, which
soon after disappeared from the land. The evil
of these sanguinary statutes will be the more appa-
rent when we consider, that probably more persons
were legally murdered for this fictitious offence in
those thirty years, than have suffered for all other
crimes in the one hundred and fifty years that have
since elapsed.t
-
The eighteenth century was ushered in by a fright-
ful pestilence, which swept off at least one third of
the entire population, proving particularly destructive
among the most healthy and active. This was the
smallpox, which raged with such virulence in 1707,
that, according to the annals, the deaths in the
whole island amounted to 18,000, and in Sneefield
Syssel alone to 1500, or about as many as the whole
inhabitants of the district forty years after, when
its ravages were still visible in the numerous de-
serted farms and fishing-stations. In the middle of
the century, the seasons were so inclement, that
vast numbers of the cattle perished for want of
food; and in a famine that followed, nearly 10,000
of the inhabitants died. The dreadful eruption of
Skaptar Jökul, in 1783, which we have already no-
ticed at considerable length, though its immediate lo-
cality was in the desert regions of the interior,
+
Among the books in highest repute with this learned class
of wizards were the works of Cyprianus and Cornelius Agrip-
pa, as also of Cardan, Wierus, and Albertus Magnus.
† Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 254.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
189
spread desolation throughout the whole island.
The smallpox also added once more its fatal influ-
ence, and in a few years 11,000 individuals fell vic-
tims to these combined calamities. The destruc-
tion of the fisheries on the southern coasts was an
evil of a more lasting character, and one from which
the country was long in recovering.*
*
In the beginning of the present century, the last
remnant of Icelandic independence was finally an-
nihilated. The Althing, which for nearly nine hun-
dred years had met at Thingvalla, was dissolved,
and the supreme courts of judicatory transferred to
Reikiavik. Though this change was probably, on
the whole, advantageous, and the assembly had long
ceased to possess any political importance, yet it is
impossible to view the extinction of this ancient in-
stitution with indifference. It formed the last link
which connected the present with the past, the only
monument of national independence, the living me-
morial of the most important events in the people's
history. All around was consecrated by the deeds
of their ancestors; each rock, each stone, each pool
of the dark river had its story, and was associated
with the names of the heroes and benefactors of
the nation. Besides, while it continued, the nation-
al existence was preserved, and the self-respect of
the people heightened. Though it had fallen into
decay, and its powers were altogether dormant,
still it was something that the form yet remained,
ready to be called into action should it ever be re-
quired.
In the year 1809, a London merchant, on the in-
formation of Jorgensen, a Danish prisoner of war,
sent a ship to Iceland for the purpose of trading
there, on board of which was the person just named.
The laws of the island forbidding all intercourse
with strangers, they were not permitted to land the
cargo; but, on their seizing a Danish brig, leave
* Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 185. Mackenzie's Travels, p. 64.
190
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
+
was granted, though still no person would buy their
goods. On the arrival of the governor, Count
Trampe, in June, and of a British sloop-of-war soon
after, a convention was entered into, by which
British subjects were allowed to trade, subject to
the laws. Some delay having occurred before this
agreement was published, the governor was taken
prisoner by the captain of the English ship, and
Jorgensen installed in his place. He soon proclaim-
ed the independence of the island, hoisted a blue
flag with three white stockfish as the national
arms, and, travelling about the country with a body
of natives whom he had armed, seized on all pub-
lic and private property. But the arrival of another
sloop-of-war stripped him of his power, and he was
sent to England along with the governor. The
only advantage this event brought to Iceland was
an order in council, issued by the British govern-
ment on the 7th of February, 1810, by which the
inhabitants of Iceland, Faroe, and Greenland were
to be considered as stranger-friends, their property
was exempted from all attack, and their ships were
permitted to trade with the ports of London and
Leith. This state of things continued to the close
of the war in 1815, and in the following year the
commerce was declared free to all nations.*
In concluding this account of Icelandic history, it
is pleasing to reflect that the condition of the coun-
try seems gradually improving. It can never hope
to regain the high position it formerly held among
the European nations, or to be completely delivered
from those physical disasters which too frequently
blight the fairest hopes of its children. But, at the
same time, its literature may expect a due share of
public attention; and increased intercourse with for-
eign states, and quicker methods of communication,
will probably prevent famine from again sweeping
* Mackenzie's Travels, p. 80, note. Hooker, vol 11., p. 1-102.
MODERN HISTORY OF ICELAND.
191
off a fourth of its population by a lingering death.
Whether the progress of science will ever enable its
inhabitants to convert those mighty volcanic agents
which now convulse the surface of their land into
instruments of human industry, may to many seem
more than doubtful; but we may at least hope that
it will teach them to obviate some of their most de-
structive effects. The former is, however, the opin-
ion of a distinguished philosopher, with whose words,
full of promise for the future, we shall conclude this
chapter. "In Iceland the sources of heat are still
more plentiful, and their proximity to large masses
of ice seems almost to point out the future destiny
of that island. The ice of its glaciers may enable
its inhabitants to liquefy the gases with the least
expenditure of mechanical force, and the heat of its
volcanoes may supply the power necessary for their
condensation. Thus, in a future age, power may be-
come the staple commodity of the Icelanders, and
of the inhabitants of other volcanic districts; and,
possibly, the very process by which they may pro-
cure this article of exchange for the luxuries of hap-
pier climates, may in some measure tame the tremen-
dous element which occasionally devastates their
provinces.”*
* Babbage on the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures
(London, 1832, second edition), p. 384.
192 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
CHAPTER VI.
Character and Present Condition of the Icelanders.
parat
-
Collecting
Descent.- Unity of Character.-Appearance.- Disposition.-
Hospitality.-Piety.-General Education.-Employments in
Winter.-Reading Sagas.-Amusements.-Music.-Fishing.
-Hay-harvest.-Sheep-shearing. — Journeys.
the Iceland Moss. Food. - Dress. Houses. Population.
-Births, Deaths, and Marriages.- Diseases.- Property.-
Agriculture.-Commerce.-Government and Law.-Taxes.-
Ecclesiastical Establishment.-Revenue of Clergy.-- Char-
acter.-Education.-School of Bessestad.-Literary Habits.-
Present State of Literature.-Theology.-Classical Learn-
ing. Science.-History.-Poetry.
As appears from the foregoing history, the Ice-
landers are principally descended from Norwegian
ancestors, intermixed with a few Danes, Swedes,
and Britons. All these nations were, however, of
common origin, and, at the period of colonization,
closely allied in religion, language, and manners; so
that this people may be considered as sprung from
one simple stock, bearing the greatest resemblance
to the present inhabitants of Norway. We have in
former chapters noticed the peculiarities which dis-
tinguished the first colonists of this island: their love
of war and freedom, their adventurous spirit, their
mingled superstition and skepticism, their eager pur-
suit of poetry and traditionary lore. We have also
seen the changes produced by Christianity mitiga-
ting the harsher features of their character, and the
less favourable changes which followed their sub-
jection to a foreign power always neglecting, too
often injuring and opposing, the true interests of the
nation. How far these causes, and the influence of
an unpropitious climate, have modified the national
OF THE ICELANDERS.
193
character, is the question we must now attempt to
resolve in delineating the present habits and condi-
tion of this lonely people.
In most countries the effects of climate and polit-
ical institutions are counteracted by intercourse
with other nations, and by the variety of employ-
ments among the people themselves. But nothing
of this kind happens in Iceland, the commerce of
which has long been entirely in the hands of for-
eigners, and where the natives are all of one rank,
and engaged in the same pursuits. The hereditary
jurisdictions having been soon abolished, govern-
ment offices or preferment in the Church form the
only distinctions in the country; but the salaries at-
tached to these appointments are seldom sufficient
to raise their occupiers above the general rank of the
people, and are in many cases inadequate to their
support. Hence similarity of pursuits and modes
of life has stamped on the inhabitants a greater uni-
ty of character than is to be found in almost any
other land.
In personal appearance the Icelanders still retain
many of the peculiarities of their Scandinavian an-
cestors, so well known
By the blue eye, tall form, proportion fair,
The limbs athletic, and the long white hair."
It is the first and last of these qualities. however,
that are now most frequently found, the Icelanders
being in general of moderate size and feeble consti-
tution, the result of the poorness of their food and
want of proper exercise when young. The head is
moderately large, the countenance open, and the
features, notwithstanding the somewhat projecting
cheekbones, pleasing, especially in the fair sex.
They have almost universally fine teeth and yellow
flaxen hair. Corpulent individuals are seldom met
with, though oftener among the women than the
men. In Anungar Fiord, and some other parts of
194 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
the western peninsula, the natives allow their beards
to grow, and also differ in other respects from the
rest of their countrymen.*
The melancholy character of the climate and
scenery, together with the remembrance of the fa-
ded glories of their country, has given a peculiar im-
press to the minds of the people. Dwelling in deso-
late places deprived of almost all vegetation, in dark,
miserable houses, where the light of day can scarce-
ly penetrate, amid scorched rocks of rugged lava, or
enclosed between the raging sea and the black cliffs,
they become serious, quiet, humble, and little dis-
posed to exert themselves, unless impelled by neces-
sity. Influenced by these causes, the Icelander of the
present day closely resembles his native land, where
the most destructive fires are concealed beneath its
snowclad rocks. Still and unmoved, they account
it shameful to be betrayed into any violence, or to
intermingle their conversation with those gestures
so common in more southern countries. While the
most powerful passions are raging within their
breasts, they stand like statues; but, once roused
into action, they prove that the blood of the vikingy
still flows in their veins. Firm, patient, and endu、
ring, they occasionally remain on the water in their
fishing-boats thirty-six hours without tasting food, it
being considered a disgrace to take even a piece of
bread along with them. The same character mani-
fests itself in all their undertakings; though difficult
to be set in motion, they persevere with the utmost
energy, and never desist so long as there remains
the smallest probability of success. Acute observ-
ers, they soon discover the difference between them-
selves and other nations, but exhibit no predilection
for foreign customs; and, however violent enemies
to each other, they constantly make common cause
against any stranger. The unwearied industry with
* Henderson, vol. i., Introd., p. xxxiii. Gliemann, p. 120.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
195
which they pursue their usual avocations forms a
strong contrast with their opposition to all improve-
ment; not from any want of ability to learn, but be-
cause their reverence for the past inspires them with
distrust of all things not derived from their fathers.
As the present offers few objects of interest to the
Icelanders, they, more than any of the Continental
nations, live in the past, and willingly lose the con-
sciousness of their personal degradation in the glo-
ries of their ancestors. With little to excite or ele-
vate, strangers are apt to regard them as of a sullen
and melancholy disposition, though others, with good
opportunities for observation, describe their "
pre-
dominant character as that of unsuspecting frank-
ness, pious contentment, and a steady liveliness of
intellect and acuteness of mind seldom to be met
with in other parts of the world.”* This difference
of opinion probably arises from variety of character
in the observers themselves; but all allow them the
more solid qualities of fidelity, truthfulness, and an
obliging, hospitable disposition. For this last they
are particularly distinguished, giving freely the little
they possess, though thereby exposing themselves,
especially in remote districts, to great inconvenience.
That which in other lands is only praiseworthy be-
comes here a true virtue, requiring much self-denial-
to practise it. When these poor people give a visit-
er a glass of milk or a cup of coffee, they often de-
prive themselves of an essential article of food, or
sacrifice in a moment that which they have preserved
with great care for some family-festival. Dark and
dreary though their country may seem, they still love
it with a fond affection and warmth of patriotism un-
known in more favoured regions. Though they fre-
quently travel to happier climes, and obtain the means
of remaining there in affluence, they seldom fail, on
the first opportunity, to hasten back to their native
* Henderson, vol. i., Introd., p. χχχίν.
196 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
land, and home-sickness is as common among them
as among the children of the rugged Alps.
Piety is a no less distinguishing feature in their
character, the majestic scenery of this wild land for-
cing home to the soul the littleness of man, his in-
competency to struggle with the mightier powers of
nature, and his dependance on some higher being.
Hence those of their ancestors who rejected the cru-
el and absurd mythology of the Edda, did not fall into
total unbelief, but turned to the worship of that god,
unknown though his name might be, who created the
sun and the same spirit still animates their de-
scendants, who, recognising the hand of Providence
in all the occurrences of life, bear with resignation
the numerous calamities to which they are expo-
sed. The moral character of the people also stands
very high, and vice is rare except among the inhabi-
tants of Reikiavik, who have been much corrupted
by the manners of the Danes and other foreigners
who frequent the harbour. Drunkenness, the beset-
ting sin of cold climates, though frequent since the
war, still prevails to a great degree, even among
those whose education ought to place them above
this temptation.*
Although deprived of all those means of instruc-
tion which are thought so necessary in other coun-
tries, there are still scarcely any of the Icelanders,
of the proper age, who cannot read and write. In-
deed, with the exception of a few superstitions en-
couraged by their physical circumstances, and but
lately expelled from more civilized societies, the
mental cultivation of the natives is very high. Ed-
ucation is entirely conducted at home, parents teach-
ing their children as they themselves were taught
before, and the clergyman visiting each family sev、
eral times in the year, and examining into the prog-
* Henderson, vol. i., p. 96; vol. ii., p. 94, 188. Hooker, vol. i.,
p. 119. Mackenzie. p. 269. Marmier, Lettres sur l'Islande, p.
12, 13.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
197
ress they have made. The influence of this pas-
toral superintendence is much increased by the pow-
er intrusted to the bishop and inferior clergy, of pre-
venting the marriage of any female who cannot read.
The extent of information thus acquired, not only
of the history of their own and connected nations,
but even of classical times and Oriental countries,
is very remarkable. An instance of this occurred to
Dr. Henderson, whó, mentioning the date of a letter
from the King of Persia as being in 1229, a little boy
remarked that it must be very old; when a peasant
corrected him by saying that it was not dated from
our era, but from that of the Hegira.*
The inhospitable climate influences everything
connected with the moral and physical life of the
natives. The changes of the seasons alone bring
variety to the Icelander, and nowhere is this change
more sudden or complete. Summer and winter, for
spring and autumn are unknown, have each their ap-
propriate occupations, as diverse as the periods of
the year. In winter they generally rise about six
or seven in the morning, when the employments of
the day begin, the family and servants equally en-
gaging in the preparation of food and clothing.
Some of the men look after the cattle, feeding those
which are kept in the house, others spin ropes of
wool or horsehair, or are employed in the smithy
making horseshoes and other articles, while the boys
remove the snow from the pastures for the sheep,
which are turned out during the day to shift for
themselves. The females make ready the several
meals, ply the spindle and distaff, knit stockings and
mittens, and occasionally embroider bedcovers and
cushions. When evening comes on, the whole fam-
ily are collected into one room, which is at once bed-
chamber and parlour, and, the lamp being lighted,
they take their seats with their work in their hands.
Men and women are now similarly engaged in knit-
Henderson, vol. ii., p. 222. Mackenzie, p. 292.
Q
198 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
ting or weaving, or in preparing hides for shoes of
fishing-dresses. While they are thus occupied, one
of their number, selected for the evening, places him-
self near the lamp, and reads aloud, generally in a
singing, monotonous voice, some old saga or history.
As the reading proceeds, the master of the house or
some of the more intelligent of the circle pass re-
marks on the most striking incidents of the story,
or try the ingenuity of the children by questions.
Printed books being scarce, there are many itinera-
ting historians, who gain a livelihood by wandering,
like the bards of old, from house to house, and reci-
ting their traditionary lore. For the same reason,
the custom of lending books is very prevalent; the
exchanges being usually made at church, where,
even in the most inclement season, a few always
contrive to be present. The most interesting works
thus obtained are not unfrequently copied by those
into whose hands they fall, most of the Icelanders
writing in a correct and beautiful manner. It is
much to be regretted, that a people so devoted to
learning, and to whose ancestors the history of the
North is under so many obligations, should be so ill
supplied with the means of attaining useful infor-
mation.
The natives have few amusements, and those
chiefly of a quiet and meditative nature. Chess, of
which they seem to have various kinds, and a game
resembling draughts, are the favourites, to which
they sometimes add cards. In former times, music
appears to have been cultivated with some success;
but their poverty has repressed this taste, and many
of their old instruments are known only as objects
of antiquity. They now show neither genius nor
love for this science; resembling in this respect the
Egyptians, and probably on similar grounds, life and
death meeting in close conjunction around them.*
* Mackenzie, p. 276, 169. Henderson, vol. i., p. 361–368
Hooker, vol. i., p. 283.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
199
Summer brings with it a wider range of employ-
ments. Even before the winter is over, when the
pale sun can scarcely penetrate the midday gloom,
the inhabitants of the North and of the interior are
seen hastening to the southern and western shores,
which are then alone free from ice, to reap the rich
harvest Providence has reserved for them in the
stormy waters. The ver-tima, or fishing-season,
continues from the 3d of February to the 12th of
May, and must be assiduously employed in order to
provide a winter store. To prevent, as much as pos-
sible, the bad effects of cold and damp, each fisher-
man has a dress of leather, rubbed over with train-
oil till it is almost impervious to water. Their boats
are commonly small, with from one to four men in
each, though larger ones with sails, containing eight
or nine, are sometimes used, particularly on the
western coast. The fish are mostly caught with
lines and hooks, baited with shellfish or pieces of
flesh. When the adventurers leave the shore, it
customary for them to take off their hats and offer
up a petition for good success, recommending them-
selves to the Divine protection in a prayer or hymn.*
They then row to the places frequented by the fish,
and continue there the whole day. On their return
the produce is equally divided, the owner of the boat
getting one share, whether he has been out with
them or not. The fish are then split, the backbone
taken out, and in fine weather they are spread on
the shore to dry, but in rain placed in heaps with
the skin uppermost, in which state they are often
damaged, and must be sold at an inferior price. The
drying process requires a fortnight or more before it
* The descendants of the ancient Northmen still retain much
of this simple spirit of devotion. The writer of this can never
forget the impression made on his mind by the sight of a Swe-
dish army, about to embark from their native shores, drawn up
in line, and, with grounded arms and uncovered heads, offering
up their united prayers to Heaven.-Am. Ed.
200 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
is completed, and is sometimes carried on in long
open sheds. The heads are also cut off, dried, and
either used by the fishermen themselves, or sold in
the country. No part is wasted, oil being extract-
ed from the livers, and the bones used for fuel, or
boiled till they are soft and given to the cows for
food.
The fish most in esteem is the cod, especially the
variety known as the dorsch (Gadus callarias), which,
though smaller, is reckoned superior to that taken
on the British coasts. The ling, torsk, haddock, and
other species included by Linnæus in this genus, are
also commonly caught, together with soles, floun-
ders, herring, and salmon, though the latter are more
frequently sought for in the rivers. The Icelanders
used also, in their more prosperous days, to pursue
the whale, the monarch of the deep; but that ma-
jestic animal has been almost entirely chased from
their shores, and is now regarded by the natives,
unable to contend with it in their small boats, rather
with terror than as a welcome prize.*
The preparation of turf for fuel is another of the
summer occupations of the males, who then devolve
the care of the cattle on the women. No sooner is
the ground thawed than they begin to cut it, and
place it in small heaps for protection from the rain.†
But about the middle of July, the busiest period of
the Icelandic summer begins, and the tide of popu-
lation flows from the coast to the interior. The
grass has then attained its full growth, and the hay
harvest commences, on the success of which the sup-
* Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 180-185. Horrebow's Nat. Hist.
chap. lv., lvi., &c. Von Troil's Letters, p. 124-129. Marmier
p. 16.
+ The first who used this material for fuel is said to have
been Einar, a jarl of Orkney, and brother of the famed Rolf or
Rollo of Normandy. He lived in the time of Harold Haarfager,
and, on account of his discovery, was commonly called Torffei
nar.-Crymogea, p. 50.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
201
port of cows and consequent comfort of the natives
so much depend. The men mow it with a short
scythe about two feet long and two inches broad,
while the females turn it to dry and collect it into
little heaps. When ready, it is made up into bun-
dles and carried home, either by men or on horses,
one being slung on each side. It is by these horse-
loads, named kapalls, that hay is usually sold, though,
when old and well pressed together, this is also
done by measure. The hay from the enclosed
ground, named tada, is scrupulously preserved for
the cows, while the coarser, tand, gathered from the
fens and marshes, is sometimes, in severe storms,
given to the sheep. Not only are the peasants
themselves employed in this labour, but they also
hire persons from the fishing-stations on the coast,
many of whom take long journeys for this purpose.
They cut by measurement a day's work, or dagslat-
ta, being an even piece of land containing thirty
square fathoms, and are paid at the rate of thirty
pounds of butter per week. These are not arbitrary
quantities, for the amount of labour and the recom-
pense for it have been fixed in almost all cases by
particular laws, which, as must ever happen in such
circumstances, are often disregarded.*
This harvest being over, the farmers employ
themselves in collecting the sheep that, during the
summer, have been wandering wild on the mount-
ains, bringing them home, and killing those needed
for the winter. The Icelanders do not shear this
animal as in other countries, but either pull the wool
off when it begins to get loose, or allow it to fall
spontaneously. The reason for this, according to
Olafsen, is, that in cutting the wool they would also
remove the long coarse hair, which is considered the
principal protection from the rain, and would thus
be obliged to keep them shut up during the cold sea-
At this time they also repair their houses for
son.
* Henderson, vol. 1. p. 363, 364. Olafsen, th. i., p. 16-19.
202 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
the ensuing winter, and build new ones, bring home
wood or turf, formerly prepared, and carry out and
spread the manure on the enclosed pastures as soon
as the grass begins to wither.*
Besides these, which we may consider as the reg-
ular employments of the people, there are others
peculiar to some classes or particular parts of the
country. The whole nation is much inclined to
travelling, which both men and women perform on
horseback; but there are some journeys that may
be almost considered as a necessary part of their
occupation. Such are those to the fishing stations
in the spring, whence they return in the beginning
of May; and to the trading town, to exchange their
home-produce for various foreign luxuries or neces-
saries. This last takes place about the middle of
June, and the various articles are carried on the
backs of horses, protected by a pack-saddle of turf.
When the journey is long, they generally have
some spare animals in their train, and the whole are
tied together in a line, the head of one being fast-
ened to the tail of another. This mode of travelling
has quite an Oriental appearance, and one might al-
most fancy himself in the midst of an Arabian cara-
van, especially when crossing the sandy deserts of
the interior. As there are no inns, they carry tents
and provisions along with them, and there are usu-
ally places of rest where the cavalcade, often con-
taining sixty or seventy horses, stops for the night.
These are frequently in the midst of the wide heaths,
marked out by a heap of stones or cairn, whose
magnitude every traveller considers it his duty to
increase. Such mounds, in some cases, attain a
great altitude, as that on Smiorvatns Heide, near the
Vapna Fiord, and one called Beinakjelling, in Kalde-
dal, in the district of Borgar Fiord.†
As there is scarcely any money in the island, the
་
* Olafsen, th. i., p. 18, 107. Henderson, vol. ii., p. 157.
Gliemann, p. 131. Henderson, vol. ii, p. 158.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
203
exchange of the articles is usually effected by bar
ter, which is also preferred by the Danish traders.
The Icelander, on his arrival in the vicinity of the
town, pitches his tent, and, leaving his horses and
goods, proceeds thither alone, visiting all the tra-
ders, and inspecting their wares. It is only after
having gone through the whole that the cautious
native completes his bargain, in which he is, never-
theless, but too often cheated; the traders taking
care that there shall be no scarcity of brandy, a small
quantity of which soon dispels the timid prudence of
the poor fisher. In these moments of excitement,
the produce of the winter's labour, that was to pro-
vide necessary comforts for a whole year, is too
frequently squandered. But, even when intoxicated,
the native goodness of their heart displays itself;
there is no fighting or quarrelling, no noise or tu-
mult, but, catching each other by the hand, they em-
brace with the greatest affection.*
The gathering of the Iceland moss (Cetraria Islan-
dica) is an employment for the females during two
or three weeks in the middle of summer, when the
other sex are fishing in the fresh waters, or absent
on their trading journeys. The natives distinguish
several kinds of this plant, to which they give differ-
ent names, but the best is of a bright brown colour,
and grows most abundantly in stony places where
there is no grass. To collect it, one or two women
from each farni go every year into the desert parts
of the island, twenty or thirty miles from the inhab-
ited districts. They take with them horses, tents,
and food, and unite into large parties, having along
with them two or three men to protect them from
the robbers, who are believed to frequent those parts
of the country. They move about from place to
* The same characteristic bonhommie is observable in the Rus-
sian peasants. Nothing can exceed their good-nature when in
their cups; and, like all the Northern nations, they are lamenta
bly addicted to inebriation -Am. Ed.
204 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
place, pitching their tents wherever the moss 18
abundant, until their horses are laded with the nu-
tritious lichen; and, as it becomes rough and hard
in dry weather, they prefer gathering it in moist
days, or during the clear nights of the Northern sum-
mer. The period spent wandering in this manner
through those romantic districts is the happiest in
the life of the Icelander, and is looked forward to
with high expectation. Companies from distant
parts of the land often meet in such excursions,
when each have their tale to tell of the occurrences
of the last winter-of the snowstorm or tempest,
of dangers by flood or field; things trivial in them-
selves, but composing the history of this simple
people.*
The produce of a country, especially when poor,
must ever form the chief support of its inhabitants,
and determine the nature of their food. This is
particularly the case in Iceland, where the sea and
the meadows provide for all the wants of the people,
and are almost the only source of wealth.~ Fish,
fresh or salted, and the flesh and milk of their flocks
and herds, are the staple articles of their diet, to
which are occasionally added a few vegetables, and
meal imported from abroad. The gardens in the
island are small, and contain only the more hardy
plants, as cabbage, white and yellow turnips, pota-
toes, and a little salad; but, with the exception of
the ministers and sysselmen, these luxuries are only
possessed by the inhabitants of the seaports. The
wild plants that can be used for sustaining life are
not numerous, and only a small part of the food of
the natives consists of vegetables. Milk is prepared
in various ways: in a sour or curdled state, and
mixed with water, it is their common drink, and is
called syre; while thick milk or skier is their prin-
cipal food. They use butter in immense quantities,
and prefer it unsalted and very old, after it has ac-
* Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 85.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
205
quired a sour taste, and will keep for any length of
time without becoming worse. When this fails,
they supply its place with tallow; they seldom
make cheese, and what little they do produce is very
inferior. The trading ships supply them with meal,
wine, beer, and other articles, among which coffee,
and tobacco in the shape of snuff, are the principal
luxuries.
The dress of the Icelandic peasant resembles that
of a common sailor, being a short jacket of blue,
gray, or black home-made cloth, wide trousers of
the same material, woollen stockings, and shoes or
short boots of untanned leather, without heels, and
laced in front. The higher classes are clothed as
in other lands, and even the common people, when
going on a long journey or to church, approach
nearer the genteel fashion. The raiment of the fe-
males is more peculiar, and highly ornamented,
though almost entirely formed of the wadmal or
common cloth of the country. It consists of a red
or black bodice, with stripes of velvet covering the
seams, and is fastened in front with five or six sil-
ver clasps; round the neck is a ruff of velvet adorn-
ed in a similar manner; above is the treya or jacket
of black cloth, with silver buttons, and, over all, the
hempa, a black cloak lined with velvet and fastened
with clasps. The stockings are dark blue or red,
and the shoes somewhat similar to those of the
men. The headdress is a fantastic turban of white
linen stiffened with pins, and generally from fifteen
to twenty inches high. It is round near the head,
but soon becomes flat, and curves first backward
and then forward. It is fastened by a black or
coloured handkerchief bound round it several times;
and, on bridal or other high occasions, is also adorn-
ed with gold and silver. By the quantity of these
precious metals on the dress, a judgment may be
formed of the wealth and station of the proprietor,
the silver on that of a lady of rank being frequently
R
206 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
worth 400 dollars. But, with all this external mag-
nificence, linen is almost unknown, the under-cloth-
ing of both sexes being chiefly flannel or wadmal,
to which many of the diseases prevalent in the coun-
try are ascribed.*
The present houses of the Icelanders differ little
from those used by their ancestors, who first colo-
nized the island; and, though not according to our
ideas of beauty or comfort, are probably the best
fitted for the climate. They never exceed one sto-
ry in height, and, as each room is in some measure
separate from the others, the buildings on a moder-
ate-sized farm bear some resemblance to a small
village. The walls are occasionally composed of
driftwood, but oftener of stone or lava, having the
interstices stuffed with moss or earth, and are about
four feet high by six in thickness. Instead of the
usual rafters, the roof often consists of whale ribs,
which are more durable, covered with brushwood
and turf, producing good grass, which is carefully
cut at the proper season. From the door a long
passage extends to the badstofa or principal room,
the common sitting, eating, and sleeping apartment
of the family. On the sides of this passage are
doors leading to other rooms used by the servants
or for the kitchen and dairy. In the better class of
houses, the walls of the principal chamber are wain-
scoted, and the windows glazed; but these luxuries
are unknown in most, and the holes in the roof that
admit the light are covered by a hoop, with the amnion
of a sheep, or a piece of thin skin stretched over it.
They have no chimneys, the smoke escaping by a
hole in the roof, and no fire, even in the coldest weath-
er, except in the kitchen. The beds are merely open
frames filled with seaweed, feathers, or down, over
which is thrown two or three folds of wadmal, and a
coverlet of divers colours. From the roof hang
various articles of domestic economy; the floor is
* Gliemann, p. 127. Henderson, vol. i, p. 124-126.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
207
generally nothing more than the damp earth; and
the only seats are the bones of a whale or a horse's
scull. To a stranger, however, the filth and smell
are the most disagreeable accompaniments of an
Icelandic habitation, and contribute not a little to the
unhealthiness of the inmates. It is but seldom that
the traveller meets a dwelling a little larger, more
airy, and better built, belonging to some rich peas-
ant, who tries to combine convenience and neatness
with the solid structures of his ancestors.*
In
The houses are usually surrounded by several
others for the cows, horses, and fuel, though these
frequently open from the common passages; and
also by numerous ricks of hay, covered with turf
and stones, which closely resemble the former, and
increase the apparent extent of the buildings.
the neighbourhood are also commonly found several
plots of ground, enclosed with fences of earth, for
producing hay, and named tuun by the natives, on
the fertility of which the goodness of the farm and
the prosperity of its tenant depend.†
In the first chapter we mentioned that the inte-
rior of the country is entirely uninhabited, the pop-
ulation being chiefly confined to the vicinity of the
coasts and fiords. Of the thirty-eight thousand
square miles of which the island consists, only a
ninth part is inhabited, and even over this the houses
are very widely scattered, with many bleak and
dreary intervals, so that man and his dwellings
seem like something foreign to the land. The ham-
lets are always so inconsiderable that they never
become the principal object in the landscape, and
even the commercial towns seem lost amid the
rocky defiles in which they are placed. Assuming
the population at 50,000, which it has rarely ex-
* Olafsen's Reise, th. i., p. 173. Von Troil, p. 99, 100. Hen
derson, vol. i., p. 75. Marmier, p. 15.
1 Gliemann, p. 127.
208 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
ceeded, the average will be about 14 to the square
mile; and if we exclude the central deserts, rather
more than seven, that is, about a third of the num-
ber found in the thinnest inhabited counties of the
Scottish Highlands.
Although it has frequently been affirmed, we have
no reason to believe that the inhabitants of the isl-
and ever much exceeded their present numbers.
During the last two centuries famine and pestilence
have frequently desolated the land, but the popula-
tion soon recovered, and no age seems to have been
exempt from similar misfortunes. Some districts
have undoubtedly been rendered uninhabitable by
the encroachments of the jökuls, and the accumula-
tion of lava or volcanic sand; but these are compar-
atively of little moment, as the people are more de-
pendant on the water than the land for food, and
have probably been compensated by the increase
of foreign commerce. No authentic monuments
remain by which this question can be decided; the
only ancient enumeration of the people being that
made by Bishop Gyssur, of Skalholt, in 1090, which
gives the number of farmers at 4000, omitting all
the poorer classes. The round numbers of this
calculation seem unfavourable to the idea of an ac-
tual enumeration; but, reckoning eight to a family,
which is the present average, it amounts to 32,000;
to which, when we add those omitted as not paying
tribute, the whole would approach the largest cen-
sus of our own day. The certain information com-
mences with 1703, when the population amounted
to 50,444; but four years afterward, nearly 18,000
persons having perished by the smallpox, it was
reduced to 34,000. In 1750 it had again arisen to
50,700, falling in 1769 to 46,201, and increasing in 1778
to 50,212, from which time it continued decreasing
till the beginning of this century, being 47,287 in
1783, 47,207 in 1801, and 46,349 in 1804. From that
time it appears to have increased, being 48,063 in
OF THE ICELANDERS.
209
1808, 48,551 in 1821, 49,269 in 1823, and in Febru
ary, 1834, 56,034. The lists of 1801 are those which
enter into the fullest details, and present the follow-
ing results: Of the population, 21,476 were males,
and 25,731 females, or in the proportion of thirteen
to fifteen. The average marriages in ten years were
250, or one in 188 of the population; the births 1350,
or one in thirty-five; and the deaths 1250, or one
in thirty-seven, leaving an excess of one hundred
births. The births were to the marriages as twen-
y-seven to five, or rather more than five children to
each family, while they were to the deaths as twen-
ty-seven to twenty-five. Of the children born, a
hundred and fifty, or one in nine, were illegitimate.
In 1821, the population, according to Stephensen,
amounted to 48,551, an increase of 1344 in twenty
years. The births were 1464, and the deaths 1629,
exceeding the former by 165. In that year 320
couples were married, and 199 children, or one in
seven, illegitimate, which was less than the former
or succeeding years, when it was one in six. In
1822, the deaths were 841 and the births 1724, being
an increase of 883.*
According to Barrow, whose statements chiefly
refer to 1832, the population in that year was 53,000,
and the deaths 1390, or one in thirty-eight, of which
859 were under ten years of age, or nearly six tenths
of the whole; the births were 2516, or 1126 more
than the deaths, and of these 383, or one in seven,
were illegitimate. The families amount to four, six,
or sometimes more, and the men usually marry at
from twenty-four to thirty-two years of age, the fe-
males from nineteen to thirty.†
The frequent vicissitudes in the Icelandic popula-
tion arise from the small number of the people, and
from their being all exposed to the effects of the
*Hassel's Erdbeschreibung, vol. x., p. 229. Glieman, p. 122,
123. Islandische Zeitung, Nos. 7 and 8.
+ Barrow's Visit to Iceland D. 284-287.
210 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
A
same accidents by the uniformity of their employ-
ments and mode of subsistence. The circumstan-
ces which exercise an unfavourable influence on
one part of the inhabitants extend to all alike; and
the injury sustained by one class of the community,
from deficiency in their fisheries or flocks, is shared
by every other. In 1801, more than a fourth of the
population were under ten years of age, and we have
seen from the statements just given that a large pro-
portion of the deaths happen at this period of life.
The celebrated physician Callisen ascribes this mor-
tality to the unnatural conduct of the mothers, who,
of late, have given their infants to nurses who bring
them up on cow's milk. After passing this period,
the Icelanders in general, especially the females,
attain a tolerably old age.
About a fifth of the pop-
ulation reach fifty years of age, a ninth sixty, and
rather more than one in a hundred eighty, while
only one in 1154 exceeds ninety. The most preva-
lent disease is asthma, which is said to prove fatal
to every twenty-fifth person; and about the same
proportion are cut off by violent accidents, most of
these being drowned when fishing, while others are
frozen to death or lost in snowstorms. Catarrhs
and nervous or inflammatory fevers, which often be-
come epidemic, are also very fatal. Scorbutic and
other affections of the skin are, as might be expect-
ed from the food and habits of the people, extremely
common. Leprosy is also known, especially in that
most horrible form of which the character is best
expressed by its name of likthra, meaning a putrefy-
ing corpse. Some authors say that it was brought
to Iceland by the Crusaders, but it seems to differ
from that described in the Bible, and also from the
species met with in Greenland. It has, with much
probability, been ascribed to the use of half-putrid
fish, an opinion which is confirmed by its disappear-
ance from Faroe, where it was formerly frequent,
since the inhabitants applied themselves more to ag-
OF THE ICELANDERS.
