The Gift of ELLA B. BUFFINGTON UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA LIBRARY ART FOLIAGE. } L.A. Baffinster. ART FOLIAGE BY J. K. COLLING FROM THE LATEST ENGLISH EDITION AND CO. BOSTON JAMES R. OSGOOD AND COMPANY 1880 U OF M BINDERY MAY 745 C691 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. དྡྷ EELING the great importance of good foliated decoration in archi- tecture and the subsidiary arts, I have endeavoured to supply a want which has long been felt, of some definite rules and exposition of principles which should guide the art-workman in his studies. With this object I have sought to take a wide and comprehensive view of foliage as conven- tionalized for art purposes, from the earliest times and without regard to style or epoch. The work, therefore, commences with an Analysis of Geometric Form which enters minutely into the composition of flat and carved decoration, as contained in diapers, borders, and centres; and as found developed in Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Chinese, Japanese, and Indian Architecture, as well as in the Byzantine, Romanesque, and Mediæval styles. In the second part, the object has been to offer instruction, as one might do to a pupil, by, as it were, taking the pencil out of his hand and drawing the forms before him, while at the same time fully explaining one's meaning and intention. Consequently, I have sought to express my ideas, upon this branch of the subject, without the slightest reserve-showing how one part has been suggested, and in what manner another part has originated-dwelling upon that which I considered to be of importance in the composition, or in the disposition of parts, and whatever else might be necessary to be kept in view. In short, elucidating as far as possible the process by which I arrived at the result shown by the plates, whatever may be their merits or demerits. Hence the reason why I have chosen to illustrate this portion of the work by my own compo- D 1155187 vi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. sitions. For doubtless, with much greater ease and far less trouble to myself, I could have selected old examples for this purpose; and had I done so, one thing is certain, I should have been more secure from the adverse judgment of a host of art critics. But I wished to teach by example as well as by precept. I have undertaken a difficult task, but have endeavoured to put the student in the right way at the beginning, and if I can but succeed in that, there can be no fear of his failing to arrive at a successful result. The second part, therefore, com- mences with Flat Decoration, leading on to relieved foliage, in spandrils and panels, until it attains to separate sculptured features, as, for example, in the capital of a column, Throughout the whole work I have insisted upon the value of simplicity of ornamentation, so strongly convinced am I that from losing sight of this point mainly arises the failure of modern ornamentation. The carver makes all his work too complicated-complicated in lines, and complicated in light and shade. He never can leave well alone, but gives himself up to an immensity of what we commonly call niggling work, in the finishing of his ornamentation. The consequence is, as some persons have remarked, that his work really looks better half finished than when completed. In this finishing process lines are so multiplied, and the work so split up into minute parts, that all breadth of effect is lost. For upwards of twenty years I have been earnestly studying nature for the purpose of its application to decorative purposes, and I am more than ever of opinion that we have not yet arrived at a true knowledge and appreciation of the artistic value of natural foliage as applied to decoration. We are far too content to adopt old conventional forms, or to remain satisfied with coarse imitations of nature. There must, however, be a concentration of men's minds in one direction, and with one object in view, before progress can be made. It has been so in all ages and in all arts, and no very great progress has ever been made at any one time, or by any one person. It is rather by the accumulated thoughts and efforts of many minds, steadily pursuing the same train of ideas, through several generations, that a true advance is made in art. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. vii At present, architecture and the decorative arts are in a most unsettled state, and every one appears to be striving after a style of his own-each more. outrageous than the last! If we thus proceed, as we have been doing of late years, in our rage for “sensational" architecture, no improvement can ever be expected. In the present day we are far too clever, we possess the ability to work in all styles, producing that of any one particular period with the most scrupulous correctness; or, on the other hand, a medley and a "hodge-podge" of all periods, more or less adroitly blended one with the other. In any new and distinct style of Architecture, which may hereafter arise in this country, foliated decoration must hold an important part, and if the present work aids in bringing about an appreciation of this importance, so as to direct the thoughts of others to the subject, its end will have been fully answered. The whole of the Plates contained in the work have been produced upon zine by myself, with the aid of my assistant, MR. OWEN W. DAVIS, to whom I am under the greatest obligations, for the interest and zeal he has shown in the work from its commencement to its completion. October, 1865. J. K. C. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. HERE is very little for me to say by way of preface to this second edition of my work on Art Foliage, except to acknowledge how much more it has been appreciated than I ever had any reason to expect, and to say that I feel highly flattered when I observe how extensively it has been used for decoration and carving in all parts of England during the ten years that it has been before the public. The work having been for some time past "out of print," and such copies as were to be occasionally met with fetching a largely increased price, has induced me to prepare this second edition, to which I have added an appendix, consisting of twenty plates, being a further series of original designs accompanied by letter-press and woodcuts. The letter-press throughout the work has been carefully revised, and in some cases condensed, where there was unnecessary repetition of language, while in others it has been extended where it appeared that I could render my meaning clearer and more perspicuous. The original edition contained twelve plates of natural foliage. These have been withdrawn from the present edition and their place supplied by the appendix; the reason for omitting the natural plates from the present edition being that I have been writing a separate work upon this portion of the subject, which I have much enlarged and extended, and entitled "Art Botany." This work will be profusely illustrated and will be shortly ready for publication. May, 1878. J. K. C. INTRODUCTION CONTENTS. Page 1 Chapter I., Elementary Principles PART I. ANALYSIS OF FORM. • Borders, triangular Chapter II., Diapers Chapter III., Borders Chapter IV., Centres PLATES. Plate Diapers Ditto 1 Ditto, square • 2 • Ditto, sprigs Plate Page 10 12 Ditto, rectangular دن هر 3 4 • 16 Ditto, branching and heart form 5 22 Ditto, guilloche and wave line. 6 Ditto, fret and Anthemion Centres, circular 7 8 • 9 10 PART II. ART FOLIAGE. Page Chapter III., Inlay Chapter I., Coloured Decoration Chapter II., Carved Wall Surface . Chapter IV., Spandrils Chapter V., Panels Chapter VI., Bosses or Centre Flowers Chapter VII., String-courses, Friezes, and Cornices Chapter VIII., Arch Mouldings PLATES. 29 Plate 36 Wall Diapers for Stencilling 11 41 Paper Hangings or Woven Fabrics 12 43 • Painted Wall Diapers 13 47 • 7 50 Panel Decoration 14 Painted Decoration. 15 Keystones and Arch Bands 16 52 Stone Quoins and Rustic Work 17 56 Carved Diapers 18 Chapter IX., Enriched Mouldings . 58 Marble Inlay . 19 Chapter X., Capitals 60 Ditto 20 Chapter XI., Corbels 65 · Spandril. 21 Chapter XII., Finials and Crockets Chapter XIII., Wooden Brackets and Stall Elbows Chapter XIV., Iron-work 68 Spandrils Stone Spandrils 222 69 Spandril. 24 71 • Wooden Pierced Spandrils 25 xii CONTENTS. Pinte Plate Stone Spandril 26 Enrichments for Arch Mouldings 44 Bracket and Centre Flower 27 Classic Mouldings 45 Ditto ditto 28 Ditto 46 Stone Panel 29 Coupled Capital 47 Ditto 30 Capital and Shaft for Woodwork 48 Panel or Boss . 31 Stone Capital. 49 Carved Vesica Ditto Cabinet Doors 32 Stone Capitals 50 33 Coupled Capital 51 · 34 Stone Corbel 52 • • Crosses, &c. 35 Ditto 53 Bosses or Centre Flowers 36 Stone Finials • Ditto 37 Stone Crockets Ditto 38 Bracket for Church Lettern String-courses, Cornices, &c. 39 Stall Elbows +385 54 55 56 57 · Ditto 40 Hinge, Lock Plate, and Closing Ring 58 Enriched Friezes 41 Stone Cornices 42 Wrought Iron Hinge and Closing Ring Metal Crestings 59 60 Carved Voussoirs and Double Spandril 43 PART III. APPENDIX. Plate Page Chapter I., Inlay 75 Ditto (Maple) 68 Chapter II., Stone Carving 77 Ditto (Hawthorn) . 69 Chapter III., Wood Carving 80 Oak Panels (upright) 70 Ditto ditto 71 Ditto ditto 72 PLATES. Oak Frieze Panels. 73 • Plate Inlaid Cross for Reredos . 61 Ditto 74 Inlaid Marble Flooring 62 Ditto 75 Stone Capitals and Foliage for Arches 63 Oak Oblong Panels 76 Foliated Gurgoyles 64 Oak Pierced Spandrils 77 Stone Rainwater Pipe-heads 65 Ditto ditto 78 Stone Corbel 66 Ditto ditto 79 • Stone Panel (Ivy). 67 Panelling for Oak Bench Ends 80 ERRATUM. Page 38, line 7, for "cavo rilievo,” read “ cavo relievo." 1 ART FOLIAGE. INTRODUCTION. N decoration, Nature teaches us a useful lesson, for, where, not frustrated by the hand of man, she enriches and clothes every portion of the habitable globe with beautiful foliage, and always such as is best suited to the spot. No sooner does man destroy the vegetation by turning up the soil than Nature hastens again to spread her beautiful and living mantle over the fresh earth-stretching out, as it were, her arms to cover up its nakedness. Nothing is left unadorned with beauty. Why should not we thus follow the teaching of Nature by enriching and clothing our own works with elegant foliage?—instead of extending, as we do in our great cities, miles of brickwork, covered with nothing but a monotonous coating of dingy-coloured cement, with long lines of plain run cornices, and with windows and doors surrounded by architraves and elaborate mouldings, which we, in our conceit, term decoration. No life, no thought, except for "how much it would cost per yard." Why do we not imitate nature, by covering up our bald, plain surfaces with some species of simple design taken from her ever-living verdure? How much more elegant, and what an agreeable relief it would be to the eye, if, instead of imitating colossal blocks of stone, by scratching a few lines on the surface, they were enriched by a quiet and flat application of natural foliage. Instead of the quoin stones of buildings, or the arch and key stones, being picked out in careful but senseless representations of rockwork or vermiculated work-how many pleasing arrange- ments might be introduced upon them in well-conceived foliated design! Foliage may thus be applied in the true spirit of nature to a much greater extent than has ever yet been done. Instead of the monotonous, plain mouldings so continually adopted, foliated enrich- ments, forming artistic pencillings of light, and shade should be more freely used, and plain wall-surfaces should be enriched by geometrically-arranged foliated diapers. Leaves and flowers are among the most lovely objects in nature, and contain all the requisites which should be embraced by pure and true art-harmonious colour, elegant form, and brilliant light and shade. We cannot, therefore, go to a nobler fountain-head, and, so far from this source having been yet exhausted, we may there still obtain fresh elegance and beauty, with an infinite variety suited to all the purposes of the highest art. From the time of the Egyptians and other ancient nations decoration in architecture has been taken, almost invariably, from animal or vegetable life. The human form, as the perfection of natural beauty, has been so dwelt upon, idealized, and perfected by these B 2 ART FOLIAGE. artists and sculptors of old, that they have succeeded in handing down to us works of such transcendent merit that they will be guarded, as treasures of art, to the end of time. Nor did the inferior animals lose their share of attention, but by study and thought the inanimate stone and marble have been made to assume, by the aid of the chisel, a life which will long endure to instruct and delight. In these works the old artists were always fond of trying to create, instead of merely copying they were not content to take nature as they found it, but they succeeded in making their statues superior to themselves, culling and blending together in one object all the beauties of form, and omitting what they considered faults or defects-in numberless instances creating new beings of their fancy by blending and amalgamating animal and even vegetable forms with the human; birds with beasts; beasts with fishes-nothing, it would seem, being left untried to elicit new beauty by new inventions or combinations.. But, apart from the higher class of sculpture, carved representations of natural foliage have been introduced into the decoration of architecture from the earliest ages. Fruits, flowers, leaves, and branches, have been imitated in ornamental art, in the conventional spirit of the various periods, from time immemorial. The Egyptians, in their architecture, used the papyrus and the lotus, which grew in profusion on the banks of the Nile. The Greeks designed their foliage from the acanthus and honeysuckle; the Romans from the acanthus, the vine, the olive, and the laurel. Each took that which they considered most beautiful—each dwelt upon such objects in nature as were indigenous, and grew with those glorious works of architecture which have been left for our admiration; but which, like the plants themselves, are indigenous to the soil, and have hitherto resisted every attempt at a healthful transplantation. Classical architecture has thus been introduced among us, and the architect has hitherto been content to go on copying and re-combining the foliage of the Greeks and Romans, as he finds it delineated in books; or, he has been in the habit of leaving it altogether to the unskilful hands of an ordinary workman. It has not been considered worth while to refer again to nature, or even to get any further variety in form. It has been looked upon as the perfection of "architectural foliage," the conventional forms of which have been accepted as being the highest and the most beautiful that could be attained, and it has been completely and purposely separated and cut off from the original source from which those old artists obtained their ideas. Happily, of late years, there have been many exceptions to this mode of servile copying, and the necessity has been strongly felt for searching out new develop- ments from nature, and endeavouring to elicit fresh beauties, instead of resting satisfied with copying or re-combining from that which has been handed down to us. It has been at length acknowledged that we must again have recourse to the fountain head, from which all conventional forms of foliage were originally derived, and it is now generally allowed that we cannot proceed far in the pursuit of beauty without the aid of nature. All that we see most to admire in the foliage of the Classic or Gothic eras, can be clearly traced to natural forms and natural arrangements. It is by studying how nature has been hitherto followed and adapted by the workers of old, that we are enabled to INTRODUCTION. 3 improve our own ideas, and to take advantage of the natural beauties which will so abundantly spring up before our eyes. Probably, in pursuing our studies, by searching into nature, we may find much that is exceedingly simple and far from new; still, as every arrangement, simple as it may be, forms one in a regular chain of natural develop- ment, and as it is by following up this chain, and supplying by degrees link after link, that we gain that true feeling and knowledge of those natural laws of which we are in search, nothing should be considered too common-place for study and examination. • "Not a beauty blows, And not an opening blossom breathes in vain." Often the lowliest objects and the commonest weeds contain beauties that we little dream of, until we examine them minutely and diligently, and with the eye of an artist. The infinity and beauty of nature in small things are most wonderful—they go far beyond our natural powers of observation. Even with the aid of the microscope we can form no conception of the extent or termination of the minute world of beauty-a vast world, shut out from all ordinary observation. Look, for instance, at the elegant and very suggestive forms of pollen grains, when viewed under the microscope.* Who would have supposed that in the golden dust, which we see borne away by the industrious bec, were to be found such perfect geometrically divided globes? In the star-like crystals of snow, again, is another familiar instance of the beauty of the minute world. However, without calling in the aid of the microscope for the purpose of our studies, there is an astonishing appro- priateness and singular beauty in some of the smallest and most humble plants, which at once point out their fitness for the purpose of the artist. M. Viollet-le-Duc, in his Dictionnaire raisonné de l'Architecture, shows that the early French artists owed the success which they achieved in their sculptured foliage to their going "into the woods and the fields, and searching under the grass for the smallest plants; they examined their shoots, their buds, their flowers, and their fruits, and, with this humble flora, they composed an infinite variety of ornaments of a grandeur of style and firmness of execution which left far behind the best examples of Romanesque sculpture." He furthers adds, which I give in his own words:"Soit instinct, soit raisonnement, ces artistes comprennent que les plus petites plantes, comme les insectes, sont douées d'organes relativement beaucoup plus forts que les arbres et les grands animaux; destinées à vivre dans le même milieu, à résister aux mêmes agents, la nature prévoyante a en effet donné à ses créations les plus humbles une puissance relativement supérieure à celle des grands êtres. Les formes des plus petits insectes, comme celles des plus petites plantes, ont une 'nergie, une pureté de lignes, une vigueur d'organisation qui se prêtent merveilleusement à exprimer la grandeur et la force; tandis qu'au contraire on remarque, dans les formes des grands végétaux particulièrement, une sorte d'indécision, de mollesse, qui ne peut fournir d'exemples à la sculpture monumentale." Without going so far as to say that the larger forms in vegetation cannot afford fitting examples for artistic purposes, yet nothing can be more true than that it is among the * See the Elements of Botany, by JOHN LINDLEY, M.D. ART FOLIAGE. smallest and the most humble weeds, which are every day growing under our feet, or concealed among the grass, that we must make our search, as these old artists have done before us, if we wish to engraft fresh beauties upon art. But the copyist may say he can sce no beauty in thistles, and docks, and buttercups. Yes; but how do you look at them?" They must be studied attentively and assiduously, and then, I will ask, "Can you see no vigour of form in these lowly outcasts-the very power of which you are in scarch, to give life to your own works: no beauty in the thistle with its sturdy stem, its ever-varying form, in its energetically spiked leaves, its great variety of light and shade? Look again at its flower; set like an amethyst among its green ray of spines: and the common creeping crowfoot too, that pest to the farmer, that insinuates its roots unseen beneath the ground to throw up its elegantly formed leaves in every vacant space, to teach a simple lesson of beauty." But all this is lost upon us! We see not the elegance in these homely things, because we look upon them as if we were blind! We are so accustomed to them, and they are so common and vulgar, that we consider them not worth a thought, much less a careful examination. If we think of studying nature, we want to go into fine gardens and magnificent green-houses, to see rare exotics and flowers which are highly prized by gardeners, as if it were only there that the beauties of nature dwell-forgetting that God in his munificence has made some of the most lowly the most beautiful! "There's beauty all around our paths, if but our watchful eyes Can trace it 'midst familiar things and through their lowly guise. HEMANS. In England, perhaps, no architectural foliage has ever excelled that of the Early English period-for purity of line, boldness of treatment, and fine effects of light and shade, it stands pre-eminent. It is, however, highly conventional, and there is great danger in foliage becoming too highly conventionalized-it gets reduced to certain set forms, and similarity in the manner of treatment. Nature becomes at length to be dispensed with, and then the artist falls into repetition. The Early English foliage is very beautiful, but too conventional for the purposes of modern art; it is engrafted with and forms a portion of the architecture of the 13th century; we can, therefore, only use it in the 19th as a resuscitation or a revival, but it can never form a part of the architecture of the present age. The artists of the latter part of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th century appear to have seen the danger of their ornamentation becoming too conventional, and resolutely went forth again to seek the aid of nature. During the short period which followed, therefore, and which has been called the Early Decorated, foliage was taken more directly from nature, but it was scarcely developed before it became overloaded with light and shade, and elaborate undulations on the surface of the leaves. At length it arrived-although not without many burstings forth in great beauty-at the formal and purely conventional foliage of the 15th century. To the Early Decorated period particularly, I would wish to draw especial attention, as it is well worthy of being most carefully studied. It was a time when artists left thei INTRODUCTION. 