211
riculture. Besides the usual diseases of children is
one called ginklofe (tetanus or trihmus neofanorum),
which destroys every infant born in the Westman-
na Islands. Another complaint peculiar to a partic-
ular place is a kind of dropsy ending in scurvy,
which attacks all new settlers in Grimsey, and
proves fatal unless they are removed immediately
to the mainland.*
As already mentioned, the people are principally
engaged in the fisheries or the feeding of cattle, and
most of them alternately in both, so that it is impos-
sible to ascertain the numbers supported by either
exclusively. In 1804 there were 208 boats, with
eight or ten rowers to each, 1068 with four to six
rowers, and 887 of a smaller size, employed in the
fishery. Along with this the natives of the coast
hunt seals for their skins and oil, and in some places
catch the seafowl that crowd the cliffs and rocky
islets on the shore. The latter principally takes
place at the time when the birds are breeding, during
which many live almost exclusively on their flesh
and eggs, while their feathers are chiefly exported.
Agriculture cannot be said to exist, and there are
only about three hundred gardens in the whole
island. The land, including what belongs to the
king and the Church, was, in 1695, divided into 4059
farms, of which 718 were the property of the crown,
1474 of the clergy, 1847 were in the possession of
private persons, while 20 were appropriated to the
support of charitable institutions. Since then the
number of farms has increased to about 6000, and
several of those formerly belonging to the sovereign
or the clergy have been alienated to private individ-
uals. At the death of a father the property is gen-
erally divided among all his children, though the
land is often retained by one, who pays the portions
of the others. The common size of the farms is
* Callisen's Physisk Med. Beskriv., vol. ii., p. 237. Gliemann,
p. 21, 23, 124. Barrow, p. 294. In 1822, ninety-six children.
died of the angina polyposa alone.
212 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
what is called twenty hundreds, worth from three to
four hundred dollars, and calculated to feed about
six cows, eight horses, and eighty sheep. The peas-
ants are in general either proprietors, or pay a rent
in kind, according to an old valuation; and tenants
are never removed unless where they are justly
chargeable with neglect. Many of the farmers hire
servants, whose wages vary from ten to twelve dol-
lars annually, with their food, and they are usually
treated like the rest of the family. In 1783, the live-
stock on the island was 36,408 horses, 21,457 horned
cattle, and 232,731 sheep; in 1804 it had decreased
to 26,524 horses, 20,325 horned cattle, and 218,818
sheep; while in 1832, according to the statements
of Mr. Barrow, there were above 50,000 horses, near-
ly 40,000 cattle, and 500,000 sheep.*
Properly speaking, there are neither trades nor
manufactures in the country, everything being pre-
pared at home. There the cloth, or wadmal, as it is
called, is spun, woven, dyed, and fulled by the fam-
ilies themselves, the last process being at once cu-
rious and original. Both ends being knocked out of
a barrel, it is filled with the cloth and turned over
on its side; when two men, lying down on their
backs, one at each end, beat it with their feet, kick-
ing one against the other. Every farmer is his own
carpenter and smith, though it not unfrequently hap-
pens that the clergyman, by his superior skill, mo-
nopolizes the trade of shoeing horses. Some of the
peasants display considerable neatness and ingenu-
ity in manufacturing small articles of jewellery,
which are purchased by the wives of the more af-
fluent inhabitants. In the West Fiords, many of the
natives employ their leisure hours in cutting the
drift-wood into various utensils, which are distribu-
ted over the whole island. Knitting stockings and
mittens, or gloves without fingers, is the common
occupation of the women, and, besides what are used
f
* Von Troil, p. 40. Hassel, vol. x., p. 225. Barrow, p. 280.
281 283, 291
OF THE ICELANDERS.
213
at home, many thousand pairs of each are exported
annually.
From the beginning of the seventeenth century
down to 1776, the commerce of Iceland was monop-
olized by a Danish company, who, as might be ex-
pected, grievously oppressed the natives. In con-
sequence of this they were deprived of their privi-
lege, and during the next ten years it was conducted
in the name of the king himself, on a fund of four
millions of rix-dollars. In 1787 it was permitted to
all Danish subjects to trade with Iceland; and in
1816, the same liberty was also conferred on for-
eigners, who were only required to procure a license.
Many arrangements favourable to the inhabitants
have of late been introduced, such as the establish-
ment of annual fairs, posts, and packet-boats. The
island is divided into four commercial districts, Re-
ikiavik, Eske Fiord, Eya Fiord, and Isa Fiord, but
the merchant-ships arriving in one are not allowed
to go to another. The trade is mostly carried on by
the Danes, though a few British and Norwegian ves-
sels occasionally pay them a visit. In 1791 there
entered from Copenhagen and other Danish ports
about sixty sail, amounting to 2289 tons burden;
but during the war this trade was almost annihilated,
and the natives, notwithstanding the generous for-
bearance of the British government, were reduced
to great straits. In 1809 not more than ten ships
arrived; but since that period commerce has again
revived, and now, on an average, about fifty vessels,
of from 100 to 150 tons burden, repair thither in the
course of the season. *
The principal articles exported by the Icelanders
have always been the produce of their flocks and
waters, the unfruitful soil and severe climate not be-
ing compensated, as in Scandinavia, by any mineral
treasures. Salted fish of various kinds, cod oil, tal-
low, wool and woollen goods, sheepskins, and eider-
* Hassel, vol. x., p. 226. Mackenzie, p. 334-339.
214 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
down,* are the chief commodities. The imports, on
the other hand, are rye and rye-meal, pease, barley,
salt, brandy, iron, tar, and small quantities of colo-
nial produce, with fishing-lines and cables. We have
not seen any recent tables of the exports and im-
ports of the island, but the following are interesting,
as showing the gradual progress of the nation in in-
dustry and comfort:
Articles imported in the years
IMPORTS.


1630.
1743.
1779.
1806.
Rye and Rye-meal barls.
4,501
8,038
10,665
12,646
Pease
do.
17
52
133
2,079
Pearl-barley
do.
83
135
367
1,027
Brandy
do.
262
748/1/
1,1963
1,007
Wine
pipes
132
57/1
71
434
Salt
barrels
834
1,864
2,954
2,378
•
Iron
skippunds
781
272
310
200
Tar
barrels
61
147
291
319
Fishing-lines
pieces
34,412
12,890 | 12,471
Tobacco
skippunds
20
256
238
Sugar
do.
27
482
Coffee
do.
101/
27
EXPORTS.

Articles exported in the years
1630.
1743.
1779.
1806.

Fish
skippunds
207
392
3,612
2,001
Stockfish
do.
2,823
5,380
4,901
234
Salt cod in
barrels
142
658
1,905
150
Cod-oil.
Tallow
Wool
do.
1,4451
471
1,402
807
¿
skippunds
(1334 bar.)
475
609
599
do.
265
23
8133
·
Frocks or jackets.
1,211
884
6.282
Stockings
pairs
181.676
Mittens
Wadmal
do. 13,004
ells 4,042
110,507
186,624 283,076
Lambskins
876 521 (11 ps.)
20,722 7,427
Sheepskins, salted
6
32,803
62
Eider-down. skippunds
* For an interesting account of the eider duck, the manner in
which the down is obtained, &c., see Natural History of Birds,
p. 30-33, No. 98 of Harpers' Family Library.-Am. Ed.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
215
The returns for 1806, it must be recollected, are
more unfavourable to the country than they ought
to be, as commerce was then extremely depressed,
owing to the war on the Continent, which prevented
the regular arrival of ships from Denmark, and pro-
duced many privations among the inhabitants.
Iceland forms a province of the Danish kingdom,
although it is not considered as a part of it, but rath-
er as an allied state. The king rules over it with
complete sovereignty, the last remnant of the popu-
lar power, shown in the annual assemblies at Thing-
valla, having, as formerly stated, been abolished in
1800. At the head of the civil administration is the
governor or stiftsamtmann, sometimes a native of
the island, though oftener a Dane, who conducts al
public affairs, presides in the supreme court of jus-
tice, watches over the execution of the laws, the col-
lecting and expenditure of the public revenue, and,
along with the bishop, directs the school and appoints
the clergy. He continues in office five years, with
a salary of about £300 per annum, and is entitled to
promotion on his return to Denmark. Under him
are the amtmen, of whom there ought to be four; but,
as the governor holds this office in the southern prov-
ince, and the northern and eastern are united, there
are only three. These have the superintendence of
the inferior officers, and nearly the same duties in
their province as the governor exercises in relation
to the whole island. Subordinate to them are the
sysselmen or sheriffs, nineteen in number, who are
empowered to hold courts, appoint justices of the
peace and notaries, and to administer the laws con-
cerning inheritances. They are chosen by the crown
from among the principal proprietors in the district.
Under these are the hreppstiorar or bailiffs, who as-
sist the sheriff in preserving the peace and public or-
der, and have, at the same time, the charge of the
poor.
All causes, civil and criminal, come in the first in-
216 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
stance before the sysselman in the Heradsthing,
one of which is held regularly once in twelve
months, though extraordinary sessions are also call-
ed. This court consists of the sheriff as judge,
with four assistants, named meddomsmen. The
landfoged or steward, who is receiver-general of the
island and police-master of Reikiavik, holds a simi-
lar court in that town. From their decision there
is an appeal to the highest tribunal, instituted in
1800, on the suppression of the Althing, and which
consists of the governor as president, who takes no
part in the proceedings, a chief-justice, two assess-
ors, a secretary, and two public pleaders. Cases
are here decided according to the native laws, or
Jonsbok, introduced in 1280, and the later royal or-
dinances; and from their judgment the last appeal
lies to the supreme court of Copenhagen. The
high moral character of the people renders the last
court nearly a sinecure, not more than six or eight
cases, public or private, occurring annually. The
crimes are mostly sheep-stealing and small thefts.
and the only punishments inflicted in the country
are whipping or fines. Those condemned to hard
labour are sent to Copenhagen; and a peasant, hav-
ing been capitally convicted many years ago of mur-
dering his wife, it was found necessary to carry him.
to Norway for execution.
The taxes collected in the island being very in-
considerable, are little burdensome to the inhabi-
tants. They are principally levied on property ac-
cording to several old customs; and payment is
chiefly made in produce of various kinds, which is
converted into money by the sysselman, and trans-
mitted, after deducting a third for his own salary, to
the landfoged or treasurer. The whole amount does
not exceed 50,000 rix-dollars, and does not even suf-
fice for the support of the civil government of the
island.*
* Hassel, vol. x., p. 231–233. Mackenzie, p. 312-323. Hen-
derson, vol. i., p. xxvi. Barrow, p. 293, 305.
OF THE ICELANDERS.
217
In the historical chapters we have mentioned the
principal events connected with the religious state
of the country in former times. Christianity, we
have seen, was introduced in the year 1000, and,
though combined with the superstitions of the age,
had a very beneficial influence on the manners of
the people. Catholicism was suppressed after a
rule of 500 years, and the Lutheran Church has since
that period been the established form. The inferior
divisions of parishes appear not to have been altered
from the earliest periods; but the bishops' sees, of
which there were formerly two, were united in
1801, partly at the recommendation of some of the
natives, and partly for economy, and to promote unity
in the ecclesiastical government. The whole island
was then placed under one bishop, whose residence
is at Reikiavik, though the present incumbent has
his house at Langanes. Besides the usual episcopal
duties, he, in conjunction with the governor, fills up
almost all the vacant parishes, the distance prevent-
ing applications from being made to the government
at Copenhagen. Only six of the best are reserved
for the royal presentation; the bishop nominates to
all the rest, and the appointment is confirmed by
the governor, who, being a foreigner, usually trusts
entirely to his recommendation. Under him are
nineteen provosts or deans, whose duty it is, as
their superior cannot visit more than half the island
in a summer, to send him an account of their dis-
tricts, and take charge of the moral and religious
character of the theological students residing in
them. The parish ministers perform divine service
according to a ritual, which is a translation of the
Danish liturgy, and, as many of them have two
churches, preach in them on alternate Sundays.
The number of parochial clergy is 184, but several
of them have ordained assistants, which makes the
total 216. These have to supply 305 churches and
a population of 50,000. scattered over 4000 or 5000
218 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
square miles. There are thus 27 square miles and
272 inhabitants to each parish, 231 individuals to
each clergyman, and 164 to each church. The
bishop is the only one of the clergy paid in money,
the remainder being supported by the produce of
their glebes, by tithes rated according to a fixed val-
uation, and church offerings from their parishioners;
all of which, in many cases, do not secure them an
income equal to that of a common peasant. Ac-
cording to Dr. Holland, the whole revenue of the
clergy, exclusive of the bishop, is only 6400 specie
dollars, or less than thirty-five to each parish.
The character of the priesthood is marked by all
the national lineaments, few of them having ever
left the island. They are only distinguished from
the body of the people by superior information,
which, however, is less the case there than in other
countries, many of the peasants having obtained
the same education with their ministers, and all ma-
king some pretensions to learning. The Icelander
pays little deference to his pastor on account of his
office, and, unless his personal character secures re-
spect, he is soon treated like a common peasant, in
whose labours he is often compelled to join. Una-
ble to subsist on his wretched income, the priest
must toil for his food like the poorest inhabitant of
his parish, cultivating his farm, shoeing horses, or
fishing. Six days of the week he is a farmer or
mechanic, and it is only on the Sabbath that he can
appear in his proper character. In consequence of
this manner of life, he soon unfortunately becomes
assimilated to those who are his constant associ-
ates. To this we must add, that the clergy, accord-
ing to the fashion of the country, not only live the
whole year without fires, but must oftener than oth-
ers undertake long journeys, during which, in win-
ter, their lives are frequently endangered in cross-
ing the half-frozen rivers amid ice and snow. On
these occasions, the only refreshment they can car-
OF THE ICELANDERS.
219
f
ry with them is brandy, and nothing else is ever
offered them on entering a house. From this arises
he vice of drunkenness, which is said to be so fre-
quent among them, that, in recommending one to the
bishop or governor, sobriety is thought the highest
qualification. Many are habitually intoxicated, even
when performing public worship, and few scruple
to exceed the bounds of temperance when visiting
the towns or at festivities. Yet such is the strange-
ly mixed character of the people, that even the
worst of these seldom fail to perform their duties
with becoming earnestness and solemnity.*
The education of the clergy differs little from that
of the other inhabitants, the elementary portion be-
ing conducted at home, and the course generally
completed either by private study or at the school
of Bessestad. This, now the only one in the coun-
try, was formed by the union of the two established
at Skalholt and Holum by the first incumbents of
these sees. At the Reformation, it was proposed
to found one for every monastery that was sup-
pressed; but this patriotic intention was not carried
into effect, and the two already mentioned contin-
ued the only ones. These, being considered as
theclogical seminaries, were under the especial
charge of the bishops, the poorest scholars being
wholly, the others partially, supported from the
funds attached to the churches. After the union of
* This unfavourable character of the Icelandic clergy is given
by an author who, having visited the island, and from inquiries
among the students who frequent the University of Copenha-
gen, ought to have had the best opportunities of knowing the
truth. As, however, only 1000 barrels of brandy are imported
annually, which is about two bottles to each individual, it is to
be hoped that the picture is at most only partially correct. This
author heard that one of the deans being offered a glass of wine
by the governor, refused it, saying that he drank nothing but
brandy-Rheinwald's Repertorium fur die theol. Lit. und kirch-
liche Statistik (Berlin, 1833), vol. i., p. 190. Marmier, however
(Lettre ii., p. 51), gives the same view both as to causes and
effects.
220 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
the bishoprics, the schools were also conjoined in
one, which was transferred to Reikiavik, where it
continued from 1802 to 1806. At this the scholars,
instead of being supported as formerly, received
money, and were required to board themselves
among the inhabitants of the town. But this not
having the best effects on their morals, the institu-
tion was removed to the present place, where there
is a large stone building for lodgings, and a wooden
one for schoolrooms. The students, mostly peas-
ants' sons, are from forty to fifty in number, and re-
side there eight months every year, going home
from the beginning of May to the end of September
to assist in the rural labours. They are generally
sixteen years old when they enter the school, and,
on the completion of the course, return to their pa-
rents. The teachers consist of a rector and three
assistants, and the instruction given comprises the-
ology, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Icelandic, Danish, his-
tory, geography, and mathematics. The importance
of this institution is shown by the fact, that in it all
the civil and religious authorities obtain their whole
education, with the exception of the few who, after
completing their professional studies in private, are
admitted as preachers by the bishop and rector of
the school, and a few others who travel to the Uni-
versity of Copenhagen. Though, during their four
years' course in the capital, they have free lodging
and a larger allowance of money than other stu-
dents, yet few avail themselves of this privilege.
Seldom more than four, and in some years none,
leave their native land in pursuit of instruction, and
these find the foreign accent and peculiar manners
which they acquire much in the way of turning
their information to account.
To the establishment at Bessestad there is at-
tached a library, consisting principally of theologi-
cal works in the Danish and German languages.
There are, besides a great number of Icelandic books,
OF THE ICELANDERS.
221
a tew English and French, with some good editions
of the classics; in all about 1500 volumes.
On leaving this institution, the scholars are ex-
pected to pursue their studies at home, where most
of them are obliged by poverty to take a full share
in the labours of their relations. When considered
qualified, they are licensed by the bishop to preach,
and wait the occurrence of vacancies, which may
afford them a place of final settlement. But the at-
tainment of this object does not free them from their
former active life, nor afford them that leisure which
might seem necessary for continuing any literary
pursuit. Compelled to take up their abode in some
solitary spot, far from all intercourse with conge-
nial spirits, they are apparently deprived both of the
means and motives for mental cultivation. No
stronger instance of that inherent activity of the hu-
man mind, which makes idleness the greatest of
evils, can be produced, than the number of Icelandic
clergymen, who, amid all discouragements, continue
labouring at works which they can hardly conceive
will ever see the light, or procure to them either
profit or fame. The long continuance of winter may
partly account for this fact, there being no other
means left of escaping the weariness of the protract-
ed gloom; but it is principally to be ascribed to
the peculiar mental constitution and habits of the
nation.
The literature of Iceland is greatly indebted to
the clergy, most of the recent authors belonging to
that body. Theology may thus be expected to at-
tract a considerable number of writers, and we find
that, ever since the Reformation, many works on
this subject have continued to appear, and still more
are known only in manuscript. Among the older
books of this kind, we find distinguished the sacred
poetry of Halgrim Petersen, the simple, touching,
and Christian sentiments of which, expressed in
language poetical yet easily understood, fit it well
$
222 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
for what it was intended. At a later period flour-
ished the learned and pious Jon Vidalin, bishop of
Skalholt, whose memory is yet held in reverence
by his countrymen. His homilies (Postille) for
every Sunday and festival in the year were pub
lished in 1718, and, with the works already men.
tioned, Luther's Catechism, and an old hymn-book
(Grallari or Gradual), were the only religious read-
ing of the great body of the people. Vidalin's is, in
all respects, a remarkable work, of which it has
been well said, that it is difficult to conceive one
better fitted for the nation. He expresses the Chris
tian doctrine in classical language, and in a lively
manner, though without much feeling, which is not
well adapted to the cold, reasoning minds of his
readers. The work is adorned with numerous quo-
tations from the Scriptures, and, notwithstanding all
the changes in public opinion, still retains its place in
most of the cottages of the land. A few years ago,
the eleventh edition was published by four young Ice
landers, and the number of subscribers amounted to
1500, which is very large when we consider the small
amount of the population. Among the higher class-
es, the two volumes of sermons published by Arni
Helgason, who belongs to the new school of theol-
ogy, have in some measure taken the place of Vida-
lin's. The other writings of this class are mostly
commentaries on particular parts of Scripture, and
collections of prayers, homilies, or sermons, though
none of them have acquired sufficient celebrity to
merit any particular notice.
Besides numerous poetical paraphrases of particu-
lar parts of the Scriptures, the Icelanders possess two
complete versions. The first of these, as we have
already mentioned, was translated from the German
of Luther by Gudbrand Thorlakson, bishop of Holum,
and published in 1584. About sixty years afterward,
a new translation, chiefly by Bishop Skulasson, con-
formable to the Danish Bible of Resenius, appeared
OF THE ICELANDERS.
223
under the immediate patronage of the King of Den-
mark. No impression of either of these having been
published for a long time, Bibles in the beginning of
the present century began to be very scarce; to
remedy which evil, the English Bible Society print-
ed an edition, and sent Dr. Henderson to the island
to ensure a proper distribution of the copies. A
new version of the New Testament has lately been
printed at Videy, but, having been prepared by dif
ferent individuals, it presents a great want of uni-
formity, not merely in style, but in other more es-
sential points. A translation of the Introduction to
the New Testament, by Rasmus Möller, bishop of
Laaland, has also been recently published.*
The study of the classical languages is very gen-
eral in Iceland, and the traveller is often surprised
to find men in the humblest ranks of society able to
converse with him in Latin. Many of the writings
of the natives are composed in Latin, especially
their historical works, which thus acquire a wider
circulation than they could expect in their own
tongue. It forms a principal part of the education
of the clergy, who are expected to speak and write
it correctly, and in it many of them compose poems,
chiefly descriptive or epigrammatic, and indulge that
tendency to personal satire which it formerly re-
quired the power of the laws to check. Greek is
* Rheinwald's Repert., vol. i., p. 190, 207. Dr. Henderson,
when in Iceland in 1814, expressed his regret at the spreading
of the German neology among the clergy, and ascribed to it a
very prejudicial influence on the character of the people. These
opinions were first introduced about the beginning of the pres-
ent century, by the students who attended the Danish universi-
ties. Since then they have found their way into the school of
Bessestad, and are adopted by most of the younger ministers.
The present bishop was formerly one of their adherents, but is
said now to have returned to the old faith. It is singular that
these opinions, affecting the most essential points of Christian-
ity, should have excited little attentior. and no controversy in
the island; a circumstance which marks a spirit of great indif-
ference, as formerly existing, in regard to religious questions
224 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
also cultivated, and translations from this language
have appeared both in prose and verse. A knowl-
edge of Hebrew is exacted from all the students at
Bessestad, but the examinations are often merely
a form, though some of the clergy are said to pos-
sess a considerable knowledge of this language.
Numerous philological works, mostly connected
with the Northern dialects, have been published from
time to time; and others of great value, in manu-
script, are found both in Iceland and Denmark.*
Modern languages are frequently acquired; and, be-
sides the Danish, with which all the higher classes
are familiar, many understand the German, English,
and French.
Abstract studies are by no means popular among
the Icelanders, and few works on metaphysics or
mathematical subjects have appeared. Their pecu-
liar disposition leads them rather to hold converse
with the facts of the external world; and on this ac-
count natural history has many more votaries than
any other branch of science, the wonderful phenom-
ena around them being fitted to arrest the notice of
even a more inattentive race of men. Eggert Olaf
sen, to whose labours we have so often been indebted,
is one of the most distinguished in this class of stu-.
dents, and in his travels almost all the remarkable
appearances in the country are noticed. This work,
which is the joint production of him and his friend
Biarne Povelsen, is still the most complete account
of the natural history and social condition of the
island; and its value is not a little increased by the
thorough knowledge possessed by the authors of the
* As an instance of these we may mention an Icelandic-Latin
dictionary which Dr. Schieving, teacher of Latin at Bessestad,
has been preparing for the last twenty years, in which he illus-
trates the meanings of the words by quotations from the native
authors. The materials he has accumulated are immense, yet
he still continues to labour. The best dictionary of this lan-
guage is that of Haldorson, published by Rask (2 vols. 4to,
Copenhagen, 1814), which is, however very defective
OF THE ICELANDERS.
225
ancient annals and literature of the country. But
its confused arrangement, and the want of a proper
nomenclature, detract much from its utility, and have
prevented it from ever becoming popular.* Many
other minor pieces on this subject, especially de-
scriptive of the volcanic phenomena, have appeared.
The Icelanders, more than any other nation, stand
in close connexion with the past, preserving accurate
genealogical registers, and realizing to themselves
shame or glory in the deeds of their ancestors. This
love of antiquity, added to their acuteness of obser-
vation and unquenchable curiosity, fit them at once
for reading and writing history. There is probably
no people among whom an equal knowledge, both
of domestic and foreign events, is to be found. This
circumstance, which strikes every stranger who sets
foot upon the island, marks them as the historians
of Europe; for which task their remote situation
seems to secure the most perfect impartiality, while
their highly cultivated and expressive language is
peculiarly adapted to it. We have, in a former chap-
ter, noticed the ancient authors who distinguished
themselves in this branch of study, and have only to
add, that it has not been neglected in modern times.
Among the writers of the last century, the names of
Torfæus, Arne Magnusen, and Bishop Finnsen stand
pre-eminent. His learned and accurate researches
in Norwegian and Danish history have gained the
first a European reputation.† Arne Magnusen was
principally instrumental in recalling attention to the
literary monuments of his country, and by his mu-
nificent collections, and the society which bears his
name, has preserved many of them from destruction.
* As specimens of his names for rocks we may quote Saxum
arenariomicaceum and Saxum ochraceoargillosum rubrum; even
common turf is translated into the Latin, Humus bituminosa solida
aëre indurescens.
† Among his works we may mention his Series Dynastorum
et Regum Daniæ (4to, 1702), Historia rerum Norvegicarum (4
vols fol., 1711). Historia Faröensium, Grænlandia Antiqua,
Vilandia Antiqua, &c., most of them published at Copenhagen
226 CHARACTER AND PRESENT CONDITION
Bishop Finnsen is chiefly celebrated for the ecclesi
astical annals of his native island, and for his labours
in editing several of the old authors. Among the
writers of the present day, Chief-Justice Stephensen
holds an honourable rank; and his history of Ice-
land during the last century is filled with the most
valuable information regarding its civil condition and
literature. He also, at one time, published annually
a kind of political register of the principal events
that had occurred in Europe during the preceding
year. A somewhat similar periodical, composed
and printed at Copenhagen by one of his country-
men residing there, conveys to the reader every
spring and harvest an account of the political occur-
rences of the great world. It consists principally
of extracts translated from the newspapers, and ar-
ranged so as to form an historical summary of events.
Poetry has not, in modern times, retained that place
in the literature of the island which was formerly
awarded to it. The melancholy disposition of the
nation, and that turn of mind by which they are led
rather to converse with the external world than with
the internal, are unfavourable to poetic composition.
Hardship and misfortune have dulled the ear to the
harmony of sound, and poetry, like music, is now
seldom heard in their land. But to this there are
honourable exceptions, and amid such a mass of lit-
erature we find some works of this class. Among
its votaries we may mention the venerable John
Thorlakson, who, besides his many original poems,
has translated the Paradise Lost of Milton into Ed-
daic verse.
In his small dark closet in a remote dis-
trict, amid poverty and labour, this work was com-
pleted, with little hope that it would ever be publish-
ed; the whole income of his two parishes being only
about six pounds per annum, from which he had to
pay an assistant. Yet the merits of this poem, pro-
duced under such discouraging circumstances, are by
all allowed to be very great, though rather those of
a paraphrase or an original poem than of a transla-
OF THE ICELANDERS.
227
tion. It is in the measure of the Voluspa and other
old poems of Sæmund's Edda, of which he was a
complete master, though its short and broken lines
seem very unlike the lofty, measured strains of the
original.* Besides this, he also translated Pope's
Essay on Man, which was published in Iceland; and
Henderson found him, when upward of seventy, oc-
cupied, notwithstanding his increasing infirmities, in
translating Klopstock's Messiah. He died in 1819,
having shortly before received a present from the Lit-
erary Fund in London, too late, it is feared, to alleviate
the poverty which pursued him all his life. Of other
recent poets we can only name Benedict Groendal,
Sigurd Petersen, and the well-known Finn Magnu-
sen. But the poetry of this ingenious people is ren-
dered still more scanty by the almost utter impossi-
bility of the authors publishing their works, as the
readers are too few and too poor to defray even the
expense of printing and paper.
The literary character of the Icelanders of the pres
ent day does not, however, depend so much on the
fame of individual works or authors as on the un-
versal diffusion of a taste for such studies throughout
the whole mass of the population. This interesting
feature in the national character was noticed in a for-
mer part of this chapter, when describing the life and
manners of the natives. It probably originated in
* The first three books of this poem were printed in the last
three volumes of the publications of the Icelandic Literary Soci-
ety. The remainder was only known in manuscript till 1828,
when it was published at Copenhagen by Mr. Heath. Finn
Magnusen composed in Icelandic and English a poem of thanks,
in the name of the Icelandic Literary Society, in the measure of
the original, the following verses from which will give the read-
er a clearer idea of its peculiar structure:
"Bodily sights,
Baleful darkness,
Sharpeneth the eyes
Of shining soul;
The Genius saw
God on his throne,
He saw what we
But see in picture:
Angels, demons,
And their strife,
Heaven and hell,
Honour and shame,
Earth's creation,
Eden's bliss,
First of men,
Fallen. redeemed
Milton sang
This matchless chant,
Praise of God
And Paradise,
Mundane Epos,
Fall of man.
Not with suns
The song expires."
228 CHARACTER, ETC., OF THE ICELANDERS.
those circumstances which called forth the historic
sagas of the first period, and has been preserved by
the peculiar condition of the inhabitants. Their man-
ner of life and the climate of their country leave to
them much leisure, while the wide distribution of the
inhabitants precludes all social meetings, and com-
pels every family to trust to its own resources for
amusement during the long winter nights. At the
same time, their still and contemplative disposition,
almost approaching to apathy, disinclines them to all
the lighter and more stirring amusements, and turns
their attention to those that are sedentary and intel-
lectual. Hence chess and draughts are greater fa-
vourites than music or the dance; and reading, which
appears to combine utility with pleasure, is prefer-
red to all other relaxations. An easy and abundant
source of amusement is thus supplied to relieve the
tedium of the dark season, till summer again calls
them forth to enjoy the green fields and the warm
sun. There is another circumstance, almost pecu-
liar to this country, which must powerfully confirm
this direction of the national mind. The traditional
lore transmitted from sire to son in the rudest hamı-
let of the island, is the literature also of the wise and
learned. The simple strain that hushes the infam
in its cradle is some fragment of a skaldic lay sung
to heroes in the battle-field or the prince's hall; and
the nursery tale is but the rude outline of the peo-
ple's history, the daring deeds or perilous adventures
of the nation's founders. To these worthies of &
former age most of the present natives can in one
way or another trace their pedigree, and family pride
thus gives to these tales a deeper interest. When
to this we add that the language of the oldest sagas
is quite intelligible to the least educated person zi
the present day, so that they can read with equal
pleasure the most ancient and the most recent wri-
tings of their countrymen, it need not excite ast ´n-
ishment to find these studies ardently parriol ny all
classes of the community.
GREENLAND.
tion.
CHAPTER VII.
Description of Greenland.
Opinions of the Ancients.-Form and Position.-Coasts.-Hills
-Interior.-Fiords.-Iceblinks and Icebergs.-Currents and
Tides.-Springs.-Rivers.-Is Greenland a Continent?-Cli-
mate.-Temperature.-Seasons.-Aurora.-Unequal Refrac-
TOPOGRAPHY.-Arctic Highlands. -Disco Island.-
Baal's River.-Frederic's Hope.-Frobisher's Straits.-Ju-
liana's Hope.-Sermesoak.-Fredericksthal.-Cape Farewell.
East Coast.-Graah's Voyage.-Ivimiut.-Taterat.-Pecu-
liar Appearance of the Natives.-Nennortalik.-Griffenfeldt's
Island.-Ekallumiut, the Greenland Paradise. -Colberger
Heide.-Scoresby's Voyage.-Gale Hamke's Land.-Proof of
its being inhabited.-Jameson's Land.-Traill Island.-Situ-
ation of the Ancient Colonies.
THE darkness which for so many ages shrouded
the northern regions of the earth, still hangs over a
great portion of Greenland. The floating ice, which
constantly invests its shores and is spread over the
surrounding ocean, has always rendered discovery
at once difficult and dangerous, while its inhospita-
ble climate and rugged surface have equally pre-
vented travelling by land. The eager search after
the Northwest Passage has also led most voyagers in
recent times up Davis's Strait and along the Amer-
ican coast. For these reasons, it is principally to
the missionaries-men whom an ardent desire to in-
struct and benefit their fellow-creatures has induced
to brave the rigours of a polar climate, and, renoun-
cing the pleasures and conveniences of civilized
life, to associate with the most degraded and repul-
sive savages-that we owe any increase of knowl
230-
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
edge in relation to these regions. Their accounts,
however, are chiefly confined to a few detached
points on the western coast, while the north and
east are still but very partially known. Where our
information is limited, fancy is apt to be the most
active, supplying from the stores of imagination the
deficiencies of experience; and hence the older ge-
ographers found in Greenland a last retreat for many
fabulous localities no longer able to maintain their
ground on the European Continent. Thus, in the cu
rious map of those hyperborean regions drawn by
Sigurd Stephensen in 1570, it is represented as ex-
tending almost to Norway and Russia or Biarma-
land; and part of it, called Riseland, we are inform-
ed, is peopled by Skrickfinna, or horned giants; to
the eastward of whom are others, whose immense
nails or claws have procured them the title of Klo-
finna; and these are followed by a still more hide-
ous race who inhabit Jotunheimar, as to whose per-
sonal peculiarities the author unfortunately leaves
us in the dark. This opinion of the great extent
of Greenland towards the east long prevailed, Spitz-
bergen being united to it by a continuous tract of
land, and there is reason to believe that the island
of Nova Zembla is the. Jotunheimar of the map.
Even at the present day, the northern portion con-
tinues almost unknown, and its coasts are very im-
perfectly laid down in the charts, while the fact of
its being completely disunited from the American
Continent has only been confirmed by the recent
voyages of Ross and Parry.*
* Torfæus, Groenlandia Antiqua (Havniæ, 1715), p. 21, tab.
., 24. Much of the confusion of ancient geographers regard-
in the Northern countries appears to have been caused by their
unperfect methods of determining latitude. They seem to
here been almost exclusively guided by the climate; and as this
becomes more rigorous in the same latitudes towards the west,
the countries in that quarter were generally carried far north
of their true position. This also accounts for Iceland being
often placed almost entirely within the arctic circle.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
231
As far as is known, Greenland approaches to the
form of a triangle, the vertex of which is directed
to the south, while its base is turned towards the
pole. Its most southern extremity, Cape Fare-
well, the Omenarsorsoak of the natives, the Staten-
hook of the Dutch, is a lofty promontory visible far
cut at sea, situated in lat. 59° 48′ N., and in long.
43° 54′ W. from Greenwich. From this point the
land widens, stretching on the one side in the di-
rection of west-northwest, and on the other of
east-northeast. The country southward of lati-
tude 680 is called South Greenland, while the re-
mainder is termed North Greenland. How far the
latter may extend has never been determined: the
ancient inhabitants believed that it reached to the
pole, and it is probable that if the land terminates
sooner, the fields of ice continue to that point.
The interior of the southern portion is equally un-
known; inaccessible mountains and deep ravines,
filled with perpetual ice, forming an insurmountable
barrier against all attempts to explore this desolate
region. Our information is thus confined to a nar-
row strip along the shore, chiefly in the vicinity of
the Danish colonies. While the boundaries are so
undefined, it must be impossible to estimate its
magnitude with any accuracy; the portion, howev-
er, occupied by the settlements on the west coast
contains about 6500 square miles.
That part of the country which is known may
be considered as a mountainous land. The hills, in
general, approach near to the shore, leaving only a
small extent of level ground intervening, while in
many places even this disappears, and innumerable
peaks, ridges, precipices, and needles rise imme-
diately from the sea, their dark sides being only di-
versified by patches of ice and snow.
This is par-
* Hassel's Erdbeschreibung, vol. x., p. 61.
Graah's Narra
tive of an Expedition to the East Coast of Greenland (English
translation, London, 1837), p. 61.
232
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
ticularly the case in the vicinity of those headlands
which stretch into the ocean between the various
friths, a striking description of one of which is con-
tained in the following passage from a recent voy-
age. "No sign of vegetation was observable on
these walls of rock. Not a blade of grass, nay, at
many places, not even a bit of moss, to be seen
about them. Nor did the animal kingdom in this
desolate region exhibit more signs of life than the
vegetable. The water-fowl that off Illoa had been
flying about us in flocks of thousands, had disap-
peared, as well as the seals and other marine ani-
mals, and a solitary raven, that in the evening flew
croaking over our heads, was the only living thing
we saw with this exception, the solemn stillness
that reigned around us was unbroken but by an oc-
casional report, caused by the calving of the ice-
blink, or the bubbling sound proceeding from the
rapid current. Just before nightfall we were fortu-
nate enough to reach one of the few spots along this
sound (Prince Christian's) where it is possible to
haul a boat on shore; and scarcely had we effected
this, when it set in to blow a violent gale from the
north."*
The hills which thus skirt the coast are in general
very rugged and broken in their outline. Protected
from the ravages of the weather by no grassy cov-
ering, the soil, which, by filling up the interstices of
the strata, gives to the mountains of other lands a
more rounded and softer aspect, has all been washed
away by the rains. Sometimes the naked rocks
rise into sharp, lofty pinnacles, whose dark summits
protrude far above the icy mantle that clothes their
base; at others, the whole hill forms a series of al-
ternating mural precipices and terraces distinguished
by lines of dazzling snow; while the complete dis-
integration of the strata has reduced many of them
* Graah's Greenland, p. 47, 48
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
233
to a mass of loose unconnected stones. Though
their height seldom exceeds 3000 feet, this elevation
is sufficient to carry them into the region of perpet-
ual snows. The highest mountain on the western
coast is the Hiortetakken or Hart's Horn, near God-
thaab.. It is divided into three points, which are so
steep as to prevent the snow from lodging except in
the crevices, and serves the sailors for a seamark,
while the clouds that gather on its summits warn
the timid native of approaching storms. Next to it
is that of Kunnak, from 4300 to 4500 feet high, whose
lofty ridges are cased in perpetual ice. The snow
line on these mountains appears to fall considerably
below the height determined by calculation, which,
in latitude 60°, is 3664 feet, and even in 700 amounts
to 1557 feet.*
The hills in the interior do not appear to exceed
those on the coast in elevation, but, on the contrary,
rather to fall short of them. From all accounts,
this part of the country is occupied by insulated
rocky mountains and sharp acuminated cliffs, sep-
arated by narrow valleys or chasms, rendered inac-
cessible by the glaciers. In these places, never vis-
ited by the rays of the sun, ice and snow accumu-
late to a vast depth. The mountains are either en-
tirely bare, or covered with a mourning veil of black
lichens, variegated here and there with spots of
crumbling snow, which, dissolved by the sun, flows
in silvery threads down the precipices. The water,
converted into ice, splits the rocks with immense
force, and the fragments, precipitated from the sum-
mits with thundering noise, threaten death to every
intruder. Even the Greenlander, accustomed as he
is to the horrors of nature, calls these spots places
of desolation.†
* Crantz's History of Greenland (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1820).
vol. i., p. 7. Scoresby's Greenland, p. 219. Arctic Regions,
Graah, p. 26, 71, 85.
Giesecke, Edinb. Encyc., vol. x., p. 489.
vol. i., p. 99.
234
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
Several attempts have been made to penetrate the
recesses of this lonely region, but every adventurer
has failed to surmount the obstacles that opposed
his progress. In 1728, the Danish government or-
dered Major Paars and Captain Landorf to ride
across to the lost colonies on the eastern coast,
but, as might have been expected, they were soon
stopped by the ice and precipices. A better con-
trived, though nearly equally unsuccessful effort,
was made by a private trader, who had resided for
many years at Frederic's Hope, on the western
coast. Accompanied by five Greenlanders, he left
this place on the 2d of September, 1751, with the
intention of crossing to the other side. Their first
day's journey was over the mountains on the shore,
till they reached a bay, the entrance to which is now
completely filled with ice from a neighbouring gla-
cier, though formerly it was quite open. Crossing
this on the 3d, they proceeded all that day over a
rock, stopping in the evening on the outskirts of the
ice-glance or field. Next morning they travelled on
this field the distance of two leagues, the road being
as level as the streets of Copenhagen, to the top of
a mountain which rises from its surface. Having
arrived there soon after sunrise, they spent the re-
mainder of the day hunting reindeer, one of which
they shot; and, as there was nothing to make a fire
with, the natives ate the flesh raw. The following
day they proceeded to a rock, which appeared the
highest on the glacier; and the ice being uneven
and full of chasms, they reached its summit, though
not without great labour and difficulty. From the
top their leader had a very wide view on all sides,
and was filled with wonder at the spacious field of
ice, extending to the snowy mountains on the east-
ern coast. These he at first thought very near, not
more than ten or twelve leagues distant; but, on
looking back to those near Goodhope, at least forty-
eight leagues removed, he found his first estimate
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
235
much below the truth. They descended a little, and
lay down for the night; but the activity of his
thoughts and the extreme cold prevented him from
sleeping. Next morning they shot another deer, on
whose raw flesh they made a good breakfast; and
the trader himself, having tasted nothing hot for five
days, took a good draught of the warm blood, which,
he says, was far from doing him any harm. He
was now forced to return, much against his inclina-
tion, the boots, of which they had two pairs each,
being completely cut through and worn out by the
sharp ice and stones. He therefore set out for home,
where he arrived on the evening of the 8th, having
been seven days absent.
From what he saw of the surrounding country, it
seems to be almost entirely covered with ice and
snow, except a few peaks of naked rock which rise
above its surface. The ice appeared pretty level,
and the pits and chasms in it, he thought, would
prove no insuperable impediment to passing from
the one side to the other. The extreme cold, how-
ever, he conceived would make such a journey im-
possible, its intensity exceeding anything he ever
felt during the winter nights he had lain in the open
air in other parts of Greenland. The difficulty of
carrying provisions would form another obstacle;
and, now that the eastern shore has been attained
in boats, there is no object to induce any one to
make the attempt. His account of that portion of
the country which he visited may be regarded as
correct, since it is confirmed by those who have
viewed it from the mountains on both coasts. For
instance, Graah concluded that some lofty, snow-
covered peaks, observed from the top of a hill about
3000 feet high in Griffenfeldt's Island, belonged to
the Niviarsiet or Maidens, in the district of Juliana's
Hope. The curious fact of their finding reindeer in
this desolate region would seem to imply that it
236
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
was not all so barren or devoid of vegetation as the
portion just described.*
As we have already, in our description of Iceland,
given an account of the formation and general ap-
pearance of the glaciers, we shall delay any farther
observations on them until we have noticed the
coasts and fiords, with some of the phenomena of
which they are intimately connected. Both sides of
this country possess that appearance, which may be
considered as in some measure specially character-
istic of the shores of the Greenland Sea. Its torn
and rocky border, lined by an innumerable number
of islands and shoals, looks like the fragments of
some former system. Long narrow bays or fiords,
like broad rivers, run far up amid the lofty mountains,
or, rather, table-land of the interior. The numerous
branches and windings of these give rise to various
appearances, one portion being often raised by the
winds into violent commotion, while in other more
sheltered parts the surface is scarcely broken by a
ripple. Not less striking are the effects of light and
shade on those deep waters, one place glancing in
the bright rays of the sun, while the next is shaded
in the thickest gloom, or reflects the dark, overhang-
ing precipices. These appearances are common to
the coasts of Norway and Iceland as well as Green-
land, but this last has some peculiar to itself. The
vast icy plains of the interior abut upon these fiords,
and, continually moving forward, gradually encroach
on them. Hence we find that the greater number
are closed at the extremity by a glacier, close to
which the water has often a depth of some hundred
fathoms. Several of the inlets are now completely
filled, and at others the ice even projects far out into
the waves, forming a considerable promontory. The
Greenlanders have many traditions of bays now in-
accessible having been formerly navigated, and of
* Crant's History of Greenland, vol. i., p. 18-23. Grah-
D 85
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
237
ainers, of which scarcely a trace remains, having ene
extended from sea to sea. These opinions are guns
without probability, as the open ocean seems lig
nly barrier that can put an effectual stop to the
progress of the glaciers; and, wherever they en-
counter the salt water, the phenomena exhibited are
terribly majestic. The ice, extending down the
steep banks, is slowly corroded below by the waves;
but the destruction thus produced is more than com-
pensated by the masses that press on from behind,
and the accumulation of rain and snow from the
atmosphere. When a spring or small stream chances
to enter the sea at the same place, the rapidity of in
grease is much augmented, and the catastrophe
hastened. This takes place when the protruding
mass can no longer support its own weight, but,
separating from that on the shore, plunges into the
deep in huge fragments, forming those numerous
icebergs met with in the Northern Ocean. As these
glaciers, with precipitous cliffs named iceblinks in
many places extend for miles along the beach, and
in summer are often full of huge gaps and fissures,
it is extremely perilous to approach them, and hence
numerous accidents happen to the natives. The
danger is not confined to the immediate fall of the
ice, for the waves raised by it are sufficient to swamp
one of their frail canoes, and have been known to
wash themselves off the rocks where they had taken
up their abode for the night. Under one of these,
the Colberger Heide, Graah was detained fifteen.
days during his expedition on the eastern coast. At
that time it terminated in a multitude of tall, bluish,
semi-transparent peaks or pyramids, and was in a
very tottering condition, while at its base were seen
a number of small, low skerries, which the year be-
fore had been buried under the ice. On these they
hauled up their boat to pass the night, but in the
morning found themselves so beset that it was im-
Crantz, vol. i., p. 5, S.
T
Graah. p. 62, 96.
Graah.
238
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
possible either to return or proceed. Though often
in great danger from the fragments, detached from
the cliffs with a noise like the discharge of musketry
or cannon, yet, fortunately, they escaped without any
material injury. "Huge masses from time to time
were precipitated from it, which, as they fell, were
dashed into innumerable fragments, causing the sea
to sweep over the rock where we were perched, on
one occasion with such force as to carry away the
boat and my tent, which had been pitched nearest
the water's edge, to the distance of several fathoms
from the spot they stood on.
ንን*
It is to these prejecting glaciers that those mighty
icebergs found in the Greenland Seas owe their
origin. Their immense height, often exceeding a
thousand feet, proves that they cannot be produced
from the freezing of the surface of the open ocean,
as this is never known to proceed to anything like
such an extent. Many of those masses which sur-
round the southern-shores of Greenland are probably
formed in a far higher latitude, where the longer
duration of the cold must produce proportional effects.
The great southwest current sweeps the ice down
in such quantities as often completely to block up
the channel between Iceland and Greenland. During
the whole summer it besets the shores round Cape
Farewell, and up the western side to 620, and in
some years even to 66° and 67°; but in September
* Graah, p. 93, 137, 138. Crantz, vol. i., p. 26, 27. Scoresby's
Arctic Regions, vol. i., p. 101-109. Off some of these blinks the
ice is said to shoot up from the bottom of the sea in such quan
tities as in many years to make them utterly impassable. Graah
(p. 79, 80) accounts for this by supposing the bottom of the sca
covered with a crust of ice like the dry land; but more probably
they are fragments sunk by stones enclosed in or adhering to
them. These become loosened in the process of melting, and
the ice then naturally rises to the surface. Their more frequent
occurrence off some glaciers than others may arise from the
ground on which these rest being composed of looser materials,
which are thus oftener imbedded in the superincumbent mass.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
239
or October it all disappears, not returning again till
January. This curious phenomenon is in all proba-
bility caused by some variation in the currents; the
one round Cape Farewell ceasing from September
to January, while the other down Davis's Straits con-
tinues the whole year.*
The appearance and magnitude of these icebergs
are very variable. Some in Disco Bay have been
observed aground in water 300 fathoms deep, and
must therefore have exceeded 2000 feet in diameter.
They are often seen on the eastern coast rising from
120 to 150 feet above the water; and, as not more
than a seventh or an eighth part is ever visible, they
must have had an absolute thickness of 900 or 1000
feet. With this depth they are frequently above a
mile in circumference, thus containing from 1000 to
1500 millions of cubic feet, and weighing from forty
to fifty millions of tons. As these are found floating
in the open sea after being long exposed to the wast-
ing effects of the waves and currents, their bulk when
they were originally separated from their parent
glacier must have been far greater. During this
gradual decay they often assume strange, fantastic
forms, more like the vision of an Eastern poet than
the works of Nature in an arctic land. Some resem-
ble palaces, churches, or old castles, with spires,
towers, windows, and arched gateways, fashioned of
the purest marble, or, when the sun shines on them,
of the finest silver. Others appear like ships, trees,
animals, or human beings, recalling the exquisite
works of Grecian artists. Their colours are also
extremely beautiful, some brilliant as burnished
silver, others reflecting all the various hues of the
rainbow, bright green, blue, and orange being the
* Crantz, vol. i., p. 33. Graah, p. 54, and Ross's Note.
+ Scoresby makes the specific gravity of ice to seawater, at
a temperature of 35°, from 0.894 to 0.900; hence the part pro-
jecting would be to that immersed as 1 to 8.2.-Arct. Reg., vol.
1., p. 234.
240
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
prevailing tints. But it is only when seen at a dis-
tance that the spectator can admire their form or
trace out fancied resemblances; for, when near, the
feeling of terror and danger predominates over every
ether emotion. In the Alps, the agitation of the air
from the flight of a bird or a whisper of the human
voice is thought sometimes to cause an avalanche;
and the Greenlanders believe that the dashing of
their oars in the water, or the reverberation of a
loud sound, frequently loosens fragments from an
iceberg. When obliged to pass them, they therefore
glide on in solemn silence, till, the danger being over,
they burst out into a shout of thankfulness and joy.*
The quantity of ice on the land or adhering to the
shore, and constantly decaying under the influence
of the sun and tide, is the cause why the water there
is less salt than in the open sea.† The streams and
currents are in many places rapid and dangerous,
especially during high tides. The principal currents
are those lately mentioned as flowing, the one south-
west, along the eastern coast, with a velocity some-
times of twenty miles a-day, and the other, also from
the north, down Davis's Straits. Where they are
confined among the numerous island channels on the
coast, they produce many whirlpools, one of the
most remarkable being at the mouth of the Puiosor-
tok Frith, in the southeast of Greenland. The rise
of the tides is, for the same reason, very irregular;
*
+
* Crantz, vol. i., p. 24, &c. Scoresby's Greenland, p 84, 232.
Arctic Regions, vol. i., p. 225, &c. Ross's Voy. Arct. Regions,
vol. i., p. 23, 135. Graah, p. 93, 104, &c. Ice, both fresh and
salt, has a tendency to separate, on the temperature rising above
the freezing point, into distinct prismatic columns similar to
basaltic pillars. It is this property which renders both the
glaciers and icebergs so extremely fragile and dangerous.
In the Greenland Sea the specific gravity, according to
Scoresby, is 1.0267, with about 3.67 per cent. of saline matter.
Ross, in Baffin's Bay, found the specific gravity so low as 1.0254,
which would give about 3.5 per cent. of saline matter.-Vide
Scoresby's Arctic Regions, vol. i., p. 182.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
241
but, from the latitude of 60° to 64°, it is about eleven
fect, decreasing gradually towards the north, where
it is only from four to six, though with many local
exceptions.
Fresh water is by no means abundant in this
country, being, in general, the immediate produce of
the melted snows. The most interesting of the
true springs are those on the island of Ounartok,
which form three pools of warm water, used as
baths by the natives. The smallest of them has a
temperature of 90°, the second of 923°, and that
of the largest, which is seventy feet in circuit and
about a foot deep, is from 104° to 1073° of Fahren-
heit. Rivers, properly speaking, cannot be said to
occur in Greenland. There are, indeed, a few small
streams into which salmon migrate, but their course
is too short, and the body of water too inconsidera-
ble, to entitle them to this appellation. Even these,
in the summer months, are often dried up by the
heat of the sun, while in winter the extreme frosts
frequently stop the sources whence they draw their
supplies. Large lakes are, however, sometimes
formed in the valleys, where the accumulated snow
prevents the water produced during the warm sea-
son from finding its way to the sea. This deficien-
cy of running streams is owing, in a great measure,
to the vicinity of the hills to the shore, and to the
circumstance that the high ground in the interior
is constantly covered with ice. It is also connected,
in all probability, with the peculiar formation of the
land, which we shall now notice.
Formerly Greenland was looked upon as a vast
peninsula, closely united to America, and composed
of one solid mass of land; but modern discoveries
have proved its total disunion from the Western
Continent, and have even thrown doubts on its own
internal unity. Many regard it as consisting of a
vast assemblage of islands, now, as it were, glued
together by the ice, which has filled up and hidden
212
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
the intervening sounds and channels. This opinion
is supported by the great length of the fiords, some
on both coasts extending ninety or a hundred miles
into the interior. Scoresby also observed a strong
current setting into Davy's Sound on the eastern
coast, in latitude 720, which was not returned by
any of the others; and Giesecke mentions several
friths or bays on the western side in nearly the
same latitude, 68° 40′ to 720 48', out from which
there is a constant stream. The natives all believed
that one of these, called Ikek or Ikaresak, formerly
communicated with the other side, and were afraid
that the ice would again go off in some heavy north-
eastern gale, when the people there would come
over and kill them. They also stated that from
time to time carcasses of whales, pieces of wood,
and fragments of utensils, were to be seen drifting
out of this bay. The want of high mountains in
the interior, and the absence of large rivers, both
of which might be expected in a country of such
extent, also support this view. But, though these
facts render this opinion extremely probable, it must
be left to future observations to confirm or refute
it.*
A great portion of Greenland being situated to
the south of the arctic circle, and part even so low
as the parallel of the Orkney Islands, it might be
expected to enjoy a milder climate than it actually
possesses. But in this case, all the local peculiari-
ties which modify temperature have an unfavoura-
ble tendency. The vast extent of land or solid ice
lying between it and the pole forms a constant mag-
azine of cold, the chill winds from which cool down
the rest of the country. The structure of the land,
*
Scoresby's Greenland, p. 329, and Giesecke's Note, ibid., p.
467. It is remarkable that both in Norway and Iceland, coun-
tries of far less extent than Greenland, if it be a whole, we find
mountains nearly twice the height of any in this last, together
with numerous large rivers.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
243
rising immediately from the sea to an elevation of
two or three thousand feet, and then spreading out
into a wide plain protected from the north winds by
no range of mountains, acts in a similar direction,
manifesting its influence by that icy mantle which
constantly clothes its surface, and absorbs or re-
flects every ray of heat that reaches it. The vicin-
ity of the sea, whose beneficial effects are so dis-
tinctly seen on the coast of Norway, produces little
amelioration of climate. The great equinoctial cur-
rent passes far from its shores, while that from the
pole, loaded with floating fields and mountains of
ice, sweeps around them. The short summer is
also the very time when this ice appears in greatest
profusion, thus still more depressing the mean tem-
perature of the season; but, as it usually departs in
the winter, the cold at that time is seldom so intense
as in many parts of Northern Europe. This is par-
ticularly the case in the low-lying sheltered spots
on the coast or the interior of the fiords, where
the colonists usually reside. In these places in
South Greenland it seldom exceeds from -40 to
-80 of Fahrenheit, and in the winter of 1828-29,
when Graah resided at Nennortalik, latitude 600,
the weather, on the whole, was mild, and the ther-
mometer generally above zero. Farther north,
however, on the western side, the climate increases
in severity, and at Omenak (70° 41′) and Upperna-
vik (72° 48′), north of Disco Island, the cold is often
-36° and even -48° Fahrenheit. At these times
the intense frost splits asunder the very rocks, and,
on waking in the morning, one finds the sheets and
pillows incrusted an inch thick with the frozen
breath. The ice penetrates down the chimney al-
most to the very stove, and forms an arch over its
mouth, with little holes through which the smoke is-
sues. The flesh-barrels must be hewn in pieces to
get out the meat; and when this, placed in snow-
water, is set over the fire, the outside is boiled suf-
244
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
ficiently before the inside can be pierced with a
knife. Clammy spherical concretions form on the
surface of the sea, soon coagulating into a thick
crust; beer and other strong drinks are congealed;
while brandy and spirits of wine become thick and
viscid like oil. A vapour like smoke rises from the
sea, especially in the bays, and, wafted into the cold
atmosphere, freezes into fine particles, which, when
driven against the face or hands by the wind, enter
the skin like needles.* At such seasons the poor
Greenlanders suffer great privations, as they are
prevented by the intense cold and the ice from fish-
ing. Fortunately, this extreme depression of tem-
perature seldom continues long, as a wind from the
southeast is usually accompanied by an agreeable
warmth, which raises the thermometer eight or ten
degrees above the freezing point. Hence, even in
winter, the snow on the rocks frequently melts, and
the inhabitants enjoy milder weather than those of
Central Europe. It is a curious fact, though one
easily explained from the relative position of the
sea and land, that the character of the seasons in
Greenland is usually the reverse of those in the
western parts of the European Continent.
+
M
The climate of the eastern coast is considered
more severe than that of corresponding latitudes on
the west. This is, perhaps, in some measure owing
to the greater quantity of ice brought to its shores,
by the currents, which accumulates into a compact
body, only yielding to a long-continued wind from
the land. The glaciers also seem to be more ex-
tensive, and to approach nearer to the water. More
snow is also said to fall there than on the other
side, which, uniting with them, increases their mag-
nitude, and gives probability to the opinion that
* These icy showers have been asserted to overwhelm the
natives with cold, and to destroy them somewhat like the burn-
ing sand-clouds in the Arabian deserts; but this appears to be
an exaggeration.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
245
they are now larger than when the country was
first settled, and are still encroaching on the open
ground.
The natives count their summer from the begin-
ning of May to the end of September, and during
these five months reside in tents. But this season
can scarcely be said to commence before June, as
till that time snow continues to fall, and the ground
is still hardened with frost. In the end of April,
many of the sounds contain ice a foot thick, formed
the preceding winter, and it is only about the first
of June that vegetation begins to appear. The
weather is then generally settled and serene, the
air in the bays and valleys oppressively hot, the
thermometer frequently rising to 86° in the shade.
But near the open sea, the fogs that prevail from
April to August, and the chill winds from the ice-
bergs, soon make the inhabitants glad to creep into
their furs again; and at a distance from the shore,
the temperature even in the finest weather rarely
exceeds 45°. The most agreeable and settled sea-
sen is autumn, though it is frequently interrupted
by night-frosts as well as by snow, which begins to
fall in Angust, though it seldom lies before Octo-
ber. At this period tempests of wind are very com-
mon, during which none dare stir from their houses
or expose themselves to their violence. Thunder-
storms, on the other hand, are almost unknown, and
lightning, when it does occur, is seldom accompa-
nied with any sound.*
Among the many very interesting meteorological
appearances which distinguish this country, the Au-
rora Borealis is one of the most remarkable. Though
not peculiar to these regions, it is yet far more fre-
quent here than in more southern climes, and its
phenomena are more likely to lead to a solution of
* Crantz. vol. i., p. 40-49. Egede's Nat. Hist. of Greenland,
p. 21-58. Graal, p. 51, 66, 113. Giesecke, p. 487, 488.
U
246
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
some doubtful problems connected with its origin
and history. For a long period previous to the be-
ginning of the eighteenth century (1716), it was al-
together unknown in England, and almost equally
so in Sweden and Iceland; Torfæus recollecting the
time when it was viewed by his countrymen with
terror and astonishment. Since then it has become
very common, and also assumes various colours and
hues, which were formerly unknown. In Greenland
Graah noticed two varieties, the one appearing uni-
formly between the magnetic E.S.E. and W.S.W.,
as a luminous arch shining with a more or less vivid
light, and having its highest point in the south, ten
or twenty degrees above the horizon, whence rays
diverge towards the zenith. This has usually been
bserved to precede some great change of tempera-
ture, especially from thaw to frost. The other kind,
which seems more immediately connected with bar-
ometrical changes, flits from place to place, either
ke thin luminous clouds agitated by the wind,
through which the light diffuses itself with a sort of
undulating motion, or like flaming rays flashing
across the firmament, generally towards the zenith;
or, finally, like a serpentine or zigzag belt of vivid
undulating light, frequently coloured, which is at
one moment extinguished to be rekindled the next.
The most beautiful, however, of this class of phe-
nomena is the corona, a luminous ring two or three
degrees in diameter, situated near the zenith, with
rays diverging from it in every direction. It seldom
lasts above a few seconds, when it seems to explode,
its matter being scattered on all sides. He found
that its centre was invariably to the eastward of the
meridian, 8140 to 8210 above the horizon, accurately
corresponding with the dip of the needle. It as-
sumes many other forms besides these, two of the
most remarkable of which were observed by the
Danish travellers in Iceland. In the one case the
aurora rose in the west, and spread out in two bright
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
247
arches, low down in the northern and southern hor-
izons, till they met in the east. This luminous ring
continued about three hours, though in the interval
other bows and flames, which had covered the whole
upper part of the sky, had disappeared. On the
other occasion, an arch rose from the west upward
to the zenith, and from this point sent out a bright
beam downward, at a right angle, to the north,
which was again divided into two. Besides white,
the aurora displays yellow, green, and purple-red
colours, and, when in full splendour, its light sur-
passes that of the moon. The superstition of the
Greenlanders, who conceive this beautiful meteor to
be the spirits of the dead playing at ball with the
head of a walrus, and fancy that it draws nearer to
them when they whistle, is not more absurd than
the idea long prevalent in some parts of Europe,
that it was ominous of war, pestilence, and famine.*
* The cause of this splendid phenomenon is still involved ir.
doubt, though probably in some way connected with the mag-
netic and electrical properties of the earth. Graah seems to
think that it is a peculiar substance, capable of being acted on
by the winds; an opinion supported by the observations of Thi-
enemann in Iceland, and Wrangel in Siberia, according to whom
the light, on reaching the zenith, vanishes like thin light clouds,
which remain after the shining has disappeared, and are visible
even on the following day (als wirkliche kleine krause Wolken).
On the other hand, its elevation, great transparency, and rapid-
ity of motion, are opposed to this idea; and the coincidence of
some of its phenomena with the direction of the dipping needle,
would rather favour the opinion of its being a mere optical ap-
pearance similar to the rainbow. It is worthy of notice, that its
more frequent occurrence in the Atlantic regions has been ac-
companied by its diminution in Eastern Asia, as Baron von
Wrangel was assured by the natives, who added, that formerly
it was brighter than at present, and frequently coloured like
the rainbow. See his Physikalische Beobachtungen, Pog. An.,
vol. lxxxv., p. 156. Thienemann, Pog. An., vol. lxxv., p. 59.
Graah, p. 52. Crantz, vol. i., p. 46. The last remarks, that
they are never seen to rise either in the north or northwest,
though this often occurs in Iceland.-Vid. Olafsen's Reise, th.
ii., p. 159.
248
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
The curious effects of the unequal refraction, pro-
duced by the varying temperature and density of
the different strata of air, constitute one of the
most singular phenomena of those Northern regions.
They usually occur on the evening or night after a
clear day, and are most frequent on the approach or
commencement of easterly winds. Not only does
this state of the atmosphere elevate places above
their proper position, bringing objects sunk below
the horizon into view, but it also changes and con-
torts their appearance. It most usually produces
an increase in the vertical dimensions of the object
affected, elevating the coast, and giving it a bolder
and more precipitous outline; making the fields of
ice rise like cliffs of prismatic spar, while the higher
and more irregular masses assume the forms of
castles, obelisks, spires, or, where the pinnacles are
numerous, a forest of naked pines. In other places
it displays the resemblance of an extensive city,
crowded with public edifices, while huge masses of
rock seem suspended freely in the air. Sometimes
ships are seen with their rigging curiously distorted,
an additional sail or an inverted image of the vessel
many times larger than the real object appearing
above. Such are a few, and but a few, of the chan-
ges produced," as from the stroke of the enchanter's
wand;" but many others occur which it is impossi-
ble to describe, their forms altering with inconceiv-
able rapidity, and one deceitful image disappearing
only to be replaced by another.*
There are few places in this extensive country
which possess sufficient interest to render any de-
tailed account of them necessary. The features of
all seem to be nearly similar, so that our general
description is applicable to most of them, and would
deprive more particular accounts of all interest.
* Scoresby's Greenland, p. 96, 106, 117, 164. Arctic Regions,
vol. i., p. 384-391.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
249
The western side, on which the Danish settlements
are stationed, is still the best known, though much
even of it is very imperfectly represented in the
charts. Most of the missionary establishments and
colonies are placed on islands near the coast, a few
only being situated on the mainland at the mouths
of the friths, where the rugged features of the coun-
try are somewhat softened down. As might be ex-
pected, they are also confined to the more southern
part of the country, none of them being much to the
northward of Disco Island. The natives here affirm
that this coast is inhabited nearly as high as latitude
78°, in which the extremity of Baffin's Bay is situa-
ted. They also say that their country is separated
from America by a strait so narrow that they can
speak to the inhabitants on the other side, though
the strong current prevents them from crossing over
to each other. Whatever credit we may give to
these traditions, there is nothing in the appearance
of the land to contradict them, and the people found
by Sir John Ross, near the parallel of 76°, informed
him that they came from the north, where most of
their nation dwelt. The district they inhabit is
about a hundred and twenty miles long by twen-
ty broad where widest, and is shut in on all sides
by the sea and lofty snow-covered mountains. It
seems a mere irregular mass of hills, intersected by
ravines and precipices. Ross thinks that the mount-
ain barrier, which extends from 74° 30 to 76°, is
altogether impassable, owing to the precipices and
ice, which frequently run several miles out to sea.
As, however, the Southern Esquimaux came from
the north, this opinion is at least doubtful. The na-
tives he met with were of the same race, and spoke
a dialect of the Greenland language, differing some-
what from that of the south. They have no knowl-
edge of their neighbours in that quarter, and are al-
together ruder and more ignorant. Though living
upon fish, they have no means of supporting them-
- 250
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
selves on the water, and are unacquainted with the
kayak or canoe even by name. They appeared to
have no religious ideas; but, contrary to the custom
of those in the south, acknowledged the authority of
a king or chief.*.
After passing the mountain barrier, the coast,
though presenting a less formidable aspect, is still
almost a succession of lofty cliffs, with a great depth
of water near the land. Northward of latitude 71°
it is guarded by the Vrowen or Women's Islands,
most of them little more than mere rocks; and on
one of them, in 72° 32', is placed the colony of Up-
pernavik, the most northern of all the European set-
tlements. It has, however, been almost deserted, on
account of the difficulty of intercourse with the oth-
er colonies, and is now inhabited by a few families
of Esquimaux. The next settlements to the south
are those on Disco Bay, chiefly frequented for the
whale-fishing; but of these we shall only name Ege-
des-minde, or the Memory of Egede, established in
honour of that pious missionary, and the residence
of the governor of North Greenland at Godhavn, on
Disco Island. This, though the largest island on the
whole coast, is, with the exception of the colony
just mentioned, uninhabited; but the fisheries in the
bay are the most productive, and the surrounding
district is consequently the most thickly peopled in
the country. From this place to Godthaab, the
mainland is intersected by numerous fiords, reaching
to the glacier in the interior; many small islands are
also observed along the coast, and the following set-
tlements have been established in a line from north
to south: Holsteinburg, in 1770 Zukkertoppen or
Sugarloaf, so called from a singular conical mount-
ain in its vicinity, founded in 1755 in a dreary, bar-
ren country; and New Hernnhut, the first settlement
of the Moravian Brethren, who have now erected a
* Ross's Voyage to the Arctic Regions, vol i, p. 104-188.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
251
lage dwelling-house of stone. Separated from this
by some high hills is Godthaab, founded in 1723 by
the venerable Hans Egede, as the first station for the
mission and trade. It is situated on the side of
Baal's River, in latitude 64° 10' 5", and longitude 510
42′ 15″ west, and is at present the residence of the
governor of South Greenland. We shall, in another
place, mention the difficulties experienced by Egede
in establishing this colony; but the number of oth-
ers now rising up along the coast, and the success.
of his followers in converting the natives, prove that
his labours have not been in vain. The inhabitants
were formerly more numerous, but they have never
recovered from the diminution occasioned by a dread-
ful attack of smallpox in 1733. Baal's River, as it
is called, is only one of the largest of the friths which
here penetrate the land. It is studded with islands,
and, after running sixty-four miles into the interior,
divides into two arms, one of which extends nearly
due north, at a right angle to its former direction,
and seems to communicate with some large lakes.
Both branches are bounded by the glacier, which
here, as in other places, fills the centre of the land.
On the shores of that part of this fiord named Uja-
raksoak, the best potstone, of which the Greenland-
ers form their lamps and kettles, is found; and in
this neighbourhood also occur numerous remains of
old Norwegian buildings.
The coast southward of this point maintains its
former character, and there are no settlements till,
in 63° 4′, we arrive at that of Fiskernes, four leagues
from which is Lichtenfels, a station of the Moravians
founded in 1754. Between this and Frederic's
Hope, in latitude 62', is one of the largest iceblinks
on the coast, whose dazzling reflection is visible far
out at sea, gleaming like the northern aurora. The
fragments from this glacier have completely closed
the adjoining fiord, and, when piled up by the waves,
form a magnificent bridge between the mainland and
252
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
the adjoining islands. This bridge, eighteen miles
long and four or five broad, consists of a series of
arches from sixty to a hundred and eighty feet high,
under which, though the falling fragments threaten
instant destruction, boats frequently sail into the
bay. The colony was founded in 1742, and the place
resembles some of the Norwegian harbours, though
the hills are darker and more destitute of vegetation.
Here, in a dreary room or closet, the missionary
Otto Fabricius spent his winters, collecting materials
for his Fauna and Lexicon, while during the sum-
mer he traversed the coasts in his kayak, which he
had learned to manage with all the dexterity of a
native. The fiord Sermeliarsuk, southward of this,
supposed to be that usually named Frobisher's
Straits, and soon ends in the glacier, though in the
old charts it is represented as extending across the
whole land. A strong current is, however, said to
set out of it, carrying into the sea immense quanti-
ties of beautiful semi-transparent bluish ice. Near-
ly in latitude 61° is the large uninhabited island of
Nunarsoit, the coast of which, usually intrenched in
ice, presents so melancholy a view of barren rocks,
that the old navigators, accustomed though they
were to scenes of terror, named it the Cape of Des-
olation. Not far from this commences the district
of Juliana's Hope, where are the most numerous re-
mains of the old Icelandic colonies yet discovered,
and on this account supposed by Egger and Graalı
to be the seat of the former East Bygd. The coast
here is a perfect labyrinth of islands and friths, and
is still very imperfectly explored. But, though the
country is here more infested by ice than that far-
ther north, this settlement is the most flourishing in
Greenland, and its inhabitants constitute now about
one third of the whole population. It was founded
in 1775 by Anders Olsen, whose descendants still re
side there, subsisting, like the colonists of old, amid
the ruins of whose dwellings his residence was erect
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
253
ed, by feeding cattle or by the fisheries. It lies in
the centre of the district of the same name, near
a lake abounding in salmon and other fish, has a good
harbour, and, from some trials that have lately been
made, there are hopes that the potato may be culti-
vated with success. Somewhat farther south is
Lichtenau, a Moravian mission, with a church and
houses built of stone, far superior to those usually
found in that country, and surrounded by numerous
ruins of the Icelandic settlers. The Island of Serme-
soak, in the vicinity, is filled with lofty mountains
covered with perpetual ice, from which sharp, naked
peaks project, like the towers and spires of some
old castle. The extremity of this island is usually
named Cape Farewell, but the true situation of that
promontory is nearly thirty-six miles farther south.
The only other stations on this coast are Nennorta-
lik or Bear Island, where the Greenlanders of the
neighbourhood used to bring the skins of the white
bear, and of white or blue foxes, and other articles,
to exchange for European commodities; and Fred-
ericksthal, a Moravian settlement, the most southern
situation inhabited by Europeans. It was founded
in 1824, and, when visited by Graah, already number.
ed 400 members, who were constantly increasing, as
the inhabitants of the eastern coast every year flock-
ed thither to enjoy the instructions of Mr. Klein-
schmidt, who lived among the natives like a father
with his children. This venerable old man had al-
ready laboured for the improvement of the Green-
landers nearly forty years, and, as he is perfecty fa-
miliar with their language, not without success. The
only remarkable place farther south is Cape Fare-
well, situated on an island detached from the main-
land, and surrounded by many other smaller ones,
frequented in the spring by the fishermen, who there
procure a great number of seals. The frith which
separates them from the shore is about five miles
wide, and by Graah named Prince Christian's Sound.
254
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
A rapid current runs through it, and masses of ficat-
ing ice covering its surface, render the navigation
extremely dangerous.