5 Ст more strictly conventional creations and sought again the aid of nature, which they followed in all its freshness and purity. The foliage, however, of this period has been considered by some to be too natural-too literal a rendering of nature. Yet we find in nature some of the most pleasing and elegant forms which can be conceived-forms which appear never to tire the eye, and if so, why is it not perfectly legitimate and in accordance with all the rules of art to take advantage of them? It is utterly impossible, for instance, for man to invent a more elegant form of leaf than that of the maple; yet, in applying it for artistic purposes, it is not at all necessary to adhere to it strictly. It can be altered and made more symmetrical or regular, until it becomes a purely architectural leaf, based only upon that of the maple. The first time that I observed such foliage, now more than thirty years ago, was at Southwell Minster, when I caught sight of the maple-leaf ornament* in the arch of the doorway leading to the chapter house, through an open window. I was so struck with its delicate crispness and beauty of form, united to its wonderful freedom and artistic balance of light and shade, that I still have a vivid remembrance of its brilliancy and elegance. It had no confused appearance; no straining after light and shade by the contortion and twisting of the surface of the leaves, as with the foliage later in the style. There was nothing to disturb the repose of the architecture. All was bright and sparkling, teeming naturally with the life stamped upon it by the hands of the mason nearly six hundred years ago. It is not a literal copying of nature, but there is in those stones an enduring life, which has been transplanted from the very hedge-rows and fields that surround that old Minster, where they still continue to burst forth in spring, as they did of yore, and to develop and expand the same forms which were expanded under the eyes of the workmen of this very doorway. We can see what these old masons admired, the beauty they sought after, and how they have shown in stone their love of their native land, and of their own simple native foliage. The very stone, as it were, has written upon it, "My son, your fathers have wrought thus with their hands, go thou and do likewise; copy not our works, but go to that source which thou seest we loved and reverenced; study, as we studied, the works of thy Creator; and, moreover, make thy work characteristic of thy country, which thou shouldst love, and of thy day, which thou shouldst stamp as thine own." These old artists adhered to the indigenous flora of their country, and we should do the same; but we have a much wider field than they had, as there are hundreds of elegant plants and trees which now have become naturalized to this country, or are otherwise perfectly familiar to us, of which they had no conception. We, therefore, have a much wider range than they had; and should produce a corresponding extension in beauty and variety. Why do we follow so much that which has already been done? Are we to acknowledge to ourselves that we cannot do so well, and therefore must be content with copying? Poets and painters cannot copy what has been done in their arts in former times. They are bound to produce new works, containing fresh ideas and new thoughts. Then, why should the architect go on copying? If we are to have a new style for the 19th ་ * See COLLING's English Medieval Foliage, pl. 43. 6 ART FOLIAGE. century, foliage must play an important part; but it must be invigorated and renewed by fresh inspirations from nature. In the designs which are given in the second part of the work upon the subject of "Art Foliage," although not offered as being free from faults, it is attempted to show that there is still abundant freshness to be obtained in the application of natural foliage. They are designed from nature, or upor natural principles, and the object is to endeavour to explain those principles and to point out what must, of necessity, be the only true path which can ever lead to excellence. Hitherto all attempts of designing directly from nature have been condemned as "naturalism." What that means is not very clear, but those who condemn what they call "naturalism" assert that all architectural enrichment must be "purely conventional." Is it meant that it cannot also be natural? The problem to be solved is to make foliage conventional but natural at the same time. Nature must be followed as a guide, a principle, and wherever her laws are infringed the work will become unnatural, and what is unnatural must be more or less ugliness. It is a difficult matter to lay down rules to say how far nature shall be adhered to, or how far it shall be departed from. It must, in a great measure, be left to the skill and fancy of the designer.. Literal imitations from nature will never constitute architectural ornament. Natural foliage, however well rendered or cunningly carved, if merely copied from nature without being translated by the mind of the artist, will fail entirely in its purpose, and be less effective than the literal copyism of the foliage from any of our architectural precedents. This cannot be too strongly insisted upon, because, if we tell our artists that they should not copy from old examples, but simply say, as it has often been said, that they should "go to nature," 'go to nature," we should soon be so deluged by literal representations of natural foliage, that this system of copyism would become worse than the first. In the rendering then of natural into decorative foliage, there must be study and thought, with life and beauty. It must be the creation of the artist's mind, and not a copy of this plant or that flower. It may be composed of the beauties of one added to other parts, which are more applicable to the purpose in view, which belong to another ; but it must be put together "naturally," and yet "conventionally," so as to accord with the architecture around it. In the same way that the old sculptors endeavoured to amalgamate all the beauties of the human form into one statue, so must all the beauties of vegetable nature be enlisted in the designing of architectural enrichments. What is taken from one may be added to another, and whatever is not applicable may be entirely omitted. In the treatment of foliage, for the purpose of art, it must, more or less, always be made geometrical, and arranged with symmetry in accordance with its situation and purpose. One of the first things to be studied is the arrangement of the branches which constitute the leading lines. These form the skeleton upon which the whole is formed, and they should be made such as will best harmonize or contrast with the architectural or other lines, which surround the composition. In the second place, the forms of the leaves and flowers have to be considered, and to be altered or adapted from nature as INTRODUCTION. 7. circumstances may require. In the third place, and one of the most important points, is the effective arrangement of the light and shade. Then there is the position it is intended to occupy, whether internally or externally; whether it has to be placed close to the eye, or at a height; and, lastly, the material in which the ornament has to be executed. But, for the beauty of our foliage we can only appeal to one source, for there cannot be a doubt as to the existence of "the beautiful" in nature, for all our ideas and notions of beauty in the abstract must be founded upon nature; but, although everything is beautiful in some way or other, yet we draw an immense distinction between the different kinds of beauty. One object is beautiful for one thing, and another for another. Other objects, again, we denominate "very ugly," but it is only so by comparison. In some respects they will be beautiful. For instance, the form in two objects—when compared, the one strikes us as being graceful and elegant, and we say "it is beautiful," while, in the other, the form is awkward and ungainly, and we at once term it "ugliness;" but in colour, or internal construction, or in some other manner, that which we termed "ugly" must be beautiful. Everything in nature has some redeeming feature. It is not so in art. A work of art depends more upon one kind of beauty-beauty in one direction only-and its powers of pleasing are limited, and should it miss the one object or intention, it becomes an unmeaning and useless work, and not a work of art. It therefore behoves us to be extremely careful in selecting from nature, and the eye must be educated by constant study and examination of the best works of the old artists, so that it may become facile in appreciating that which is in nature suitable for the purpose required. In the class of art subjects of which I purpose treating, the object, and expression too, are very limited, forming as they do but parts of a whole, as one bone forms a part of a whole skeleton. It is very important as a part of the whole work, while in itself it may be of little value. This fact shows the necessity for these disjointed parts, as they may be called, being studied in every possible way; and too much thought cannot be given to the situation of the ornament, and the effect it is intended to produce when viewed in connection with all the other features which would surround it. The difficulty is to seize upon the beauty which we recognize and accept as beauty in nature, and so adapt it to our purpose that our sculptured ornaments may not only tell their own tale, but add to the general beauty of the work when they are in position. Ornament may be very good, but it may be thrown away by being either put in the wrong place, or its not being fit and suitable for its situation. The height, therefore, at which work is intended to be placed should be constantly kept in view. It must necessarily follow that an ornament, if intended to be placed thirty feet high, should have fewer lines, and should be more simple in composition, than when arranged to be placed near the level of the eye-and, if intended for a greater height, should, of course, be of greater simplicity still. In the architectural foliage and enrichments of the best periods, the simplification and breadth of light and shade, according to distance and height, were carefully attended to and studied; and existing examples cannot be too attentively examined in this respect by those who desire to be successful in the application of natural foliage. I cannot but here repeat, 8 ART FOLIAGE. for I wish it to be clearly understood, that the designs given by me are not offered so much as perfect examples to be literally copied by those who may require them, but more as suggestions, with an endeavour to elucidate certain natural principles, and also as inducements for artists themselves to examine more into nature. The subject is an important one, and I feel strongly upon this point, that we should not go on merely copying from old examples. Sir Gilbert Scott has ably advocated the study of nature in one of his lectures.* He says Closely as we ought to study the finest works of the best periods of our art, and all important as are the lessons to be derived from them (and I may say indispensable as is the necessity of our linking our own art on to that of the past) I nevertheless assert that if we do this without reverting-and that in all earnestness and determination-to the works of nature as the great guides and suggestors of art, our efforts will produce mere lifeless results. I urge, then, a careful training of our architects to the study of the productions of vegetable nature, with a direct practical reference to their uses in architectural work." And again-" The very habits of plants, the forms they assume under different circumstances and conditions, and in different positions, should be thoroughly studied and rendered familiar to the mind, and that quite independently of the question whether we make use of the lessons thus learned in a direct or conventionalized form; for, if the conventional be not founded on or quickened by an appreciation of the natural, it will, depend upon it, be a mere dead reproduction." These words are important and encouraging, coming from such a source, and agreeing as they do so closely with my own ideas, I have therefore quoted them. The study of nature, however, has a vast charm in itself independently of its study in connection with the arts. One cannot go into the fields or into the woods without at once seeing before him an open book-the grand old book of nature-in which, if he will but take the trouble to understand, he can at all times read with pleasure, and from which he will experience the most exquisite enjoyment. He soon becomes lost and. charmed, beyond expression, with the beauties which surround him in these lovely works of his Creator, and which we all attempt rudely to imitate at a humble distance, to enrich our own works. The Medieval artists were probably far greater lovers of nature than we are, and no doubt searched more into its mysteries than we do in this money-getting age. As an indication that vegetation was much studied and loved by our forefathers, may be instanced the many quaintly poetical old English names of plants which have been handed down to us, but which, unfortunately, are now fast falling into disuse. Our modern books on Botany are dry, hard, learned, and scientific, but do not develop much of the poetry of the vegetable kingdom. One of the most extraordinary circumstances in nature, and one which produces a constant charm, is the fact that nature is highly geometrical and regular, and yet, at the same time, it is so full of minor irregularities that they effectually conceal any stiffness, or too great a precision in the development and expanding of its various parts. As was . aptly observed by Professor Kerr, upon the occasion of my reading a Paper upon the subject at the Institute of British Architects, "regularity in nature was carried out with, one might almost say, invariable irregularity, and in foliage there were two principles in constant operation, one being the regularity with which every object had been designed, the * At the Architectural Association, March 11th, 1864. INTRODUCTION. 9 other the irregularity with which it was developed." The branching of trees takes place upon perfectly regular plans, yet what in the development, during the progress of growth, can be more irregular? The forms of leaves and flowers are highly geometrical, and are formed upon the triangle, the square, the pentagon, &c., yet all are so modified and the variety is so great, that no two leaves or flowers can be found precisely alike. Where less severity, therefore, is desired in ornamentation, this principle in nature may be legitimately adopted by the artist. The strictly geometrical lines may be concealed by minor irregularities, as is the case in nature. In the study of any definite subject it is always necessary to go back, if possible, to all first attempts, for in these we often see a vigour and an amount of thought for which we look in vain in later developments. In these early works we see clearly what those first. workers thought, and what they attempted to express. In almost all late work, we have but too often mere second-hand variations upon that which was done by the earlier crafts- men, and by far too finished representations of the original thought, which was usually stamped with vigour and decision, although the mere execution might be rough. Most late work shows a wonderful advance in skill, but not in art. We should strenuously endeavour to avoid this pitfall. Let us henceforth appeal more to the head, the hand, and the chisel, rather than to glass-paper and finish! Let us have sharpness and decision, in preference to smoothness and minutia!-the vigour of life and thought, and not the tameness or pallid beauty of death! J I have, therefore, constantly sought to illustrate my meaning, and to elucidate the principles of art, by reference to early work. I have sought for the germ of beauty in art form, among the works of the Egyptian and the Assyrian; the Romanesque, the Byzantine, and the Norman; and the Early Gothic of the 13th and 14th centuries; for in these carlier developments, where men appear to have thought for themselves, I believe it is to be found. There is also much that is excellent in design and extremely pure in art, by the study of which we may gain variety of thought, in the works of the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Indian. In many of their designs, although of the present time, in consequence, perhaps, of the slower growth of ideas, or a greater retention of the original thought, or whatever may be the cause, they still retain a feeling for art principles which may put many of our own attempts to shame. We may see in their quiet and often truthful works a great contrast to our ever restless tastes and constant craving for novelty, no matter of what form, a restless- ness which, if not guarded against, will form the bane of all real art! We may see in the works of these truly original nations much pure art, combined with simplicity of thought, simplicity of design, and simplicity of execution; while, unfortunately, our modern civilisa- tion leads to the neglect of true art, by running into complication of form, intricacy of design, and extreme delicacy of execution!-finish that will destroy art even in the happiest creation! Another circumstance which militates against the cultivation of art, is our modern contract mode of carrying out everything connected with building and decoration— a system in which men will not allow themselves time for thought, their whole object being to hasten forward to make money! C PART I.-ANALYSIS OF FORM. CHAPTER I. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. REVIOUS to studying the great variety which exists in the combination of all kinds of ornamentation, it becomes necessary to examine the nature of form when reduced by analysis to its first and most simple principles. The value of the analytical process in chemistry and other sciences, for the purpose of discovering the elements of organic and other substances, and from which to trace their gradual development, has been long acknowledged and successfully acted upon. If, therefore, we can apply the same process to ornamental form, and truly "begin at the beginning, we shall certainly obtain a mastery and power over all subsequent combinations, which could not be so easily gained by any other method. The arts, as well as the sciences, should be approached by first becoming well acquainted with their elementary constituents, and by eliciting their several powers, gradually to follow their compound formations and numerous ramifications. For, undoubtedly, from the most simple geometrical figures, issue the means of producing every species of agreeable form and pleasing combination of lines. It is particularly necessary to observe, how the same forms and lines have been used at various and most distant periods in the progress of art, even from the time of the Egyptians and the Assyrians, so that by contrasting the different modes of treatment of the same elementary forms, we may see what variety has been evolved, or how often the result has led to similarity. The principles or geometrical ornamentation are the same in all styles, and the most elementary combinations are to be found, more or less, at every period. Although there is a wide and marked difference between the styles in the architecture of different ages, still it is curious how the forms used have led to similar ornamentation, varying only in its peculiar conventionality. This may be seen by comparing some of the Chinese, Japanese, and Indian lines of ornamentation, with Romanesque and Gothic forms. In the Japanese especially, the conventional forms, as rendered from nature, approach very closely to some of the very best of our Medieval work. The fact is, that the geometrical elements, and the fundamental principles upon which all art is based, are to be found throughout nature in every part of the globe, and earnest students of nature, of whatever period ANALYSIS OF FORM. 11 or position, will, to a certain extent, independently of each other, arrive at somewhat similar results. Instead of wasting time in disputing what particular style of architecture is best, or most suited to the present age, and fiercely waging what was called the "battle of the styles," if a search were made dispassionately into what constituted "the beautiful" in all of them, we might elicit materials for a new and independent style. In the Egyptian, for instance, all the ornaments are of the most simple and elementary kind, a repetition, perhaps, of a mere circle or square, or of a lily-formed figure; yet the effect is always agreeable, and from its simplicity the eye is not fatigued. Look at a mummy case; every part may be literally covered with ornamentation, yet all is simple, quiet, and in perfect good keeping. How different, in comparison with the forms in the later "Renaissance" styles, where the lines are of such an extraordinary and complicated character, that the eye is dis- tressed at a mere glance at them, and, unless they are attacked and worked out after the manner of a puzzle, the examination is given up in despair. This is too often the effect of modern work. Works embracing enormous labour strike us only with the greatest indifference. 66 We are told that, mathematically, lines have "neither breadth nor thickness." Still, every one knows practically, what is called a line, and that we have thick ones and thin ones, straight and curved lines; and that all forms are bounded by lines. Further, we see what we call beauty of line," or "bad lines," even in a piece of sculpture, where there are no lines whatever, except the form or contour of the object itself. All curved and straight lines, of whatever kind, are based upon the simple geometrical forms of the triangle, the square, the pentagon, and the circle, with their compounds, the hexagon, octagon, decagon, ellipse, para- bola and hyperbola, as also some few others, which are very seldom used. Indeed, several of these are used but occasionally. The principal forms used in combination are the three simple elementary figures, the triangle, square and circle; with their compounds, the hexa- gon, octagon and ellipse. All compound curved figures are more or less based upon the circle. The circle, when combined with the triangle as a solid, forms a cone, from which is obtained the elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic curves; as well as the spiral, which is produced by an oblique continuous line wound round the cone. They are, therefore, in some degree evolved from the circle. Much has been said about the subtlety and beauty of com- pound curves, and of the circular being the least beautiful, but why it is so, is not so clear. The more subtle compounds, although beautiful when properly applied, are of very exceptional use, and become positively absurd when improperly applied. That form is the most beautiful which is the best adapted for the purpose intended, and all beauty must be relative and depending upon the harmonious use made of certain elementary or compound forms. Now, as the circle is used very much oftener than either of its compounds, and the only form which probably is applicable, it must be the most beautiful in all such cases. This occurring so continually must necessarily raise it very high in the scale of beauty. 12 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. Geometrical lines and forms are applied in decoration mainly for three distinct purposes. First, they serve to divide surfaces into separate parts by combination and repetition of forms, upon which to apply foliated or other ornamentation-technically called diaper-work. Second, by repetition of form in one continuous direction only, and applied to borders, margins, mouldings, stringcourses, and the like. Third, by radiation from a centre, or on each side of a centre line, as applied to centres of panels, flowers, bosses, and other similar purposes. Geometric ornamentation, therefore, may be considered under three separate heads-Diapers, Borders, and Centres. CHAPTER II. DIAPERS. WWF the four elementary forms, the triangle, square, pentagon, and circle, the two first only will combine and cover a surface without leaving unequal interstices between them, as shown by Nos. 1 and 20,* Plate 1. These two figures therefore, in combination with the circle, are chiefly used for surface decoration. By substituting the curved for straight lines a variety of compound forms can be produced. Woodcut, Fig. 1,* consists of arcs of the circle struck from the points of equilateral triangles, giving an imbricated or scale form. This may again be subdivided by being trefoiled, as in the diaper given at Plate 18. If half the breadth of the triangle is taken, and an arc struck from each point and joined together, it gives the ordinary form of the "decorated" net tracery, shown by woodcut, Fig. 2. Fig. 3 is a combination of triangle, diamond, and hexagon, used commonly for tile and Mosaic pavements, and will admit again of a great variety of arrangement. Fig. 4 consists of a circle struck FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. from every point of the triangle. It is the form of an Assyrian diaper, executed in stone, and now in the British Museum. It is nothing but a repetition of the ordinary kite star, well known to every schoolboy; but it is interesting to see at what an early period it was used for the decoration of surface. Fig. 5 is a hexagonal combination of diamonds or double triangles, forming the isometrical projection of the cube, and was a favourite * Throughout the work, Nos. refer to the Plates and Figs. to the Woodcuts. ANALYSIS OF FORM.-DIAPERS. 13 form for eighteenth century marble pavements, executed in white, black, and dove-coloured marble-an uncomfortable and very objectionable pattern for flooring, from the fact of its never looking flat. The cubes are always rising up before one like so many solid paving-stones. Plate 1 gives other variations upon the equilateral triangle; No. 1, a useful form of stone diaper, with flowers in the alternate triangles; No. 4 is somewhat similar, with the sides of the triangles curved-another variation of woodcut, Fig. 1; No. 5, Plate 1, a Roman example, on the same form; No. 2, Indian triangular diaper; No. 3, Mosaic inlay : No. 6, Hexagonal, Chinese; No. 7, the form of the Canterbury wall diaper; No. 8, diamond, with small diamonds at the intersections; Nos. 9, 10, variations upon the diamond and net tracery forms for glazing; Nos. 11, 12, Chinese, from vases; No. 13, Japanese, a very beautiful and ingenious combination upon the equilateral triangle. The number of variations which can be produced upon the square form, and the square in combination with the circle, is still greater than upon the triangle. The most simple. square diaper is black and white alternate squares, like a chess-board or chequers. The FIG. 6. FIG. 7. FIG. '8. next is that of blacking the half-squares, as in woodcut, Fig. 6. This may have been suggested originally by the fir-cone, which it much resembles. Another half square diaper is with circles placed in the centres of the squares and the colours counterchanged as in Fig. 7, taken from paving found represented in stained glass. Others have semicircles instead of circles, making the black penetrate the white, or vice versa. There is a curious property in the division of the square which is worth noticing, as it exists in no other figure. If it be divided diagonally, two equal right-angled triangles are produced; if divided from the opposite angles, four right-angled triangles; if again by perpendicular and horizontal lines, eight, and so on. Every time it is again subdivided the result is always right-angled FIG. 9. C FIG. 10. Fro. 11. triangles, no matter how often the process is repeated. Fig. 8 consists of small squares placed at the intersections of larger ones, arranged diagonally-or, in other words, if octagons are placed together, they will leave square interstices. Fig. 9 is a variation, by placing the small squares on the sides of the larger ones, giving a series of cross forms. If 14 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. two sides of the small squares are omitted, the octagonal star, No. 4, Plate 2, is obtained. Fig. 10 has a circle at the intersection of the squares. The diapers given at Plate 13 are arranged in this manner. Fig. 11 is a Chinese diaper, arranged in diagonal squares, having internal crosses. These are simple block forms, upon which many others may be arranged. No. 14, Plate 1, is a Norman interlacing ribbon diaper from Rochester Cathedral; No. 15, Chinese; No. 16, parquetry or glazing; Nos. 17, 18, 19, wall papers; No. 29, ivory carving-circle and square; No. 30, Chinese-octagon and square. The beautiful four- leaved square Early English stone diapers, as at Westminster Abbey, are too well known to need illustrating; No. 20, however, is a Norman diaper of a similar description, with the alternate squares divided into four; No. 32 is somewhat similar for wall painting; No. 21 has each alternate square occupied by semicircles, the result being quatrefoils and squares. Plate 12 contains two diapers upon this form with quatrefoils, one detached, and connected by straight bars. No. 22, Plate 1, contains four semicircles in each alternate square, detached and giving the usual square-angled quatrefoil. This may also be applied to the equilateral triangle. No. 23 consists of interlacing circles turned on squares as centres, resulting in the usual Medieval four-leaved or embroidery pattern. This form is found used in various ways in nearly every style of architecture. It was frequent in Roman Mosaic pavements. Nos. 24, 25, 28, are Chinese versions upon the same form, taken from vases. The originals of all the Chinese patterns are drawn by hand, and are not set out geometrically. Although apparently intricate, it is surprising to see how well the geometrical forms are preserved. No. 26 is a Gothic version of the same lines; No. 27, the same form overlaid and crossing itself, giving crossed vesicas; these again may be interlaced. No. 31 has circles upon the sides of diagonal squares, giving crosses and roses, being No. 22 with the circles completed. No. 33 is the ordinary half-circle im- bricated pattern-a favourite form in nearly all styles; No. 34, an interlaced Gothic diaper on the same form; No. 35, another early variation from Bayeux Cathedral; No. 36, Indian; No. 37, Neapolitan paving tiles, having a cross on each tile; No. 38, diagonal crosses on squares; No. 39, Gothic, the wave-line interlacing squares horizontally and ver- tically; Nos. 40, 41, 42, Indian carved diapers. Fig. 12 gives another variation upon Nos. 37 and 38 combining the cross and eight-pointed star. FIG. 12. Plate 2, No. 1, painted line diaper, showing the same simple form as No. 18, Plate 1, worked by double lines, leaving a hollow square at the angles filled with a square flower. No. 2, Plate 2, another diaper in the same manner, putting the small squares at the sides instead of the angles as in woodcut, Fig. 9. No. 3, inlaid marble pavement from St. Vitale, Ravenna, being the same form as No. 29, Plate 1, with the lines interlacing. No. 4, Plate 2, parquetry pattern, octagonal stør touching at the points, with lines continuous and interlacing. This form is also of frequent occurrence in Moorish wall decoration; the same as No. 2, it is based on woodcut, Fig. 9. Ngs. 5 and 6, Norman stone diapers, from Rochester Cathedral. No. 7, early form of diaper, diagonal squares with double interlacing ANALYSIS OF FORM.-DIAPERS. 15 + lines. No. 8, octagons, arranged angularly with circles filling the interstices. No. 9, Mediæval four-way guilloche. No. 10, tile paving, from Prior Crauden's Chapel, Ely- circles, with small ones at the intersections. No: 11, Indian diaper-the lines are a varia- tion upon the Medieval net tracery, woodcut, Fig. 2. The same variation is occasionally to be found in Gothic tracery, and Moresque diapers. A portion of the line again may be seen upon Italian enriched quarter-round mouldings. No. 12, Mosaic inlay on the pentagon and pentagonal star, serves to show how limited are the combinations of any other geometrical forms than the triangle, square, and circle. The pentagon is a beautiful form in itself, and is above all others the flower or star form in nature; but it does not combine easily for surface decoration. Upon carefully analyzing and examining the principles of the figures, it will be seen how they run into, and blend with one another, requiring sometimes only the change of a single line, altering the radius of a circle, or the position of a part of the figure, to give an entirely new form of diaper, which to the common observer, would, apparently, have no relation to each other. Let us take, for example, the combinations of the square and circle, and we shall at once see how simple these changes are. No. 32 (Plate 1) consists of circles placed in alternate squares. Now, if the radius of the circle be increased to the angle of the square, we get an entirely new form; being squares within circles, as shown by woodcut, Fig. 13. Reverse two of the arcs upon the square, and it produces the cross wave line, No. 39 (Plate 1). Complete the whole of the circle, and it gives No. 23; double them, No. 27; substitute octagons for the circles of No. 23, and we arrive at No. 37. Again proceeding from No. 32, by filling in the whole of the squares with circles and smaller ones for centres, as in woodcut, Fig. 14, we have its most elementary form, consisting of circles within squares, the type of Nos. 29, 30 (Plate 1), and Nos. 3, 7, 9, 10 (Plate 2). Cut four squares out of Fig. 14, and we get Fig. 15, which may indicate quatrefoils with FIG. 13. FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16. square roses within them. Apply the circles to the sides of the squares instead of the angles, and we arrive at No. 21 (Plate 1); by reducing the semicircles, to No. 22. Com- plete the circles, and we get No. 31. If the semicircles of No. 21 be alternated and made continuous, as a cross wave line, we have the form of a diaper found in Roman mosaic pave- ments, Fig. 16. This again is but a variation upon the imbricated pattern, No. 33 (Plate 1). Complete the circles in Fig. 16 and No. 33, and we are back to No. 23. Fig. 16 is also the same as No. 39 (Plate 1), except that semicircles are substituted for segments. Other changes and variations may be still further made upon the whole of the figures, giving altogether a vast field of geometric form. Many of the figures can be again varied by 16 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. introducing the knee in the wave line, as at No. 11 (Plate 2), or the angle in the trefoil and quatrefoil forms, as at No. 22 (Plate 1), or by interlacing, as at Nos. 3, 4 and 7 (Plate 2). FIG. 17. FIG. 18. The fret has been occasionally used as a diaper by Mediæval architects, who introduced the principle in their floors, by forming large fretlike patterns called mazes or labyrinths. The Chinese, who have been great in frets, have suc- ceeded in making a very ingenious combination of the fret as a diaper, as shown by Fig. 17, looking very much like a Chinese puzzle, but which, in reality, is simple enough when its principle of setting out is seen as in Fig. 18. It consists of squares with the alternate crossing lines omitted. No. 15 (Plate 1) is a Chinese diaper upon the same lines. > H CHAPTER III. BORDERS. OST of the forms which are used in diapers are also applicable to geometrical ornamentation in mouldings, stringcourses, enriched bands, and other similar positions-more conveniently classed under the general head of borders. For this purpose diapers may be usually read two ways-horizontally and diagonally, cutting the diaper in slips at such parts as may best suit the purpose intended. One of the most universal, and at the same time one of the most primitive forms to be found used as a border in decoration, is the zig-zag. Its use is much older than the triangular diaper, of which it may be said to form a part. It is to be found, as given by the woodcut, Fig. 19, in FIG. 19. FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 22. FIG. 23. N FIG. 24. FIG. 25: FIG. 26. FIG. 27. FIG. 28. ZZZZ VAVAV NNNN Assyrian, Roman, Moorish and Venetian architecture; as shown by Fig. 20 in the Egyptian; and it is to be seen under different modes of treatment in, probably, every known style of architecture. Figs. 21, 22, 23, are Etruscan zig-zags, the first also forming a portion of the common embroidery pattern, already given in the diapers; Fig. 24, Spanish; Fig. 25, Italian, with reversed curves, being a horizontal portion of the lines of ANALYSIS OF FORM.-BORDERS. 