Our acquaintance with the eastern coast is still
more limited, being confined to those parts described
by Scoresby and Graah, who almost alone, in mod-
ern times, have been able to reach its icy border.
The observations of the former were made in a very
high latitude (690-750), while the researches of the
latter were confined to the portion below 654°, leav-
ing nearly four degrees altogether unknown. The
expedition of which he had the charge was fitted
out by the Danish government for the purpose of de-
ciding the question regarding the situation of the old
Icelandic colonies. Sailing from Copenhagen in
March, 1828, he arrived in Greenland at the end of
May, but spent the remainder of the season in sur-
veying the district of Juliana's Hope, and in making
preparations for his journey the following summer.
He left Nennortalik for the east coast, on the 1st of
March, 1829, but, owing to the ice, which often de-
tained him several days at a time, did not reach Kik-
kertak, at the extremity of Prince Christian's Sound,
till the 1st of April. Here he was confined twenty-
five days in almost total inactivity, the ice remain-
ing completely jammed up to the shore; and here,
too, his troubles with the natives who accompanied
him commenced, as the hunters, who were expected
to procure provisions for the rest of the party, were
not able to support themselves. On the 26th of
April he left this frith, and with great difficulty, ow-
ing to the laziness of the women who rowed the
boat, reached Alluk, an island formed of two mount-
ains, which enjoys a tolerably luxuriant vegetation,
and on which is held an annual fair. On the 30th
he arrived at Nenneetsuk, where he lay icebound for
three weeks. This place has evidently been inhab-
ited at a former period, as they found many houses
containing drift-wood of red and white pine, and
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
255
graves, near which were the hunting instruments of
the deceased, to enable them to pursue their employ-
ments in the land of spirits. At Ivimiut, where he
stopped on the 23d of May, the inhabitants were
more cleanly in their persons than those on the
western side, and remarkable for their clear com-
plexion, regular features, and oval-shaped heads.
The coast, northward from this, was lined with gla-
ciers, behind which rose a lofty chain of mountains,
on whose precipitous sides, where no snow can rest,
eurious purple-coloured strata were seen diverging
from the summit to the icy base, intersected by arch-
formed layers, supposed, from the blue tint, to con-
tain potstone. Near this locality one of the Green-
landers had a narrow escape from a bear, which came
upon him when sleeping in the open country. He
was only awakened by its breathing close to him,
in time to escape to his canoe, whence he killed it
with his arrows. This adventure procured him great
favour with his countrywomen, who were now all
anxious to obtain him for a helpmate, though former-
ly he had been refused by them all. On setting out
on this expedition, each of the men had chosen a lady
in the party as his companion, but this fellow had
been rejected by all as a Nellursok, “heathen or ig-
noramus." He took his revenge by making choice
of a superannuated beldame, the ugliest of the whole
party.
At Taterat, where the natives have little in their
outward appearance in common with the Esqui-
maux race, they found an iron cannon about sixty-
five inches long, which had probably been obtained
from the wreck of some whaler lost on this coast.
Near that place is a singular grotto, in which is a re-
markable harmonic echo, repeating the lowest
sounds, in solemn tones, like a distant funeral-dirge
or the wild music of the Æolian harp. Even the
seabirds, frequenting it in flocks of thousands, ap-
peared to take pleasure in hearing their own shrill
256
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
cries re-echoed from the vaulted rocks. On the 23d
of June Graah parted with two Europeans who had
hitherto attended him, and proceeded along the coast
in a single boat. Four days afterward he passed
one of the largest iceblinks he had yet seen, being
above a mile long, and rising perpendicularly from
the sea about 600 feet. It was full of huge gaps and
fissures, and, at the same time, completely under-
mined by the waves. Off Nektoralik, a lofty, black
promontory, frequented by thousands of seafowl nes-
tling in its inaccessible cliffs, are numerous islands
free from snow, rising into conical peaks. These,
by a curious effect of refraction, were elevated much
beyond their actual height, and had each an inverted
image of itself over it in the air, continually rising
and falling. On the 2d of July he reached Nunar-
soak, a rocky country, but free from glaciers, where
his eyes, almost destroyed by the constant glare
from the snow, were refreshed by the sight of some
mountains covered with dwarf-willow and birch.
This was also the case at Griffenfeldt's Island, con-
sisting of a single mountain, with an elevation of
3000 feet, and abundantly covered for more than a
fourth of its height with black crakeberry, whortle-
berry, and other bushes. Northward from this is a
large island named Skioldunge, separated by a nar-
row channel from the mainland, in which it is almost
enclosed. On the continent, nearly opposite its ex- -
tremity, is Ekallumiut or Queen Maria's Valley, one
of the most delightful spots seen by him on the whole
voyage. Considerable fields extend on both sides of
a cove, covered with dwarf willows two feet high, ju-
niper bushes, black crakeberry and whortleberry in-
terspersed with a fine species of grass, much burned
by the heat of the sun except near the rivulets which
intersect the plain in every direction. At the end of
the cove is an extensive valley, adorned with vari-
ous wild flowers, particularly the sweet-smelling
lychnis, and divided by a brook abounding in char
4
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
257
which has its origin in the glacier. But the charac-
teristic features of Greenland scenery are not want-
ing even in this summer paradise; about two or three
hundred paces from the sea, the cliffs rise almost
perpendicularly far beyond their usual height, the
clouds seeming to rest on their snow-clad summits,
while down the ravines on their sides, huge masses
of ice were every moment precipitated with a noise
like thunder. In this really beautiful retreat the na-
tives from the surrounding country assemble some
days every summer, feasting on the char and wild
berries, and spending the night dancing to the tam-
borine.
Farther north he passed an extensive iceblink, the
Colberger Heide, the perpendicular walls of which
line the coast for many miles, and soon after, a
quadruple series of icebergs of immense height,
stretching out into the sea from the mouth of a fiord.
From this place both the mainland and islands pre-
serve their former character, the vegetation on
Sneedorff's Island only being richer than any he
had before seen. Leaving on the 24th of July, he
reached an island which he named Turn Back, as
the ice precluded all his endeavours to proceed
farther. This place, in latitude 65° 14', was the ut
'most limit of his journey; for, after remaining in its
vicinity till the 21st of August, with no prospect of
the ice opening, he returned southward to look for
winter-quarters. These he fixed at Nukarbik, in 630
22′ N., where, having spent some time in collecting
provisions in the vicinity, he took up his abode
during the dark months.
In the summer of 1830, he set out with the inten-
tion of penetrating farther north, but his success on
this occasion was even less than before. After re-
maining fifteen days shut in by the ice on some
small skerries under the Colberger Heide, he was
obliged to turn back at a lower latitude than the
previous year. In the first part of the voyage his
258
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
CC
people were exposed to great privations, their pro-
visions having been all exhausted, and a small seal,
caught by one of the boatmen, was devoured raw,
hide, hair, and all." For six weeks their food con-
sisted almost entirely of wild berries, and Graah,
who was at last completely worn out, sick with
fatigue and want of sustenance, ascribes the pres-
ervation of his life to the crakeberries. He reached
Nennortalik in a state of complete exhaustion, on
the 19th of October, where the kindness of the resi-
dents soon restored him to health.
From latitude 65° 14′, where the observations of
Graah end, to 690, where those of Scoresby begin,
the eastern coast of this vast country is, as already
remarked, unknown. It has no doubt been seen by
many of the navigators who frequent those seas,
but the barrier of ice brought by the current from
the Northern Ocean has prevented any of them from
landing, or even approaching near its shores. Scores-
by first came in sight of the land in latitude 740, the
most southern part being, he thought, the Hold-with-
Hope of Hudson, and the most northerly, Gale
Hamkes' Land, discovered in 1654. As seen from
the ship it was mountainous, rugged, and intersected
by bays or friths; and as it continued in sight at in-
tervals for some time, he employed himself in laying
down its position and giving names to the different
parts of it, which are too uninteresting to be repeated
here. After some time spent at sea in pursuit of
whales, he, on the 19th of July, again, in latitude 71º
2', approached the shore, which is dark and steril,
the mountains rising from the beach in mural cliffs,
consisting of an innumerable series of peaks, cones,
or pyramids, with a rugged assemblage of sharp
rocks jutting from their sides. The general height
here, as at other places, was about 3000 feet, though
some individual summits, as one of the Roscoe
Mountains, exceeded this elevation considerably.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
259
Five days afterward, he landed in 70° 30', on a
rocky point, which he named Cape Lister, and, as-
cending to the top of the cliff, found neither soil nor
verdure, but a pavement of loose quartz or horn-
blende stones, either naked or covered with black
lichens. These, with a few tufts of hardy plants,
were all the vegetation visible. On a small strip of
beach he discovered the ruins of an Esquimaux hut,
in which he found the remains of fuel, an arrowhead
of bone pointed with iron, and other fragments of
wood and bone, with which the hand of man had
evidently been busy. From these appearances he
conceived it probable that the hut had been occupied
so lately as that summer. It is also interesting to
remark that he observed here horns and bones of
the reindeer, an animal, Graah affirms, not to be
found on the part of the coast examined by him.*
He afterward landed at Capes Stewart and Hope, at
both of which he noticed huts with similar remains,
while the rocks near the former, in Jameson's Land,
are remarkable, as consisting of the coal formation,
with a variety of organic remains. The number of
inhabitants, too, seems to have been considerable,
though none were seen, they having probably migrated
into the interior during the summer; while the grass
and other plants were far more luxuriant than in any
of the places visited by Graah. The country surveyed
southward of Scoresby Sound, where these observa-
tions were made, had the common rugged appear-
ance of the Greenland shores. He again sailed in a
northern direction, and landed on Traill Island (72°
12' N.), where similar vestiges of at least fifty sum-
mer huts were visible. This was the last place he
landed at, though he examined a considerable por
.
*This statement is rather doubtful, as one of the natives.
declared that they were met with there; and Major Sabine
found horns recently shed, on this coast, on the Pendulum
Islands, lat. 74° N.-Vid. Graah, p. 104, note. They also occur
in Spitzbergen.
260
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
tion of the coast in this neighbourhood, before the
approach of winter compelled him to return home
The results of his researches are best seen on the
chart; but they also brought to light many curious
facts connected with the natural history of this
island, and its probable internal constitution. The
proofs which he obtained of the existence of inhab-
itants in these high northern regions are likewise
extremely interesting; and, though none were seen,
the utensils left at their dwellings indicate that they
are similar in their habits to those who frequent the
east and west coasts.*
Before concluding this description of Greenland,
it may be necessary to notice the disputed ques-
tion respecting the situation of the old Icelandic
settlements. The general opinion at present seems
to be, that both the bygds, as they were called,
were on the western coast; the east, which was
the most populous, in the vicinity of Juliana's Hope,
where there are many remains of old buildings, and
where pieces of bells and other metallic substances
have been frequently found; the other, farther north
on the same coast, somewhere between the sixty-
second and the sixty-seventh degrees of latitude,
runic monuments having been observed as high as
72° 55'. The opposite opinion, which till lately was
almost universally held, considered the former as
situated on the eastern shore, directly opposite Ice-
land. We cannot enter at any length into this ques-
tion, many of the arguments on both sides being of
an abstruse nature, and very uninteresting to the
general reader. We may, however, state, that the
voyage of Graah, which has been regarded as set-
tling the dispute, seems by no means decisive. The
difficulties he had to encounter prevented him from
surveying the shores with the requisite accuracy;
his whole time and attention being required to ena-
* Scoresby's Voyage to Greenland.
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
261
ble him to push along from island to island, and from
cape to cape, while the interior of the fiords, where
the ruins of the colony might be expected to occur,
were almost unvisited. The assertions of the na-
tives, again, that such remains do not exist, must
in a great measure go for nothing, as he himself ad-
mits that neither their testimony nor their knowledge
is much to be relied on.* Even had they known of
such places, their anxiety to get home and to avoid
labour, with many other motives, might induce con-
cealment. He also acknowledges, that even before
going thither he "was thoroughly convinced that
the East Bygd would not be found there ;" a state
of mind not the best fitted to ensure success or en-
courage exertion. While these things lessen the
value of his evidence against its existence on the
eastern coast, some facts stated by him tend rather
to favour the opposite conclusion. For example,
he saw natives whose features differed from those
of their countrymen on the western coast, and more
resembling the European. The strange traditions,
too, of a fierce and cruel race inhabiting the mount-
ains, he found prevailing all along the coast.§ From
his account, this shore seems equally fertile with
the oppoiste one; and it is, therefore, not easy to
assign a reason for the Icelanders, most of them
from the northwest peninsula, neglecting the coun-
try in their immediate neighbourhood, and sailing
many miles to another in no respect preferable.
Another difficulty attending this opinion is, the
prevalence of the notion, which can be traced back
to a very early period, that the colony was to be
found there. Bishop Amund's voyage, in which
some of the inhabitants on the eastern coast are
stated to have been seen driving home their cattle,
whatever credit we may attach to the fact related,
proves, at least, that this was then the general be-
* Graah's Greenland, p. 132, 135. + Ibid., p. 105.
t Ibid., p. 70, 73, 88, 115.
§ Ibid., p. 67, 90, 104
X
262
DESCRIPTION OF GREENLAND.
lief, which could only have arisen from tradition, as
the spirit of inquiry into the ancient history of these
places was not yet awakened in Iceland. The fa-
ble, as Graah calls it, of Hvidsærk, a mountain in
Greenland, and Sneefields Jökul in Iceland, being
both visible at the same time from the middle of the
passage, at least proves the existence of such an
opinion from a very early period.*
The strongest arguments for the other supposition
seem to be, the number of ruins on the western
coast, and the entire absence, so far as is yet known,
of any on the other shore. But this latter argu-
ment loses much of its weight when we consider
the difficulty of discovering these ruins even where
they do exist. As Graah says, "one may search for
them over and over again, if he have neither guide
nor clew to aid him, without finding them, the great-
er number being so overgrown with heath and thick-
ets as to be scarce distinguishable from the rocks."
And in another passage he mentions, that "many a
person has lived a length of time in Greenland with-
* This may have been no fable after all; the distance from
Sneefieldnes due west to Greenland is 396 miles, but in a di-
rection a little north, which would still have been called west,
it is much less, probably (for the coast is almost unknown) not
more than 260 or 270 miles. Now the last-named mountain,
though it should not be seen from more than 80 miles, is yet,
from the effects of refraction, often visible from the sea beyond
the Westmanna Isles, a distance of more than 140 English (30
Danish) miles (Olafsen's Reise, th. i, p. 152); and Scoresby
(Voyage, p. 106) saw some of the Greenland coast of an inferi-
or height (Home's Foreland, 3500 feet) when 160 miles distant.
This makes the fact stated at least possible; and Torfæus men-
tions that it only sometimes occurred (modo serenabit), p. 71.
In a late number of the Annales des Voyages (November,
1837, p. 236), it is mentioned, on the authority of M. Zahrt-
mann, captain of a Danish vessel, that the natives had inform-
d the missionaries at Frederickstad of a stone with an inscrip-
tion on it, found by them on the island Idloarsut (lat. 63°). Not
being noticed by Graah in his voyage in 1830, it is thought to
be of recent erection, probably by the crew of the mysterious
Lilloise.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
263
out seeing any of the antiquities that surround
him."*
For these reasons we are disposed to re-
gard this point not only as still undecided, but one
on which, without more evidence, it would be pre-
mature to come to any conclusion. Before a posi-
tive opinion could be formed, it would be necessary
to compare the accounts contained in the old de-
scriptions of the bygds, whether printed or in man-
uscript, with the present aspect of the country, due
attention being at the same time paid to their prop-
er dates. This will now be rendered easier by the
publication of the "Historical Monuments of Green-
land," a work comprising all the ancient documents
on this subject, which has been commenced by the
Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen
CHAPTER VIII.
History of Greenland.
Discovery by Gunniborn.-Colonized by Erik Raude.-Conver
sion to Christianity.-Leif.-History of Vinland - Biarne.—
Thorwald slain by the Skrellings.-Thorfinn.-Other Voya-
ges thither.-Vinland, America.-Subjugation of Greenland.
-Government.-Bishop's Voyages to the North - Loss of
Colonies.-Erik Walckendorff attempts to recover them.-
Voyages of Heinson, Davis, Lindenow, Danel, &c.-Mission
of Hans Egede.-Difficulties and Success.-Egede's Return
Home. Benefits of the Missions.-Natives.-Origin and Ap-
pearance in the country.-Ancient Inhabitants of America.-
Character.-Vanity.-Morals.- Religion.-Conjurors.-Gov
ernment. Sciences. -Language.-Food.-Houses.-Tents
- Dress.-Boats.-Family Relations.-Amusements.-Burl-
als.-Employments.-Cominerce.-Conclusion.
THE history of the colonization of Greenland is
not merely of importance from its consequences,
* Graah, p. 156, 165.
264
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
but also interesting as furnishing a vivid picture of
the life and manners of that remote period. The
same restless and daring spirit of adventure, the
same insatiable thirst for revenge, which led many
of the first colonists to Iceland, compelled others
to take refuge on the still more inhospitable shores
of Greenland. Gunnbiorn, son of Ulf Krake, a
celebrated Norwegian rover, when sailing along the
west coast of the former, at a greater distance from
the land than was customary at that time, discover-
ed some small islets or skerries, to which he gave
the name of Gunnbiornarsker. These were rocky
and uninhabitable; but on the same voyage he ob-
served, still farther towards the west, a country of
greater extent and more inviting aspect, on which,
however, he does not appear to have landed, nor
even to have approached very near it. No farther
endeavours to explore this region were for some
time made; till Erik Raude, or the Red, being com-
pelled to set out in quest of a new abode, turned
his thoughts thither. His father, Thorwald, a jarl
of the province of Jadar or Listen, had fled from
Norway in consequence of a murder committed by
him and his son, and, sailing to Iceland, had settled
at Drangr, in Hornstrand. After the death of his
parent, Erik_removed thence to Vatnshorn, near
Haukadal, where his violent temper soon found oc-
casion to display itself. His servants endeavour-
ing, probably by magical arts, to turn aside a hill of
sand which was wasting his fields, were put to
death by his neighbour, Eyolf Saur. This enraged
him to a great degree, and he soon after killed Ey-
olf, and Rafn who had incited him to the action.
For this crime he was banished the district, and re-
tired to Yxney, an island in the Breida Fiord, where
a dispute soon arose between him and Thorgest
about the sacred pillars (setstokkar) which he had
lent to the latter. The quarrel, as was usual, ended
in bloodshed; and other chiefs joining both parties,
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
265
the civil authorities at last interfered, and Erik was
condemned to three years' banishment by the
Thornes-Thing. His friends concealed him for
some time, till a ship being prepared, he set sail,
declaring his intention of going in search of the
land formerly seen by Gunnbiorn, and promising to
return with tidings if he discovered it. Sailing
westward from Sneefieldnes in 982, he soon came
in sight of one of the Greenland Alps, named Mid
Jökul, near the place afterward known as Blaserkr.
Avoiding this coast, which seemed rugged and dan-
gerous, he sailed southward, looking out for some
place where he might settle, till, turning towards
the west round the Hvarf, he passed the first winter
on Eriksey, near the middle of what was afterward
called the Eastern Bygd or Colony.* Next summer
he entered the frith or sound, which he called Erik's
Fiord, and explored its coasts, wintering on several
small islands named Erik's Holm.
According to
some accounts, he returned the next summer to Ice-
land; but, as the term of his banishment had not
then expired, those are probably more correct which
represent him as spending another season abroad.
He landed first in the Breida Fiord, and the succeed-
ing spring was defeated in single combat by his old
enemy Thorgest, after which they were reconciled.
He then went back to Greenland, which was the
name he had given the new country, with the view
of inducing others to accompany him, where he
*This is the account of Torfæus; many differences occur
in the interpretation of the original passages, and even the read-
ing of that in the Landnamabok is doubtful. In the text it is
"nær midre enn vestri bygd," that is, "nearer the middle than
the western bygd;" other copies have "nær eystri bygd," "near
the eastern bygd." The word Hvarf means a place of turning, a
promontory, here supposed by Graah to be Cape Farewell; and
Bygd, which so often occurs in these accounts, is an inhabited
place, Ubygd an uninhabited one: it is derived from the Ice-
landic byggia, to build; a word still common in the Lowland
dialects of Scotland both as a noun and verb.
266
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
built a town called Brattahlid on Erik's Fiord. By
his representations of its fertility he succeeded in
his object, though of twenty-five vessels that left
Iceland along with him only fourteen reached their
destination, the others having been eitner wrecked
or driven back by a tempest. Those who arrived
safe placed their habitations in the vicinity of Erik's
settlement, and near the same frith, naming them
either after themselves or from some local peculiar-
ity. This event happened in the year 986, and
many colonists afterward repaired thither.*
Seldom has a revolution of such importance been
effected with so little opposition as the first intro-
duction of Christianity into Greenland. In the au-
tumn of 999, Leif, a son of Eric the Red, having
made a voyage to Norway, attracted the notice of
Olaf Tryggvason, king of that country. Olaf having
in early life, while wandering about as an exile, be-
come a believer in the gospel, was, after he ascend-
ed the throne, extremely zealous for the propagation
of his new faith. For this purpose he made many
journeys through his dominions, attended by his
priests and a chosen band of Bersærker, purposing
to employ these last against such as the former
should fail to convince. It was on his return from
one of these excursions that he met with Leif and
his pagan companions, on whom the arguments of
the king, and the excellence of the Christian reli-
gion, had a more beneficial influence than the harsh-
er measures used with his own subjects. The son
of Erik was converted, and, returning in the summer
of 1000, became the instrument of diffusing the truth
through his adopted country. He was accompanied
by a priest and some other missionaries; and having.
during his voyage, met with some shipwrecked mar-
* Torfæus, Groenlandia Antiquæ (Havniæ, 1715), p. 9-17,
241. Landnamabok, p. 100-103. Arn. Jon, Spec. Island, p.
146 Claudius Lyschander places the discovery in A.D. 787.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
267
iners who had preserved their lives by clinging to
planks, he carried them with him to Greenland.*
This humane conduct of Leif, so contrary to the
barbarous spirit of the times, procured for him the
surname of Hin Heppne, or the Fortunate, but ex-
cited the anger of his father, who also reproached
him for bringing a wicked and dangerous man, as
he called the priest, into the colony. Erik, howev-
er, yielding to the arguments of his son, soon became
a Christian, and, having been baptized, all the other
inhabitants shortly after followed his example. The
way for this change was probably, in some measure,
prepared by the influence of those among the ori-
ginal settlers who had been converted before their
arrival in the country. One of these, a native of the
Hebrides, was celebrated as the author of a poem
called the Hafgerdinga Drapa, a stanza of which,
imbued with the pious sentiments of its author, is
still preserved.†
The country inhabited by these colonists was, as
far as we can learn from the notices of the old au-
thors, similar in climate and productions to what it
is at present. It was divided into two districts or
bygds by an extensive desert, and six days were re-
quired to pass from the one to the other in a six-
oared boat. The East Bygd was always the more
populous, and, besides two monasteries and the bish-
op's see of Gardar on the Einars Fiord, where there
was a cathedral dedicated to St. Nicolas, it contain-
ed twelve parishes and 190 farms. Brattahlid, on
Erik's Fiord, was first the residence of Erik Raude,
and afterward of the governor or lagmann. The
West Bygd had only four parishes, and about 100
farms. The ancient authors mention the names and
* Others place this incident in his voyage to Vinland, which
we have soon to mention.
+ Torfæus, Groen. Ant., ch. xvii., p. 127-130. Arn. Jon., Spec.
Isl., p. 147. This verse may be found in the Landnamabok, p.
104, 377. The hafgerdingar are a species of whale.
268
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
order of the different fiords on which these settle-
ments were founded, but it could be of no use to
repeat the catalogue here. Many endeavours have
been made, in recent times, to assign to these their
proper situation; but, besides the great difference
between those who station all the colonies on the
west and their opponents, there are many others of
minor importance. The writers who place the East
Bygd in Juliana's Hope generally consider the ruins
on the frith of Igaliko as those of the episcopal res-
idence of Gardar; while Biarney, at the farthest ex-
tremity of the West Bygd, is regarded as the present
Disco Island.*
Soon after this period the Northern annals intro-
duce the discovery of America by the Greenland col-
onists. Heriulf, one of the companions of Erik the
Red, and his son Biarne, were in the habit of trading
to various surrounding countries, usually spending
the winter at Eyrar in Iceland. In the year 986, the
latter, on returning from a voyage to Norway, learn-
ed that his father had departed for the lately-discov-
ered country. Thither, though the autumn was al-
ready far advanced, he resolved to follow him, guided
only by the stars and the reported situation of the
land, being determined to spend the following win-
ter, like all the preceding ones, with his parent. On
his passage he was overtaken by a storm, and driv-
en far to the southwest, where he saw a low, undu
lating region, overgrown with wood, and very unlike
Greenland as it had been described to him. Here,
therefore, he did not land; but, sailing northward,
passed a second country and then a third, mount-
ainous, and covered with icebergs. Without stop-
ping at any of these, he continued his voyage, and
soon after reached Heriulfnes in Greenland, where
he found his father.
Graah s
*Torfæus, Groen. Ant., ch. v., vi., vii., viii., x.
Greenland, Appendix, p.155-176. See above, chap. vii., p. 260.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
269
During the winter he spent here the fame of his
discovery was spread abroad, and incited Leif, the
son of Erik, to rival his relation in the discovery
and colonization of new regions. Some time, how-
ever, elapsed before he could put this plan into exe-
cution, and it was only in the year 1000 that, having
purchased Biarne's ship and equipped it with thirty-
five men, he set sail. The first land seen was stony
and barren, with snow lying among the rocks, and
was named by them Helluland. The next, more
like that first observed by Biarne, was called Mark-
land or Woodland, being level, covered with wood,
and surrounded by cliffs of white sand. Sailing on-
ward, they came in sight of an island lying to the
east of the mainland. Landing near it, they found
the soil fertile, the air mild, and numerous shrubs
bearing sweet berries. They then sailed up a river,
stored with salmon and other fish, till they came to
a lake from which it issued; and, having erected
huts in the vicinity, they spent the winter, which was
milder and the days longer than in Greenland. An
ancient writer says that on the shortest day the sun
was above the horizon from dagmal to eikt, that is,
from half past seven A.M. to half past four P.M.,
which makes the day equal to nine hours, and, con-
sequently, the latitude of the place rather more than
41°, or nearly that of New-York.*
One day, while residing there, they missed one of
their number, a German, of the name of Tyrker
(Dietrich or Dirk), and, on going in search of him,
they met him coming out of a wood, leaping and
dancing as if frantic. On his friends inquiring the
cause of this joy, he at first answered them in Ger-
man, which they did not understand, and then, show-
ing them some fruit, told them in the Norse tongue
that these were grapes, from which wine was made
* The correct latitude is 41° 24′ 10″, or a little north of Nan-
tucket, the character of which agrees with the description of
the Northmen.
270
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
in his fatherland. From this occurrence they named
the country Vinland, and, having loaded the ship
with wood, and collected a quantity of grapes, they
returned in the spring to Greenland.
The beauty and fertility of this new land, it might
have been thought, would have attracted to it all the
colonists from those barren and dreary shores where
they had fixed their dwellings. But this was not the
case; and even Leif did not again return, leaving his
brother Thorwald, who sailed thither that year with
the same crew to explore it more minutely. He
spent that summer and the next in examining the
land to the east and west, and found the coast pro-
tected by islands, beautifully wooded almost to the
water's edge, but with no trace of inhabitants. The
third year they continued their investigations; and,
in repairing their ship, which had been damaged, set
up the keel on a promontory, hence called Kialarnes.
Near this point Thorwald landed, and, delighted by
the appearance of the country, exclaimed to his com
panions, "Here it is beautiful, and here I should like
well to fix my dwelling." But, while still engaged
in surveying the country, they were surprised by
finding on the sandy beach three small canoes cov-
ered with skins, under each of which three Skrel-
lings were concealed. The Greenlanders seized on
these strangers, and with wanton cruelty put them
to death, except one, who contrived to escape in his
boat. Punishment for this crime was not long de-
layed; for, one night soon after, their sleep was bro-
ken by a voice warning them to arise and save their
lives. They started up and found themselves at-
tacked by a fleet of these savages, who poured in
upon them a flight of arrows. Protected by the bat-
tle-screens they had raised on the ship's side, they
at last repulsed their diminutive opponents, to whom
they contemptuously gave the name of Skrellings
(chips or parings). But Thorwald found that they
were not so despicable as was at first imagined, for
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
271
a wound he had received from them proved mortal.
When dying, he said to his companions, "I now ad-
vise you to prepare for your departure as soon as
possible; but me ye shall bring to the promontory
where I thought it good to dwell; it may be that it
was a prophetic word that fell from my mouth about
my abiding there for a season; there shall ye bury
me, and plant a cross at my head, and also at my
feet, and call the place Krossanes in all time coming."
With these affecting words he expired, and his as-
sociates, having complied with his request, returned
the following season (1005) to Greenland.
The melancholy, though, in some measure, merit-
ed fate of Thorwald, did not prevent another brother,
Thorstein, from engaging in the same adventurous
undertaking. He sailed for Vinland, accompanied
by his wife Gudrida, his whole family, and twenty-
five men for his crew, with the intention, it is said,
of bringing home his brother's body, though, judging
from the character of some of his followers, more
probably with the design of settling there. He was,
however, driven by a storm on the western coast of
Greenland, and compelled to remain during the win-
ter in an uninhabited district. Want and fatigue
proved fatal to him and to some of his crew, and it
was not till the next spring that Gudrida returned
home, carrying his dead body along with her.
A fourth adventurer in this perilous path now ap
pears. According to the story, while Gudrida and
her friends were watching her husband's corpse, the
dead man rose up in his bed and foretold that his
wife should marry a stranger, and settle with him in
Vinland. In due time the prediction was accom-
plished. Thorfinn Karlsefne, a wealthy Icelander,
descended from Ragnar Lodbrok, arrived in Green-
land, and, espousing the widow of Thorstein, thus in-
herited his right to Vinland. He sailed thither with
her in 1007, having three ships, and a larger colony
than any of the preceding, consisting of 160 men,
272
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
I
with all necessary tools, furniture, and cattle, for
forming a settlement. They seem to have proceed-
ed farther south than on former occasions, and at
last came to a land where they found grapes and
ears of corn (maize) growing wild. They set up
their winter dwellings in a bay where the Skrellings
soon found them out, and, seemingly ignorant of the
former transactions of the Northmen with their
friends, bartered skins and furs for small strips of
cloth, and, at the last, for milk-soup, which they
preferred to all other merchandise. The lowing of a
bull belonging to the colonists at once put them all
to flight; some rushed to their canoes, others fled
for shelter to the huts of the strangers, where the
foreign appearance of the inmates proved an equally
terrific object. Some small presents, and particular-
ly milk, with which they were still extremely de-
lighted, reconciled them to their guests. Thorfinn
had wisely prohibited his followers from selling them
arms on any conditions; but one of them stole a
battle-axe, whose power he resolved to try on one
of his companions. To the horror of his country-
men, who had never seen such an effect follow a
blow with their wooden hatchets, the stroke proved
fatal, when a third, whose commanding air and man-
ner marked him for a chief, seizing the dangerous
weapon, threw it indignantly into the sea.
Thorfinn remained here till the following winter,
at the commencement of which he was again visited
by an immense fleet of the natives, who now attack-
ed the Northmen by a discharge of missiles so gall-
ing that they betook themselves to flight, and were
only saved from total defeat by the heroism of Frey-
disa, a daughter of Erik the Red. Reproaching her
countrymen for fleeing from such miserable caitiffs,
she seized the naked sword of one of them who had
been slain, and advanced against the Skrellings, who
fled terrified to their canoes. This adventure dis-
gusted Thorfinn with his new habitation, and, having
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
273
spent a third winter farther north, he returned to
Greenland, enriched with the valuable furs and oth-
er articles obtained in his traffic with the natives,
whence he afterward went to Iceland, where he lived
in great magnificence. After his death, Gudrida, who,
with the rest of these early adventurers, was a Chris-
tian, went on a pilgrimage to Rome. Returning
from this long journey, she spent the remainder of
her life in a nunnery, which had been built by her
son Snorro, who was born in Vinland. From this
chief an illustrious race descended, his grandson
being the learned Bishop Thorlak Runolfson, the
principal author of the old canon law of Iceland, and
it is probable, also, the historian of these voyages.
The wealth acquired by Thorfinn Karlsefne in Vin-
land induced others to proceed in the same tract.
Helge and Finnboge, two brothers from Iceland, went
thither in 1011, accompanied by Freydisa, in three
ships containing thirty men each. The bad conduct
and deceit of this designing woman brought ruin on
the whole undertaking, and she is said to have at last
prevailed on her husband to murder their two friends,
with all their attendants. Leaving the scene of her
crime, she returned to Greenland; but the infamy of
her wicked deeds followed her there, and she ended
her wretched life abhorred by all.
The subsequent history of Vinland is short and un-
satisfactory. The connexion both of it and the pa-
rent country with Iceland now became less intimate,
and the notices of their affairs in the works of the
annalists are more distant and meager, till we at last
lose sight of them altogether. In 1059, an*Irish or
Saxon priest named John, who had been a mission-
ary in Iceland, is said to have gone hither with the
same laudable intention, and to have been murdered
by the heathen. Erik, sometimes called the first
bishop of Greenland, is also reported to have sailed
for this land in 1121, with the design of reclaiming
the settlers, who were still heathen; but of his suc-
274
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
cess no record remains, and it is very doubtful wheth-
er he ever arrived there. The last notice respect-
ing America is an account of a voyage to Markland
in 1347, by a ship from Greenland, which, on its re-
turn, was driven by a storm to Straum Fiord in West
Iceland. The scanty notices of this adventure only
prove that, even till the middle of the fourteenth cen-
tury, an intercourse with that distant settlement was
still maintained. The ultimate fate of the colonists
is thus buried in obscurity, though it is probable that,
cut off from intercourse with their countrymen, they
gradually amalgamated with the savages around
them, which would more easily happen, as most of
them seem to have been idolaters. They may, how-
ever, have perished in those movements among the
nhabitants of Northern America which appear to
have occurred about this time, and during which the
Skrellings were forced northward into Greenland by
more vigorous and warlike tribes. The traces of
this colony on the coasts of America are few and
unsatisfactory; nor is this wonderful when we con-
sider their limited numbers, and that their mode of
architecture was very far from being of the most du-
rable nature.
The
Besides these more direct voyages, there are some
others mentioned, in which the Northmen are sup-
posed to have reached the American shore, and
which, as connected with the above history, and con-
firming its truth, we shall here shortly notice.
powerful Icelandic chief Are Marson was, in 983,
driven by a storm to a country where he was bap-
tized, which is supposed to be Hvitramannaland, or
land of the white men, sometimes named Irland, It
Mikla or Great Ireland, so called from an Irish Chris-
tian people who were settled there. This is believed
to have been the coast of North America, south of
Chesapeake Bay; and among the Shawanese Indians,
who formerly dwelt in Florida, there is a tradition
that their country was inhabited by a white people
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
275
in possession of iron instruments. Gudlief Gudlaug-
son was, at a later period, when returning from Ire-
land, carried by a very strong northeast wind to an
unknown region. They were surrounded by a peo-
ple speaking a language resembling Irish, who were
deliberating whether to kill them or make them
slaves, when they were interrupted by the approach
of an old gray-haired man, of a distinguished appear-
ance. He addressed Gudlief in the Norse language,
and, learning he was an Icelander, asked many ques-
tions about his acquaintance there, particularly Thu-
rida of Frode and her son Kiartan. From this he
was thought to be Biörn Asbrandson, a celebrated
Jomsvikingr, who had been compelled to leave Ice-
land owing to an improper connexion with the lady
just named. After consulting his companions, the
white chieftain told the Northmen that they were at
liberty to depart, advising them to make no delay.
He gave them, at the same time, a gold ring for his
beloved Thurida, and a sword for Kiartan, who was
believed to be his own child. Gudlief found his way
first to Dublin, and then to Iceland. From these ac-
counts it has been supposed that there was occasion-
ally an intercourse between this part of America and
the western countries of Europe, especially the Ork-
neys and Ireland.