17 the Mediæval net tracery, Fig. 2; Figs. 26, 27, 28, Gothic, the last figure having curved lines substituted for straight. See also No. 4, Plate 46. Plate 3 contains other examples of triangularly arranged borders of the zig-zag type in several styles. No. 1, alternate leaf-buds dovetailing into each other in flat Medieval work. No. 2, a similar arrangement curved and trefoiled. Nos. 3, 5, 6, 15, Byzantine flat foliage arranged in zig-zag. No. 4, Indian. No. 7, Chinese. No. 8, Etruscan. Nos. 9, 10, 11, small incised angular ornaments. No. 12, from ivory carving, Twelfth Century. Nos. 13, 14, Gothic inlay. No. 16, Byzantine, buds arranged upon diamond form or double triangle. No. 17, foliage, with one side of equilateral triangle curved. No. 18, ditto, with two sides curved. No. 19, Japanese arrangement upon the same form as the last. No. 20, Indian border, with triangular flowers. Several other zig-zag arrange- ments are given in Plates 19, 39, 40, and 49. Taking the square as a starting point for continuous ornamentation in borders, mouldings, and the like, in the same manner as with the triangle in the last plate, the first most simple treatment, is to alternate the squares by means of colour or light and shade, as in the Egyptian, the Assyrian, and also in the Norman billet moulding, see woodcut, Fig. 29. Again the simple squares may be divided vertically, as in the Egyptian, Fig. 30; enriched as on Plate 13; or circles substituted for squares, also Egyptian, Fig. 31. The two last, if mixed together, give the form of the "reel and bead" of the Classic. Semi- circles in place of the squares, as Fig. 32, Etruscan, indicates the type of the Classic "egg FIG. 29. FIG. 30. FIG. 31. 0000 FIG. 32. Uuu FIG. 33. FIG. 34. FIG. 35. FIG. 36. www www and tongue." Alternately reversed semicircles, Fig. 33, gives another form of simple Etruscan ornamentation. Interlacing semicircles, Fig. 34, Egyptian. Reversed semicircles, Fig. 35, Gothic. Alternation of vertical black lines, Fig. 36, as frequently found in Egyptian, Chinese, and Etruscan, and probably was the origin of the Classic fret. Upon these simple square and rectangular divisions are arranged a multitude of other forms of borders, more or less complicated, particularly in the Classic styles of architecture. There is often a considerable resemblance between some Egyptian orna- mentation and Early Norman work; and it is remarkable, how often again many of the same forms appear in Indian, Chinese, and Japanese ornamentation. The similarity in the Norman is, no doubt, gained from the classic origin of the Early Medieval and Byzantine styles of architecture. The Indian and Chinese would, however, point to a much earlier origin; probably to a primitive style of architecture which may have become entirely lost-earlier even than the Egyptian-the seeds of which may have been D 18 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. disseminated to many distant parts of the world, at a very remote period. The researches into the history of early languages "prove that there is a relationship between the language of the Greeks and the ancient Hindus; that before the Hindus migrated to the southern peninsula of Asia, and before the Greeks and Germans had trodden the soil of Europe, the common ancestors of these three races spoke one and the same language.” "That long before the earliest documents of Sanskrit, which go back to 1500 B.C., long before Homer, long before the first appearance of Latin, Celtic, German, and Sclavonic speech, there must have been an earlier and more primitive language, the fountain head of all,” * If this was the case in language, it was probably the same in architecture; and that, therefore, the Egyptian, the Assyrian, and the Greek, as well as the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Indian, may all have proceeded from one and the same, but a still more ancient and pre-historic style, which has become lost to us. However this may be, it will be at once seen from the examples which are given from the decoration of various countries, that there is frequently a singular similarity, but whether this arises from accident or from some common fountain head is not easy to determine. In Plate 4 are other examples for borders, founded upon square or rectangular divisions. No. 1 consists of simple buds arranged in squares; No. 2, semicircles and trefoil buds, from stained glass; No. 3, Gothic, trefoil leaves in squares; No. 4, square flowers, as found in the Egyptian, and an ivory carving of the tenth century. No. 5, FIG. 87. FIG. 38. ♥♥♥♥♥ FIG. 89. FIG. 40. ♡♡♡♡ ་ Fro. 41. FIG. 42.. FIG. 43. ** *** FIG. 45. FIG. 46. FIG. 47. · FIG. 48. བ FIG. 44. S S S S S S S S FIG. 49. FIG. 50. FIG. 51. FIG. 52. FIG. 53. FIG. 54. TTT Chinesé; No. 6, Byzantine; No. 9, Egyptian; No. 10, Indian; No. 11, Late Gothic; and No. 19, Norman, all of which have to a great extent a similarity to each other, being a succession of leaves or buds in a growing position. Nos. 7, 8, Indian carving, the lines of which are again common in Gothic; No. 12, Indian inlay ; No. 13, Early stained glass; * The Times, April 20, 1865, on Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization, by E. B. TYLER. ANALYSIS OF FORM.-BORDERS. 19 No. 14, Early Gothic, engraved metal work; Nos. 15, 16, Egyptian; No. 17, Japanese, alternate leaves arranged on right angles; No. 18, Norman, rectangular border carved on priest's robe; No. 20, Assyrian border, squares alternated with circular rosettes; No. 21, Italian, semicircular flowers on the "egg-and-tongue" type; as are also Nos. 22, 23, Etruscan, and No. 24, Mediæval Italian. - Woodcuts, Figs. 37, 38, 39, are from Etruscan vases. Figs. 40 to 54 are various small Byzantine and Gothic examples from various sources for inlay or simple flat carving. FIG. 55. FIG. 56. The ornamentation in borders is frequently made continuous in the direction of their length, and branch from a central stem, as in the examples given on Plate 5, Nos. 1, 3, and 4, which are Etruscan; and No. 8, Gothic; from an in- terrupted central stem, as No. 7; from a flowing stem, No. 9; twisted, No. 5; branching from the bottom, as Nos. 6, 11, Gothic, and No. 10, Byzantine; branching from the top, as No. 13, Gothic, and which, when doubled, gives the continuous heart-form, No. 2. This was further developed into continuous and branching heart-forms, as shown by woodcuts, Figs. 55, 56. The heart-form re- peated side by side was also a favourite Medieval enrich- ment, as given on Plate 5, No. 16, and which was probably originally founded upon the Anthemion ornament of the Greeks. Other modifications of the heart-form are given, -No. 18, Norman; Nos. 14 and 15, from early ivory carvings; Nos. 12 and 17, Byzan- tine; and No. 19, the double or reversed heart-form. The wave or flowing line has been used for continuous ornamentation in nearly every style of architecture since the Egyptian. It may perhaps be considered as a softened form of the zig-zag. The double or interlacing wave line seems to have been suggested by the guilloche, which, in its most simple form, may be looked at either as the interlacing of two semicircular wave lines, or the interlacing of circles, as in the common Italian example, No. 1, Plate 6. Its type in nature is the twisted stem of a climbing, plant-as the convolvulus. If the lines of the guilloché are separated, we see the wave line formed of alternate semi- circles, as Nos. 12, 13. The Classic guilloche finds its parallel in Medieval work by the foliated guilloche, No. 5. The Italian form of interrupted guilloche, No. 2, appears again in the Gothic, in a modified form, as No. 7. By elongating the curves of the guilloche, as in the Roman example, No. 3, from the British Museum, its connection with the double wave line is more clearly seen. The stem, with the leaves and berries, is shown distinctly as one flowing line, interlaced by a ribbon line. A somewhat similar arrangement i. shown by the Norman example, No. 4, from a string-course at Barfreston Church, Kent, where flowers growing from the lower portion of the curves, very gracefully fill up the spaces left by the interlacing lines. No. 6 is a Gothic arrangement of similar interlacing stems, with foliage growing therefrom; No. 8, another Gothic form of interlacing stems or guilloche- 20 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. they form also a portion of the lines in net tracery. No. 9 is a very charming Indian variation upon the double wave line. The single flowing line had various beautiful developments. The three following examples are from some of the most simple:-No. 10, Norman, from St. Mary's Church, Guildford, Surrey; No. 11, Gothic, and No. 12, Roman, from Mosaic pavement in the British Museum. The last appears to be formed with the flowers of the Campanula, or Bell-flower. No. 13 is a Mediæval form of the scrolled wave line. This form of the flowing line, or perhaps, more correctly, the continuous or branching scroll, was most elaborately and skilfully developed in Roman and Italian architecture in many of their large and richly carved friezes. In Gothic, also, it was often most elegantly arranged, and was always a favourite line:-No. 14, a long, flowing wave line, with double scroll, from Early Gothic wall decoration from Great Wenham Church, Suffolk; No. 15, from the enamelled shield of William de Valence, in Westminster Abbey; No. 16, from Norman carving. No. 17 is a Moresque form of continuous scrollwork, from an ivory carving in the South Kensington Museum; and No. 18, Greek, from an Etruscan vase. Other examples will be found on Plates 13, 16, 40, 41. The fret or meander, like the zig-zag and wave line, has been of most universal application in nearly all ages. Its origin appears to have been the alternate interruption of the top and bottom lines of a member, divided by equally spaced vertical lines, giving a simple crenellated line, as in Fig. 36 and No. 1, Plate 7. By passing a centre bar through the first, as in No. 1, it is easy to see how the key-form was suggested, and how it would soon develop itself into the simple Greek fret, as shown at No. 9. Imperfect frets are to be found on the mummy cases of the Egyptians, but the Greeks appear to have brought it into a more perfect and regular geometrical form, of which No. 9 is the most simple type-from this it branched, in other styles, into an enormous number of ramifi- cations. The Greek fret appears to me to be nothing more than an angular form of the Vitruvian scroll. This may be seen more clearly if the diagonal form of the fret, as at No. 11, be compared with the Vitruvian scroll, shown at No. 6. No. 2, the Etruscan oblique form, shows again the similarity, and the eye in following the lines acknowledges this flowing, or wave form, notwithstanding the angles. No. 3 may be looked upon as a mere angular rendering of the double wave line, while No. 4, from a Mediæval ivory, closely allies itself to the guilloche. Nos. 5 and 8, Etruscan, would appear to be from a twist or rope'; or N. 8 may be a square form of guilloche. No. 10 is a common variation upon the Greek, and is found in the Norman, as upon the west front of Rochester Cathedral. Nos. 7, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are Greek, Roman, and Italian variations; No. 16 is an oblique form with foliage. In Chinese architecture we get into a complete world of fretwork, but it is more remarkable for its intricacy and ingenuity than for its elegance. The Moors introduced a greater variety in the fret by adopting crossing diagonal lines; No. 17 is one of their most simple forms of interlacing frets. The Greek frieze, called the "Anthemion ornament," has given its name to a number of upright enrichments, connected or growing from scrolls or semicircles. This species of ornament, however, is much earlier than the Greek, the type of which may ANALYSIS OF FORM.-BORDERS. 21 FIG. 57. BORS be found in the Egyptian, but more fully developed in the Assyrian. A great similarity of form is to be observed in the Assyrian ornament, Fig. 58, and the palm trees as sculptured on their bas-reliefs-so much so, that it would appear probable that the palm tree was the true origin of the Greek honeysuckle. There can be no doubt that the Greek ornament owed part of its form to the honeysuckle, more particularly the reversed curve, or ogee form of the lobes. The flower which alternates with the Honeysuckle, in the Athenian examples, appears to be from the Lotus ornament of the Egyptians, one of which is given at No. 9, Plate 4. This was imitated by the Assyrians, as shown at No. 28, Plate 7, where we see, alternately, the expanded Lotus and bud connected by the scollop or semicircle. In the Etruscan examples, Nos. 23, 24, we have a similar arrangement of buds and flowers upon interlaced semi- circles. In the Assyrian we see another development of the Greek Honeysuckle form, as shown by woodcut, Fig. 57, which represents a fully expanded flower, alternating with a circular bud or pomegranate, springing from semi- circles, taken from an Assyrian ivory in the British Museum. This figure also gives an early instance of the use of the guilloche. We find, again, the Anthemion forming horders upon dresses in the Assyrian, and flowers forming portions of their sacred trees much like the Greek Honeysuckles. Woodcut, Fig. 58, gives the form of many of these flowers, taken from the Assyrian pavement in the British Museum. It is remarkable as being very similar to the Honeysuckle enrichment upon the cornice of the Monument of Lysi- crates at Athens, the rough form of which is given as an incised ornament at No. 18, Plate 7; a repeated or alternately reversed form of which has suggested the FIG. 58. ornament, No. 19. No. 20, a Byzantine form, looks as if suggested by the Egyptian Lotus and circular flower. This again blends into the Heart forms, as at No. 21 and others, on Plate 5. The Indian border, No. 20, Plate 3, has also very much the Egyptian and Assyrian arrangement of alternate flower and bud. FIG. 59. In one of the most elaborate of the friezes from the Erechtheum, its beauty is marred by the addition of a crooked erect scroll, rising between the Honeysuckle and the Lotus, and branching from the lower scrolls. In the example given at No. 27, Plate 7, which is from an antique Greek painted terra cotta in the British Museum, this crooked scroll is omitted, and the Lotus is arranged between the Honeysuckles, growing from the lower scrolls, in a manner which is much more graceful and perfect. Somewhat similar enrichments are painted upon the cymatium of the raking cornice of the Parthenon, and、 22 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. : 1 will be found illustrated in. Vulliamy's ornaments. Many variations upon the Anthemion ornament may be seen upon Etruscan vases, of which No. 22 gives a very elegant example. Although somewhat stiffly, the Romans appear to have followed this latter example very closely, as shown by the woodcut, Fig. 59, which is from a Roman antique in the British Museum. The Gothic artists designed some of their enrichments upon the same principle as the Greek, as shown by No. 25, a border from the tiles found at Chertsey Abbey. The Tudor cresting, of which No. 26 gives the outline, as found in flint work, is also upon the same principle. CHAPTER IV. CENTRES. HE symmetrical beauty of radiating flowers appears to have caught the attention of artists at a very early period. They are formed in the Egyptian, as seen upon mummy cases, in the most simple manner. A complete circle is drawn with an eye, and divided into four or eight radiating divisions. An example is given in woodcut, Fig. 64, from an Egyptian tile, with the extremities of the petals rounded. In the Assyrian the number of petals is increased to ten, twelve, or fourteen, see No. 20, Plate 4. In the Greek circular flowers, which have been called Pateræ, from their supposed resemblance to a flat dish or saucer, the outer form of the petal is made flatly elliptical, edged by narrow margins, and the flowers are made double, as in the examples from the large doorway of the Erechtheum. In the Assyrian and Greek, the imitation appears to be that of a composite flower, such as the common Daisy, Chrysanthemum, or Sunflower, the number of petals being often varied according to the size of the flower. The Greeks also showed their appreciation of radiating or rayed forms, by the star-like figures with which they painted the soffits of their lacunaria. The imitation, however, of the beautiful and simple radiating flowers appears not to have occurred until after the time of the Greeks. To the Medieval artists is due a closer observation of nature, and the engrafting upon their architecture the charming outlines suggested by the most simple flowers. The piercings of early tracery in trefoils, quatrefoils, and cinquefoils were taken from the forms of flowers; and from the amal- gamation and interlacing of these forms arose that system of tracery which was so strikingly perfected during the fourteenth century. The beauty of radiated flowers, however, goes further than their outline, and often the conventional treatment of a simple and modest flower forms one of the most charming centres for ornamentation which can be imagined. An important point is not to lose sight of the simplicity of nature, in the alternation of leaves and petals, which is a natural law. Woodcut, Fig. 60, gives the ANALYSIS OF FORM.-CENTRES. 23 lines for a triangular flower, embracing the natural alternation of three series of petals arranged geometrically; Fig. 61, the alternation of a six-pointed flower, of five series of petals; Fig. 62, the same of an eight-pointed flower. Fig. 3 shows the alternation of two FIG. 60. FIG. 61. FIG. 62. FIG. 68. series of screwed petals, after the manner of the Hollyhock. No. 1, Plate 8, gives a six- pointed star flower, set within interlacing convex triangles. No. 2 is a flower for inlay, formed with interlacing concave triangles. No. 3 is a Japanese flower, of twelve petals. No. 4 is also Japanese, and of a charmingly simple form, probably taken from the triple leaves of the Oxalis. No. 5 is a Medieval form of triple flower. No. 6 is again from the Japanese, and is remarkable as being extremely like what is found in Gothic, as in the enamelled diaper from the cushion supporting the head of the figure, from the tomb of William de Valence in Westminster Abbey.* No. 7, eight-pointed flower with segmental- pointed petals. No. 8, flower of four interlaced vesicas; Nos. 9 and 10, Roman, from Mosaic pavements; No. 11, Greek, interlaced heart-form; No. 12, eight-petalled flower, from the Coreopsis, showing the mode of setting out by arcs of circles; Nos. 13 and 14, Etruscan; No. 15, Gothic, five-petalled flower; No. 16, Japanese, probably from a bell-flower; No. 17, lines for five-petalled flower, with calyx and intermediate triple points; No. 18, cluster of six five-petalled flowers, with intermediate buds. The woodcut, Fig. 64, shows the simple eight-petalled flower from an Egyptian tile. Fig. 65 is the same form as sometimes found in Gothic, as a monopetallous flower; Fig. 66, FIG. 64. FIG. 65. FIG. 66. FIG. 67. a Gothic four-petalled flower formed of arcs of circles; Fig. 67, the arcs of circles extended with intermediate petals. Centres arranged in a square form are often necessitated by the surrounding lines of a composition. Fig. 68 may be called the type or primitive outline of the double square rose, so frequently found in the tracery panelling of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries:-Fig. 69 is a variation upon the same lines, having a ball flower in the centre, which admits again of being variously treated. Fig. 70 has an addition to the original *See Gothic Ornaments, Vol. I., Plate 5. 24 ART FOLIAGE.—PART I. lines, of four other leaves placed diagonally with the second. The outer leaves are deeply hollowed, and the edges scolloped, after the manner of the Holly. Fig. 71 adopts the lines of the double vesica, a very beautiful and primitive form, having been commonly used as an interlacing figure, at least as early as the tenth century. Fig. 72 embraces the form of the quatrefoil, with leaves of the Ground Ivy; and Fig. 73 returns to the original FIG. 68. FIG. 69. FIG. 70. FIG. 71. IND FIG. 72. FIG. 73. . lines. It has four flowers of the Cuckoo-pint, or Arum maculatum character, placed diagonally. A very early and beautiful example of a square arrangement, is that from the Assyrian pavement in the British Museum, a portion of which is given at No. 6, Plate 9. The centre is occupied by a rose or patera, from which radiate to the angles four fir cones, and alternating with them, spreading to the sides of the square, are four Lilies. These square centres are repeated, forming a diaper over the whole surface, separated by borders filled with pateræ. The whole is surrounded by a general border, in which occurs the enrichment, No. 28, Plate 7, and the Honeysuckle ornament, Fig. 58. The whole of the work is in very slight relief. No. 2, Plate 9, is a Japanese example of a square arrangement of foliage. It adheres neither to radiation nor to any geometrical arrangement, but boldly takes a branch and bends it to the square form, letting the leaves branch out as they may. It is from a tray, in gold upon a chocolate ground, without any enclosing lines, and where any other form would have done as well. It is brought to a square evidently by the mere whim of the artist; but this is done in a masterly manner. Other branches are often found in circles upon the same principle. Nos. 1 and 3 are Norman, from Canterbury; No. 4, Early English Tile, from Salisbury; No. 5, foliated quatrefoil form for tile or inlay-the woodcut, Fig. 74, gives another variation of the foliated quatrefoil for inlay; No. 7, Plate 9, Early incised ornament or inlay with jewel centre; No. 8, flower for painting, on double square or eight-pointed star; Nos. 9 and 10, Norman; No. 11, heart- form, arranged in square from a Medieval enamel; No. 12, Indian, four-petalled flower upon a spiral branch; No. 13, Mediæval. FIG. 74. Repetition is a very important means of producing orna- mental form. A small enrichment, such as a square flower, which may be again a repetition of four simple petals, if repeated in square compartments over the whole of a wall surface forms a diaper at once simple and elegant. In the formation of a border or moulding, a single leaf or flower may be repeated for any length. We see an instance of this in the Early English ANALYSIS OF FORM.-CENTRES. 25 • dog-tooth moulding. As long as the unit to be repeated is good, repetition has a pleasing effect. This element of the beautiful is seen again in the repetition of long lines of columns, of piers and arches, and in vaulting. Nor is this contrary to nature, which is full of repetition, and some of its beauties are as much depending upon constant repetition, as are those in art. Every plant repeats itself, as well as every branch, every flower, and every leaf. Every petal and every stamen, in a radiating flower, repeats itself around its centre. But nature never repeats herself strictly-no two plants, flowers, or leaves are precisely alike, although to a common observer no difference would be perceptible. A remarkable instance of this may be seen in the leaves of the common Hawthorn. The variety is some- thing enormous, and yet all are so similar that a Hawthorn leaf can never be mistaken. There are thousands of other instances. This subtle difference can, however, be taken but little notice of in art repetition, but the similarity is sufficiently close in nature to show that repetition is a natural law as a means of producing the beautiful, and therefore an element of beauty in art. Those who would endeavour to ignore this fact, would soon find that they could not proceed far without it. This can be readily shown by the composition of a diaper, and I can refer to some of my own plates to illustrate the point-in Plates 12 and 18, where, in my wish to make the designs useful, by introducing as great a variety as possible, it will be found that the general effect and quietness of the diapers, are marred by too great a variety and want of sufficient repetition. There should not be at the most more than two changes in the forms used in the diapers. This is a power, however, which should be remembered, as there are instances where it is as necessary to introduce a discord among ornamentation, as much as in music. We see this in the variety gained by the use of the grotesque, among that which is more pure and elegant-it enhances the power of the beautiful, and prevents it becoming tame and insipid. In this light must be held all the grotesque monsters which have been so profusely introduced in Medieval buildings, and which all answer a distinct artistic purpose, although the ordinary observer may not be aware of it. But to return to the subject of repetition. We have seen it in diapers extended to the whole surface; in borders and mouldings extended in one direction only; and in centres radiating from a central point, or arranged in symmetrical curves or lines, round that point. But there is another kind of repetition-the repetition on each side of a centre line, such as we observe in the arrangement of a leaf on each side of the mid-rib. We see this repetition again, in a higher degree, in the disposition of the parts of the human form. It is, however, better known as symmetrical arrangement. Centres for ornamentation may also be of this nature, and for distinction I have designated such centres as "sprigs," that is, a portion or small slip of a symmetrically arranged plant or flower. They are often the representation of a flower in profile. Of this manner the Egyptian presents numerous examples in the treatment of the Lotus, as No. 5, Plate 10. Here we have in the centre a very beautiful arrangement of three Lotuses in profile, with two buds and two (apparently) seeds, treated symmetrically and tied together in one bundle. On each side is the Lotus again in profile, but only partly expanded, with two buds accompanying each. The whole is treated in a E 26 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. FIG. 75. FIG. 76. triple manner, which was a favourite arrangement with the Egyptians. First, the whole composition is in three; the principal flowers are three, accompanied by buds and seeds; the side Lilies are in threes; and lastly, each flower is divided into three again. In the woodcut, Fig. 75, we have another arrangement of the Lotus in three, probably showing the calices of the flowers after the petals have fallen off, the three stalks growing from one sheath or centre. The symmetrical arrangement of a centre and sides answering to each other runs through the whole of the Greek Anthemion ornaments. On an Assyrian bronze bowl in the British Museum is found a small engraved ornament (Fig. 76). It consists of a triple arrangement of what is probably intended for the Lotus growing out of the water, and from the centre flower spring five other flowers, much after the same manner as the branches of the Greek Lotus, in the Anthemion ornament, spring out of the centre husk. No. 1, Plate 10, is a Byzantine form of the Fleur-de-lis, the upper lobes of which meet over the centre of the flower, as in nature. The conventional Fleur-de-lis appears to have originated more from various earlier forms than from the natural flower. Fig. 77, a Norman example, from painting on groining in St. Mary's Church, Guildford, gives FIG. 77. FIG. 78. FIG. 79. another early form upon the same type, approaching more closely to the later con- ventional form. Fig. 78, from a Byzantine enamel, more symmetrical than the last, is another version of the same. Fig. 79, from painted decoration in Prior Crauden's Chapel, Ely Cathedral, white flower on light red ground, gives the conventional form of the Fleur-de-lis of the fourteenth century, and which was the type of all those sprigs which grow from a centre bar or band, as in Nos. 3 and 9, Plate 10. No. 2 is an Indian sprig or flower, growing from a pot or vase, taken from an Indian shawl. No. 3, gold stencilled sprig with pink flowers, on a green ground, from a diaper on the painted rood screen in Ranworth Church, Norfolk; date about the latter part of the fifteenth century. No. 9, gold stencilled sprig, of about the same date, from the diapered panels of Bishop Beckington's shrine, Wells Cathedral. The starting point in sprigs and branches of flowers appears to have been a difficulty in many styles, and different expedients have been adopted to overcome it; in most instances it is best to show the foliage springing out of, or from the ANALYSIS OF FORM.-CENTRES. 27 object decorated, without any attempt at concealment. In the Gothic the sprigs were often crossed by a horizontal bar or tie, as in the two last examples, and the conventional Fleur- de-lis, Fig. 79. This bar gives a centre from which the parts spring, in the same manner that the centre of a flower gives a point from which the petals radiate. In some Mediæval examples, the roots of the plant or tree are shown, but this cannot be commended unless for heraldic purposes. In the Egyptian, flowers usually spring from a horizontal line, which probably was intended to represent water. In the Assyrian example, Fig. 76, the ornament rises from a horizontal line, as if it represented the Lilies growing from the water. In the Italian and Renaissance, the favourite mode was to make the branch or flower growing out of a vase. The foliage round the Ghiberti doors spring from vases. Occasionally the starting point was concealed by a raffled leaf. No. 6, Plate 10, is an example of a painted sprig of Perpendicular date, traced from the pulpit of South Burlingham Church, Norfolk. The foliage is dark green, with red flower on white ground. The sprig alternating with this is chocolate, with blue flower. This example departs a little from the strictly symmetrical by the way in which it springs from the horizontal branch at the bottom. This is a very cleverly managed starting point. No. 4 is a sprig from an Etruscan vase, symmetrical only in the lobes of the flower. As this and the last example are both painted by hand, they serve to show the difference in the handling of the brush, between the Gothic and the Greek artist. No. 7, symmetrical sprig from an encaustic tile No. 8, Indian sprig with symmetrical radiat- ing flowers. Woodcut, Fig. 80, is also an Indian sprig within an enclosed form. The upper portion has a flower in profile with the remainder of the from Winchester Cathedral. FIG. 80. space filled with leaves issuing from the centre stalk. This manner of filling in with parallel leaves, is often seen in early illuminated letters, and the larger lobes of leaves are sometimes filled in this way, as in the example No. 1, Plate 10. In analyzing geometric form, I have now gone through and have given a great variety of diapers, borders, and centres, and nearly every kind of enrichment or ornamentation which can be referred to them. It may, perhaps, be even said that they are all contained in the diaper; for a border is often only a portion of diaper, and the centres are frequently to be found within the geometrical divisions of the diaper; but on the other hand they are perfectly distinct and have their distinct uses, although occasionally mingling together and forming portions of each other. Nature diapers her surfaces, as in the imbrication of stems of various kinds of plants and trees, in coats of animals, feathers of birds, scales of fishes, and the surface of shells. The sky is diapered with stars, and the fields with flowers. Borders are seen in the variously cut or ornamented edges of leaves; in the margins of flowers and shells-as in the scolloped edge of the crab-shell for instance, in the fringe round the eye, and in the borders of streams. For centres, we have but to look into the heavens, at the sun, the moon, and the stars; or upon the earth at their counterpart in the lowliest flower! All the elementary geometrical forms are found more or less perfect in nature. The 28 ART FOLIAGE.-PART I. circle is not only seen in the forms of the sun and the moon, but in the iris of the eye, in birds and fishes' eyes, and in the end view of an egg, as well as in the Daisy and Sunflower. Concentric rings are to be found in the Onion and in the cross section of trees. The triangle occurs very perfect in the stem of the common Sedge. The square is seen in the sections of the stems of the Archangel or Dead Nettle, and the cube is found in the crystals of minerals, as in fluorspar, mundic and galena, or sulphuret of lead-the eight-pointed star and square stem also occurs in common Cleavers. The pentagon and pentagonal star is developed in the flowers of the Convolvulus, Bind-weed and Woody Nightshade—it is seen again in the star-fish and in some minerais. The compound forms of the triangle and hexagon are found in the crystallized prisms of beryl and in the crystals of snow-in the well-known honey- comb, as well as in the nests of wasps and hornets, where the hexagonal cells are put together with the most mathematical exactness. These few instances, taken almost at random, serve to show how geometrical form, as a constantly recurring principle, runs through nature. END OF PART 1. PART II.-ART FOLIAGE. CHAPTER I. COLOURED DECORATION. N the illustrations which are given in this portion of the work, I have en- deavoured to present as great a variety in the style and design as was possible-not limiting myself to any one particular kind of ornamentation, but have embraced, as far as I was able, the fullest view of the subject. Examples are given in the flat, as in wall painting, inlays, and flat stone carving, which may be ranked in the same class; the relieved, as in spandrils and panels; and separate and distinct features, as in capitals and corbels. This naturally divides the subject broadly into three groups:-1. Flat ornament; 2. Relieved; and 3. Separate sculptured features. Each has its peculiar characteristics, and requires a distinct mode of treatment. The first depends upon form alone, as developed by colour or shadow; the second on form, with light and shade of surface, as developed upon a ground; the third depends on form, light, and shade, but further upon the form or outline of the object itself. This gives three modes or species; but the style of foliated ornamentation may also be separated into three divisions:-1. The natural; 2. That which is purely conventional; and 3. Semi-natural (for want of a better term). The first follows nature too literally, and the second adheres too strictly to the stereotyped architectural forms, while the last again appeals to nature, and alters and purifies the received forms by making them natural as well as being conventional. Hence I call it semi-natural. This division is that which I have more especially sought to illustrate. • Taking then the three divisions in the order above indicated of flat, relieved, and sculptured ornament, Plate 11 gives two examples for painted wall diapers for room decoration, the ornaments being intended to be stencilled in the same colour as the ground, but of a darker tone, the small stars alternating with the ornaments, or flowers, to be in gold. A variety of flowers are given in the Plate, but a variation of two or three would be sufficient for each pattern in execution. Monograms may be successfully intro- duced, alternating with the other flowers, but should not be repeated too frequently. The designs are also applicable to room papers, woven fabrics, matted glass, and many other purposes. The natural types from which the ornaments are arranged consist of Hawthorn, Lilac, Corn Bluebottle, Ground Ivy, Horse Chestnut, and Ivy-leaved Toad-Flax. 30 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. The ornamentation of wall surface, whether it be by paint, paper, or carving, should invariably be arranged in a flat manner. It should be consistent with, and conformable to, the surface which is intended to be decorated; as the Ivy conforms itself to the nature of the wall to which it clings, by extending its leaves in the same plane as the wall. This may be often observed in the country, where an old wall will be covered with the small-leaved English Ivy, the branches adhering so tightly that they cannot be separated without breaking, and the leaves consequently grow flat upon the wall. The effect of the whole is to enrich the surface with a beautiful natural diaper without destroying the flatness of the wall. This does not refer to the common quick-growing Irish Ivy which has large leaves, with long leaf stalks, and which hang in a pendulous manner, rattling very much in the wind. The small-leaved Ivy seems to spring up spontaneously, and is the natural accompaniment of an old wall, decorating its surface with beautiful forms, blended. with the most lovely variety in colour, as though nature took pity on its humble appearance to clothe it in a robe of beauty. There are cases constantly occurring in autumn where the Ivy leaves approach nearly to a crimson, while others of the darkest green are intermingled with variegated ones of a whitish colour, all blended together in the most beautiful and harmonious manner. The Virginian Creeper, when it assumes its scarlet colour in autumn, gives a very valuable suggestion for wall decoration. It forms an example of what may be called self-tinted diapers-that is, the colour of all is the same, but the leaves in light have a lighter tone than those in shade; in nature, the variation is constant, no two leaves or parts of leaves being of the same tone, yet all are, or nearly so, of the same colour. This principle, when simplified, is what is meant by self-tinted decoration. The ground of dark colour has upon it leaves or flowers of a lighter shade, but of the same colour, or vice versa. Plates 11 and 12 are intended to be done in this manner, heightened with small stars or lines in gold. The Wood Anemone, when seen clustered together and covering the whole surface of the ground with its beautiful leaves and flowers, is another charming suggestion. Its bright star-like flowers, spotted at intervals among its elegantly radiating green leaves, the interstices of which, partially filled with other leaves in shade, and the remainder filled up by the most intense shadow, or peeps of the rich dark earth upon which it grows, gives altogether one of the most lovely natural carpets that can possibly be conceived. The Periwinkle, with its light blue flowers and dark shining green leaves, is another example. There are many others, but they are too numerous to mention. They all require simplifying for art purposes, and to be arranged in a geometrical or regular manner. Colour for decorative purposes has never been sufficiently studied from Nature. There have been scientific books written to show what colours best harmonize with each other, but there has yet been no attempt to study and properly appropriate that vast and wonderful scale of colours, which may be found in Nature. Our Medieval artists used colour in their works to a very great extent, but they dealt simply with colours of one tone; such as red, blue, yellow, green, and chocolate, with white, black, and gold. They made the grounds of COLOURED DECORATION. 