Such is the history of Vinland given us by the
Icelandic historians, which is interesting, not merely
as connected with the countries of which we are
now treating, but as proving that America was
known to Europeans five hundred years before the
Genoese mariner set foot upon its shores.
No one
can now represent this account, coming to us, as it
does, through so many channels, as a fiction intro-
duced into the old records. Its truth is also con-
firmed by the testimony of Adam of Bremen, nearly
a contemporary, who says "the Danish king (Svend
Estrithson) also told me of another island discovered
in that sea, called Vinland, from the quantity of
276
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
grapes there found, and also fruitful in corn.”*
To
admit that an interpolation of such an extent has
taken place in these chronicles would destroy all
confidence in what they relate of other lands, and
thus undermine the whole structure of Northern his-
tory for many ages. The situation of Vinland has
also given rise to many disputes among those who
allow the truth of its discovery, some placing it on
the islands near Cape Farewell, in the southern part
of Greenland, and others in Labrador or Newfound-
land. But the productions of the country, the length
of the day, and the appearance of the coast, which
coincide in a remarkable manner with our present
knowledge of its character, fix it to the United States.
In this view of the subject, Helluland is Newfound-
land, even yet remarkable for its naked rocky barrens,
where not a tree or shrub can grow. Markland,
with its forests and white sandy cliffs, is Nova Scotia.
Vinland is thus the country near Rhode Island, Kia-
larnes being Cape Cod, Krossanes, Gurnet Point, and
the Hop, where Thorfinn Karlsefne erected his dwell-
ings, the present Mount Hope.†
About this time (1023) the Greenlanders are said
to have become subject to Saint Olaf of Norway,
* De Situ Dan., cap. 246.
+ The publication of the Antiquitates Americanæ by the Royal
Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen, supersedes all
the more ancient works on this subject, and may be considered
as setting the question as to the truth of this discovery at rest.
It contains a collection of the original documents, with Danish
and Latin translations, numerous notes and disquisitions, and
an abstract of the historical evidence in English. This last will
be found in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of
London, vol. viii. (1838), p. 114-129. Compare also Torfæus,
Vinlandia Antiqua. Murray's Discoveries in North America,
vol. i., p. 14-23. Wheaton's Northmen, p. 22-31. The inscrip
tion on the Assonet-rock, considered as runic by Finn Magnusen,
is far from being proved to be such. Some American writers,
from comparing it with an extensive series of Indian hiero
glyphics, think it identical in point of general character with
these. See Amer. Biblic. Rep., vol. xvii. (1839), p. 430.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
277
but we have no information as to the manner in
which this event happened, or of the conditions
mutually agreed upon. It appears, however, to have
been more nominal than real, consisting in the pay-
ment of some small tribute of the peculiar produc
tions of the country, and to have soon ceased when
the Norwegians, involved in other affairs of more
importance, did not think it expedient to enforce
obedience. Some of the chronicles do not mention
this defection, but all agree that the Greenlanders
were left very much to themselves, living in a man-
ner conformable to the nature of the country, gov-
erned by the Icelandic statutes, which they had
brought along with them, and having, like the people
of that island, one supreme ruler or judge. His
authority, and that of the laws, were, however, in
the early period of the settlement, frequently set at
naught with impunity. Solemn engagements be-
tween private individuals, by which the one became
bound to avenge the injuries or death of his associate,
were very common, and the history of Greenland
consists almost entirely of the tragical incidents
they produced. The superstition of the nation, too,
leading them, even after the worship of the heathen
deities was abolished, to admit their existence and
power, and to believe in the prophetic meaning of
dreams and visions, increased the disorderly charac-
ter of the age. He who had neglected to avenge the
death of his friend, saw in the visions of the night
the angry frown of Thor or Odin reproaching him
with his degeneracy, or heard the feeble voice of his
departed companion telling of his broken vow, and
crying out for vengeance. Instigated by such feel-
ings, the authority of the judge was not merely dis-
regarded or despised, but frequently insufficient to
preserve his own person from the destroying hand
of the assassin.*
* Torf., Græn. Ant., p. 151-193, 242. Arn. Jon, Spec. Isl., p.
J49-153.
Y
278
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
Although Christianity had now been established
more than a century in Greenland, no bishop had
yet been appointed. About the year 1122, however,
Sock, a son of Thorer, who is thought to have been
a descendant of Erik Raude, being jealous for the
honour of his country, called an assembly of the
people, where he represented the advantage of their
having a bishop to themselves, like other nations,
with so much eloquence, that it was unanimously
resolved to send an embassy to Norway to ask one
from King Sigurd. This office devolved on Einar,
the son of Sock, a man of a bold, violent temper,
and great authority. He took with him a number
of narwal's teeth, sealskins, and other productions
of the country, as presents to the nobles, and on his
arrival obtained his majesty's consent, who also
recommended a person to fill the office. This was
Arnald, a priest distinguished for his character and
learning, whom the monarch entreated to accept the
charge. After urging many reasons for refusing
this honour, especially the distance from all advice
and assistance, together with his inability to com-
mand such fierce and barbarous minds by the powers
of persuasion alone, he at last consented to go, on
Einar promising to protect, to the utmost of his
ability, the rights and possessions of the Church.
Arnald, provided by his royal patron with letters of
recommendation, visited the Archbishop of Lund,
who consecrated him to his office, and, returning to
Norway, departed with Einar, who had become a
great favourite with the king, to whom he had given
a Greenland bear. They were driven to Iceland by
a storm, where they remained during the winter,
and next summer arrived at Erik's Fiord. The
bishop chose Gardar in that neighbourhood for the
site of his episcopal residence, and was highly hon-
oured by all the inhabitants, especially by old Sock
and his son.
*
* Torf, Græn. Ant., cap. 26, p. 217-222. Arn. Jon., Spec. Isl..
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
279
At the same time that this prelate left Norway,
another ship, commanded by a person named Arn-
biorn, sailed from the same port, bound on the same
voyage, but under less favourable auspices. The
tempest which compelled the former to take refuge in
Iceland, cast the latter on the uninhabited coast of
Greenland, where the whole crew perished from cold
or famine in a hut they had built on the side of a
fiord. Sigurd Nialson, who was accustomed to fre-
quent the desert parts of the country during the
summer months for hunting and fishing, when about
to return home in the autumn after the bishop's ar-
rival, observed on the shore some remains of a fire,
and other traces of men. Obtaining the consent of
his companions, he explored the adjoining inlet,
where, at the mouth of a river, they found two
ships, and, at a little distance, a hut full of mer-
chandise and decaying bodies. They destroyed one
of the vessels, which was too much injured to be
repaired, and, loading the other with the goods, re-
turned home, taking with them the bones of its former
owners, that they might be committed to consecrated
ground. Sigurd consulted with the bishop about the
disposal of the property, when it was resolved that
the ship should be given to the cathedral where the
bodies had been buried, and the commodities they
had preserved divided among the finders, according
to the established custom. When this was known
in Norway, Aussur, a nephew of Arnbiorn, sailed to
Greenland to obtain possession of his uncle's prop-
erty. Here he lodged with Arnald, who, however,
refused to deliver up the ship, alleging that it rightly
belonged to the Church, in consideration of the
services rendered to its late owner; and, on his ap-
p. 147, 148. Erik, mentioned before as sailing to Vinland, is
said to have been Bishop of Greenland. His consecration is
placed in 1121, the year before the events related above; but, as
he never reached that country, probably his appointment was
not known there.
280
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
plication to the judges, he was equally unsuccessful,
Einar, who opposed him, insisting that the question
should be settled according to the laws of the country.
Enraged at what he considered an unjust decision,
Aussur damaged the vessel, when the bishop com-
plained to his friend, reminding him of the oath which
bound him to defend the interests of the Church.
Einar, feeling this as a reproach on his honour, re-
solved to be revenged, and soon after, meeting Aus-
sur, killed him with the blow of an axe. His friends
in vain endeavoured to obtain redress for the murder,
and being soon after joined by some other Nor-
wegians, they determined to take by force what was
denied them by law, and, going in a body to an as-
sembly of the natives where the assassin was present,
one of them put him to death. A tumult arose, in
which several on both sides were slain before the
strangers could find refuge in their vessels. Thither
old Sock wished to pursue them; but others, more
prudent, represented the doubtful result of the enter-
prise, the Norwegian ships being far larger than any
of their own. A treaty was then agreed upon, when
the Greenlander, although very unwillingly, had to
pay a compensation to his opponents, as the number
of the foreigners who had fallen exceeded the slain
among his followers.
After this disaster, the bishop, probably not relish-
ing the rude manners of his flock, and deprived of
Einar's protection, returned to Norway. He never
revisited his diocese, having been raised to the see
of Hammar by the papal legate, Nicholas Break-
spear, at that time in those northern parts. This
was in 1152; but he had probably resigned his for-
mer charge at an earlier period, as we find his suc-
cessor, Jon Knutr, consecrated two years previous-
ly. Such an occurrence, however, was by no means
rare in the annals of that country, the irregular com-
munication with Europe often leaving them many
years without an episcopal superintendent, while at
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
281
others a new one was sent out, the primate not
knowing whether the former was dead or still liv-
ing.*
Knutr was succeeded in 1188 by another bishop,
also named Jon, who died in 1209.
In his time, a
Greenlander named Asmund Kastanrazr is reported
to have sailed with twelve men from that country
to Finmark, in a vessel joined together with wooden
pins and the sinews of animals. Thence he went
to Iceland on his way home; but, after leaving it,
was never more heard of. Whatever we may think
of the boldness of the undertaking, it gives no very
high idea of the prosperity of the colony, where
such vessels were common, and men could be found
to risk their lives in them on so perilous a voyage.†
Greenland was not reduced under complete sub-
jection to the Norwegian monarchs till 1261, after
which time the judge or chief magistrate constantly
acknowledged their authority. In the autumn of
that year, some Norwegians, who had been four sea-
sons in the colony, returned home, and told that the
inhabitants had agreed in future to pay tribute to the
king. They also consented to pay him a fine for all
murders committed, whether in the inhabited or un-
inhabited districts, and even for those that took place
beneath the pole: a clause chiefly remarkable as
showing the opinion they entertained of the extent
of their country. This was in the reign of Hakon
the Elder; but, according to Claudius Lyschander,
they immediately revolted, and his successor made
no effort to reduce them to submission. He also
adds that Erik Glipping, king of Denmark, indignant
at the insult thus offered to the Northern crowns,
sent a fleet thither which reduced them again to
obedience to his relation, Erik of Norway. But Tor-
fæus rejects this story, as founded on no authority,
and inconsistent with other well-established facts.‡
* Torf., Græn. Ant., p. 222-239, 243, 244. † Id., p. 244.
Id., p. 246, 248-250 Arn. Jon., Spec. Isl., p. 149.
282
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
Five years later, some clergymen of Gardar under-
took a voyage of discovery to the North, during
which they are supposed to have visited those re-
mote regions which have lately been again made
known by the daring expeditions of British naviga-
tors. At that time, all men of any consequence in
Greenland possessed large boats or ships, in which
they were accustomed, during the summer months,
to sail for hunting and fishing to the northern parts
of the country, named Nordrsetur, where, it appears,
the ancestors of the present Esquimaux had not yet
established themselves. Setting out from this high
northern latitude, they were, during several days,
driven before a south wind. When the fog which
had enveloped them for some time cleared away,
they found themselves surrounded by many islands,
on which were all kinds of prey, as seals, whales,
and bears. They dared not land on account of these
last, but thought they saw traces of the place having
been formerly inhabited by Skrellings. They pen-
etrated to the extremity of the bay, where they were
surrounded by icebergs or glaciers as far as the eye
could reach. The sun was above the horizon the
whole night, and, from the account they give of its
altitude, it has been computed that they had reached
the parallel of 75° 46', or a little to the north of Bar
row's Strait.*
From this time the records of these colonies be-
come more scanty and uninteresting. Cut off from
the rest of the world by a wide and dangerous ocean,
their connexion with it was only maintained by one
or two ships, which made an annual voyage from
* Antiq. Amer., Journal of Geog. Soc., vol. viii., p. 126. Torf.,
Græn. Ant., p. 28, 29. The data on which the above calcula-
tion is founded are very rude and uncertain. The Nordrsetur
are supposed to be about Disco Island. Besides fishing and
catching seals, they were also in the habit of collecting the
drift-wood, which, on the west coast, is never found above this
island, though most abundant far north on the east coast.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
283
Norway or Iceland. No internal events of impor-
tance happened after this period, and the natives,
never having been addicted to literature or the muses,
which alone can preserve the memory of such ob-
scure communities, have left almost no trace of their
existence behind. The list of their bishops given
below is nearly the sole memorial of their subse-
quent history, and it only now remains to point out
the causes of their destruction and of the mystery
that involves their fate.*
•
Various reasons have been assigned for the total
disappearance of the Greenland colonies from the
page of history. About 1350, the pestilence known
as the black death raged with such extreme violence
in the north of Europe, that of all the Norwegian
prelates, Jon Skalle, or the Bald, of Greenland, and
another named Orm, alone survived. This terrible
visitation is supposed to have reached the shores of
this far-distant land, and diminished its scattered pop-
ulation. This, however, is only conjecture, though
it is well known to have been extremely fatal in
Trondheim, where it had been carried by an Eng-
lish ship; and as that port had the chief trade with
Greenland, it confirms the opinion of those who state
that the regular annual communication with that col-
ony was now discontinued. The death of Bishop
Bishops of Greenland: 1st, Erik, 1121; 2d, Arnald, 1124-
1152; 3d, Jon Knutr, 1150-1187; 4th, Jon, 1188-1209; 5th, Hel-
go, 1212-1230; 6th, Nicolas, 1234-1240; 7th, Olaf, 1246-1280;
8th, Theodoric, 1288-1314; 9th, Arner, 1314-1325; 10th, Jon
Skalle, according to Arngrim Jonas before the death of the for-
mer, but in 1343 according to Torfæus; 11th, Alpho, 1376-
1378; 12th, Henry, about 1389; 13th, Andrew, sent in 1406 to
succeed the former if dead, but not known if he ever arrived..
Baron Holberg, in his History of Denmark, inserts four others-
Berthold, Gregory, Andrew, and Jon-between Alpho and Hen-
ry mentioned above. A brief of Pope Eugenius is also extant,
dated 1433, in which he nominates a priest of the name of Bar-
tholomy to succeed the deceased Bishop Nicolas in the see of
Greenland. Torf., Græn. Ant., p. 241-258 Arn. Jon., Spec.
Isl., p. 148, 149.
284
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
Alpho, in 1378, was not known in the mother-coun-
try till six years afterward, and then only by acci-
dent, an Icelandic vessel having been driven on the
coast by a tempest. This neglect, to whatever cause
we may ascribe it, must have proved very injurious
to the welfare of the colonists, who were thus cut off
from all intercourse with the civilized world, deprived
of their usual supplies of bread and other necessaries,
and left to subsist on the produce of their flocks and
the uncertain gains of the fisheries. At this critical
period (1379), the Skrellings or Esquimaux, former-
ly known in Vinland, first appeared in the vicinity of
the West Bygd. They attacked the colony, killed
eighteen of the inhabitants, and carried off two boys
to the mountains. So reduced was its population,
that when assistance was sent from the East Bygd
to expel the intruders, not a human being remained
in the district. Sheep and cattle, however, in con-
siderable numbers, were found feeding in the pas-
tures, and the deputation, having killed as many of
these as they could convey in their ships, returned
home. No attempt was afterward made to regain
possession of the Vestr Bygd, and the Skrellings con-
tinued to occupy it in peace.
*
The Austr Bygd, always the more densely peo-
pled and thriving of the two, continued to exist for
some time longer. But the injudicious policy of the
Danish sovereigns, to whom it had now been trans
ferred, along with Norway, soon completed its de-
struction. Together with Iceland, Faroe, Finmark,
and some other places, it was regarded as the private
property of the crown, and no one was allowed to
trade there without a royal license; though the length
and dangers of the voyage, the small profits thence
to be derived, and the disturbed condition of the
northern kingdoms, rendered this privilege scarcely
worth soliciting. About the year 1389, some ships
Torfæus, Groen. Ant., p. 42, 51. Hist. Nor., tom. iv., p. 478.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
285
having been driven to Greenland by a storm, Queen
Margaret, on their return, commenced a prosecution
against their owners. They were indeed acquitted,
but the merchants were so disgusted with the im-
pediments thus thrown in their way, as well as dis-
couraged by numerous shipwrecks, that they with-
drew from the trade altogether. The government,
now removed from Norway to Denmark, was so dis-
tracted by other more important affairs, that they had
no leisure to attend to the commerce they had thus
monopolized. In 1406, it was resolved to send out
a prelate, named Andrew, to succeed Bishop Henry,
if he were dead, for even that was unknown; but it
is uncertain whether he ever went, or what became
of him if he did go. The Danish crown then passed
to foreign princes, who, intent only on their own im-
mediate interests, entirely disregarded those distant
possessions of the country. From a letter of Pope
Nicholas V., in 1448, we learn, that about the begin-
ning of the fifteenth century, a fleet of their pagan
neighbours had cruelly wasted the colony, killing or
carrying off most of the able-bodied men, so that divine
worship had almost ceased. He therefore entreats
the Icelandic bishops, to whom this epistle is ad-
dressed, to take pity on their wretched countrymen,
and, if possible, to send some qualified person to pre-
side over their spiritual concerns. We do not know
the result of this letter, but in 1461, another Andrew,
who had been sent to Gardar, though probably he nev-
er reached that place, occupied for some time the see
of Skalholt, in Iceland. It is stated that, in 1484,
there were still sailors at Bergen trading to Green-
land, but, having been all poisoned, no others were
found to supply their place. In 1494, Pinning, well
known as a pirate, and afterward governor of Iceland,
is said by Olaus Magnus to have inhabited the rock
Hvidsærk, from whence he plundered the ships in the
surrounding seas. With these scattered notices,
which are of importance, as showing that some in-
Z
286
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
·
tercourse with the Greenland colonies continued
throughout the fifteenth century, all farther accounts
vanish from the Danish records, and we are left to
conjecture the fate of the miserable inhabitants.
Their descendants were long supposed to exist in
some of the bays on the eastern coast; but it is more
probable that, when thus deprived of all support from
their countrymen, they were destroyed by the sava-
ges or amalgamated with them.*
Could we confide in the native traditions, the clo-
sing scene in the history of this deserted people
would be laid open, and, as the narrative is not im-
probable in itself, we shall here relate it, as commu-
nicated to Arctander by the Esquimaux. Many win-
ters after the Icelanders had been extirpated every-
where else, a body of them, subject to an old man of
extraordinary size and strength, dwelt in the frith of
Igaliko. This was the name of the chief, who, be-
sides several sons of mature age, had one as yet
but a child. His countrymen's respect only in-
creased the hostility of the natives, and many fruit
less attempts were made to destroy him, his oppo
nents always suffering for their temerity. During
the summer months the wind generally blows from
the sea into these friths, and the following strata-
gem for exterminating their foes was resorted to by
the Greenlanders. Their bravest warriors, clad in
white skins, and armed with lances, harpoons, ar-
rows, and combustibles, couching down in some of
their large boats, suffered them to drift into the in-
let before the wind. The colonists saw the fleet,
but, supposing it merely pieces of floating ice, took
no precautions. At midnight it reached the shore,
when the Esquimaux, leaping out, set fire to the
dwellings, slaying the inmates while they attempted
to escape. All perished save Igaliko and his young-
est son; for the aged chieftain, catching the child in
*Torfæus, Gren. Ant., præf., p. 23-26. Crantz, vol. i,
P 347.
La Peyrore's Account of Greenland. Churchill, vol. ii., p. 300.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
287
his arms, broke through his enemies and fled with
him to the hills. Thither none of them ventured to
pursue him, and his subsequent fate is unknown.*
The same causes which led to the original loss
of these colonies long prevented any active meas-
ures for their recovery. The foreign princes who
at that time ruled in Denmark held their throne by
too precarious a tenure, and were too much occu-
pied with domestic affairs, to regard the interests of
such distant possessions, whence they could expect
neither money nor power. It was not, therefore,
till the reign of Christian II. (1513–1523) that pub-
lic attention was again directed to them by the cele-
brated Archbishop of Trondheim, Erik Walcken-
dorff. This prelate collected all the information
concerning them contained in the ancient writings,
or still existing in tradition among the merchants,
for he could find no one who had ever visited them.
Having from these materials constructed a chart,
and drawn up directions for navigating those seas,
he proposed to the government to bear the whole
expense of rediscovery, and of again establishing
an intercourse with these lands, on condition of en-
joying a monopoly of the trade for ten years. But
this offer was rejected; and the archbishop, falling
into disgrace through the influence of his enemy
Sigbrit, travelled to Rome, where he ended his days.
·
During the reign of Frederic I., who died in 1533,
though Greenland was not totally forgotten, nothing
was done for its recovery; but his successor, Chris-
tian III., repealed Queen Margaret's prohibitory
laws, and, though without success, sent several
ships for its rediscovery. In 1578, Frederic II.
despatched thither the famous navigator Mogens
Heinson, or, as he is sometimes named, Magnus
* Graah, p. 42. This was in the district of Juliana's Hope.
Does not the chief's fleeing to the hills, that is, towards the
east coast, and the Greenlanders not pursuing him thither, look
as if both expected he would find assistance there?
288
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
Henningsen. He had a prosperous voyage till he
came in sight of the eastern coast, when he was
first involved in ice and fogs, and afterward found
his vessel stopped all at once, though in an unfath-
omable sea with a fair wind. Finding his endeav-
ours to draw near the shore vain, he was seized with
terror, and returned home, where he imputed his
bad success to a magnet concealed in the bed of the
ocean. Some blamed the remora fish, which had
held his ship back with its teeth, while others, less
charitable, thought that the repelling power was to
be found in his fear of the ice, or in his attachment
to home. Recent observations, however, on the ex-
traordinary refractive properties of the atmosphere
in those latitudes, and on the currents there, offer
an explanation more honourable to the character of
this truly brave but unfortunate mariner, though less
romantic or marvellous than his own.*
The voyages of Martin Frobisher and of John
Davis, who, towards the close of the sixteenth cen-
tury, were sent by the British government for the
discovery of a Northwest Passage, though unsuccess-
ful in their immediate object, added considerably to
our knowledge of Greenland. The former was the
+
Mogens is supposed to have been a native of Faroe, and
was at first a merchant. He was then employed by the King
of Denmark in clearing the North Sea of pirates, in which duty
he showed great bravery, and was in high favour with Fred-
eric II., who sent him on the voyage related above. His fame
procured him many enemies, and in 1588, during the minority
of Christian IV., he was condemned on a false accusation, and
beheaded. Two years afterward, Lindenow, judge of North
Jutland, procured a reversal of this sentence, and his accusers
were fined 3000 rix-dollars. His body was removed to Jutland
with great pomp, Lindenow writing a punning epitaph on his
name, Magnus or Great, of which the first two lines in English
are as follows:
"God's Greatest majesty gave me of Great the name,
As a Great sign I should in time come to Great fame."
Debes Færoa Reserata, p. 245
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
289
first in modern times who landed on the coast, and
observed the nature of its productions and the char
acter of its inhabitants. He has, however, been re
garded as having mistaken Cape Farewell for an
island, and Labrador for Greenland, thus originating
the story of the straits bearing his name intersect
ing this country, and which were long looked for in
vain.*
The discovery of Davis's Straits by the lat-
ter first made known the true structure of the land,
and its separation from the American Continent,
with which the old maps represent it as continuous.
These voyages, however, having already found a
place in a former part of this work, to which they
have a closer affinity, we shall not detain the read
er with any farther notice of them.†
The Danish admiral, Godske Lindenow, sent by
his government in 1605, made few additions to the
geography of those northern regions. He cast an-
chor on the eastern coast, and commenced a trade
with the natives, bartering iron, looking-glasses, and
other articles for bear and seal skins, and concluded
by seizing two men, whom he carried with him to
Denmark. He was accompanied on this voyage by
James Hall, an Englishman, who had the command
of another ship; but the latter soon separated from
his consort and steered for Davis's Straits, where he
landed and made a chart of the coast. He found
the inhabitants here much more fierce and savage
than on the opposite side; for, having seized four of
them, they made so desperate a resistance that he
was compelled to put one to death before the others
could be got on board. Their countrymen assem-
bled to rescue them from the strangers, but were
soon dispersed by a discharge of musketry and
cannon. These captives are said to have had no
resemblance in form or language to those brought
* Zahrtmann, Jour. Geog. Soc., vol. v., p. 108.
Edinburgh Cabinet Library, No. 1, Polar Seas and Regions,
4th edition, p. 193–222.
290
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
from the other coast by the admiral. The unfortu-
nate beings thus torn away from home and kindred
lived many years in Denmark, where they were em-
ployed in fishing. Never reconciled to their cap-
tivity, they constantly looked to the north with a
mournful countenance and melancholy sighs. Sev-
eral times they escaped in their kayaks, but were
overtaken, or driven back by the winds. One fled
and was never heard of more, probably perishing in
the wide ocean; two others soon died of grief, while
the remainder lingered out a wretched life for ten or
twelve years, ill-treated, and forced to fish for pearls
even in the winter. One of them is reported to
have wept bitterly whenever he saw a woman and
child, whence it was thought he had been married
in his own country; for no pains were taken to ac-
quire a knowledge of their language, or to instruct
them in the Danish, so as to obtain any information
from them.
Lindenow made a second voyage thither the fol-
lowing year, but with no better results. He entered
Davis's Straits, and approached the shore in several
places; but the natives, probably warned by the fate
of their friends, would hold no communication with
the ships. One of his servants ventured on shore;
thinking to allure them with presents; but they cut
him in pieces with their knives, made of the teeth
of the narwal, before he could be rescued.
The hope of again finding the colonies, and the
expectation of extracting gold from the rocks, ori-
ginally excited by the yellow, shining appearance of
some iron pyrites, induced the Danish government
to persevere in these attempts. Accordingly, the
king sent out Carsten Rikardsen in 1607; but the
ice prevented his approach to the land, and it is not
even ascertained to which side he directed his course.
In 1619, Jens Munk sailed with a view to discover
the Northwest Passage; but he is now believed not
to have touched at Greenland. The next expedition
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
291
was a private undertaking of some merchants, under
the patronage of the Chancellor Früs, the delusive
hope of extracting gold from the sulphuret of iron
being again the impelling motive. Two ships were
loaded with this worthless mineral, which, after be-
ing assayed, was all thrown into the sea. Some
teeth of the narwal, or horns of the sea-unicorn, as
they were then called, proved a more successful
speculation, having been valued in Copenhagen at
£1200, and sold in Russia as those of the land-ani-
inal of the same name. Two of the natives, kid-
napped according to the barbarous custom of the
period, when allowed to come on deck, in the mid-
dle of the ocean, sprung into the waves in the vain
hope of swimming to their native land.
David Danel, in the reign of Frederic III., like his
predecessors, added little to our knowledge of the
country, and nothing towards settling the question
of the situation of the colonies. In two voyages, in
1652 and 1653, he passed to the north of Iceland,
and, coming in sight of the Greenland coast in lati-
tude 66° or 67°, sailed along it at a distance varying
from eight to sixty miles, but without landing. In
his first voyage he ran into Davis's Straits, and tra-
ded with the natives; and in a third to the same
place, in 1654, he inhumanly carried off three wom-
en: a circumstance not forgotten by the inhabi-
tants when the missionary arrived.
Óf the expedi-
tion of Otto Axelsen in 1670, we know nothing but
the date; and the ships sent from Bergen in 1674
having been captured by privateers, nothing was
heard of the country for many years.
The next attempt, dictated by higher feelings, de-
servedly led to a more favourable result. Its pro-
jector was Hans Egede, clergyman of Vaagen in
Norway, with whose labours the second era in the
+ La Peyrere's Account of Greenland. Churchill, vol. ii., p.
391-401. Torf., Græn. Ant., Præf., p. 27-37. Crantz, vol. i., p.
251-256 Graah, p. 7-11.
3
292
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
social history of Greenland properly commences.
Unlike his predecessors, he was led thither by no
hope of personal profit, but impelled by a strong de-
sire to diffuse the light of religion among its natives,
and a cordial sympathy, which "made him look upon
it as the duty of every Norwegian to search out his
forlorn countrymen, and to carry the gospel to them."
The philanthropic and Christian motives of this un-
dertaking were the best pledge of its success; and
to it we owe the establishment of the Danish colo-
nies on the western coast, and most of our knowl-
edge of that region.
Egede's thoughts were first directed to this sub-
ject in 1708, when, collecting all the information he
could procure from books or the sailors who fre-
quented those seas, he addressed a memorial to the
bishops of Trondheim and Bergen, entreating them
to procure the establishment of a mission to Green-
land. This proposal exposed him to much ridicule
and slander; but, in 1718, having resigned his living,
he proceeded with his wife and four children to Co-
penhagen, where, after many delays, his eloquence
and piety at last prevailed. In 1721, an expedition
was ready to sail, to which he was appointed minis-
ter, with a salary of sixty pounds a year, and forty
for his equipment. He departed on the 12th of May
along with forty-six persons, and, arriving safe on
the 3d of July at Baal's River, they built on Hope
Island a house of stones and earth, lined with wood.
The natives at first received them kindly; but,
perceiving their intention of remaining, withdrew
from the district, and used many spells to cause them
to depart. Egede, however, soon convinced them
of his friendly intentions, and applied himself to learn
their language and instruct them in Christianity.
This was extremely difficult, owing to their igno-
rance and the want of proper words to convey his
meaning; yet, by the aid of pictures drawn by his
son, he succeeded in imparting to them a knowledge
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
293
of the principal facts of Scripture history. They
then began to regard him as an ambassador from
God, and wished him to cure their sick by blowing
on them like the native conjurors. Two orphan
boys, also, whom he had taken into his house to in-
struct, soon left him, remarking that they saw no use
in learning; that he and the merchants were worth-
less people, who did nothing but look in a book and
scrawl with a feather; but that their countrymen
were brave men, who could hunt seals and shoot
birds.
Many difficulties of another kind were also to be
encountered; fish and game being scarce, and the
natives unwilling to trade with them, it was only his
firmness and hope of better times that preserved the
colony from total ruin. Whenever the provision
ships were delayed, the Europeans began to murmur;
and many of the natives, who, for a time, seemed to
listen to his instructions, had no sooner obtained
some private end than they withdrew to other parts
of the country. Another missionary arrived in 1723,
who endeavoured to found a settlement farther north;
but it was soon relinquished, and, on the death of
Frederic IV., its great patron, an order was issued
for the breaking up of the establishment, and the re-
turn of all the people.
Although Egede and as many as chose were per-
mitted to remain with a year's provisions, yet, as he
was told to look for no farther assistance, he could
only expect the abandonment of the colony, and the
loss of ten years assiduous labour. None of the
people would consent to stay, and it was only after
the ship was found too small that the captain per-
mitted ten seamen to remain with him a year. In
this discouraging state the missionary continued his
labours till next summer, when a vessel was sent
with provisions, but with no promise of future sup-
port. He was, however, relieved from this suspense
by the arrival of another in 1733, with the intelli-
294
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
gence that the king had resolved to continue the
trade to Greenland and maintain the mission.
The rediscovery of the lost colonies on the east-
ern coast had been a principal object in sending out
these expeditions. Soon after their arrival, the
ruins of a church and houses, supposed to be those
of the West Bygd, were discovered, and traditions
of former inhabitants collected among the natives.
Attempts were also made to penetrate across the
country to that coast, but the ice and precipices soon
convinced the adventurers of the futility of such un-
dertakings. In 1723, Egede was ordered to send
some resolute sailors thither, and, being desirous of
seeing the duty faithfully performed, he resolved to
accompany them himself. They succeeded in reach-
ing the southern extremity of the mainland, when he
was induced by the lateness of the season and the
representations of the Greenlanders to return. The
natives on the journey pointed out many fiords where
ruins of old Norwegian buildings, fine pastures, and
brushwood were to be found, but the voyage did no
thing to dispel the dark clouds that involved this
mysterious question.
The ship which brought to Egede the encouraging
information of the king's intention to continue the
colony, also brought new labourers to aid in the
task of converting the heathen Greenlanders. These
were three Moravian Brethren, who had formed an
ardent desire of becoming missionaries in that dreary
land. They erected a house near the Danish colo-
ny named New Herrnhut, and applied themselves
with much diligence to learn the language. This
proved a task of far greater difficulty to them than
to their predecessor, although they had his assist-
ance, owing to their want of the most common gram-
matical ideas, even in regard to their own language.
By great labour, however, they succeeded so far as
to be able to converse with the natives, and, not-
withstanding many obstacles, persevered in their be-
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
295
nevolent endeavours. Egede continued in the coun-
try till 1736, when his wife, who had supported him
amid all his trials, having died the preceding winter,
and being himself seized with a severe illness, he re-
turned to Denmark. Here, as the reward of his
philanthropic labours, he was appointed superintend-
ent of the Greenland mission, with a salary of £100
a year. He was, at the same time, ordered to found
a seminary for instructing students, mostly orphans,
in the Esquimaux language, who were afterward to
be employed as teachers in that country. But the
toils he had undergone abroad were found to have
injured his constitution, and he spent his last years
in retirement on the Island of Falster, where he died
in 1758, honoured and respected for his labours in
the cause of Christian benevolence.*
The history of these missions, from the departure
of Egede to the present time, though replete with
interest, is not of such a nature as to bear abridg-
ment. Their progress in converting the heathen,
though slow at first, was, year after year, crowned
with increasing success. The rude, uncultivated
minds of the natives, enlarged by intercourse with
more civilized men, became better fitted for under-
standing the truths of the gospel, and the zeal of the
venerable Egede, which had first attached the Green-
landers to the Danes, continued to operate in their
favour. The two classes of missionaries also lived
together in the greatest harmony, only contending
who should be most diligent and successful in pro-
moting their common purpose, and not allowing any
unworthy jealousy to interrupt their endeavours.
Their lives were those of great labour and exertion,
being often, in their numerous journeys, exposed to
much danger from the ice and from the uncertainty
of the weather. Thus, on one occasion, in the month
of June, two of the Moravians having gone to an un-
* Egede's Relation. Crantz's History of Greenland.
296
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
Q
inhabited island for driftwood, were surrounded by
the ice, and detained on this dreary spot a fortnight.
'They subsisted on fish, and at length made their way,
at the peril of their lives, through the shoals to the
mainland, from whence they travelled on foot to the
mission, having been absent a whole month.* Nor
do the comforts of their homes compensate for the
privations they endure in such excursions. Though
their dwellings are better built and more commodi-
ous than the Greenland huts, they are, from the na-
ture of the climate, far from convenient; and fire-
wood can seldom be procured without the utmost
difficulty.
The war in the beginning of the present century
reduced the several colonies to great straits, as they
are entirely dependant on foreign supplies for all the
comforts of life. From 1807, when the last regular
supplies reached them, they had endured many priva-
tions, owing to the want of the most common neces-
saries. Linen and tobacco, the latter the money of
the colony, became scarce, and many of the inhab-
itants were reduced to the necessity of supporting
life by eating small herrings, muscles, and seaweed.
It may easily be imagined how soon this state of
things, had it continued, would have extirpated the
Europeans, or brought them down to the level of the
savages with whom they associated. But from this
distressing condition they were relieved in 1811 by
the British government, who granted to the Danes
every facility of supplying their colonies with pro-
visions, and from that time intercourse with the
mother-country has been subject to no interruption.
The inhabitants of Greenland, as appears from the
preceding history, belong to two different races; the
European colonists, few in number and seldom re·
maining long in the country, and the natives or Es-
quimaux. The origin and first appearance of the
* Crantz, vol. ii., p. 267.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
297
latter are involved in considerable obscurity, though
it seems certain that they had not arrived there
when the Norwegians first occupied those coasts.
Torfæus says that they were first observed in 1379,
at which time they received the name of Skrellings,
formerly applied to the savages met with in Vinland.