31 their diapers bright green or red, powdered with flowers of gold and black. It is rarely that any intermediate shades are seen. The green is the green which is used throughout, and it is the same with the other colours. Yet in greens alone what a vast number are to be found in Nature! Look at the delicate reddish green of young Sycamore, contrasted with the deep, rich, and darker hue of the older leaves, while the underside of the leaves again offers another variation in the green, of a bluer kind. The brownish The brownish green of young Oak contrasts well with the darker tones of the older leaves; and, again, the young leaves of Ivy, when seen before the last year's leaves fall off, give a good example for self-tinted decoration. Nature is ever varying her colours, and by the various admixture of red in her foliage she forms some of the most lovely combinations of neutral greens. It is extraor- dinary how seldom she makes use of the pure primitive colours. A strictly blue flower is a rarity. The nearest approach to it, that I know of, is the Salvia Patens. Most other so- called blue flowers are more or less purple; as the Blue Hyacinth, the Campanula or Blue Bell, Monk's Hood, Bluebottle, and many others. Nature seems to delight in the art of mixing and blending her colours. When the leaves of the Guelder Rose begin to turn red in autumn, they shade themselves into a delicate green-brighter than the usual colour of the leaves-as though it were the last bright flash from its spring dress before being totally extinguished by the autumnal red. It appears to me, then, that we should endeavour to follow Nature, and introduce a more extended scale of colour, instead of being satisfied with such a limited one, as was the case in the middle ages. Modern decorators do use many shades of colour, with neutral green and reds, but there is a vast variety which they do not attempt to imitate, the study of which cannot but be of extreme value. : In Plate 12, which may be for paper-hangings, stencilled wall diapers, or may be equally well applied to various kinds of woven fabrics, the colours are as follow:- The general ground is a light sage green, the ground of the light foliage, a darker sage green, and the tinted foliage, of the dark green of old Ivy leaves, the quatrefoils being surrounded by gold lines, as indicated by the dotted tint. The natural types used in the foliage are Hawthorn, Rue-leaved Spleen-wort, Lilac, Ground Ivy, Oxalis, Laburnum, and Ivy. Two patterns of foliage would be sufficient in execution for each design. Others are introduced in the plate in order to give a variety. The decoration of wall surfaces by diaper painting is of very early origin. The earliest. form was an imitation of the jointing of stonework, much the same as our modern mode of scratching the stone lines on the surface of plaster, except that the lines were drawn in a red or chocolate colour.* The next step was to omit the alternation of the stones, to make them square, and placed even one over the other, each square being filled in with some simple ornament. This was the origin of wall diapers, and in the earlier ones, as at West Walton Church, Norfolk, scarcely any other colour was used than red, which appears to have been applied upon a warm or cream-coloured plaster; or, as at St. Mary's Church, Guildford, upon chalk, without any paint or preparation put upon the surface. The form of the * See English Medieval Foliage pl. 72. 32 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. ornament was indented by scratching lines, apparently from a mould, or outlined with a brush, and afterwards filled in with colour. In the present day, instead of painting or colouring the surface, the plaster should be tinted in the same manner, by an admixture of colour of any suitable tone, to form the ground for decoration, and the ornamentation placed upon the surface. Painting on stone and woodwork should be put upon the stone and the wood itself, making the material serve as the ground. The wood may be stained, and statuary marble may be impregnated by colour, and brought to a tint to harmonize with the decoration upon it. The tinting of marble has been adopted by some of our modern sculptors with more or less successful results. What I would advocate is, that, whatever the material, it should be seen and recognized as the ground upon which the ornamentation is wrought. It is true that this is not in accordance with all Medieval work, although it undoubtedly is with the earliest. But during the latter part of the fourteenth, and the commencement of the fifteenth century, painted decoration was carried to such an extent that the most elaborate stone and wood carving was literally covered with painting and gilding. As a general rule, all foliated work was gilded, a system which cannot be too highly condemned, as there is nothing that so destroys the true light and shade, and gives a false effect to carving, as gilding. I would never gild carving, but always leave it of its natural colour, and reserve the colour and gilding for plain surfaces. Gilding should at all times be used sparingly. It is a very dangerous material, and the finest work may soon be made to look tawdry by it, if it be not applied with the greatest precaution and judgment. The ground may be gilded, and often with good effect, but never the ornament. Gilded carving, also, throws a doubt upon the material, and often suggests its being mere cast-work in cement or plaster. Methods for stamping plaster by indentation, whilst setting, have been adopted of late years with good effect, and the old system of pargetting and working various forms thereon by hand is of a similar character. The wall diapers of the Alhambra, again, are formed in plaster, and there is no reason why the same principle may not be still further carried out, and even brought to greater perfection. Instead of cold marbling in our halls, and heavy flock papers in our dining rooms, why should we not have the walls-the plastering of which has been worked to some agreeable tint-decorated by incised ornament, and finished by a judicious picking out, of the forms by painting. Perhaps no species of ornamental design is more grateful to the eye, when properly done, than diaper work on flat surfaces, but it requires to be kept quiet and subdued, and whether by painting, paper, embossed leather, or carved surface, it should always be kept flat in character. The two diapers given in Plate 13 are simple in design, and are for executing by painting with stencil patterns in monotone--as dados of rooms-on plaster prepared by the admixture of colour of such a tone as may suit the position of the work. The second design may be also incised, by stamping the wet plaster, say to the depth of a quarter of an inch, and afterwards filled in with colour. It is also suited for embossed leather, a material which is admirably adapted for Since this was written, boldly raised or embossed flock papers have come into use, which have a very good effect for both walls and ceilings. COLOURED DECORATION. 33 · the interior decoration of rooms. In this case the ornament, instead of being incised, should be very slightly raised. The first design may be also applied as encaustic tiles or paper hangings. The foliage is mostly conventional, but in the second design the Ivy and the Hepatica are used. Dividing plain wall surface of interiors of rooms into panels by flat painted decoration is an ordinary and legitimate mode of treatment, which, by good design united to judicious and harmonious colouring, may be made very valuable. It is especially adapted to house decoration, where, by stencilling the corners and borders, a good effect can be produced without great expense. Enriched corners, with simple line decoration, may be applied also to panels of doors and other woodwork. If the styles are picked out of a different tint from the panels, with the ornament laid therein, woodwork will have a far better appearance than when covered by the ordinary graining. At the same time it would give more scope for artistic treatment and variety in design. Flat line decoration may be also applied upon graining, and made to look very well. Stained deal and other woods can be treated in a similar manner. When the staining is made dark, an agreeable relief may be produced by putting the decoration in vermilion. Varnish may be used to protect the decorations on woodwork, in the same way that it is made to protect the ordinary graining. Therefore, when once done it will be quite as lasting. Line decoration, with simple flat ornaments at the angles, and at intervals, give great finish to a room when applied to ceilings. Dark, heavy colours. should be avoided, light grey and cold colours give height to a room, while warm or heavy colours bring the ceiling down. The general tone should be light and elegant-anything agreeable, as long as it is kept light, rather than the ordinary and vulgar whitewash. Our whitewashed ceilings are a remnant of barbarism, handed down to us from our Puritan fathers-the same who were so fond of beautifying our churches with their indefatigable whitewash brush. Plate 14 gives eight examples for simple corners for panel decoration. No. 1 has a scroll border taken from the delicate little Maiden-hair Fern, but, of course, much simplified. The colours may be a maroon ornament, on a sage green ground; the borders and angles being of a darker shade of green than the margins. The panel is intended to be filled in with diaper painting or paper, of green or other colour, harmonizing with the borders. No. 2 is composed of the leaves of the Wood Anemone, and may be executed in a delicate green. upon a warm ground. The alternate leaves in the border may be gilded-the angle flower should also be in gold. The inner lines of the border may be in maroon, with a darker tone of the warm ground colour for the panel. No. 7 is a design conventionalized from the pod and flower of the Sweet Pea. The main lines are intended to be in a dark, blackish green,. on a ground merely tinged with green, and the upper parts of the pods of the peas to be of a strong pea green; the flower to be deep rich red, softening into crimson, with a ring upon it of pure white; the inner lines of the border to be red, with a diapered or plain painted panel of dull green. No. 8 is formed upon the Ivy, and may be in maroon or deep crim- son, upon a buff ground, with the outer line in grey. The secondary foliage upon the Ivy leaves to be white, broken by red. The central ornament is a conventional representation F 34 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. of the seeds of the Ivy, and is intended to be shaded from red into dark green. The blending of red into green, as seen upon some leaves when autumn is approaching, is very beautiful. The inner line and cusping should be in bluish grey, with a panel of warm neutral red or fawn, brought to harmonize with the other colours. No. 3 is conventional, but somewhat after the leaves of the Dog Violet; No. 4 is from the leaf of the Cinque-foil ; No. 5 has the character of the Hawthorn; and No. 6 contains one of the triple divisions of the small Fern called Rue-leaved Spleen-wort. These last four angles may be used for panels of doors, angles of ceilings, or for any other purpose where flat decoration is appropriate. Narrow ornamental or pilaster panels are often of great service in panel decoration, where the wall space is large, by being introduced alternately or at intervals with the main panels. Their origin appears to have been the division of surface by the ordinary classic pilaster, the die of which came at length to be panelled. They became favourite surfaces for decoration with the artists of the Renaissance period. Generally, the whole panel was sculptured from base to capital in low relief, but occasionally, particularly when used internally, it was enriched by painted arabesques or Mosaic inlay. Intense study and art labour appears to have been devoted to these parts, more especially from their being usually on a level with the eye, or nearly so; yet, although there is much undoubted beauty in these arabesques, there is something which always strikes one as unsatisfactory. There is a peculiar love for piling one thing upon another, and totally without connection of line or idea. Pedestals, tripods, and vases, with a mixture of foliage, accompanied by birds and parts of the human figure, are, set one upon another, in stories as it were, each being a separate and distinct composition, with masks, armour, and various other things hanging by ribbons to the projecting branches, until the entire surface is filled! The whole com- position is literally standing upon, and is apparently supported by, the base of the panel. Even the candelabra, and many other objects of the period, partake of the same peculiarity— the setting or piling up one stage upon another. Ornamentation of surface should have no appearance of weight, or be indicated as a feature standing alone upon a base, with objects depending from it, like a Christmas tree. The Renaissance artist made his horizontal decoration continuous in one direction, or flowing from centres at intervals, in a perfectly legitimate manner; but it would appear that when he came to upright composition, the spirit of the horizontality of the classic styles, so imbued his very nature that his only idea of upright ornament was to divide it up into a certain number of parts, and treat each part in a horizontal manner. There is no reason why an upright composition should not be made continuous, and flowing upwards or downwards, without its being made to look as requiring any support; or that it should not be arranged from a centre, with the ornamentation extending both up and down. The principal figure in the centre of Plate 15, No. 5, represents the centre for a pilaster panel, with the foliage reversed in this manner. A portion of the design can be again repeated for the top and bottom of the panel. Some objection may possibly be made to placing foliage, as it would be called, upside down, but it requires no apology. It is simply a symmetrical repetition of form, which, as a rule in art, may be repeated in COLOURED DECORATION. 35 any direction suited to the nature of the composition-except being made to grow in tw directions upon the same stem. Upright repetition is suggested in Nature by reflections in water, as indicated most ingeniously by the bulrushes, by Mr. John Leighton (Luke Limner), on the frontispiece to his "Suggestions in Design." Suggestions in Design." But to return to the description of our figure (Plate 15, No. 5), the centre hexafoil contains the six-petalled flower of the Wood Anemone, slightly conventionalized, surrounded by the tri-formed leaves of the triple involucre, which invariably accompanies the flower. The flower is intended to be in gold, with the leaves, or involucre, of light delicate green, and may be slightly shaded on the surface, but not so as to destroy their flatness. The ground of the hexafoil to be of a brownish red, deepened to a chocolate colour in the centre. The general ground of the panel to be buff, with main lines and spandril ornaments of rich maroon. The leaves terminating the lines and calyx of the flower to be dark green, and the flower, which is of the Pink tribe, to be gold or scarlet. The inner ground of the panel to be pale blue or grey. Nos. 1, 3, 7, and 8 are sprigs for centres of panels. No.,1 is formed of the leaves and the elegant leaf-like calyx of the flower of the greater Bindweed, when it first pushes forth the white twisted tip of the corolla. The corolla may be gold, the calyx and stems pea- green, whilst the main leaves and stalk may partake of that subdued crimson, or maroon, which paints the autumnal foliage. No. 3 is from the highly symmetrical leafage of the Horse Chestnut. The peculiar droop of the young foliage when expanding gives the idea of the side leaves. The leaves may be bluish-green, and the stems rich russet. No. 7 is from the leaves of the garden Rue; and No. 8 from the Adoxa Moschatellina. In the latter there is a slight variation from the rule of uniformity, which, when not made too prominent, can scarcely ever fail to lend a piquancy to ornament. Nos. 2, 4, and 6 are examples of borders. The first is from the seaweed, Fucus serratus, and its clinging tendency to the main stem is in accordance with its natural habit. The flowers, which are conventional, are intended to be gold, the stem and upper part of the foliage red, with the reverse or lower part dark sea-green, and the ground grey. No. 4 takes the general form, omitting the minor subdivisions, of the leaves of the Guelder Rose. The upper stems, crossing the lower, give contrast of line and reversed leafage. The foliage may be claret, on a buff ground. No. 6 is from the pinnate leaves of the Venus' Comb, alternated with flowers of the Corn Cockle. The leaves may be green and flowers gold, upon a warm ground. Of course, these colours are merely suggestive, and would probably require to be modified according to the tone of other work with which they may.come into connection. The object must ever be to obtain a harmonious whole, which cannot well be studied in parts, but must be determined by the eye and judgment of the artist. Mr. J. G. Crace, shortly before the opening of the International Exhibition, 1862, read a most interesting and instructive Paper before the Society of Arts, Adelphi, upon the decoration of the Exhibition Building; and whatever may have been the merits or demerits of the building itself, there never could have been two opinions as to the great merit shown by Mr. Crace in carrying out the decorations. In this Paper he very justly said that "an 36 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. experienced artist can bring any two colours together;" that is, so as to harmonize with each other, “by properly modulating them." As an instance, he referred to Nature, which, he said, never errs, "whether it brings together scarlet and crimson, as in the Cactus; scarlet and purple in the Fuschia; yellow and orange, as in the Calceolaria; or the colours in the varied plumage of exotic birds-the harmony is always beautiful, ever perfect." He further adds some very excellent harmonious contrasts of colours, which, coming from a man of such varied experience, are particularly valuable. They are :— 1. Black and warm brown. 2. Violet and pale green. 3. Violet and light rose colour. 4. Deep blue and golden brown. 5. Chocolate and bright blue. 6. Deep red and grey. หู 7. Maroon and warm green. 8. Deep blue and pink 9. Chocolate and pea green. 10. Maroon and deep blue. 11. Claret and buff. 12. Black and warm green. In ornamental painting for wall surface, parts may be shaded in self colour, or a blending of colours may be occasionally used, as with leaves in Nature, but they should never be represented as in relief. They are a part of the surface, and they should partake of the flatness of that surface. Above all, never let the artist descend to representing sham architecture, for this is the most vicious form of decoration. The interior of the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral has been painted to represent an arcade, with every detail shaded! At the Painted Hall of Greenwich Hospital, imitation cornices, brackets, flutes, and other architectural members have been so mingled and mixed up with real ones, that the vision becomes disgusted with the unpardonable repetition of deceits! CHAPTER II. CARVED WALL SURFACE. OLIAGE is often applied in a perfectly flat manner, as in the stencilled wall diapers already spoken of, Plate 11, merely developing the outlined form by the aid of two or three simple colours. Decoration in stone for flat surfaces may also be carried out in a somewhat similar manner by obtaining two tints, simply by sinking from the surface of the material. This mode of ornamentation is common in the Byzantine, Romanesque, and Moorish styles, the interstices being often filled in with colour, ornamental marbles, or mosaics, and it is capable of still further development. Fully carved foliage, when executed in an open-grained sandstone, fre- quently has a tame and clumsy effect, from the difficulty the roughness of the material presents of obtaining a sharp and crisp outline. With such a material it is far better not to attempt too much, but to be satisfied with a more simple mode of treatment, as exemplified by Plate 16. The surface of the enrichments is kept perfectly flat, except where • CARVED WALL SURFACE. 