From the history of the voyages related in a former
part of this chapter, it would appear that they then
inhabited districts as far south as the territory of the
United States. When, however, the Europeans,
about five centuries afterward, again landed on those
shores, they found them occupied by a totally differ-
ent race, the ancestors of the present American In-
dians. These at that period possessed the whole
southern part of the continent, while their predeces-
sors had taken refuge in the inhospitable regions of
the North, which the Norwegians had previously
found uninhabited. It was probably these migrations
which destroyed the colony of Vinland, and, forcing
some wandering bands of Esquimaux into Greenland,
were also instrumental in rooting out the Icelanders
from that country. The date of these events is thus
fixed to the beginning of the fourteenth century;
and though it may seem rash even to conjecture
their cause, we cannot avoid supposing it in some
way connected with the great revolutions which,
towards the conclusion of the previous century, oc-
curred among the Tartar tribes of Northern Asia, and
extended their destroying sway from Poland on the
west to the eastern shores of the Celestial Empire.*
* It is curious to see the present Indians subjected to the
came fate by contact with the European colonists, the weak
race always yielding or perishing before the strong. We cannot
refrain from quoting the following remarks of a distinguished
author, which unintentionally confirm this view of the subject.
"There appears to be a tendency to extinction among all the
savage nations, and this tendency would seem to have been in
operation among the aboriginals of this country (America) long
before the advent of the white men, if we may judge from the
traces and traditions of ancient populousness in regions that
298
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
с
Similarity of physical structure and of customs
would lead us to ascribe a common origin to most
of those tribes who in both continents frequent the
shores of the polar seas, to whose vicinity they are
closely confined, either by necessity or choice. The
entire want of historical documents, and even of
ruder memorials, leaves us ignorant of the first set-
tlement or subsequent migrations of this hyperborean
race. Though separated by such an immense dis-
tance, the intimate connexion of the Esquimaux lan-
guage with that of the Tchougazes, and other north-
ern Asiatic tribes, renders it probable that they
originally came from the same region. As they
must have passed into America by Behring's Straits,
and traversed the whole northern portion of that
continent, we may thus easily account for the late-
ness of their appearance in Greenland. The influ-
ence of climate, food, and manner of life has caused
them to vary considerably from all the great races
of mankind, so that while some refer them to the
Mongolian type, others consider them as intermediate
between that and the American, or as a degenerate
offset from the Caucasian stock. The latter opinion
is favoured by the white colour of their skins, which
essentially distinguishes them from all other Ameri-
can tribes, with whom, on the other hand, they are
closely connected by the peculiar structure of their
speech.
The name the Greenlanders give themselves is
were silent and deserted at the time of the discovery; and from
the mysterious and perplexing vestiges of unknown races, pred-
ecessors of those found in actual possession, and who must
long since have become gradually extinguished or been de-
stroyed. The whole history of the aboriginal population of this
country, however, is an enigma, and a grand one-will it ever
be solved?"-Irving's Astoria, vol. ii., p. 74. According to
Clavigero (Hist. Mex., tom. ii., dis. 21), the Aztecas entered
Mexico from the north in A.D. 1178-1196, probably about the
same period when the Lenni Lenape and other tribes arrived
on the east coast. Compare Prichard's Researches. vol. ii., book
viii.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
299
▼
Innuit, that is, men or human beings, as distinguished
both from foreign nations and from the lower ani-
mals. This seeming presumption in regarding them-
selves as the models or representatives of mankind,
arises more from ignorance than national vanity,
and is far from being supported either by the strength
or elegance of their persons. The tallest among
them rarely exceed five feet, their mean height being
only four feet three inches. Though well propor-
tioned, they are by no means vigorous or athletic,
and are, in general, much inclined to obesity, with a
full, fleshy person and prominent paunch. They
have broad, flat faces, high cheekbones, black, dimin-
utive, inanimate eyes, small noses, a round, con-
tracted mouth, with thick under lip, and a profusion
of coarse coal-black hair hanging in long elfin locks
about their reddish-brown faces. Their bodies, be-
come dark gray, though originally white, exhale an
oily effluvium almost intolerable to a European,
while their hands, generally small, are clammy like
a piece of blubber. The natives of the southern and
eastern coast are, however, handsomer than the
others, with expressive countenances, and slender
or even meager persons: many of the women and
children have brown hair; and, when the filth and
dirt are removed, show a complexion scarcely less
fair than that of the European peasantry. Graah
observed some females whose delicate forms, regu-
lar features, clear, ruddy complexion, and long brown
hair, fully entitled them to the epithet of beautiful.
Such appearances, especially the light hair, inclining
in several instances to reddish, might lead us to sus-
pect that these tribes are in some manner connected
with the lost Norwegians, though our author rejects
this opinion. If they are pure Esquimaux, they
strongly confirm the idea that this people are a Cau
casian, not a Mongolian tribe.*
* Crantz, vol. in 123. Egede. Nat. Hist. Greenland,
148. Grash. p. 70, 73, 89, 115..
300
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
གྲྭ་
Like most other savage nations, among whom the
gratification of the mere animal propensities is the
only inducement to action, the Greenlanders are in-
dolent and listless. Though good-humoured, friendly,
and sociable, they are seldom lively or inclined to
Indulge in mirth, and can scarcely be roused from
their apathy either by curiosity or passion. They
are, accordingly, little disposed to quarrel or fight;
blows or even angry words are seldom exchanged;
they live in great harmony; and are more influenced
by kindness than by harsh treatment. Irresolute to
an extreme degree, their most favourite projects are
resigned on the smallest unexpected obstacle. En-
dowed with little reach or extent of intellect, their
thoughts and cares are almost entirely confined to
the present, and they spend their limited stock of
provisions without reflecting on future wants, or
waste the best season of the year in hunting rein-
deer, merely for skins to gratify the vanity of their
wives and daughters. When not compelled by ab-
solute necessity, they pass whole days in sleep, or
sit thoughtful and dejected on some lofty eminence,
watching the changes of sea and sky, or forecasting
the toils and dangers of the chase. Vanity, both
personal and national, seems their strongest passion:
unable to estimate the advantages of others, they
esteem no people equal to themselves, no distinction
higher than to be a Greenlander. The most flatter-
ing compliment they can pay to a stranger is to say,
"He is almost as well bred as we," or, " He begins
to be a man" or 66
Innuit," that is, a Greenlander.
A favourite amusement among them is to exhibit
caricatured imitations of the manners of the Kablu
naet or foreigners. Even those who have been in
Denmark prefer their naked, steril rocks to every
other country, and will hardly confess that Europeans
are so happy as they; complaining that at Copen-
hagen there is not heaven enough, and no reasonable
degree of cold.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
301
Temperate, modest, and little disposed to anger,
or, at least, skilful in concealing it, crimes are rare
among them. When injured they remain dumb and`,
sullen, hiding their passion till an opportunity of re-
venge occurs, from which, when once exasperated,
no danger can deter them. When a parent has been
murdered, it is an established principle that his de-
scendants must avenge him, at however distant an
interval; though instances of their destroying each
other are rare, except in regard to those unhappy
persons who are accused of witchcraft. When this
crime is held to have been proved, the wretched vic-
tim is called out of the house or tent, charged with
being an Illiseetsok, stabbed and cut to pieces; each
of the executioners eating a part of the heart, to pre-
vent their being troubled with the ghost of the mur-
dered person. It is usually the old and infirm, who
have no children to protect and avenge them, that
suffer this fate, and as often, it is thought, from mere
malice as from any belief in their supernatural power.
Their morality, indeed, seems very much of a self-
ish nature, and, like most savages, they have one
rule of dealing with their own countrymen, and an-
other with foreigners. Hence, though stealing, be-
ing much detested, is not common among them-
selves, they make little scruple in appropriating any-
thing belonging to strangers, especially nails, tobac-
co, bread, or a piece of their favourite delicacy, a
tallow candle. They are also adepts in dissimula-
tion, and so little scrupulous about truth, that they
tell lies whenever it seems for their advantage.
Though far from being destitute of natural affection
to their relations, they have no feelings of humanity
towards the rest of mankind, but, with the utmost in-
difference, suffer widows and orphans to perish who
have no friends to provide for them. Such insensibil-
ity is, however, partly occasioned by their situation,
which exposes even the most active and vigorous
among them to innumerable privations.
A A
302
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
This deficiency in moral principle is far from be-
ing compensated by that mixture of superstition and
absurdity which constitutes their sole religion. The
origin of the world and of mankind, some tradition-
ary opinions concerning which have been met with
in almost every corner of the globe, has never en-
gaged their thoughts. The belief in a Deity has also
nearly vanished from their minds, no word with this
meaning, it is said, being found in their language;
and no prayers or apparent worship of any kind is
practised by the unconverted. They nevertheless
maintain the spirituality and future existence of the
soul, blended with many strange inconsistencies.
There is also a good, though mortal spirit, Torngar-
suk, described sometimes as of small stature, no big-
ger than one's finger; at others as a giant with one
arm, or as an immense white bear. Besides this
spirit there are others less powerful, genii of the fire,
water, and air, the last of whom informs them through
the angekkoks what it is necessary for their happi-
ness to perform or avoid. Torngarsuk has also a
wife or mother, the personification of the evil princi-
ple, who lives at the bottom of the ocean, guarded
by fierce seals, with seabirds swimming in her train-
oil lamps, and surrounded by flocks of the finny
tribes, spell-bound by her beauty, and only disen-
chanted when the angekkok, seizing her by the hair
tears off her headdress. As an instance of her pow-
er, it is related that she towed the island of Disco
from Baal's river to its present situation, some hun
dred miles farther north; and the hole in a rock is
still pointed out to which her line was fastened. The
angekkoks, who are rather magicians than priests,
have great influence over the natives, who consult
them in every difficulty, as the heathen of old had re-
course to the oracles. They have a peculiar lan-
guage of their own, and are able, it is said, from long-
continued observation, to foretel the changes of the
weather some days before they occur; an acquire.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
303
ment of vast importance among a people dependant
on the sea and winds for their food. In sickness,
the angekkok is the only physician, prescribing ei-
ther a peculiar diet, or the use of some strange cere-
monies or amulets. He also secures to them a plenti-
ful supply of fish or game, and, consulting his famil-
iar spirit, informs them as to the health or fortune of
their absent friends. With all this outward respect,
there is mingled a great degree of skepticism, which
appears in their private meetings, where they mim-
ic and turn into ridicule the ceremonies of these con-
jurors, not sparing Torngarsuk himself; and in those
parts of Greenland where the missions have been
longest established, few or none of these impostors
are now found.*
One of the most curious facts in regard to this
people is, that while their moral and religious opin-
ions impose little or no restraint on the indulgence
of their passions, this defect is not remedied by any
external form of government. The Arctic High-
landers of Ross were subject to a chief who shared
the profits of the fishery or chase; but this ap-
proach to social order is unknown farther south.
Whatever virtues they possess are therefore entire-
ly spontaneous, the laws or customs regulating their
intercourse with each other having no sanction ex-
cept public opinion. This curious phenomenon has
not met with that attention it deserves, though we
conceive its explanation may be found in the pecu-
liar circumstances of the people. Property among
them is altogether personal, no piece of ground, no
portion of the sea, being appropriated to any partic-
ular village or tribe. In the absence of public prop-
erty war is unknown, and hence the two greatest
motives for union do not exist. At the same time,
all a man's possessions are the result of his own la-
Crantz, vol. i., p. 125, 181-200. Egede, p. 123, 125, 179–202.
Sabye's Greenland, p. 47-50. Graah, p. 75, 116-124.
304
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
bour, and confined almost exclusively to food and
clothing, or the instruments by which these are ac-
quired; while the rude climate and the nature of
the articles will not permit any one to hoard up
stores which may tempt his neighbour to crime or
servility. Their virtues, rather the negation of vice
than any positive good quality, are thus produced
by their ignorance and the absence of temptation,
while government does not exist, because there are
none of those objects for which it is required, and
none of the means by which it is established and
maintained. Both peculiarities have their origin
alike in the universal ignorance and poverty of the
people.*
A similar obscurity and rudeness prevail in their
opinions on other subjects. Their language, though
marking by appropriate terms the slightest shades
of difference in external objects, has few adjectives,
and no words for abstract ideas in religion, morali-
ty, art, or science. Like all the other American
tongues, it is remarkable for numerous affixes and
suffixes, which enable them to express much in a
short space, though they render the words cumber
some, and occasion great difficulty to those who en
deavour to learn it. Their manner of speaking is
* Anderson's Nachrichten, p. 307–309. This author is the
only one we know who has taken particular notice of this cir
cumstance, being led to it by his professional studies. Many
of the American tribes, when first discovered, were in nearly as
imperfect a condition, especially those subsisting on fish.-Kob-
ertson's America, Works, vol. iii., p. 294–296. Note, p. 543.
C
"Thus, from the radical verb innuvok, 'he lives, is a man,
is derived innugikpok, he is a handsome man ;' innurdlukpok, 'he
is a mis-shapen man;' innukulukpòk, he is an unfortunate man ;'
innuksiorpòk,' he is a good man;' innukpilukpok,' he is a bad
man;' innuksisimavòk, he is a man as a Greenlander, i. e., a
modest man;' innungorpòk,' he begins to be a Greenlander.'".
Giesecke, Ed. Encyc., vol. x., p. 486. From this common poly-
synthetic form, as it has been well named, of the American lan
guages, in which they differ from all others, Professor Vater
draws the natural conclusion, "that these common methods
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
305
free and simple, totally devoid of hyperbole, with
few figurative or metaphorical expressions; and
their poetry, without rhyme or measure, is merely
short periods sung in a certain cadence, with a
brief chorus intervening.* Science cannot be said
to exist among them: twenty winters are the limit
of their numeration, all above that amount being
styled innumerable; and no one can tell his age,
though they trace their pedigree up to the tenth gen-
eration through all its branches. Until they were
instructed by the missionaries, they had no idea of
writing, and were at first afraid to touch a book,
though now many of them have learned to write,
and others correspond with the factories in rude
hieroglyphics, drawing the article required with
charcoal on a piece of skin, and marking the days
to the time of payment with strokes. Their histo-
ry is buried in impenetrable darkness, their only
traditions being some incongruous accounts of the
battles of their ancestors with the old Norwegians.
Time is denoted by the changes of the seasons, the
migrations of birds, or by the growth of plants and
animals; while they divide the day by the ebbing of
the tide, and the night by the rising of the stars. Of
the heavenly bodies they entertain the rudest ideas:
the stars are the souls of their ancestors; the shoot-
ing ones are spirits going on a visit from heaven to
hell; while the sun and moon are two mortals to
whom they impute many absurd customs. Neces-
sity has given them a knowledge of some simple
methods of treating external injuries, and they oper-
ate for the cataract with wonderful success, consid-
Coustraction have had their origin from a single point; that
there has been one general source from which the culture of
languages in America has been diffused, and which has been
the common centre of its diversified idioms."-Mithridates,
theil iii, p. 328.
* M. Kier bas published a collection of Greenland poems in the
original language, Illerkorsutit, Aarhuus, 1833. Several of them
have also been translated by Herder in his Volkslieder.
306
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
ering that their only instruments are a crooked nee-
dle and a large round knife. For internal diseases
incantations are their sole remedy; all besides is
left to nature. The most common complaints are
ophthalmia, consumption, and pleurisy, with scurvy,
leprosy, and some other cutaneous affections occa-
sioned by their filthy mode of life.*
In their intercourse with each other the Green-
landers are friendly, polite, and anxious to please,
or, rather, not to offend. They are very loquacious,
and fond of conversing in an ironical strain, satire
having far more influence on them than any kind of
reasoning. In the frequent visits they make to each
other, the guest is stripped of his clothes, which are
hung up to dry, and the most honourable place as-
signed to him. Their entertainments consist of
three or four dishes, and it is considered polite in a
stranger to require great pressing before he will
partake of anything. Considering the fare, this
seeming reluctance is not to be wondered at, the
greatest delicacy, in many cases, being part of a
whale's tail half putrid, or, it may be, a seal's car-
cass in the same condition. By way of dainties,
however, they sometimes present the flesh of bears,
belugas, dogs, gulls, and bull-heads. When they
wish to treat a European with extraordinary polite-
ness, before offering him a piece of meat they lick
off the blood and filth with their tongues, and it is
considered a gross insult after this to decline the
gift. The seal furnishes them with almost their
whole food, the most important additions being fish,
seafowl, reindeer, hares, and partridges, though the
last three are now scarce. Foreign provisions, such
as bread, pease, and stockfish, together with tobac-
co and brandy, are very acceptable. They eat no
vegetables except a few berries preserved in blub-
* Crantz, vol. i., p. 210-216 Egede. p. 163–174, 202-208
Grash, p. 124.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
307
ber, the angelica, and some varieties of seaweed
found on their shores. Train-oil is only used for
preserving their food, while the blubber is principal-
ly eaten with the dried smelt. Raw flesh is also
consumed in small quantities during the chase of the
reindeer. Their cooking, performed in vessels of
potstone over a lamp, or in a copper caldron in the
open air, partakes of the dirtiness of their other
habits. The pots are never washed, being merely
licked by the dogs; and the meat, when taken out, is
laid on the ground, or on an old skin but little clean-
Their great time for feasting is when they hap-
pen to kill a whale, or find one dead on the shore,
when every one runs to the prize, cutting off and
carrying away as much flesh and blubber as he can
obtain.
er.
In winter the Greenlanders inhabit houses or huts,
and in summer tents. Two or three families, some-
times eight or ten, live in one of the former, which
is about twelve feet wide, from fifty to a hundred
long, and five or six high. The walls, composed of
stones and turf, are lined on the inside with hides
to keep out the wet. A broad bench of wood, cov-
ered with skins, and divided according to the num
ber of families, runs along one side, serving for a
seat by day and a bed by night. At every partition
is a fireplace or oil-lamp placed on a stool, with a
potstone kettle suspended over it, and above this a
screen for drying clothes. The windows are formed
of the entrails of seals or whales, neatly sewed to-
gether. A long, low, narrow passage, through which
the heated air escapes, is the only entrance; and,
though there is no door, the house is so warm that
the natives sit either almost or altogether naked.
Their dwellings are generally situated on rising
ground or a rock near the sea, to permit the rain and
melted snow to run off. Such, however, are the
filth and smell, and the steam from the bodies of the
inmates, that Europeans find it difficult to remain
308
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
any time in them. The summer-tents have also
stone walls, and are covered with seal or reindeer
skins; but as only one family occupies each of
these, and the cooking is conducted in the open air,
they are cleaner and less offensive to a foreigner
than the houses. Their travelling-tents are merely
poles fixed in the ground and supplied with the usual
covering.
Both sexes dress very much alike, and in a man-
ner suitable to the climate. The outer garment is
a close coat of seal or reindeer skin slipped over the
head and reaching to the knees. Attached to the
back is a hood, like a monk's cowl, for covering the
head, used only in winter or bad weather. Under-
neath they wear a shirt composed of the skins of
deer or fowl, with the hair or feathers turned in-
ward. They have also breeches, stockings, and
shoes, all of sealskin; and the women adorn their
garments with strips of red, blue, or yellow leather
and cloth. Mothers and nurses wear a wide cloak
bound round the body with a girdle, in which they
wrap up the child, usually quite naked. In ancient
times, the ladies, in order to be completely beautiful,
were tattooed; but this fashion is now obsolete, or
only retained by very old women.*
The only thing in which the Greenlanders mani-
fest much skill is in the structure and management
of their boats; the kayak, or boat for one man, and
the oomiak, or women's boat, both formed of a light
framework of wood covered with sealskin. The
latter is usually about twenty-four feet long and five
or six wide, though some are built nearly a half lar-
ger. The covering consists of sixteen or twenty
sealskins, saturated with blubber and thoroughly
dried. Neither nails nor pegs are used in their con-
struction, the whole being fastened together by the
* Crantz, vol. i., p. 127–132. Egede, p. 113-118, 129-133
Saabye's Greenland, p. 2-14.
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
309
sinews of the seal, and their entire strength consists
in their elasticity. They are flat-bottomed, and only
fitted for a calm sea, as a stiff breeze or heavy swell
is sure to capsize or destroy them. The ice is also
apt to cut the skin by which they are covered, when
the natives repair the damage by stuffing the hole
with blubber, or draw them upon the shore and sew
a patch on the place, which is soon accomplished,
as two persons can easily carry one of these boats.
They are rowed by four or five women, and, with a
full cargo on board, can make thirty miles or more
in a day, though, on long voyages, one cannot count
on more than twenty or twenty-four on an average,
as every fifth day the boat must be taken out of the
sea to allow the skin, now saturated with water, to
dry. The former, the kayak or man's boat, is from
twelve to fourteen feet long, about eighteen inches
wide and a foot deep, formed of wood and whale-
bone, covered above and below with skin, and sel-
dom weighs more than twenty or thirty pounds. In
the middle is an opening, surrounded by a hoop,
into which the Esquimaux slips, and, by drawing his
sealskin cloak tight round it, renders the whole
completely impervious to water. There is only one
oar, six feet long, with a thin blade at each end
fenced with bone. In this frail bark he fears no
storm, floating like a seabird on the top of the bil-
lows, or emerging from beneath the white waves
that dash over his head. Even when upset he rights
himself with a stroke of his oar under the water;
but, if this is lost or broken, he is certain to perish.
Few Europeans ever learn to row the kayak, and
many even of the natives can never attain sufficient
skill to regain their equilibrium when overturned.*
Most of their domestic concerns are committed to
the charge of the females, the men seldom either di-
recting or assisting. It is the women who must
* Graah, p 29, 30.
310
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
make clothes, boots, canoes, and tents, dress leath-
er, clean and dry the garments, gut and dismember
the game, cook the meat, cut the potstone lamps,
prepare oil and wicks, and build houses and tents.
The business of the other sex is almost exclusively
confined to catching seals and other game, and many
of them consider it a degradation even to convey
what they have taken from the boats to their houses
or tents. In their marriages it is therefore to the
afore-mentioned qualifications of good housewifery
that the Greenlander has regard in choosing his
spouse, while the ladies, on the other hand, look out
for a good hunter, who is skilled in catching seals.
The bride has seldom any dowry, her whole portion
being, in general, the clothes upon her back, to which
is sometimes added a lamp, a kettle, a few needles,
and a round knife. The parents never interfere in
marriages, and decorum requires that a girl should
not choose to enter into wedlock; so that, accord-
ing to rule, she makes great difficulties, runs to the
mountains, and has usually to be dragged by force
from her home. The bridegroom puts her into his
oomiak, supported by some old women, and carries
her to his house, when they are considered as uni-
ted. Sometimes she runs away, and has to be
brought back; and, if her aversion is real, she con-
tinues this practice till her lover is tired of the pur-
suit, though formerly they prevented such escapes
by cutting slits in the soles of the bride's feet.
the missions, marriages are contracted through the
intervention of the clergyman, who is applied to for
this purpose by the man. Among the heathen, po-
lygamy is allowed, though seldom practised, unless
when the first wife has no children, and in this case
she often requests her husband to take another.
Divorces sometimes occur; and all that is necessary
to accomplish this object is for the husband to as-
sume a surly face, and leave the house a few days
without saying where he is going, upon which the
At
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
311
wife takes the hint, packs up her effects, and repairs
with her children to her relations. Their families
are not very large, the number of children rarely
exceeding five or six; and these are allowed to grow
up almost as nature dictates, the parents never chas-
tising or even reproving them. Till their sixth or
seventh year they are therefore very untractable,
but after that time they follow their parents willing-
ly, and, with increasing age, behave still more re-
spectfully towards them. The boys, from their ear-
liest years, are regarded as the future masters of the
house, and are so employed by the father as to be
afterward qualified to perform the business of men.
The first seafowl caught by them gives occasion to
a great festival in the family. The affection of the
parents for their children is excessive, and no meth-
od of conciliating the former is more effectual than
fondling the latter; while he who ventures to strike,
or even reproach them, incurs their certain displeas-
ure.
Though extremely sociable, the Greenlanders have
few amusements, and these mostly of a very rude
description. Their only musical instrument is a kind
of drum or tamborine, formed of a hoop of wood
covered with a fine skin, on which they beat with a
small stick. The performer, at the same time, leaps
and contorts his whole body, twisting and turning
his head and eyes in the most laughable manner.
He also frequently extemporizes a ballad, the sub-
ject of which is the chase of the seal, or some other
incident equally important to the assembly, who, at
the end of every verse, join in the chorus of "Eia-
tia-a!" Through these songs they decide many of
their quarrels, or, when injured, take vengeance on
their adversaries. They compose a satirical poem,
which is learned by their friends, and, meeting on
an appointed day with their opponent and his parti-
eaus, each, singing and dancing as above, states his
Lase, accompanied with as much ridicule and sar-
312
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
casm as he can devise; after which the spectators
pronounce sentence, from which there is no appeal.
This manner of arbitration has great influence in
preventing and punishing offences, as the natives
are much afraid of being laughed at by their neigh-
bours. It has, however, been discouraged by the
missionaries, and is now altogether abolished on the
western coast.
The dead are buried in a sitting posture, and
dressed in their best clothes. As the earth is very
shallow or hard frozen, they build tombs of stone,
and cover the body with plates of mica slate or clay
slate, to preserve it from carnivorous animals. The
kayak and hunting instruments of the deceased are
placed at the side of the grave, and they put a dog's
head into that of a child, in order that its spirit may
guide the helpless infant to the land of souls. On
their return to the house, they continue their lamen-
tation in a sort of monotonous howl, at the conclu-
sion of which some refreshment is taken, and each
departs to his own dwelling.
Procuring of food, as already remarked, is the
great motive to employment among savages, and to
this end all the exertions of the Greenlanders are
immediately directed. The chase of the reindeer
used formerly to occupy much of their time; and
though, from the increased facilities of destroying
them since the introduction of firearms, their num-
bers have been much diminished, it is still the fa-
vourite pursuit. The white hare is also hunted for
its flesh, and the foxes for their skins; but the profit
of all these is so inconsiderable, that the missiona-
ries think it would be of advantage to the nation if
they could be persuaded to relinquish them alto-
gether, and confine themselves to the fisheries and
the catching of seals. The latter is to the natives
of Greenland what the reindeer is to the Laplander,
the principal source of subsistence, without which
their country would be uninhabitable. It provides
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
313
them with all the necessaries of life: they eat its
flesh, cover themselves, their boats, and their houses
with its skin, and find light and warmth in its blub-
ber. In hunting it they use a harpoon, to which a
bladder is fixed by a thong eight or nine fathoms
long. The seal, when struck, often pulls the blad-
der under water, but, being soon exhausted, is com-
pelled to rise to take breath; upon which the fisher
repeats his blows with the spear or lance till it
killed. Should the line, however, become entangled,
the kayak is drawn down, and its owner drowned.
They also entrap many in the narrow fiords by cut-
ting off their retreat to the sea, and in the winter
watch for them at holes cut in the ice, and despatch
them with their harpoons. They also surprise them
when sleeping on the ice, though, from the extreme
wariness of the animal, this method is not very suc-
cessful. Near Disco Island they use a white screen
attached to a pole, which they push before them on
the snow till they get within shot, and in this man-
ner they often deceive their prey.
They sometimes pursue the whale, though now
only in conjunction with the Danes, their own im-
plements being so imperfect that it generally es-
caped them. They made use of nearly the same ap-
paratus as in catching seals, and were careful to put
on their best clothes, as they believed the monarch
of the floods had a particular antipathy to them when
dirty, and that, even when dead, he sunk to escape
the contamination. Besides the true whale, they
also take several other of the cetaceous tribes. as
the narwal, potfish, and whitefish. They likewise
spear the salmon and salmon-trout, or build weirs
of loose stones at the mouths of rivers, over which
the fish pass at high water, and are secured when
left behind at the ebb.
Among a people whose wants are so few, and
whose country produces so little that is an object of
desire in other lands, trade cannot be very extensi
314
HISTORY OF GREENLAND,
Most of the domestic articles are those which are
necessary for their own wants, and it is only since
a taste for European commodities has been diffused
among them that commerce has begun to increase.
The principal exports are feathers and eider-down,
horns of the sea-unicorn, skins of seals, blue and
white foxes, white bears, hares, and reindeer, whale-
bone, and blubber or oil of different kinds. In re-
turn for these they obtain guns, powder, and shot;
ironmongery, as knives, files, axes, needles, nails,
arrow-heads; linen and hosiery, cottons, ribands,
gloves, looking-glasses, snuff-boxes, and tobacco,
which last is in great request. They are also very
anxious to procure rye bread, barley, tea, coffee,
beer, and brandy; but this last has been prohibited,
and no one is allowed to sell or even give it to the
natives. This trade is a government monopoly,
and five or six vessels are sent out every May, the
cargoes of which are worth 65,000 rix-dollars, or
£13,000 sterling; while the return goods are valued
at 85,000 rix-dollars, or £17,000.
This account of the manners and habits of the Es-
quimaux applies only to those still in their wild or
unconverted condition; for on the western coast,
the influence of the missions is very perceptible.
It has, indeed, been objected, that the Christians are
still as superstitious as the heathen, and by no
means less immoral in their lives. The first of
these accusations is in some degree true, supersti-
tion prevailing there as in all other half-civilized and
imperfectly educated communities, but by no means
to such an extent as formerly. The angekkoks
have all disappeared from the vicinity of the colo-
nies, and those cruel murders of persons accused
of sorcery or witchcraft are now scarcely known.
The same reasons account for the progress of mo-
rality being less than might be wished, though many
indecent practices, once common among them when
heathen, have now vanished. In a country where
HISTORY OF GREENLAND.
315
there are neither laws nor magistrates, and where
the most atrocious crimes would remain unpunished,
we can ascribe the decrease of vice to nothing ex-
cept the moral improvement of the people. The
most imperfect form of Christianity is greatly pref-
erable to the mingled atheism and superstition that
once prevailed; and, though all the good effects of
conversion may not yet everywhere meet the eye,
we may be assured that they are very considerable.
Even viewed in the lowest light, merely as an in-
strument of civilization, elevating the natives above
their original degraded state, the gospel has not
proved wholly fruitless, though its full influence will
only be manifested after several generations. The
people, who formerly regarded letters as magic, and
a book as a work of the evil one, can now very gen-
erally read and write, and, being anxious for infor-
mation, are fond of perusing the volumes, chiefly
religious, which have been published in their lan-
guage. A more unpropitious field for missionary
labour could scarcely have been chosen, or one less
likely to tempt any person to undertake its duties;
and the success, though less than could have been
desired, is unquestionably sufficient to encourage
still farther exertions.
FAROE.
CHAPTER IX.
Description and History of Faroe.
Situation and Extent.-Appearance.-Precipices.-Hills.-Riv
ers.-Springs. Sea. Whirlpools.-Climate.-Limit of Ag
riculture. Temperature of Air and Springs.--Winds. To-
POGRAPHY.-Fugloe.-Bordoe.-Oesteroe.-Curious Rocks.
Stromoe.-Thorshavn.-Kirkeboe.-Bird Mountain.-Vaa-
goe. Myggenæs. Skube. Store Dimon. - Dangerous
Roads.-Suderoe. HISTORY.-Discovery.-Sigmund Bres-
teson.-Conversion of the Natives.-Subjugation by Norway.
--Pirates.-Reformation.-Plundered by Privateers. INHAB-
ITANTS.-Appearance.-Character.- Morality. Hospitality.
Employments. Fishing. Catching
-Food.
Dress.
—
C
Whales. Seals.-Bird-catching.-Agriculture.-Gardening.
--Cattle.-Population.- Diseases.-Commerce.- Ecclesias-
tical Condition.-Civil Government.
THOUGH less extensive in size and population than
the two former countries, the Faroe Islands are al-
most equally interesting, both in their physical and
social relations. Although allied to these in ancient
and modern times, and peopled by a branch of the
same Scandinavian stock, their remote and isolated
situation in the wide expanse of the stormy ocean
has impressed on their inhabitants a strange and pe-
culiar character. Unknown to the ancient Greeks
and Romans, their first discoverers were those daring
Northmen, who, in their frail barks, ransacked every
sea for new shores to plunder, and for new lands
where they might inscribe their names in blood and
ashes. It is in their history that these islands first
appear, and by them their present appellation serms

20'
Ristany
20
Myling
Nonterior
Eude
Tannerig
Haldes
Saxen
Comiing
Stronies
30'
620
50'
30'
Kadlarn
Nakken
Fundings
Ind Ford
Faetiord
20
Kalsoe Fork
derve
40
Fugloe
VIDEROE
BORDOE
Sed a Helle
Myggenaes
Myogamesholm
Gaasholm
Tindholn
Munden
Grothe
Qualrige
Westmannshmen
Thorsvig
ER
Quiviaholiction
nusalakl
Bor
FAAGE
Storvang
Sandeyaag
Midrand
Ford
Nontentaht
Vaago
Kolter
Hestoc
Trothered
Kalbak
Sund
Thorshav
Hestoe Fiord
Lervigs
Fiord
Solmanne
Labhar
Soubre
Tolie
Nalsoc
Kirka boe
Skaapenfiord
32
FAROE
ISLANDS.
Skroe
Sams
Skaalvin
Skarvenaesuserig
Skuoe Ed
Dal
Suderoo
Fiord
Esstory Dimon
Quall of Qualboe Fiord
Trangvisvang
Famoven
lloive
Lille Dimon
Pripillior
Wan
Naas
Saltwtart
Waags Fiord
Sumbor
Fiord
SoeFiord
Svinoe
agua Fiord
The Monk
20'
Longitude West
70 from Greenwich
20'
40'
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 317
to have been imposed. It is derived from the old
word faar or foer, a sheep; this animal having prob-
ably been introduced by the sea-rovers who frequent-
ed them long before the severity of Harald compel-
led his subjects to take permanent refuge in those
distant lands.*
This group of islands is situated in the Northern
Sea, between latitude 61° 26′ and 62° 25′ N., and
long. 6° 40′ and 7° 40′ W. The Shetlands are 185
miles to the southeast, Iceland 320 northwest, and
Norway about 400 east. The islands, particularly
the northern portion, lie closely together, extending
about sixty-seven miles from north to south, and for-
ty-five from east to west. The whole cluster con-
sists of twenty-five, of which seventeen are inhabit-
ed, the others being only barren rocks or grassy
holmes on which sheep are fed during the summer
months. The extent of the whole has been estima-
ted at 850 square miles, and that of the inhabited por-
tion at from 500 to 650.†
▸
When seen from the sea, these islands have all
the same general appearance, resembling some parts
of Iceland, though on a smaller scale. The whole
group rises from the ocean, high and precipitous,
surrounded by walls of lofty rocks, imposing on ac-
count of their wild aspect, and the deep bays and
gulfs which separate them from each other. The
cliffs, in many cases, are so perpendicular that the
boats are let down by ropes, while the sailors clam-
ber up the sides by holes cut in the rocks. From the
top of these walls, which are as smooth as if artifi-
cially built, a stone may be dropped into the sea 800
or 1000 feet below. One of the most remarkable of
these points is the promontory of Myling, at the north-
ern end of Stromoe, 2500 feet high, and completely
perpendicular. In other places the waves have cut
*Torf., Hist. Færeyensis (Havniæ, 1695), p. 2–4, et præf
Landt, Description of Feroe (Lond., 1810), p. 2.
† Hassel's Erdbeschreibung, vol. x., p. 209.
Вв
318 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
the cliffs into the most fantastic forms, sometimes
resembling old Gothic houses; at others, needle-
shaped fragments, the Witches' Fingers (Trollkone-
finger) of the natives, shoot up into the air, or the
softer strata are worn into large vaults and long,
winding caverns, frequented by seals and waterfowl.
One of these pierces the island of Nalsoe from side
to side, and may be passed through in a boat in calm
weather. A still more curious appearance is seen
where these caves end in rents or holes extending to
the surface, as near Westmannshavn in Stromoe.
stormy weather, the waves, dashing on the coast,
force the compressed water within to rise through
them in jets of foam, with a noise like thunder. In
other places, where soft and hard strata alternate,
the cliffs are separated into numerous terraces,
scarcely a foot broad, on which the seafowl build
their nests.*
In
In the interior these islands are full of mountains
and cliffs, intersected by narrow valleys. Some of
them may be regarded almost as one eminence rising
from the sea, and forming merely a group or chain
of hills. In none of the larger inhabited ones is the
highest point less than 1000 feet above the level of
the water; in the northern, the central ridge is 1200;
and in Kunoe it is 2000 feet high, with a basis of
more than two miles broad. The highest elevation
in Faroe is the Slattaretind, near Eide, in Oesteroe,
which, according to Forchhammar's measurement,
is 2816 feet Rhenish, or 2900 English. The Myling,
already mentioned, and the Skiellingsfeld, according
to Wargas, above 2400 feet high, rank next in order.