37 one part overlaps another. The light and shade are made more sudden than would be the case in perfectly sculptured carving. If the same treatment were followed in a very fine material, as statuary marble or alabaster, the foliage would have a crude and unfinished look. But, in a coarse stone, minute shadows exist, from the inequalities of the surface, which, even in the brightest lights, considerably reduce and soften the contrast between the light and the shade. It is, at the same time, very easy of execution, for, by pre- paring a zinc mould, after the manner of a stencil plate, the whole of the foliage can be marked out upon the surface of the stone, and the grounds sunk by any ordinary mason. It is also applicable to cement work, by laying the mould upon the surface of the cement before it is set, and then cutting out the interstices with a tool, leaving a rough surface to the ground. This is a natural way of working cement, and is far better than cast work, which usually has a very smooth and tame appearance. The forms made use of in the keystones and arch bands are taken from Nature, but they do not follow closely any particular type. The keystone should project beyond the arch bands, and have other mouldings around it, but they are omitted in the Plate, and the whole shown on one surface, to avoid the room they would otherwise occupy. Wall surface forms the plain ground to architecture, as the canvas forms the ground to a painting, and it requires various modes of treatment to bring it into harmony with the architecture which it accompanies. We too often treat it as a mere uniform plain surface of stonework. But of late years we have acknowledged the value, in most of our modern churches, of following the old examples, by putting wrought quoins and dressings, and filling in the remaining wall surface, with rougher and smaller stones, often of a different tone of colour. The advantage of this was pointed out by Pugin, in his "True Principles; and architects have followed his advice ever since. It is a species of enrichment, by the aid of stone lines and colour, of the plain surface of the walling. The early Medieval artists decorated many of their wall surfaces with sculptured diapers. These were often formed by very simple means; the most simple being that of merely incising the form of the orna- ment, as shown by Fig. 81, and by the centre stones, Plate 17. It may be remarked that the incised, perhaps, is the earliest form of sculptured ornamentation. Fig. 82 is from the Norman, and shows how the flat background of the ornament may be avoided altogether, FIG. 81. FIG. 82. FIG. 83. O making use of the angular or V section. This was very common in the Norman period, and not only geometrical forms were executed in this manner, but much of their foliage, and it is at all times very effective and simple. It is a remarkable fact that this system of 38 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. carving is to be found in the Early Greek, and afterwards appeared again in the Byzantine from which, no doubt, it was borrowed for our Norman. The form of the flower also, which is common both in Norman and Byzantine, is evidently of Greek origin, and as I have before noticed, may be even traced back to the Assyrian. Fig. 83 represents the ornament, formed out of the surface, without a ground, as if stamped in, the surface being FIG. 84. FIG. 85. FIG. 86. left higher than the enrichment. This is a manner which is used in Egyptian sculpture, and has been called cavo rilievo. Fig. 84 shows the ornament upon the same face as the ground, and indicates how it may be introduced upon polished surfaces, the form being deve- loped by an unpolished surface only. Fig. 85 shows a form of enrichment, by incising round the form of the ornament, and merely developing the broad form. Other examples of this are given on Plates 16 and 17. Fig. 86 is an example of enamel inlay, and is akin to the last, the whole of which may have the grounds filled in with coloured cement or marble, as inlay for wall decoration. The Classic architects felt the same want as the Medieval-the necessity of treating ornamentally some of the plain surfaces of their walls; but, with the exception of their beautiful treatment of the figure for wall surfaces in friezes, they arrived at a much more" moderate result. The Early Italian architects appear to have noticed the value of rough walling in giving tone to their surfaces, and in imitation of this they proceeded, in their more finished works, to mark the joints of their stonework by strongly indented lines. This has come to be termed "rustication," and the channels "rustics." The surfaces of the stones, also, were often left rough to gain more tone and colour. This was, however, nothing more than another mode of gaining a diapered surface for plain walling. Rustication was usually confined to the lower portions of buildings, but the angles of the upper parts were made more pronounced by projecting quoins, using the indented lines of the rustics to form the edges of the stones. In later work the artists frequently picked out the surface of their quoins in senseless imitations of rock work or vermiculated work, instead of which they could be more elegantly filled with foliated designs, either incised, or the ground sunk, leaving the ornament flat. Plate 17 contains examples for the treatment of quoins and rusticated work in this manner, the foliage being kept simple and flat, so as to retain the plane surface of the stonework. The ground of the ornament may be left rough, and need not all be of the same uniform depth. The natural types used are, commencing with the upper left hand stone, No. 1. Maple; No. 2, to the right, Parsley; No. 3, Canariensis No. 4, Ground Ivy; No. 5, Potentilla; No. 6, Creeping Crowfoot; No. 7, Yellow-horned Poppy; No. 8, Wild Strawberry; and No. 9, Flowering Currant. CARVED WALL SURFACE. 39 Sincerity is of paramount importance in design. Architecture should at all times be decorated in a truthful manner, which should invariably be suited to the different materials used. Wrought metal has little danger of losing its distinctive character, from the difficulty of making it assume the appearance of anything else; but cast metal has been most shame- fully abused. Cast iron has oftentimes been made to imitate stone, and painted and sanded to make the deception closer. Yet cast iron is an honest material, which lends itself freely to the aid of the ornamentalist, although, from misuse, it has fallen into a certain amount of disrepute, and, wherever the cost will permit, it is discarded in favour of wrought. It has, however, for external use, certain advantages over wrought iron, quite independent of cost, which are well worthy of consideration-its lesser liability to oxidation from the effects of the weather, and its presenting fewer joints than wrought iron into which the water can penetrate. The manner in which wrought iron is obliged to be put together in a great number of parts causes numerous interstices into which the wet finds its way; which, from the expanding process of oxidizing, causes the work, in process of time, to burst and split. When once begun it soon leads to the ruin of the whole work. Cast iron permits itself to be moulded in every possible variety of form, and of such a multitude of shapes, that it does not preserve to itself that distinctive individuality, as a material, that most other materials do. If, however, it be used honestly, and for itself, it will admit of great beauty of form, be lighter, and more delicate in size than either stone or woodwork, but yet not so light or intricate as wrought iron. In the use of wood in joinery and cabinet work, the modern system gives rise to many vicious practices. In panels of doors and other work, mouldings are almost invariably laid in or applied, instead of being worked out of the styles and rails; and ornament is continually being stuck on by glue upon the surface, instead of being carved out of the solid. In the use of cement, although it is necessarily an imitative material, much might be done towards its improvement. The way in which the common "Roman" cement is so often used for "compoing" the fronts of houses, and then washed all over with a staring, vulgar, yellow wash, is most disgraceful to any trade. Cheapness, however, will, it is to be feared, always cause cement to be used. Still, when it is known that good self-coloured "Portland" cement is cheaper in the long run than the coloured-up "Roman," there is no reason why it should not supply its place. Further, if we must use cement, we should take care to adopt the best of the kind. "Portland" cement will admit of considerable ornamentation, as I have already mentioned, without having so much recourse to cast work. It will also admit of ornamentation by the aid of colour, by mixing with it a variety of permanent colours, as buff, red, grey, and black. Being mixed with the material itself they are perfectly indelible, and many pleasing combina- tions can be made with them. Ornamental inlays for stringcourses, quoins, keystones, or other parts, may also be readily formed in the coloured cement; as a black inlay upon the natural colour of the cement, red upon buff, buff upon black, and many others. The effect is very good, and it forms a legitimate mode of using the material. The 40 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. durability of "Portland" cement, if properly used, is one thing greatly in its favour. There are many buildings in London which have now tested this for a great number of years, and there can be no question that it stands better than most of the common building stones which are used. Stone admits of being used in one way only, that is, it cannot be made to imitate another material. Yet, when ornament is overlaid and added upon the surface, it cannot be said that this is a mode which is entirely suited to it. The mason takes a great amount of unnecessary trouble, for which no one gives him credit, and when done the cary- ing has only the same effect as when added on in cement or composition. A large quantity of material is used and great labour is involved in "boasting" out the work, while if recessed from the surface no addition of material is required, and no more work is necessary than for developing the ornament itself. At the same time, the decoration is in better architectural propriety and truth. No system, therefore, for decoration of stone- work is so legitimate as sculpturing within the surface of the parts to be decorated. Of course, I do not refer to separate ornamental features, such as statues, capitals, crockets, finials, bosses, and the like. But if a shaft of a column, for instance, is to be enriched, the ornament should be taken out of the surface, in the same manner that flutes are cut out of it, and not added upon it. If a cornice is to be decorated, let the enrichments be confined within the mouldings, unless they are added as separate features, such as heads, bosses, or gurgoyles. If a panel, a spandril, or a wall is to be decorated, let the ornament be taken out of it and not overlaid upon it. In Plate 18, which contains designs sufficient for several diapers, the geometrical form adopted is an imbricated trefoil. If intended to be applied for wall surface, the leaf used should be broad and simple, as shown by the first and third examples. No more than two varieties, at the most, should be introduced, in order not to interrupt the flatness of the surface, which a greater variety would be apt to do. For panels and small surfaces, the foliage of the fourth and fifth whole compartments in the Plate may be used. The animals and birds may be adopted, interspersed with foliated compartments, for jambs of doors, panels of altars, or other small surfaces near the level of the eye. The natural types from which the diapers are taken are--No. 1, Water Avens; 2, Doves; 3, Cow Parsnip; 4, Poppy; 5, Ivy-leaved Toad-flax; 6, Animal with Maple foliage; 7, same as No. 1; and 8, Animal with Hawthorn foliage and berries. It is a common practice in modern ornamentation to make the foliage grow two ways at the same time. This is seen more particularly in the ordinary designs, that we are so constantly meeting with, for furniture and picture frames, and which are taken mostly from the fantastical enrichments as developed in France during the reign of Louis XV. The practice, however, is so contrary to all natural laws that it cannot be too strongly con- demned. All growing or leading lines in foliage should invariably throw out shoots in one direction only, and that should be in its growing or flowing direction; but there are many cases in modern ornamentation where it is evident that this rule is broken, simply through want of thought and study. To make foliage grow in two directions is a vicious practice, CARVED WALL SURFACE. 41 which has no doubt risen up from the difficulty of managing satisfactorily the commence- ment of an ornament. The difficulty, therefore, was obviated by making it grow from both ends at the same time, but it was at the expense of truth, and it is, moreover, in violation of our ideas of consistency. Even the Greek is not free from the same fault, for in the Anthe- mion ornament, although it does not obtrude itself prominently, the S shaped scrolls are growing out at each end. In the Ionic volute, also, the two spirals flow both from the centre; one, as it were, grows out of the other, and gives the capital a remarkably stiff and unnatural appearance. The Roman architects appear to have seen this defect, and obviated it by discontinuing the volute across the front of the capital. They formed the volute into two, and made them spring from behind the enriched moulding which comes immediately below them, and placed a flower between to supply the deficiency in the centre. CHAPTER III. INLAY. N nearly all periods of art animal form has entered largely into every species of decoration, and has been closely interwoven with forms taken from the vegetable kingdom. There are various modes of rendering these forms for the purpose of suiting them to their several uses and positions, and a research into the prin- ciples which guided the artists of old would be of the greatest value. Take, for instance, the conventional rendering of the Lion-what numerous types it assumed, first, in the Egyptian, then the Assyrian, afterwards followed by the Greek, the Roman, and so on, age after age, through the Romanesque and Mediæval periods, down to the sixteenth century; each age stamping upon it the peculiar characteristics of its own art feeling, often teeming with ideal fancy, and yet imbued with sufficient natural character to establish its identity. Much has been already said relative to flat surface ornamentation of a foliated character. Plate 19 carries the subject a step further, and shows animal form applied in a similar manner. Here the outlines of a few familiar animals have been treated in the flat, in the same way that I have suggested as a means and a system towards the conventional rendering of leaf form. If we look back to the Egyptian and the Assyrian, the Roman Mosaic pavements, the "wall veil" inlays of Italian art, to the early tapestry and woven tissues, or to our own Medieval tiles, brasses, wall paintings, heraldry, or manuscripts, we shall invariably find the flat representation of objects more or less at all times adhered to, and as a principle never lost sight of. The first enrichment of surface was by symbols and hieroglyphics, as in the Egyptian. The woodcut (Fig. 87) shows with what force and FIG. 87. decision the character of the Vulture is rendered by them merely by the aid of its block G 42 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. form. There is a wonderful strength and purity of line in Egyptian ornamentation, which will amply repay the most careful study. This principle of block form is seen in every period of true art, and it was never better developed than in the numerous examples of encaustic tile paving, which have been handed down to us. In those found at Salisbury, Winchester, St. Cross, and other places, the flat rendering of both animal and vegetable form-simply trusting to its outline, blocked in with colour-is plainly apparent. In the Trinity Chapel of Canterbury Cathedral, there is still remaining a marble inlaid pave- ment with circles containing figures and signs of the Zodiac. Fig. 88 is a representa- tion of one of the circles. Although nothing but the form of the figure is expressed, yet the life and action are there as clear as if ever so elaborately worked out. Plate 19 contains circles arranged for a similar kind of pavement, and may be accompanied with foli- ated or geometrical forms, connecting the whole in one design. They are, however, equally appropriate to wall decoration and paint- ing, for centres among foliated design. Plate 20 is for an inlay panel intended to be executed in marbles FIG. 88. of various colours, and is designed as a pictorial illustration of that beautiful passage taken from our Lord's Sermon on the Mount :- Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin: and yet I say unto you, that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these."-ST. MATTHEW, vi. 28. Perhaps no people have more beautifully idealized the vegetable world than the Egyptians. True, the sources from which they chose to draw art were few, but those they translated with beauty and simplicity. The woodcut, Fig. 89, is an incised outline cut in stone, of great purity of design. Somewhat the same idea of grouping is taken up in the arrange- ment of the central Lilies, Plate 20. It will be observed that much of the force of the design depends on the fitting in of form within form, as a bud between two expanded flowers. In this, again, we see the manner of the Egyptians, as shown by the woodcut, Fig. 90, which is taken from FIG. 90. the ornamentation of a mummy case in the British Museum. The lower series of leafy fronds (Plate 20), curling inwards similar to the He- liotrope, and expanding fanlike, as in the Palm, serve to give mass to the base of the composition. The crest of Lilies at the head of the de- sign suggested the use of the semi- circular arch; and, although the general treatment is somewhat Egyp- FIG. 89. tian, still the Romanesque feeling of the outer portion is in harmony and keeping with that which is within it. INLAY. 