These mountains, in general, form a succession of
grassy declivities, alternating with naked walls of
dark rock. On the summit they are mostly flat,
with numerous marshy hollows filled with moss.
* Graba Tagebuch, p. 93, 97, 119, 209. Forchhammar, Kar-
sten's Archiv., vol. ii., p. 198. Scoresby's Greenland, p. 368. Ai-
lan, Ed. Phil. Trans., vol. vii, p. 245.
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 319
The soil, though thin, is fertile, especially near the
coast, where the houses are built; but, as you as-
cend, its thickness diminishes, and the tops of the
mountains are in general nothing but bare stone.
The moisture from the surrounding ocean forms
numerous streams and rivulets, though none of any
considerable size. These pour with great impetu-
osity down the steep sides of the mountains, in pic-
turesque falls and cataracts, which are often dis-
persed by the wind before they reach the bottom.
Each brook traverses, from its origin to the sea, a
large amphitheatre-like valley, in which flat semi-
circular plains are divided by steep walls. There
are also abundance of springs, supplying the inhabi-
tants with water, some of which have a tempera-
ture above the mean heat of the place. There are
but few lakes, the largest of which, in Vaagoe, is
only two miles in circumference; Leinumvatn, in
Stromoe, lies in a mournful-looking basin, surrounded
by black, naked rocks, while a few seafowl alone
enliven the scene. Toftevatn, another of the larger
lakes, is said to resemble Loch Goil in Scotland, but
has an aspect equally melancholy and desolate as
the other.
The extent of open sea on every side exposes Fa-
roe to the full fury of the billows, which are broken
by no sloping beach or shallows, the depth of water
close to the shore being often so great that a ship
may without difficulty touch the cliffs. The waves,
even when excited by only a moderate wind, rise
extremely high, dashing over the rocky promonto-
ries some hundred feet above the surface. The
currents are also very remarkable, running with
great regularity rather more than six hours to the
east, and then, during the same time, to the west. A
knowledge of this is of great importance to the na-
tives, who, in sailing from one island to another,
must calculate the time of change, as they find it
impossible to contend against the stream. When ?
320 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
storm comes on while the boats are out fishing, the
same cause frequently occasions their destruction,
as it is not in the seaman's power to reach home
before the turn of the tide. These currents are
strongest at the change of the moon, and during
stormy weather, when there are often weeks and
months during which it is impossible to pass from
one island to another. The natives tell of a clergy-
man who was detained eighteen weeks on Fugloe,
and of another who, having gone in good weather
to visit a sick person in Myggenæs, could not return
home before the end of fourteen weeks. During
the three months and a half that Graba was in Faroe,
there was not a day when the state of the winds and
ocean would permit him to reach Myggenæsholnı,
which he was anxious to see.
The tides and currents, meeting and forcing their
way through the narrow channels among these isl-
ands, form several whirlpools, of which three are
dangerous in high winds. The most remarkable of
them is that at the Monk, a rock rising from the sea
at some distance south of Suderoe, round which, ac-
cording to Debes, the water turns in a threefold gy-
ration. His account, however, formed from the re-
port of credulous mariners, is highly exaggerated;
as it may be safely approached in boats, and is only
dangerous to ships from the shoals which surround
it, over which he waves break with great violence.*
The climate of Faroe, though harsh, is by no
means so much so as its latitude would lead one to
suppose, the wide ocean around mitigating both the
cold and heat. The latter is of very short duration,
for even in July and August the warmth is never
great, and the weather very unsettled. The frost
seldom continues a month;† the bays are never cov-
·
* Graba, p. 33, 42, 48, 69. Debes, p. 45. Landt, p. 20-25, 109
-113. Forchhammar, p. 197-199.
+ That which continued from December, 1815, to April, 1816,
having commenced when the ground was covered with half
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 321
ered with ice, except in the coldest years, and the
winter is milder than in Denmark, the thermometer
rarely falling below 14° of Farenheit. The snow is
never deep, and seldom covers the ground above a
week at a time. We need not, therefore, be sur-
prised to find some birds wintering there, such as
the curlew and the common stare, which, finding
Holstein too cold, seek a warmer climate. The
want of wood on these islands is therefore to be at
tributed to the high winds and salt fogs from the
sea rather than to deficiency of heat; though the
birch trees found in the mosses prove that they
formerly grew there, and were probably cut down
for fuel. The grass-fields. attain an elevation of
2000 feet on the plains and gentle declivities, but the
mountain tops are a perfect desert, where the vio
lent winds suffer no vegetation to exist. The dete
rioration of the climate as you ascend, and, at the
same time, the effect of exposure, are well shown in
the cultivation of barley, the only cereal plant grown
in Faroe. According to a mean of several observa-
tions, in the southern islands this grain reaches an
elevation of 293 feet with a south exposure, and only
214 on the opposite side of the hills. In the north-
ern islands, again, with the former exposure, it at-
tains to 256 feet, and to 147 with the latter. But in
Suderoe, where the crops may be reaped even jr.
less favourable years, regular cultivation does not
exceed 138 feet on the southern declivities, and 80
on the northern; while the greatest height is 418
feet, on Myggenes. Potatoes, however, grow at
point considerably higher.
The mean temperature of the year at Thorshavn
is 45.4°, that of mild years being 49.2°, and of cool
ones 42.30. The mean of the three warmest months
varies from 56.9° to 51.7°; and of the three coldest,
melted snow, occasioned the loss of 30,000 sheep. In Stromoe,
out of 16,517, there perished 7870, or nearly one half.--Treve.
lyan, Edin. Phil. Jour., vol. xviii., p. 156.
322 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
from 41.6° to 33°; while the greatest height of the
thermometer was 72.5°, and the lowest 18.5°. The
temperature of the springs on the seashore seems to
be about 45°, decreasing regularly as you ascend,
some hot ones excepted. Those issuing from a sin-
gle stratum have constantly a degree of heat cor-
responding to their elevation; the fountains pro-
ceeding from the compact rock being warmer than
those from the loose debris. The temperature from
the shore to the height of 1500 feet seems to vary
about one degree in 276 feet, though a spring ob-
served on Könugefield, in Kunoe, with a temperature
of 36° at an elevation of 2460 feet, gives one degree
to 286 feet. The coldest spring observed is one on
Debelslock, in Bordoe, at 34.5°, while the warmest
is the Warmakelde, in Stromoe, near the level of the
sea, equal to 65.3° Fahrenheit.*
Thunder is very rare in Faroe, though more fre-
quent in winter than in summer; and lightning is
never known to do any injury. High winds, on the
other hand, are extremely common, whirlwinds and
violent gusts both in summer and winter being al-
most daily visitants. Unlike the whispering gales
and cooling zephyrs of the poets, they inspire stran-
gers with the utmost terror, announcing their ap-
proach by a howling noise, and clouds of dust, sand,
or stones swept from the mountains. They strip
the tops of these of all soil and vegetation, rolling
up the turf like a sheet of lead, and precipitating it
into the valleys. Often, when there is a strong gale
on the shore, the exposed sides of the hills enjoy a
perfect calm, which has been accounted for by sup-
posing the wind, reflected upward from the perpen-
dicular cliffs, to rise in a vertical current, carrying
along with it the horizontal strata. The most vio-
lent winds are those sudden gusts which descend
* Forchhammar, p. 197-200. Trevelyan, Ed. Phil. Jour., vol
xviii., p. 156. 163. Hassel, vol. x., p. 210. Graba, p. 36, 49
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 323
from the mountains, occasioning the greatest devas-
tation, especially among the boats and shipping in
the narrow channels. It is a remarkable circum-
stance, that before and after these furious blasts, the
atmosphere is so completely lulled that a lighted
candle may be carried from house to house in the
open air.*
As already mentioned, the inhabited islands are
seventeen in number, some of the peculiarities of
which we shall now briefly notice. The most dis-
tant to the northeast is Fugloe, the bird-island, flat
on the top, and surrounded with lofty cliffs, up which
the natives drag their boats with extreme difficulty.
South of it is Svinoe, formed of two lofty hills, al-
most separated by deep bays. Videroe, to the north,
is of more importance, being seven miles long by
five broad, with six hundred inhabitants. Bordoc,
which follows to the westward, is nine miles long,
and from five to seven broad. It has been compared
in shape to a crab, being indented by deep inlets, on
which the shore is low and sandy, but in all other
places surrounded with precipitous rocks. The tops
of the hills are sharp and bare, and a house which
stood among them was removed on account of the
avalanches of snow, which several times destroyed
the buildings and killed all the inhabitants. Kunoe,
to the northwest, is five miles long by two broad,
and forms one continuous mountain, rising from the
sea to the height of 2000 feet. The landing-places
both on this and the last are extremely dangerous,
and the boats are pulled up or let down by ropes.
Kalsoe, which succeeds, is long and narrow, steep
towards the west, but sloping gradually down to the
east. Oesteroe, the second largest in the group,
contains eighty-eight square miles, seven churches,
and about 1200 inhabitants. It is intersected on the
eastern side by five inlets or arms of the sea, and on
the west by Skaall Fiord. The hills here are the
Graba, p. 127.
* Landt, p. 126-129.
324 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
highest in Faroe, and exhibit some beautiful ranges
of basaltic rocks, extending above a mile in length,
with a height of 420 feet, and entirely composed of
pentagonal or octagonal columns, about six feet in
diameter. One of these gigantic pillars, sixty feet
long, has fallen down from the hill so as to form a
bridge over a deep gully. Another remarkable rock
is the Rinkesteen, near And Fiord, on the eastern
side of the island, twenty-four feet long, eighteen
broad, and from six to twelve above the water. This
stone is so exactly poised, that it vibrates backward
and forward with the slightest touch; yet, though
constantly rocking amid the breakers, has never
been moved from its place.
Next to this is Stromoe, the largest of all the
islands, being twenty-seven miles long by seven
broad, and containing 143 square miles, divided into
two parishes. It is separated from the last men-
tioned by a narrow sound, a mile and a quarter wide,
but contracting near Stromnes to about half a cable's
length, where the current is so strong that even ten
men cannot row a boat against it. In this is placed
Thorshavn, the capital of Faroe, and the principal
trading station. It is built on the southeastern side
of the island, on a peninsula which divides the har-
bour into two, and contains about 100 houses, most
of them mere huts, stuck in among the rocks with-
out any regularity, while the streets are so narrow
that scarcely more than one person can ascend them
at a time. The entrance to the harbour is protected
by a fort, on which, however, there are no cannon,
and the road to it forms the only tolerable walk
about the place. The houses are covered with turf,
and so closely resemble the surrounding soil, that a
stranger can hardly believe he is in the neighbour-
hood of a town. This place is the residence of the
principal official persons on the islands, and has a
population of about eight hundred.
Westmannshavn, on the western side of this
DESCRIPTION AND BISTORY OF FAROE. 325
island, is a good harbour, but more remarkable for
the flocks of seafowl that frequent the surrounding
rocks The Vogelberg (bird mountain), as it is
called, lies in a frightful chasm, encompassed by in-
accessible rocks, said to be a thousand feet high.
The entrance is by a narrow passage; on leaving
which, one finds himself between the precipitous
shores of the island on the one hand, and an equally
lofty rock on the other, which shelter the enclosed
space from every wind. Here nothing is seen but
multitudes of birds. Thousands of guillemots and
auks swim in groups around the boat, look curiously
at the traveller, and vanish beneath the water to
rise in his immediate neighbourhood. The black
guillemot comes close to the very oars, the seal
stretches his head above the waves to see what has
disturbed the repose of his asylum, while the rapa-
cious skua pursues the puffin and the gull. High in
the air the birds seem like bees clustering about the
rocks, while lower they fly past so close that they
might be struck down with a stick. But not less
strange is the arrangement of this colony. On some
low rocks, scarcely projecting above the water, sit
the glossy cormorants, turning their long necks on
every side. Next are the skua gulls, regarded with
an anxious eye by the line of kittiwakes above.
Nest follows nest in crowded rows along the whole
breadth of the rock, and nothing is visible but the
heads of the mothers and the white rocks between.
A little higher on the narrow shelves sit the auks
and guillemots, drawn up as on parade, with their
white breasts to the sea, and so close that a hail-
stone could not pass between them. The puffins
take the highest station, and, though scarcely visible,
betray themselves by their flying backward and for-
ward. The noise of such a multitude of birds is
confounding, and one cannot hear even his next
neighbour speak. The harsh tones of the kittiwake
are heard above the whole, the intervals being filled
C c
326 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
}
his gun.
by the monotonous note of the auk and the softer
voice of the guillemot. When here, Graba was
tempted by the sight of a crested cormorant to fire
What became of it, says he, I knew not.
The air was darkened by the birds roused from their
repose. Thousands hastened out of the chasm with
a frightful noise, and spread themselves in troops
over the ocean. The puffins came wondering from
their holes, and regarded the universal hubbub with
comic gestures; the kittiwakes remained composedly
in their nests, while the cormorants tumbled head-
long into the sea. But the confusion was soon over,
and all returned to their former places and employ-
ments.*
·
Vaagoe, which is a large mountainous island, con-
tains the most extensive sheet of fresh water in
Faroe, the Sorvaagsvatn, and some curious basaltic
rocks near the northern extremity, forming vaults
and arches beneath which a boat can sail. One of
the most singular is the Trollkonefinger, sometimes
appearing like a huge finger pointing upward, at
others like a square tower surmounted by a spire,
with a door and windows. Still farther west is
Myggenæs, separated from the former by the most
dangerous fiord in the islands. It is surrounded by
precipitous cliffs from 1200 to 1400 feet in height,
and is only visited by the clergyman twice in the
year. Near it is the small islet or rock named
Myggenæsholm, the only place in Faroe where the
solan goose builds its nest.
Southwest from Stromoe are the two small islands
of Kolter and Hestoe, and on the opposite side that
of Nalsoe or the Needle Island, thus named from
the curious cave which penetrates it from side to
side. To the south lie Sandoe and Skuoe, on the
latter of which is seen the grave of Sigmund Breste-
son, the hero of the Faroe Isles. The Greater or
Store Dimon is the most inaccessible of this re-
* Graba, p. 94-97, 100, 110. Landt, p. 47, 48.
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 327
mote group. The shore is everywhere so steep
that no boat can be kept there, and the inhabitants
live entirely secluded, only receiving an annual visit
from the clergyman, who is drawn up by ropes.
When Graba visited this island, the sailors first
pushed one of their number up the rocks with their
long sticks, as in bird-catching, and he then drew up
the others. In this way they mounted from cliff to
cliff to a height of 250 feet, the process having been
repeated several times. On his return he chose a
shorter but scarcely less dangerous road, which
descends a narrow path cut in the rocks, and then,
turning to the left, proceeds along the front of a
precipice, where holes are cut every three feet, in
which one can fix the points of his fingers and toes.
This continues forty feet, when another path leads
to the beach. How steep the rock is may be under-
stood from the fact that a basket filled with eggs of
the wild birds, which he had collected on the island,
was let down into the boat by a rope; yet along this
frightful track did a drunken native pass with a sack
of barley on his back. This island is the greatest
breeding-place for seafowl in Faroe, and, though
scarcely a mile long by half a mile broad, more than
5000 puffins are caught on it every year. The in-
habitants, nevertheless, complain of their decrease,
as only thirty or forty years ago the number amount-
ed to upward of 20,000. Lille Dimon, to the south
of this, is a small island of a conical form, only in-
habited by numerous wild sheep, whose flesh is dark
and tastes like venison.
Suderoe, the most southern of the whole, contains
about forty-four square miles, and is very irregular-
ly shaped, being intersected by several fiords. This
island differs in many respects from the more nor-
thern, though the distance between them is only a
few miles. The mountains assume a different form,
and contain peculiar rocks; the bays pierce more
deeply into the land; birds, such as the field-lark, the
328 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
swallow, the land-rail, seldom or never seen in the
more northern islands, go thither every year. The
cultivation of the land is better, and the crops almost
suffice for its inhabitants, who, it is remarked, differ in
dress and language from the others, are more active
and industrious, and, consequently, in better circum-
stances. It also contains thick beds of coal, and
some very curious basaltic pillars. In one place,
the whole ground seems as if paved with the pro-
jecting columns, over which the shore is reached
with some difficulty; and there they are seen ar-
ranged in the most singular colonnades, or twisted
into the form of an inverted S. Qualboe, in this
island, is the finest village in Faroe, standing at the
extremity of a bay, on whose shores smiling val-
leys, adorned by picturesque waterfalls, alternate
with lofty mountains, whose sides are scarred with
rock-slips, which are very common here, and are
affirmed to happen most frequently between one and
two o'clock in the morning; a phenomenon more dif-
ficult to account for from the equality in temperature
and moisture of the day and night.*
The natives of these islands, though of the same
origin with the Icelanders, and resembling them in
many of their customs, were never, like them, given
to literature. Their history is thus entirely depend-
ant on foreign sources, and wants the unity and
completeness of that of the more northern country.
Even the time when the islands were discovered
and the names of their first occupants are uncertain.
The reason of this seems to have been, that, though
known for a considerable period to the Norwegian
pirates, and probably often visited by them during
the summer months, they had then no permanent
inhabitants. These strangers came, resided on them
*Landt, p. 33-67. Debes, p. 3-17. Hassel, vol. x., p. 215-
218. Graba, Tagebuch, p. 23, 26, 59, 171, 200, 202, 205, 207, &c.
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 329
as long as it pleased their fancy, and then again re-
signed them to the fowls of heaven and their native
loneliness. If we may trust the ancient chronicles,
it was while engaged in a voyage thither that Nad-
dod first discovered Iceland; an event placed in the
year 861, before which they seem to have been well
known It was, however, only after Harald, in the
battle of Hafurs Fiord, had destroyed the power of
the petty Norwegian kings, that they appear to
have been chosen for a fixed habitation. The first
settler of any note was Grimr Kamban, whose ar-
rival there is placed in the year 868; but of this pa-
triarch no record has been preserved, and it is un-
certain whether it was he to whom his descendants,
according to the Landnamabok, paid divine honours
after his death. If, in the absence of more authentic
documents, we may judge from the similarity of
names, most of the colonists seem to have come from
the Loffoden Islands. They themselves are proud
of tracing their descent from a Scottish king, who,
however, was only a Northman pirate, Thorstein
the Red, who is understood to have had some pos-
sessions in the Orkney Islands.
Floki, the third discoverer of Iceland, also visited
Faroe, and is said to have left one of his daughters
there married to a chieftain, from whom some of
the most powerful families in the country were de-
scended. After this time nothing remarkable oc-
curs in their history for about a hundred years, the
division of the islands, each governed by its own
chief and partitioned among his followers, prevent-
ing any quarrels. In 966, however, Breste and
Breinar, who lived on Store Dimon, were attacked
by some other chieftains, with whom they had a
feud, and, after bravely defending themselves for a
long time against superior numbers, were defeated
and slain. Each left a son, whom some of their op-
ponents wished to kill, in order to secure themselves
from their future vengeance; but one more tender-
330 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
hearted than the rest interposed, and it was thought
enough to send them to Norway. Thrand, a rela-
tion of their own, who had been the instigator of the
murder, and by it became the most influential man
in the islands, wished to sell them to a Norwegian
merchant, who refused to make the purchase. He,
however, took them home with him, kept them for
the winter, and, on departing for a long voyage to
the East, gave them some money and left them to
provide for themselves. After many adventures,
fitter for a romance than for history, one of them,
Sigmund Bresteson, found his way to the court of
Hakon, where he greatly distinguished himself; and,
soon after, visiting his native place, he slew the
murderers of his father, only sparing him who had
preserved his life, and, at the same time, punishing
Thrand by a heavy fine.
Sigmund after this returned to Norway, where he
was present at the great battle with the Jomsvikingrs;
and, being afterward converted by Olaf Tryggva-
son, he was sent, in 998, by that zealous monarch
to endeavour to Christianize his countrymen. At a
general meeting of the natives, he informed them
that he had been appointed ruler of all the islands
by King Olaf, adding the royal commands for the in-
habitants to become believers. The people were
willing enough to acknowledge his authority, but
had no idea of changing their religion in this sum-
mary manner, and, headed by the wily Thrand, got
the subject deferred to another time. The winter
having passed over without any result, Sigmund
determined to use stronger measures, and, seizing
Thrand by surprise, gave him the choice of becom-
ing a Christian or of being immediately put to death.
He at first chose the latter alternative, but the sight
of the executioner changing his opinion, he consent-
ed to be baptized, and the other inhabitants soon
followed his example.
This forced conversion, as might be expected, was
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 331
far from being sincere; and Thrand, brooding over
his injuries, at last resolved on vengeance. Collect-
ing a number of his followers, he attacked Sigmund
by surprise, and set his house on fire. Its master,
however, escaped by a secret passage into one of
those caves which pierce the islands; but the en-
trance being discovered, he was obliged to seek shel-
ter somewhere else. He is said to have swam
across the channel which separates Skuoe from Su-
deroe, a distance of nearly nine miles; but it seems
more probable that he resided on Store Dimon, which
is considerably nearer the latter. When he arrived
at Suderoe, he lay for some time exhausted among
the seaweed, till he was discovered by a dependant
of Thrand, who, coveting a large gold ring which he
wore on his arm, put him to death, and buried him
on the shore with his friend Thorer, who had been
drowned in endeavouring to accompany him. The
chief, at a subsequent period, when it suited his pur-
poses, was the means of discovering the actual mur-
derers, and of bringing them to punishment.
For a long time after this the Faroe Islands re-
mained in peace, being governed by Thrand, or his
son of the same name. They were nominally sub-
ject to Norway, but the tribute was very irregularly
paid, and many of the ships sent to demand it were
never heard of more, being either wrecked, or, more
probably, destroyed by the people. This state of
things continued till the reign of St. Olaf, who, at
the time when he endeavoured to subdue the Ice-
landers, made the same attempt on Faroe. He suc-
ceeded better there; for, having induced all the chiefs
to visit him in Norway, except Thrand, who, feign-
ing sickness, remained at home, he compelled them
to swear allegiance and promise tribute. But this
was never paid; the ships which were sent for it
disappeared one after another, till the king could get
none of his subjects to undertake the voyage. A
celebrated pirate, Karl Mære, offered his services,
332 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
and arrived at Thorshavn, in safety; but, while he
was employed in collecting the tax next year, he
was slain in a tumult, and his companions returned
without the money. Olaf wished to avenge his
death; but was prevented by troubles at home,
which ended in the loss of his kingdom and life
Faroe was now for a long period forgotten by the
Norwegian monarchs, and seems neither to have
paid tribute nor acknowledged their authority in any
other way, till the time of Sigurd Jorsalafare. Though
the different chieftains were often contending with
each other, their feuds have neither sufficient inter-
est nor importance to entitle them to a place in his-
tory. But the fierce manners of these warlike col-
onists soon became extinct, Christianity took deeper
root, and the inhabitants, leading quiet, inoffensive
lives, are no more heard of. In the reign of the
king last mentioned, in the beginning of the twelfth
century, they obtained a bishop, and the names of
several of his successors occur in the old annals,
but with nothing of importance attached to them.*
The islands, from their remote and exposed situ-
ation, have been often invaded by pirates and plun-
dered of the cattle, the natives generally contriving
to save themselves among the high rocks. These
robbers were not unfrequently French, English, or
Irish, a band of whom are said on one occasion to
have been attacked and destroyed by the natives of
Suderoe. In 1629, two Turkish ships found their
way to this distant country, and cruelly abused the
inhabitants of the last-named island, carrying many
of them away into captivity. To prevent these in-
cursions and the exactions of the English fishers,
* This account of the history of Faroe is principally taken
from Torfæus, who differs in several particulars from Debes
(p. 190-232). The Saga Fareyenga was published at Copenha-
gen in 1833, with translations into the Danish, German, and
modern language of the islands, the original being in the old
celandic.
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 333
1
who, on their way to Iceland, 'used to stop here and
take as many of the natives with them as they saw
fit, the King of Denmark first sent a ship to cruise
among the islands, and afterward built the fort at
Thorshavn.
Christianity, though forced on the people in the
violent manner we have mentioned, was not forsa-
ken by them when they regained their freedom.
They continued Catholics till the Reformation was
introduced into Denmark, when the king replacing
the old priests with Lutheran clergymen, they were
all quietly converted to the new faith. The last
Catholic bishop was named Amund Olafsen, ap-
pointed in the year 1532. He was succeeded by
Jens Riber, who, having been several times plunder-
ed by the French pirates, left the country, and be-
came Bishop of Stavanger, in Norway, in 1556. No
successor was appointed, the churches being subject-
ed to a provost or dean, who was at first under the
bishops of Bergen, and afterward those of Copenha-
gen.
The great events of European politics but slightly
influence the condition of these remote and unim-
portant isles. During the American war, their po-
sition rendered them a convenient depôt for colo-
nial produce, whence it might be smuggled into Brit-
ain, and a considerable contraband trade with Scot-
land soon sprung up. As a consequence of the close
connexion thus established, the English language be-
came familiar to the Faroese, and was spoken by
many of them for several years afterward. During
the French revolutionary wars, the Dutch and Da-
nish trade to the East Indies was entirely annihila-
ted, and an end having thus been put to smuggling,
the natives were subjected to great privations. In
1808, the British government, in order to prevent
these islands from being converted into a retreat
for privateers, for which they are well adapted, de-
spatched Captain Baugh, in the Clio sloop of war, to
334 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
destroy the fort. According to the account of the
Faroese, which, however, seems a little apocryphal,
the ship appeared at first among the islands under
French colours, but was recognised in her true char-
acter by an old sailor, who gave information of it
to the commander. This officer sent out first one
pilot-boat and then another, both of which were de-
tained; upon which the English landed, blew up the
magazine and destroyed the cannon, without a sin-
gle shot being fired on either side.
The islands being thus left totally unprotected, a
German, assuming the name of Baron Hompesch,
having procured letters of marque, landed at Thors-
havn and plundered the inhabitants of everything
valuable. The British government humanely re-
fused to sanction these proceedings, and the money
and goods were returned to the owners. On the
occurrence of the disturbances in Iceland in 1809,
the English ministry, by an order in council, com-
manded the natives of that island, of Faroe, and
Greenland, to be considered as stranger-friends, and
permitted them to trade to London, Liverpool, and
Leith. In 1811, the attention of the English cabinet
was again called to their destitute condition, owing
to all communication with the mother-country being
entirely interrupted, and the Forward gun-brig was
despatched from Leith to report on their state. The
inhabitants, as it appeared, were suffering many pri-
vations from the discontinuance of the trade, in con-
sequence of which, two vessels were permitted to
resort thither every year, taking with them Danish
goods, and receiving the produce of the islands in
return. These ships were, however, compelled to
touch at Leith for licenses, which were renewed
every year; but the peace of 1814 restored these
colonies to the full possession of the Danish govern-
ment, which has conducted the trade ever since.
Though so long separated from the original stock,
the people of Faroe are still found to retain many of
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 335
the characteristics of their Scandinavian ancestors.
The greatest difference is in the southern islands,
whose natives have a rounder face, speak more rap-
idly, and are more lively in their motions than those
of the north. The Faroese in general have open
countenances, a healthy complexion, and more va-
ried hair than the Icelanders. Brown is, however,
the prevailing colour, and in most of the islands it
is cut short, but in Suderoe, according to the an-
cient custom, it is allowed to hang in long, straight
tufts, or in ringlets over the shoulders, and some-
times reaches to the middle of the back. In their
general character they still exhibit many of their an-
cestral virtues, and, with little education or art, are
an industrious, contented race, though the latter
quality is apt to degenerate into a listless indiffer-
ence. Their moral standing is also very high, while
their remote and inaccessible dwellings might seem
fitted only for the retreats of robbers and pirates.
Theft is almost unknown among them; and, though
their doors are never locked, nothing is ever stolen,
even when famine is raging in the land. To for-
eigners they are particularly attentive, being ever
ready to anticipate their wants, or to communicate
all the information in their power. They appear to
take great delight in conversing with them, without,
however, pressing themselves on their notice, or in-
terrupting each other in answering questions. Their
hospitality, it has been well remarked, is, to a mind
not altogether devoid of feeling, truly affecting.
When a stranger approaches a cottage, the master
meets him at the door, stretches out his hand, and,
bidding him welcome, leads him into the house. He
at once fills a glass, first tastes it himself, and then
presents it to his guest with a renewed welcome
After this the females of the family make their ap-
pearance and salute the visiter: a ceremony from
which the amtman is alone exempted. In a peas-
ant's dwelling Graba was treated to coffee and other
336 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
refreshments; then the wife, her husband being ab-
sent at the court, insisted on showing him the house
and premises; when this was finished, he found an-
other meal prepared for him; yet it would have
been thought a great insult to have offered any com-
pensation, the lady thanking him for the honour he
had done her poor dwelling, and making him prom-
ise to remain some days with her if he again return-
ed to that place. In every habitation there is a
room set apart for guests, and never used by any of
the family. The best food they possess is also set
before them, the only recompense that can be made
or will be accepted being a present to the wife or
daughter of a few yards of riband or a silk napkin.
The Faroese are, in general, remarkably intelli-
gent, owing probably to the varied nature of their
employments, which improves and strengthens their
mental endowments. Such are the propriety and
acuteness of their remarks, that Graba declares he
would rather converse a whole day with one of
them, than half an hour with a common German
peasant. They are, at the same time, fond of read-
ing, and eager for information on all subjects. Edu-
cation was formerly conducted, as in Iceland, by
the parents, the long winter evenings being em-
ployed for this purpose, as there were no schools in
the country. This, indeed, is the case in most of
the islands, each father teaching his children read-
ing, writing, and religion, as he himself was taught.
About ten years ago, however, a school on the Lan-
casterian method was established at Thorshavn, and
had soon an attendance of upward of a hundred
scholars. It was visited by the author just men-
tioned when at that place, who found the pupils pos-
sessed of a very complete knowledge of reading,
writing, arithmetic, and geography.
Even the amusements of this people are more
simple than those found among many savage na-
tions. Music, till it began to be taught in the school
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 337
at Thorshavn, was hardly known by name, though
the children manifest no incapacity to learn it. With
the exception of the Danish authorities, it is doubt-
ful if any individual in Faroe has a musical instru
ment. The singing in the churches is of the most
defective character, many of the clerks, according
to the writer just quoted, not possessing half the
professional talent of a Northern diver. Their dan-
cing is equally simple with their music, and con-
sists merely in twelve or sixteen of them taking
each other by the hand, and moving slowly round,
singing at the same time some traditionary tale or
love-song. The airs are sometimes wild, and not
without harmony, though, in general, rather monoto-
nous. Often in fine weather they continue dancing
in this manner for hours at a time, all dressed in
their best clothes, and joining in the song.
The food of the Faroese is principally barley-
meal or groats, milk, flesh, and fish; while bread,
beer, and salt are reckoned among articles of luxu-
ry, and brandy is only drunk on festive occasions.
The breakfast consists in general of barley-bread,
with milk or fat, and in autumn, when the lambs are
killed, of their blood boiled with milk. Dinner is
formed of fish and water-gruel in which bones or
suet has been boiled, or of soup made from meat
and turnip-leaves. On holydays a large pot is put
on the fire. in which seabirds are boiled for supper.
Among their greatest delicacies they reckon dried
lamb, eaten raw with tallow, and dried whale-flesh,
which has often hung in the air for more than twelve
months, and is said somewhat to resemble in taste
and toughness a piece of leather. The whale is
also eaten fresh, and resembles coarse beef, with
but little flavour. Several kinds of seafowl are
used, of which the puffins are thought the best, to
which they add the guillemots and young cormo-
rants. The quantity of fat consumed by them is
enormous; and it is said that after the Faroese have
FF
338 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE
feasted on a fresh whale for a fortnight, their faces,
hands, and even their hair shine with the blubber,
which seems as if oozing from every pore.*
*
The clothing of the Faroese consists almost en-
tirely of woollen stuff of their own manufacture,
as only the more wealthy have linen shirts. When
in full dress, the men wear a long frock of dark
brown or black, reaching to the knees, and equally
wide at the top and bottom. In front there is a row-
of buttons, the holes for which are sewed with red
worsted. The waistcoat and breeches are of the
same black cloth, and are, in like manner, adorned
at the pockets and knees with red and white buttons.
The stockings are of black, gray, or blue wool, and
the shoes of one piece of yellow sheepskin, and
are so thin and pliable that the toes can be used in
climbing the rocks. The cap is generally striped
with red and blue, and is about nine inches high.
The attire of the females differs little from that of
the peasants in Scotland, except in the headdress.
Young women wear the hair bare till they are mar-
ried; after which it is combed back, and covered
with a white linen cap, on which a stiff broad bor-
der of coarse lace rises perpendicularly, and is fast-
ened under the chin by a coloured kerchief.†
Thorshavn being the only town in the islands,
most of the inhabitants live dispersed in small villa-
ges in the neighbourhood of the cultivated land.
These boigdelags, as they are called, are always
placed near the sea, usually where two mountains
sink down so as to form a level valley, or where the
declivity of the hill is such that the ground, general-
* Graba, Tagebuch, p. 120, 145, 214, 228. Landt, p. 374–376.
According to Debes, before using the tallow, it is first allowed
to putrefy a little, and is then melted into cakes of 36 lbs. each,
which are buried in the moist earth, and thought the better the
longer they are kept, p. 264, 265.
Debes, p. 270. Landt, p. 376-381. Graba, Tagebuch, p
30-32.
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 339
ly of decomposed rock, can be tilled. The cultiva-
ted fields or indmark are surrounded with high stone
walls, to protect them from the cattle which feed at
large in the udmarket or uncultivated ground be-
yond. The village consists of single houses, arran-
ged in rows or groups according to the nature of
the locality. On some large unconnected stones,
or against the bare rock, they place cross-beams, to
which six or eight upright posts are fixed, which
form the skeleton of the house, and support a roof
of boards covered with barley-straw, or birch-bark
from Norway, which is thought better for resisting
the moisture. On this are laid grass sods, from six
to nine inches thick, on which is seen the first green
of spring, long before the verdure in the fields has
begun to appear. The walls are covered with boards,
those on the outside being placed lengthwise, and
protected by tar from the moisture; those in the in-
terior run up and down, and are either smoothly
planed or painted. In the rooms, therefore, nothing
is seen but wood, even round the chimney and fire-
place; yet fires are said to be extremely rare, as
the timber, when saturated with turf-smoke, is not
readily inflammable. In the poorer dwellings a hole
in the roof serves for both chimney and window,
being closed with a board during rain, and the apart-
ment accordingly is at once dark and full of smoke.
The better houses are more inhabitable, though often
so low that one cannot stand upright in them. The
best room, or strangers' apartment, has glass win-
dows, a down-bed, chest of drawers, a long table,
with benches or chairs, and is generally kept clean
and neat. Next to this is a small kitchen or a dai-
ry, and then the common dwelling, here well named
roegstue or smokeroom, in which the fire is placed
either close to the wooden walls or in the middle
of the apartment. In this are beds for the family,
tables, chairs, and their spinning-wheels and locms.
Next is the house for the cows, composed of stones
340 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FARCE.
and carefully plastered with mud. Then follow
the buildings for drying flesh, and fish; the former
of thin laths of wood an inch separate from each
other, in which the sheep killed in autumn are hung
up to dry, and often remain a year. The latter is
merely a slight roof supported on stone pillars, un-
der which the fish are suspended on sticks.*
The manner of life of this people is, as might be
expected, simple in the extreme. They labour will-
ingly and industriously, but their pride will not per-
mit them to seek work. A servant never inquires
after a master, and a fisherman will almost sooner
starve than ask the proprietor of a boat to take him
along with him. Both must look out for assistants,
and these, when procured, always require to be treat-
ed as the equals of their employers. A clergyman
having sent to some workmen to say that they must
do so and so, received for answer that they did not
understand the word "must;" if it was a command,
they would not follow it; but if a request, they would
willingly do what he desired. The pastor, offended
at this, answered that they might understand it as
they chose; to which they replied, that they would
take it as a wish. The great employment in the
summer months is fishing, in which they are fre-
quently exposed to the wind and rain during twenty-
four hours, with nothing in the boat except a piece
of dried fish, barley-bread, and cold water. When
successful, they sometimes gain a dollar a day; but
often return with perhaps a single fish, which must
be divided between the proprietor of the boat, the
Church, and the four fishermen who generally go to-
gether. The storms also frequently prevent them
from putting to sea for several days, and even at
Thorshavn, fresh fish can hardly be procured oftener
than twice a week.
At other times during the summer, the natives
* Graba, Tagebuch, p. 28, 85–88. Landt, p. 381-385.
1
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 341
are employed in preparing hay or in cultivating
their fields, which is done entirely with the hoe, as
the rocky soil precludes the use of the plough.
They have often to travel miles to look after their
sheep, and they must sometimes run a greater dis-
tance before they can find a horse when they require
one. There are no wheel carriages in the country,
and the turf is brought home from the moors in
wooden panniers or baskets slung across the ani-
mal's back. Where the seafowl haunt, the natives
are occupied some weeks in gathering their eggs and
young, or in catching the old birds. In winter, both
sexes are employed in spinning wool, and in knit-
ting or weaving it into various articles of dress,
while the long evenings are set apart for the instruc-
tion of the children.
There are few mechanics who follow separate
trades in those islands, with the exception of some
smiths and carpenters in Thorshavn and some other
of the larger villages. Every one prepares all that
he requires, making not merely his own woollen
coat and shirt, but his own house and boat. There
are, accordingly, but very few artificers in Faroe,
and these are mostly self-taught, though the people
seem naturally to have a mechanical turn. Landt
mentions two who were combmakers, and others
who manufactured buttons of horsehair; Graba
found the sysselman of Waagoe famed for boat-
building and making knives; while the same func-
tionary in Suderoe made and repaired clocks and
watches without any previous instruction.*
*
Such are the common employments of the natives
of these islands, to most of which they have been
led by the nature of the country they inhabit. For
the same reason, they closely resemble those of the
inhabitants of the western isles of Scotland,
* Landt, p. 366, 367. Graba, p. 72–74, 99.
D
D
342 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
་
"Where the plain harmless native his small flock,
And herd diminutive of many hues,
Tends on the little island's verdant swell,
The shepherd's seagirt reign; or, to the rocks
Dire-clinging, gathers his ovarious food;
Or sweeps the fishy shore; or treasures up
The plumage, rising full, to form the bed
Of luxury."
The most important, probably, of all these occupa-
tions are the fisheries, though they are by no means
carried to such an extent as might seem practicable,
and have latterly been less successful, owing to the
fish deserting the shores or changing their ground.
Fishing for the cod and herring is preferred by the
natives, and most of those taken are salted for ex-
portation. Besides these, they also catch the had-
dock, sey or green cod (Merlangus virens), torsk,
plaice, and flounder, which are chiefly used by them-
selves. The taking of whales, though more lucra
tive, is only pursued when those huge animals ap-
proach their shores, and is thus-very uncertain. Few
words have a more agreeable sound to the Faroese
than the word grind, whale. If mentioned in a com-
pany, every face brightens up with joy, and the in-
telligence that a shoal has been seen approach-
ing the islands operates like an electric shock, the
whole village, old and young, being instantly in mo-
tion. The grind is the ca'ing whale (Delphinus me-
las) of Orkney and Shetland, where it is found in
large herds, and measures about twenty feet in
length and eight or ten in circumference. When
Graba was at Thorshavn a number were discovered,
and the signal was given by a jacket suspended from
a mast. Immediately the joyful sound of "Grinda-
bud" echoed from every corner of the town, and
the streets were filled with men running to the boats
with their whale-spears in their hands, while their
careful wives followed them with some dried fish
for food, the chase often lasting more than a day.
In ten minutes eleven eight-oared boats were push-
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 343
ing out to sea, while two at the southern end of
Nalsoe had already hoisted the joyful signal. Pil-
lars of smoke were ascending from the surrounding
islands, and the whole fiord was soon crowded with
persons anxious to share the chase and spoil. The
boats, at about a hundred paces from each other,
formed a semicircle round the fish, urging them
slowly forward to the bay of Thorshavn. Scarcely
a fourth of the animals were visible; sometimes one
raised its head, spouting out a column of water, and
again only the high back-fin, or a small part of the
body, was seen. When they tried to pass the boats
they were turned back by stones or pieces of lead
fastened to fishing-lines and cast into the sea. As
they drew near the shore, which swarmed with men
ready to begin the work of destruction, they became
more and more restless, pressing together into a
close band, and paying less regard to the stones or
blows of the oars. At the entrance of the Wester-
vaag, which is about 250 paces broad and twice as
long, the fish, tired of being driven forward like a
flock of sheep, seemed about to turn, while the coun-
tenances of the pursuers betrayed a curious mixture
of fear, hope, anxiety, and expectation. Raising a
loud cry, they forced their boats among the herd,
striking them with their harpoons. The wounded
animals rushed forward with frightful rapidity, fol-
lowed by the whole crowd, and soon ran themselves
on the shore. Then began the work of death. The
men in the boats hastened after the fish, piercing
them with their lances, while those on shore rushed
into the water, cutting them with their knives, or,
fastening a rope to the blowing-hole of the wounded,
drew them to land and there despatched them. The
dying animals beat the water furiously with their
tails, or spouted out a stream of blood from their
nostrils, so that the pure crystal of the harbour was
soon converted to crimson. The character of the
inhabitants seemed completely changed, and their
344 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
faces, hands, and clothes stained with gore, with
their inflamed countenances, in which no trace of
compassion was visible, made them look more like
the cannibals of the South Seas than the mild and
On this occasion it was
gentle natives of Faroe.
found that eighty whales had been killed; and some
that had escaped into the clear water again returned,
and shared the fate of their companions.
•
After a short repose the division of the spoil suc-
ceeds, which is performed by the sysselman of the
district, if possible in the presence of the amtman,
as it is often impossible for the former to keep or-
der among so many excited and interested individ-
uals. The distribution is made according to ancient
regulations; and it is curious that in Normandy,
where this species of whale was formerly caught in
the same manner, a law still exists regulating the
division on the same principle. Each fish is meas-
ured, and its size marked on its skin in Roman num-
bers; the tithe is then set apart, the largest whale
given to the boat which first discovered the shoal,
then others for the poor and the clergyman are se-
lected, after which the remainder are divided accord-
ing to stated rules between the proprietor of the
ground and the persons who drove them on shore.
The flesh is either eaten fresh, or cut into slices and
hung up to dry, while the blubber is converted into
train-oil, or salted in casks or barrels, and, when
these fail, in boats. The fat on the sides of the fish,
when hung up for a week or two, will keep for
years, and is used instead of bacon by the natives.*
Besides this, there is another species of whale,
caught chiefly at Qualboe in a very singular man-
ner. This is the beaked variety (Balena rostrata),
which is from twenty-eight to thirty feet long. When
one is seen on the surface of the water, the fisher-
men gently approach it, and one of them tickles it
* Graba, p. 222-233. Landt, p. 356-362. Debes, p. 171-177.
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 345
on the back with an oar, by which it is so pleased
that it allows another to stop up its blowing-holes
with his woollen mitten or stocking, which prevents
it from sinking. They then make an incision in the
blubber, carefully avoiding the flesh, through which
they fasten a fishing-line, and pull the animal softly
to the shore, where they quickly destroy it with their ·
spears.
*
The seal forms another source of gain to the Faro-
ese, and there are two species sought after the first
is the common seal (phoca vitulina), which is usually
shot sleeping on the rocks; the other (the phoca his-
pida) is caught in the caves to which it retires to
bring forth its young. The men enter these retreats
in boats, and destroy, with clubs, first the old ones
and then the calves. In some cases it is necessary
to use torches, which blind the animals, and give
the fishermen an advantage over them, though they
often, especially the males, defend themselves with
great fierceness, and many of them escape. The
females are more easily secured, either remaining
by their young, or returning to them though they
may have fled at the first. The mothers often push
the little ones into the sea, but even there, from their
ignorance of swimming, their pursuers speedily de-
spatch them. In each den there is an old seal call-
ed by the natives the latuverjar, or defender of the
cave, which they are afraid to attack unless sure of
assistance. Eight or ten seals are generally killed at
a time in these recesses, but sometimes twenty or
thirty, though they are now fewer and shyer than
formerly. The skins are used for shoes, and the fat
melted into oil, but few of the people eat the flesh,
*hough it is said to be well tasted.†
* This story seems rather marvellous, but is confirmed by all
the writers on Faroe. See Debes, r. 179--181. Landt, p. 363
Graba, p. 205. The blubber of this whale is not eaten, as it im-
parts a yellow colour and fetid smell to the clothes.
+ Landt, p 344. Debes, p. 166-170. Graba, p. 208-214.
346 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
The inhabitants of Faroe use almost every species
of seafowl for food, with the exception of the gulls,
skuas, and cormorants. All the others, particularly
the auks, guillemots, and puffins, are eaten either
fresh, salted, or dried; and in May the population of
many islands subsist entirely on eggs. The seafowl
are here caught in three ways, either by the line, the
fowling-pole, or the net. The last is the simplest
and least dangerous method. To the end of a staff
ten or twelve feet long, two other pieces are fixed
like the prongs of a fork, at about eighteen inches
from each other, between which is stretched a net
with meshes about two inches wide. The fowler,
provided with this instrument, is rowed under the
rocks where the young birds, on leaving the nest,
usually sit, when, as they are by no means shy, he
easily casts the net over them; and, as they always
seek refuge in the water, they push their heads
through the meshes, where they remain hanging till
they are pulled into the boat and killed by breaking
their necks. The second method, by climbing the
rocks from the sea, is more dangerous, and usually
conducted by four in company. Two remain in the
boat to collect the birds thrown down to them from
above, while the other two, fastened together by a
rope fifty or sixty feet long, ascend the precipice.
The one scrambles up the cliff, assisted by his com-
panion below, who pushes him upward by means of
a small board fixed to the end of a long pole, till he
has reached a place where he can stand securely.
He then draws the second up by the line fastened to
Both their bodies, and this process is continued alter-
nately till they have reached the shelves where the
fowls haunt. On many of these the birds are so tame
as to allow themselves to be caught with the hand;
on others they are taken in the net as they fly past,
and frequently two or three at a time where they are
plentiful, so that in a few hours some hundreds are
killed and thrown down. In descending the process
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 347
is reversed; but accidents, by the falling of the rock
or slipping of one of the fowlers, often occur.
The first-named mode, which is at once the most
common and successful, is by letting a man down
from the top of the cliffs by a rope. This is about
three inches thick, and from 600 to 1200 feet long,
and is fastened to the waist and thighs by a broad
woollen band, on which he sits. The fowler (fugle-
mand) is let down by this over the perpendicular
rocks, the rope being prevented from chafing by a
piece of smooth wood on which it slides. The da-
ring adventurer soon loses sight of his companions,
and can only communicate with them by a small line
attached to his body. It requires great skill to pre-
vent the turning round of the cord, the inexperienced
being wheeled about in a circle, and thus exposed to
great danger. When he reaches the terraces, often
not more than a foot broad, he frees himself from
the rope, fastens it to a stone, and commences his
pursuit of the feathery natives. Where the nests
are in a hollow of the rock, the bird-catcher gives
himself a swinging movement by means of his pole,
till the vibration carries him so close that he can get
footing on the cliff. He can communicate a motion
to himself of thirty or forty feet; but, when the shelf
lies deeper, another rope is let down to his associ-
ates in the boat, who can thus give him a swing of
100 or 120 feet. When the labour is over, the man
is drawn up by his companions. Where the rocks
are less elevated, a person can fasten a line to the
top, and let himself down alone.
This occupation is attended with many dangers.
The greatest care cannot prevent the rope from
sometimes breaking; a stone detached from the cliffs
falls on the unfortunate fowler; or, in swinging him-
self, he misses his footing, and is dashed against the
rock. When landed on the terrace new dangers
await him; he may lose his balance and fall into the
sea, or the projection on which he rests may itse.
348 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
give way. The number of fowls, however, that may
be caught in this manner, is sufficient to induce the
hardy natives to risk their lives. They complain, in-
deed, though in some places without sufficient reason,
that the birds are constantly decreasing. On a small
dreng, or isolated rock in the sea, 2400 puffins, which
are taken in their holes without any danger, have
been secured in one year; and 5000 old birds, with
their eggs, have been obtained in three days on Store
Dimon. On Lille Dimon, the number formerly caught
is said to have been 7000 annually, though at pres-
ent it does not exceed 2000, and one man has been
known to enclose with his net 950 birds in a single
day.*
Nature has placed great hinderances in the way of
any extensive cultivation in Faroe. The short sum-
mer is often interrupted by weeks of continued rain,
during which the sun's rays seldom penetrate the
thick mists and clouds. The soil of decomposed
trap is fertile, but in general extremely thin, and bro-
ken into small patches by projecting points of rock,
which prevent the use of the plough. In those pla-.
ces where the form of the land would permit it to
accumulate in greater abundance, the cold, damp cli-
mate has produced a formation of peat very unfa-
vourable to vegetation. Agriculture is, therefore, as
might be expected, in no very flourishing condition,
and the ground is prepared in a careless, slovenly
style. The manure is carried to the fields on horses'
backs, or in some very steep places by men, and
scattered on the fields, which are arranged in slo
ping beds or ridges running from the top to the bottom
of the declivities. The seed is not harrowed, but
mixed with the soil by spades, and the surface lev-
elled by beating it with a flat board. The usual erop
is barley, as no other species of grain succeeds, and
even this seldom ripens. Potatoes are increasing in
* Landt, p. 333-343. Graba, p. 110-117. Debes, p. 143, &c.
..
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 349
favour, and turnips are also cultivated. In Stromoe,
the return is only, even in the most fertile spots, from
six to eight fold; but in Sandoe and Suderoe sixteen
or even twenty fold is not uncommon. The inhabi-
tants are obliged to sow their own half-ripe, shrivel-
led grain year after year, as that imported from Den-
mark has its vegetative power destroyed by being
kiln-dried. As no grass seeds are ever sown, the land,
after the crop is removed, remains barren for three
years, when it is again covered with grass, in which
there is at first a large proportion of sorrel. This is
succeeded by finer herbage, but in six or eight years
the field must be again broken up, to destroy the moss
which chokes the grass. The hay harvest is ex-
posed to great uncertainty from the frequent rains;
and violent tornadoes often destroy the best hopes of
a plenteous crop. The ears of the barley are common-
ly plucked off by the hand, and the corn trodden out
by the women walking or leaping on a wooden floor.
It is made into meal by a simple handmill, as it hap-
pens to be required for the family, though water-mills
have lately been introduced. The cultivated ground
does not amount to a sixtieth part of the whole, and
the inhabitants have to make good their scanty crops
by importing barley, rye, and pease from the Conti-
nent.
Gardening is much neglected in those islands,
though many of our most useful vegetables would
grow there. Pease, salad, radishes, parsley, parsnips,
carrots, and several species of cabbage, all succeed,
though they suffer occasionally from the high winds.
Several of the fuci on the shore are eaten, and thera
are many wild antiscorbutic plants of great value to
the natives. Various attempts have been made to
plant trees in Faroe, but all without success, as they
rarely survive the first or second winter. There are,
accordingly, no fruit-trees in the gardens, if we ex-
cept black and red currants. with a few wild berries.*
* Landt, p. 274-302. Hassel, vol. x., p. 211. The older ex
350 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
1
More attention is paid to the feeding of cattle than
to agriculture, the fields being in many parts covered
with thick grass unmixed with any noxious weeds.
This branch of industry might be greatly increased,
were it not for the difficulty of procuring hay for
their winter food. The horses are small but spirited,
strong and sure-footed. They seem of the Norwegian
or Shetland breed, are of a dark colour, with large
heads, and so low that the rider's feet easily touch
the ground. They are seldom used for riding, and
their whole caparison is, in most cases, nothing more
than a woollen cloth and a halter of the same material,
bits or stirrups being unknown. They receive no
care or attention from their masters, being allowed
to remain the whole year in the open air; and it is
said that a good one may be bought for six Danish
dollars, or thirteen shillings sterling. The cows are
also small and ill-shaped, but, from the rich pasture,
frequently become very fat, the carcass weighing
250 to 300 lbs. Their original sheep were a peculiar
breed, but, as others have often been introduced from
Iceland and Shetland, they now vary much in differ-
ent places. In the northern islands they are white,
but in the southern brown or black, and the wool is
of a tolerably good quality. They are either partly
or altogether wild, and remain in the open field the
whole year, except in the spring and autumn, when
they are driven into enclosures. The first time is
for the wool, which is not shorn, but, as in Iceland,
pulled off the sheep. This appears more cruel than
it really is, as only that part of the fleece which is
ready to fall of its own accord is taken, and the rest
suffered to remain fourteen days longer, when they
are again collected. All the wool is gathered into
a heap, and divided among the farmers in proportion
to the extent of their ground. The sheep are again
periments on raising trees will be found in Landt, p. 302-308,
and some more recent ones, principally by the clergy, in Graba,
p. 191-194.
·
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 351
brought together in autumn, when those are selected
which are to be killed. The flocks are sometimes
pretty numerous, a single peasant possessing from
400 to 500. The only other domestic animals are a
few swine and dogs, the latter of which are so highly
valued that a cow is occasionally given in exchange
for one. *
The farmers in Faroe are either proprietors of
their land, named Odelsbond, or hold it from the
crown on the payment of a certain tax, varying ac-
cording to the quality of the soil. There are a few
who rent ground from private persons, and others
who live entirely by fishing. The population in 1769
amounted to 4775, of whom 4558 belonged to the
class of peasants, 108 were citizens, and 119 of the
clerical order. In 1812 it had increased to 5209,
of whom 2588 were males and 2621 females; the
confirmed personst of the former sex being 1766,
and of the latter 1815. Since that time it has con-
tinued to advance, and on the 18th February, 1834,
the islands contained 6928 inhabitants. To the
credit of the people it may be mentioned, that the
illegitimate children only average from three to six
in the year. Marriages cannot be contracted with-
out the permission of the authorities, who sometimes
refuse it when the parties are not able to show some
means of supporting a family. The inhabitants are
extremely healthy and live to a great age, an old
man of ninety-three having lately rowed the gov-
ernor's boat nearly ten miles. The population,
however, increases very slowly, though the islands
could easily support a considerably greater number,
* Hassel, vol. x., p. 212. Landt, p. 308-333. Graba, p. 130,
200-202.
+ Persons to whom the religious rite of confirmation has been
administered, in which the recipient, having arrived at a proper
age, solemnly ratifies or confirms by his own act what was
promised by his sponsors in his behalf in baptism, and by which
he is presumed to be qualified to receive the communion.-Am.
Ed.
352 HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF FAROE
and but few diseases are prevalent among them.
Of these, fevers and rheumatism are the most com-
mon, and a curious epidemic sickness, which often
prevails after the arrival of the ships from Den-
mark in the spring, though it does not attack stran-
gers. This is a kind of catarrhal fever, named
Kriim by the natives, many of whom think that it
is brought by the captains of the ships in a box. It
often proves fatal, and spreads so rapidly that in
eight days from its appearance at Thorshavn, of
140 children only seven could attend school, and it
was with great difficulty that ten men could be pro-
cured to work a boat.*
The trade of these islands is very inconsiderable,
though thought of sufficient importance to be re-
tained as a government monopoly. The principal
exports are wool, woollen stockings amounting to
from 112,000 to 120,000 pairs annually, jackets,
train-oil, feathers, and skins. Tallow, fish dried or
salted, and butter are also exported, but in small quan-
tities, as these are mostly consumed by the inhabi-
tants. The whole amount has been calculated at
from 30,000 to 36,000 rix-dollars, or from £3300 to
£4000. The imports, of about equal value, are
chiefly grain, fishing-lines and hooks, wood, iron,
lead, nails, gunpowder, tar, salt, brandy, tobacco,
and a little sugar and coffee, together with a few
books for schools, for amusement, and also for re-
ligious purposes. Two ships are employed in the
trade, which together usually make five voyages in
the year. It is the universal wish, on the islands
that this monopoly should be abolished, as the peo-
ple are charged fifty per cent. above the real price
* Hassel, p. 214. Landt, p. 407-414. Graba, p. 89, 91, 117,
147, 191. It is somewhat singular that Pennant mentions a simi-
lar disease as occurring in St. Kilda immediately after the arri
ral of a stranger; and in the islands of the Pacific it is said
that the first Europeans generally occasion some fatal malady,
hough they may be themselves perfectly healthy.
HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF FAROE. 353
for the articles imported, and receive as much less
for those that they export. Even Graba, though a
Danish subject, and a supporter of the present sys-
tem, admits that the Faroese could both sell their
own produce to better advantage, and supply their
wants at a cheaper rate, in Scotland than at Copen-
hagen. But he thinks that, even if free, their trade
would soon become a monopoly of one house, and
the inhabitants be no better off in good years than
at present; while they could not expect as much
assistance from the government as they now re-
ceive in cases of want. Landt states that the prof-
its of this trade amounted, in the thirty-one years
from 1749 to 1780, to 197,237 rix-dollars, but from
this the other would subtract the loss sustained by
the crown on corn, which is always sold at a fixed
price. The best proof of the advantage of this
commerce is its continuance, though to it we must
ascribe the depressed state and apathy of the na-
tives, which, however, it seems by no means the pol-
icy of their rulers to amend.*
As already mentioned, the ecclesiastical affairs
were formerly conducted by a bishop, for whom,
soon after the introduction of the Protestant religion,
a provost or dean was substituted. This person was
subordinate to the Bishop of Bergen so long as the
trade was carried on from that town, but, when this
intercourse ceased, the superintendence was trans-
ferred to the Bishop of Copenhagen. There is now
a provost or dean and seven clergymen, each of
whom has from four to seven churches in his par-
ish, in which he has to officiate. There are, in all,
thirty-nine congregations; some, separated from the
principal edifice by arms of the sea, are visited but
once in six or seven weeks, and in two places only
twice in the year. The people do not, however, neg-
* Hassel, vol. x, p. 213. Landt, p. 372-374. Graba, p. 5,
239-241.
354 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE.
lect divine service in the absence of their pastor, but
meet regularly in the church, where one of them
reads the prayers and a printed sermon or homily.
Worship is conducted entirely in the Danish lan-
guage, which is understood by all the natives, and
most of the clergymen are of that lation. This for-
eign attachment has a very bad effect on the inter-
course between the ministers and people, as the for-
mer are always anxious to return home, and seldom
remain more than six years in Faroe, after which
they have a preference to the best livings in Den-
mark. That mutual friendship and confidence, which
can only grow up after years of acquaintance, is
thus completely lost. Formerly both the civil and
ecclesiastical authorities were, with much reason,
accused of intemperance and laziness, but this has
now ceased to be the case, especially since the gov
ernor Von Tillisch established a library at Thors-
havn, which in 1828 numbered 800 volumes, mostly
historical and theological. The language of the peo-
ple is scarcely ever written, though Pastor Schräder,
a native of the islands, has translated the Gospel of
St. Matthew into it. This version has been pub-
lished by the Danish Bible Society, but, unfortunate-
ly, to little purpose, as it is said that no Faroese can
understand it. The revenue of the clergy, arising
partly from voluntary offerings, church fees, their
share (one third) of the tithes, and the produce of
their glebes, is very inconsiderable, and by no means
sufficient to compensate for the labours and priva-
tions they must undergo. The churches are ex-
tremely small, similar in construction to the houses
of the peasants, and, in general, entirely destitute of
ornament.*
The political government of Faroe is similar to that
of Iceland, though on a smaller scale. At the head of
* Debes, p. 315, &c. Landt, p. 69, 415 421. Graba, p. 43
70, 124, 208.
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF FAROE. 355
the whole is an amtman or governor, who is at the
same time usually commander at Thorshavn. The
land-voigt is president of the court of justice, from
which there is an appeal to the supreme court at
Copenhagen. The other members are the lagman
or chief-justice, the sorenscriver, and the six syssel-
men, who, though without education, are the judges
in their respective districts. The landvoigt is also
president of the consistory or ecclesiastical synod
of the seven clergymen. The revenue is principally
derived from the taxes, tithes, quit-rents, and royal
domains. Of the first, the most important is a cer-
tain quantity of tallow or wool, and so many skins,
paid by the farmers in proportion to the number of
sheep which they possess or kill. The wool thus
collected is sold to the natives of Thorshavn at a
fixed price, the other produce being sent to Den-
mark. The whole revenue in 1790 was only 3172
dollars, and Hassel, since then, states it at 2700,
which does not pay the expenses of administering
the government. These islands are thus but of very
inconsiderable importance to the crown; nor, unless
a more liberal mode of management, and one better
fitted to develop the internal resources of the coun-
try, be adopted, is it at all probable that the revenue
will increase.*
* Hassel, vol. x., p. 215. Landt, p. 414.
INDEX.
Agriculture, in Iceland, 204, | Colonization of Iceland, 97
211. In Faroe, 348, 349.
Althing, the, 101, 106, 162, 189.
America, its discovery, 268-276.
Angekkoks, magicians, 302.
Are Frode's works, 153.
Areson, Bishop, 177, 181, 182.
Arnald, bishop of Greenland,
278-280.
Arngrim Jonas, his works, 185.
Aurora Borealis, 245, 246.
Baal's River, Greenland, 251.
Balder, an Icelandic deity, 117.
Baula Mountain, 87.
Berserker, 109.
Bible, translation of, 184, 222.
Biorn Asbrandson, 275.
Biorn Thorleifson, 175.
Bird-catching in Faroe, 346-
348.
Bird-rocks, 325.
Bishops, appointed in Iceland,
129. In Greenland, 278. List
of, 283.
Boats of Greenlanders, 308, 309.
Bordoe Island, 322.
Breida Fiord, hot-springs in, 50.
Breidamark Jökul, 18, 19.
Cattle, number of, in Iceland,
212. Feeding, in Faroe, 350.
Children, exposed by the hea-
then, 113. Practice abolish-
ed, 127. Proportion of, to
population in Iceland, 209.
Christianity, in Iceland, 108,
113, 126. In Greenland, 266.
In Faroe, 330
Clergy of Iceland, 130, 131, 179,
217, 219. in Faroe, 253.
Climate, of Iceland, 60-66 Of
Greenland, 242-245. Of Fa-
roe, 230.
100.
Colonies, Icelandic, in Green
land, 260-263.
Columbus visits Iceland, 174.
Commerce of Icelanders 169,
176, 187, 213, 214. Of Green
land, 314. Of Faroe, 352.
Crows direct Floki's voyage, 92.
Crusades preached in Iceland
166.
·
Desert, central, of Iceland, 22.
Desert of Greenland, 234.
Diseases, in Iceland, 210. In
Faroe, 352.
Diupavog, town, 80.
'Dress, of Icelanders, 205. Of
Esquimaux, 308. Of Faro.
ese, 338.
Duels in Iceland, 121, 122.
Drift-wood, 68.
Education of Icelanders, 196,
219-221.
Egede, Hans, mission of, 291-
295.
Einar, 278, 280.
Elldborg, Hill, 86.
Erik Raude, 264.
Eya Fiord, Iceland, 81.1
Fabricius, Otto, 252.
Farewell, Cape, 231, 253.
Farms, number in Iceland, 211.
Faroe, description and history
of, 316–355. Situation and
appearance, 317. Mountains,
318. Lakes, 319. Climate
320. Topography, 323-328.
Discovery, 329. Subjugation
by Norway, 331. Reforma-
tion, 333. Inhabitants, their
appearance and character,
EE
358
INDEX.
335. Education, 336. Amuse-
ments, ib. Food, 337. Dress,
338. Houses, 339. Employ-
ments, 340. Population, 351.
Commerce, 352. Govern-
ment, 354.
Faxa Fiord, 43.
Feast of ancient Icelanders,
125.
Fiords in Iceland, 41-45. In
Greenland, 336.
Fisheries, in Iceland, 199, 200,
211. In Faroe, 342.
Flatey Island, 85; MS. found
in, ib.
Floki sails to Iceland, 92.
Flugumyra, burning of, 141.
Forests, ancient, in Iceland, 64.
Frederic's Hope, 251.
Frobisher's voyage, 288.
Fugloe Island, 323.
Gardar, discovers Iceland, 91,
92.
Gerriksen, Bishop, death of,
172.
Geysers, 49-60.
[Note], ib.
Gissur, 111.
Glaciers, 17, 234.
Theory
Thorwaldson, 138.
Glama Jökul, 21.
Godar, magistrates, 103.
Godthaab, 251.
Graah, his voyage to Green-
land, 254.
Greenland, description of, 229-
onies, ib. Attempts for their
recovery, 289. Missions to,
292-296.
Greenlanders, appearance of,
255. Conversion, 266. Ori
gin, 296. First arrival in
country, 297. Character, 298.
Religion, 302. No govern-
ment, 303. Language, 304.
Food, 306. Habitations, 307.
Dress, 308. Marriages, 310.
Amusements, 311. Employ-
ments, 312. Commerce, 314.
Gudbrand Thorlakson, 82, 184.
Hakon, king of Norway, 136.
Subdues Iceland, 143.
| Haukadal, 76.
Heathen manners, 115-124.
Mythology, 115.
Heimskringla, the, 153.
Hekla, mountain, 26-29, 158.
Helgafell, heathen temple, 85.
Historical works of Icelanders,
147-156, 225.
Holum, town of, 82.
Hreppstiorar, magistrates, 102.
Husevik, trading town, 81.
Hverfisfliot River, 37, 47.
Hvitau River, 45, 47.
Ice, floating, 65, 238-240.
Iceblinks, large, 251, 256.
Iceland, 13-228. Situation and
extent, 14. Appearance, 15.
Mountains, 16. Volcanoes,
23-40. Fiords, 41-45. Riv-
ers, 44-48. Lakes, 48. Hot-
springs, 49-60. Climate, 61
-67. Topography, 69-87.
History, 87-191. Its discov-
ery, 90, 91. Government, 100,
215. Submission to King
Hakon, 143. Ancient litera-
ture, 145. Commerce, 169.
Reformation, 179. Revolu-
tion, 190. Population, 209.
Destruction of col- | Icelanders, conversion of, 108
Ice-
315. Form and extent, 231.
Interior, 233. Coasts, 236.
Glaciers, 236-238. Icebergs,
238-240. Climate, 242-245.
Topography, 248-260.
landic colonies in, 260-263.
history of, 263–315.
Discovery, 264. Coloniza-
tion, 266. Submission to
Norway, 276, 287. Bishops
of, 283.
INDEX.
359
Character and condition, 192-
228. Descent, 192. Appear-
ance, 193. Character, 194.
Hospitality, 195. Piety, 196.
Education, ib. Employ-
ments, 197, 204, 211. Amuse-
ments, 198. Fisheries, 199.
Trade, 203. Food, 204.
Dress, 205. Houses, 206.
Diseases, 210. Farms, 211.
Manufactures, 212. Reli-
gious condition, 217. Liter-
ature, 221-228.
Ingolf, 95.
Irland It Mikla, 274.
Jökuls, 16-40.
Jökul rivers, 45.
Jökulsau, 46, 47.
Juliana's Hope,
Greenland,
252.
Kaldau River, 48.
Klofa Jökuls, 20.
Krabla Mountain, 30, 31.
Kriim, disease in Faroe, 352.
Its
Lagerfliot, 47, 80.
Lagmann, his duties, 105, 106.
Landnamabok, the, 151, 155.
Language, ancient, of Iceland,
147. Of poetry, 156.
connexion with the Anglo-
Saxon, 160. Esquimaux lan-
guage, 304. Farcese, 354.
Laws, of Iceland, 101-108.
Laxau River, 46.
Leif or Hiorleif, colonizes Ice-
land, 95, 97.
Erikson, converts the
Greenlanders, 266. Sails to
Vinland, 269.
Leprosy, in Iceland, 210.
Lindenow's voyage to Green-
land, 289.
Literature of Iceland, ancient,
145. Historical, 148.
Poe-
try, 156. Its decline, 158.
Causes of its
Modern, 226.
general diffusion, 228.
Magic, 119, 179, 187.
Manufactures, in Iceland, 212.
In Faroe, 341.
Markarfliot River, 47.
Meteorological phenomena, in
Iceland, 67. In Greenland,
245-248.
+
Missions, to Greenland, 291..
296. Their influence, 314,
315.
Mogens Heinson, his voyag³,
287, 288.
Moravians, in Greenland, 294.
Moss, Iceland, 203.
Mountains, in Iceland, 16-44.
In Greenland, 232-239. In
Faroe, 318.
Mule Syssels, 79.
Myggenæs, island of, 320.
Myre Syssel, 86.
Mythology, Icelandic, 115–120.
Myvatn, volcano and lake, 29,
48.
Naddod, discovers Iceland, 91.
Obsidian, or Icelandic agate, 29.
Odaada-hraun, Horrid-lava, 32.
Oddur Gottschalkson, 180.
Odin, 116.
|
Oesteroe, island of, 323.
Olaf Tryggvason, 110.
St., 127. His authority
in Greenland, 276.
Olafsen and Povelsen, 224.
Ordeal, trial by, 120.
Papar, ancient Christians, 79
94.
Papey, island of, 80.
Pauperism, laws for, 102.
Pirates, 122, 186, 332.
Poetry, of Icelanders, 156. Its
language, 158, 159. Mod
ern poetry, 226.
*.
360
INDEX.
Rafntinnufiall Mountain, 29.
Refraction, effects of, 248, 262.
Reikholt, remains of, 73.
Reikiavik, capital of Iceland,
70, 71.
Roads in Iceland, 43.
Runes, their origin, 149.
Sagas, their origin and charac-
ter, 148. Time when writ-
ten, 151. Subjects of, 148,
152. Poetic sagas, 156..
School, at Bessestad, 219. At
Thorshavn, 337.
Scoresby's voyage, 258.
Seals, hunting, in Greenland,
313. In Faroe, 345.
Setstokkar, or consecrated pil-
lars, 96.
Sigmund Bresteson, 326.
Skalds, or ancient bards, 145,
147, 155, 163.
Skalholt, ancient capital of Ice-
land, 76.
Skaptaa River, 47.
Skaptaafells Syssels, 78..
Skaptar Jökul, eruption of, 36-
40.
Skrellings, 270, 282.
Skule, Jarl, 130.
Slavery, in Iceland, 123.
Smallpox, its ravages, 188.
Sneefield Mountain, 21, 85.
Snorro Sturleson, 135, 139.
His writings, 154.
|
Suderoe, island of, 327.
Surtshellin, cave of, 74.
Temples, heathen, 118.
Thangbrand, a missionary, 110.
Thingvalla, plain of, 49, 77.
Thor, the favourite deity of the
Icelanders, 105, 116.
Thorgei, 113.
Thorlakson, John, translator of
Thorshavn, capital of Faroe,
Milton in Iceland, 226.
321.
Thorwald Kodranson, first mis-
sionary in Iceland, 108.
Thrand, Faroese chief, 330 -
332.
270. His death, 271.
Thule, not Iceland, 89, 90.
Thunder, rare in Iceland, 63.
Trolladynger, volcano, 32.
In Faroe, 322.
Ulfliot, the Icelandic legislator,
101.
Uppernavik, colony of, in
Greenland, 250.
Vaagoe, Island, 326.
Vidalin, Jon, his writings, 222.
Vikingr, or pirates, 122.
Vinland, its history, 268-276.
Vogelberg, or bird-rocks, 325.
Volcanoes, 21, 23-40.
marine volcanoes, 35.
West-fiords, district of, 84.
Sub-
Springs, hot, 49-60, 241, 322. Westmanna Islands, 35, 78.
+
Analysis of, 59.
~, acid, 59.
in Faroe, 322.
Stank-Elven River, 47.
Stappen, rocks at, 85.
Stephensen, Chief justice, 226.
Store Dimon, island of, 326.
Sturle Sieghvatson, 137.
Thordson, 154.
Sturlunga, contests of, 134.
·
-
Whales, 342. Ca'ing whale,
ib. Beaked whale, 344.
Winds, in Iceland, 62.
Greenland, 245. In Faroe,
322.
In
Women, condition of, in an-
cient Iceland, 123. ·
Zeni, his voyage to Iceland,
168.
THE
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