43 The materials of the inlay may be white, green, and grey marble on a warm ground, the drawing of the outline being made prominent by black marble or cement. The band at the foot of the panel may have alternately red and blue grounds to the white roses, with lines and divisions in black, the same as the main portion. Other smaller examples of Inlay are given on Plates 49, 50, 56, 57. CHAPTER IV. SPANDRILS. OR arranging lines of stems for flat surfaces, as in spandrils, the most simple of all forms are three lines issuing from the centre and running, to the points of the triangle. These lines are in harmony with the surrounding lines, because they do not approach too near, or in any way jar or interfere with them, and they are simply a geometrical division of the triangle into three other triangles. Further, it is natural, and if we still carry out the principle, as in Plate 21, of subdividing in threes, we follow again a common law in nature. This spandril is arranged upon the leaves of the Wood Anemone, the intersections of the stems being clothed with the stipules of the Thorn. The natural leaf of the Anemone is given on the upper part of the plate. It will be at once seen that the imitation is not literal, and the terminal leaves are altered in general form to suit the form of the spandril. Six of the leaves represent the upper surface and three the under surface, and a peculiarity is endeavoured to be developed by the insertion of the leaf stalk near the centre of the leaves, instead of at the bottom, as is most usual, and the radiation of the veins takes place from this point. Very little undulation of surface is given, or is necessary to the leaves; but the ground should be deeply recessed for shadow, so as to give value and brilliancy to their radiating forms, which would be marred by too much light and shade upon their surfaces. This is a point specially to be attended to, in order not to lose the beauty of form when it has been once secured, either by making the form too detailed, or putting too great an intricacy of light and shade, so as to interfere with it. Simplicity of composition, both in form and light and shade, is one of the things at which the artist should strenuously aim. It is far easier to get into minute complication and subdivision than it is to adhere to simplicity. Complication is a power which is very attractive, and one which is not easy at all times to avoid. It is a fault which even nature is sometimes led into by the cultivating hand of man, at the sacrifice of her original and most beautiful forms. This may be easily seen by comparing the cultivated garden forms with the simple and original wild ones. Where less severity is desired in ornamentation, the strictly geometrical lines may be concealed by minor irregularities, as is the case in nature. the case in nature. This has been the intention 44 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. in designing the two spandrils here given (Plate 22). Less geometrical precision and less severity of line are observed than in the last spandril (Plate 21), although the arrangement is still geometrical. That is, they are first divided by a line transversely through the centre, and then by branches leading to the extremities of the triangle; the two halves being pretty evenly balanced in light and shade. The one is from the Hop and the other from the Hazel, and more minutia has been introduced into the detail than is usual. They are therefore intended to be for a situation near the level of the eye, and to be executed in wood or in a fine grained stone. The small quatrefoil panel at the bottom of Plate 22 is an attempt at a conventional arrangement from the natural Hawthorn leaf and stipules, given at the top of the plate, and it is intended to occupy the position of a spandril between the arches of an arcade. The stipules of the Hawthorn, which are here shown in the natural example (Plate 22), are two most elegant appendages situated at the base of the leaf stalk, one on each side of the thorn, and they contain some very graceful lines, which, although hitherto left unnoticed for artistic purposes, are evidently capable of being very happily introduced, and are well worthy of being carefully studied. An attempt in the lower figure (Plate 22) has been made to introduce them as a means of filling up the lower lobe of the quatrefoil, and by placing them somewhat at an angle with the main leaf, as they occur in nature, to obtain variety with light and shade. Stipules were also introduced in the spandril given in the last plate. Although never occurring in the Wood Anemone, from which this spandril is arranged, still it is perfectly legitimate to introduce any feature belonging to one plant and adapt it to another, so long as it is done in a natural manner. It is much the same thing as putting leafy tails to animals, or foliage for hair, a practice of which the old artists were very fond, and of which they have left us some very happy examples. It is a legitimate practice in art, of which greater advantage might often be taken. In the upper spandril, Plate 23, the natural type chosen is the Hepatica, but the terminal leaves partake of the nature of those of the Guelder Rose. The circle is formed into a somewhat conventional crown of thorns, the main lines spring from the bottom, divide, and pass through the crown to the upper angles of the spandril. In the lower spandril the natural type is the Wood Anemone, while the leaves are after the manner of the young leaves of the Creeping Crowfoot; and the terminal ones are serrated with the Hawthorn character. The centre of the spandril contains the flower of the Wood Anemone, which consists of six petals, arranged in two threes alternating with one another. It forms a natural emblem of the Trinity placed in the conventional one. The leading lines consist of three triple branches issuing from a circle, being again emblematical of the Trinity. They are intended for an ecclesiastical purpose, and if executed of a tolerably large size would admit, from their simplicity of composition, of being placed at a considerable height. Sculptured stems require peculiar treatment, and can seldom be rendered as in nature. In stonework the nature of the material and the necessity for developing the leading lines with vigour require them to be made much stouter than they are usually found in nature. SPANDRILS. 45 Their treatment varies greatly according to the composition, but they should usually be partially concealed by the foliage lapping and crossing over them; yet there must be enough of them seen to show the continuity and flow of the lines in the design. If they be too much hidden the work will appear disjointed and unnatural, and the foliage have the appearance of mere bunches of leaves put together without order or design. The kinds of stems which are best adapted to carving are fleshy, succulent ones, such as belong to plants which grow in damp and boggy soils-as the celery-leaved Crowfoot and the Comfrey. There is a considerable variety in the sectional forms of natural stems, and the angular and ribbed ones more especially are well adapted for conventional purposes. AYA 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. The following sections give some of the principal varieties, most of them enlarged from nature, but arranged of an equal size for convenience:- Fig. 91 is the section of the stem of the common Sedge ; Fig. 92, the Vetch; Fig. 93, Fern; Fig. 94, Dead- nettle; Fig. 95, Sting-nettle and Woodruff; Fig. 96, Nettle-leaved Bell-flower; Fig. 97, Broom; Fig. 98, Buttercup; Fig. 99, Comfrey; and Fig. 100, Young Ash. The last, which is oval, flattens out very much as it approaches the buds, which issue in pairs. The oval is then reversed, which again flattens as it approaches the next pair of buds, which are borne at right angles to the last. Perfectly round stems in carving, except upon a small scale, look too often like rolled-out dough, and very seldom have a good effect. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. In the Red Bryony, which is the natural type from which the foliage of Plate 24 is taken, the stems are very slight, as it is a trailing plant, clinging to the bushes in the hedges by its delicate tendrils. The natural stems have, therefore, been abandoned, and large succulent square ones substituted, as in the Dead-nettle, shown by Fig. 94. They also agree with and appear to carry on the ribbed form of the animal from which they issue. The square stem was always a favourite one among the early English carvers, as giving great decision of line with sharpness of light and shade. The subject of the spandril is a fanciful one; an animal is about to make a spring upon a snail, and it is supposed to represent the enjoyment of the glutton at the sight of what he considers a tempting morsel. The form of the leaves of the Bryony, which is given at the bottom of the plate, is somewhat of the character of the Maple, but is more angular and decided in the modelling. The general line in the spandril is a spiral in a triangle, with a ball of light for its centre. Grasses, Sedges, and many slender Ferns frequently offer the most elegant and graceful lines, from the pendulous nature of their branches and leaves. The Ferns contain a perfect mine of beautiful lines, from the moment they push their elegant little scrolled heads through the ground to their full and utmost ramifications, and even extending to their very decay and the crumpled forms they take in withering. The spandril, No. 1, Plate 25, has been suggested by the small fronds of a little fern called Forked Spleenwort. It gives a variety of a long and slender foliage, by adopting which, with interlacing lines, 46 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. ! may be formed many combinations of great beauty. Interlacing forms of this kind are well adapted for pierced woodwork, or fretwork of any kind. The spandril No. 4 contains lines of a similar nature, but with the delicately divided foliage of the Fumitory. No. 3 has again the interlacing lines, but retaining the rigidity of the Holly. No. 2 has the conventional scrolled form, introducing leaflets in pairs, with an odd leaflet at the end, as in the Ash. The fruit is the Potato Apple. as The group of flowers in the centre of the spandril (Plate 26) represents what is termed, in botanical language, an umbel, as seen on the top. An umbel is described by Dr. Lindley an inflorescence in which the flowers expand centripetally and their stalks radiate from a common point," as in the flowers of the common Hemlock, Fool's Parsley, and many others. The whole group of flowers in the spandril is put in a circular, basin-shaped hollow, and all radiate, as in the natural umbel, from the centre. The flowers themselves are conventional, six of which, surrounding the central one, stand forward and are made convex in order to give bright, sparkling points of light; but the six intermediate flowers are formed with concave petals, and are recessed from the others and laid in the hollow of the basin, so as to produce a subdued ring of lights alternating with the brighter ones. The flower stalks are still further in shade, while the interstices are carried to the greatest depth practicable, to produce the utmost possible contrast with, and to heighten, the brightest lights. If the minute flowers, which constitute the umbel of the Hemlock, are closely examined, they will be found to have a very similar arrangement to those which are represented, but of course they are here simplified, and made more symmetrical. The intention is to produce a sparkling, jewel-like effect, simply by the aid of light and shade. The leafage issuing from the centre is arranged differently for all the angles, but not to such an extent as to destroy the symmetry of the whole composition. Their forms endeavour also to elucidate a principle in nature, rather than to follow any particular type. They would be described by botanists as dentate-that is, their lobes cut in a hollow scolloped manner, as shown by the two natural leaves of the Plane tree and the Turkey Oak, represented in the upper part of the plate. Dentate leaves are seen again in the Holly, the edible Chestnut, and some Thistles. The form is also common to some of the most beautiful examples of Greek foliage, as in the Tholus, from the monument of Lysicrates, and the Anthemion ornament, from the Erechtheum at Athens. It is a very elegant form of leaf, and serves as an agreeable change from the more rounded or angular lobed leaves. The leaves in the spandril are purposely kept comparatively flat, so as to act somewhat as a foil to the brighter light and shade in the centre. The brackets or spandrils, given on Plates 27 and 28, are both intended to be surrounded by mouldings, although for convenience they are omitted in the plate. As a general rule all carved ornamentation placed upon a surface should be carved out of, or within, the surface itself. There are exceptions: as, for instance, when extreme boldness is required, parts of the ornament may be advanced far beyond the line of surface. Still the ground from which it springs should be recessed or sunk; that is, the subject should be laid in a panel. The Hawthorn foliage, given on Plate 27, is intended SPANDRILS. 47 to be applied to the side of a bracket, and the scroll line is adopted with a straight branch issuing from it to form the lower portion. The berries and spines of the Hawthorn are introduced. The corresponding spandril for a bracket, Plate 28, consists of a con- ventional arrangement of the Maple, accompanied by its characteristic winged seeds. The foliage is kept flat without any, or with very little, conventional moulding of the surface of the leaves. The main lines adopt the scroll form, and the stems are angular. A double spandril is also given with the arch voussoirs, Plate 43, which will be found described with that plate at page 57. CHAPTER V. PANELS. ANELS in plain surfaces, both of stone and wood, form excellent points for introducing foliated or other sculpture. They are much of the same nature as spandrils, except that a spandril follows the lines of the architecture which bound it; but a panel takes a form of its own, unless the surrounding lines are rectangular or otherwise perfectly regular. It therefore follows that with panels much may be done by their being arranged of an agreeable external form. Plate 29 consists of an Oak branch, with Acorns arranged in a panel of a quatrefoil form and square corners, with an incised line surrounding it. The foliage, however, may be equally well applied to a boss for a ceiling, or any other position where a "knot" of foliage may be required. As a panel it should preserve a certain flatness, which is alone consistent with the nature and ornamentation of plain surfaces. Pugin has said, that "a panel, which by its very construction is flat, would be ornamented" by the old artists "by leaves or flowers drawn out or extended so as to display their geometrical forms on a flat surface." The branch is here arranged (Plate 29) in a spiral form, a very old and a favourite arrangement among the Mediaval artists. Below the panel are given two small branches of Oak, and, without intending to indicate that the panel was designed from them, it is meant to show that the beautiful "buddy" nature of the sprigs has been to some extent taken advantage of. These examples are not selected with any great care, or as possessing features which are unusual; yet I think no one can deny their beauty. The right-hand specimen possesses a slight peculiarity in the scolloped form of the cup of the Acorn which is introduced in the carving. In the moulding of the surface of the cups I have not followed nature, but have adopted the conventional rendering as found in the carving of the Percy Shrine, and back of the altar screen at Beverley Minster. The leaves are not so much the rounded lobes of the English Oak as the more angular ones of the Turkey Oak, which has now become acclimatized to this country. 48 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. Plate 30 is an arrangement for a quatrefoil panel, introducing animal form with the foliage, which, when well applied, occasionally serves to break the monotony which might be observed if all decorative carving were simply foliated. The animals should be blended and incorporated with the foliage, and not applied as if they were quite separate from it, or as if walking about among groves of trees. The natural type of the foliage used is the Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but there are other leaves to which the foliage is also somewhat similar, as the Canariensis and Crowfoot, but it is not a literal copy of either. In Plate 31 four examples are given, drawn from nature, showing the cruciform arrangement as presented by plants and trees bearing opposite leaves. The Lilac, No. 1, as seen when looking upon the top of the branch, gives this cross-form in the greatest simplicity, with the two pairs of lower leaves coming intermediately with the upper ones. With a slight conventional rendering, this example would form a simple and effective boss or flower, suitable for being placed at a considerable height. No. 2 shows the same cross-form as seen in the tops of branches of the Sycamore. No. 3 is the point of a branch of the common Maple, as seen from the back; while No. 4 represents the front of the same. By thus drawing nature in different aspects and diligently searching. for form, we accustom ourselves to see, and really become able to detect, those portions of nature which are most applicable to art. The centre panel, Plate 31, which would also be equally well adapted for the purpose of a boss, is a conventionalized arrangement of the cross leaves of the common Maple, with the characteristic seeds introduced on the four sides. The cruciform was always a favourite arrangement, during the middle ages, for bosses or diapers. The Dogtooth ornament, so characteristic of the architecture of the thirteenth century, is another variation of this same arrangement of four leaves. • In Plate 32, which is designed to illustrate the parable of Our Lord of the Wheat and Tares, as given in the 13th chapter of St. Matthew, the vesica form of panel appeared suited to the grouping of the foliage. To make the Tares, which are a species of Wild Vetch, subordinate to the Wheat, and yet to maintain the rigid character of the Wheat, was the main difficulty in the arrangement of the design. The flowing lines of the Tares, occupying as they do the largest portion of the surface, had to be contrasted with the straight and angular ones of the Wheat, without appearing to choke it by a deadly embrace, as in the previous parable of the unfruitful Wheat which fell among Thorns. In first designing the subject, the tendrils of the Vetch were introduced, but it was afterwards felt necessary to cut them out and to substitute the voluted fronds of the Maiden Hair Spleenwort and the Hard Fern. The seed of the Vetch is very elegant, not only in itself, but in the manner in which the pods cluster in radiated spirals. This has been conventionally rendered in the lower part of the design. In all sprig-like ornament— that is, showing the stems shooting from the bottom of the composition, as I have already noticed there is always a difficulty to know how to connect them, and to treat the ends ornamentally. The idea of an evil spirit grasping and concealing the springing of the various lines here suggested itself, as at once overcoming the difficulty, and assisting PANELS. 49 ! to develop the meaning of the parable :-"The Tares are the children of the wicked one. The enemy that sowed them is the devil.” • Lines in nature consist of the straight and the curved, and in composition we bring them into various combinations with each other, producing contrasted or harmonious. forms as may be desired. Even with nature herself, when cultivated, we are fond of bringing the upright lines of the Poplar, or the horizontal lines of the Cedar, in contrast with the more rounded forms of other trees. A line is in the greatest contrast with another when it is in direct opposition-as in a right angle. It is in the greatest harmony when it runs even with another-as in parallel lines. Curves may be used for contrast by opposition of form with the straight, or to produce gradation (that is, approaching harmony), by softening the harshness of the angle at its intersection by making the lines tangential. "The two principles of contrast and gradation are expressive of opposite qualities-the first being grand, forcible, and exciting; the other elegant, gentle, and soothing."* Straight and angular lines give strength and vigour, while the curved give softness and elegance, as the main straight stem of the tree, which shoots forth its lateral branches, has the angles softened by the curve, or the straight lines are made more agreeable through being just tinged by the influence of the curve in their delicacy of flexure. The straight line and angle are the type of the male element, while the curve is like the softening influence of the female. One is indicative of strength, while the other partakes of softness and grace. Without the introduction of both principles, design is liable to fall into tameness and insipidity. Each line in a composition must either harmonize or contrast with those to which it comes in proximity; at the same time, its effect must be observed in its general relation, for often what is suitable in part, will mar the entire composition when reviewed as a whole. It is not, however, necessary that the skeleton or elementary lines in a design should be everywhere equally apparent. On the contrary, they may, very judiciously, be lost and concealed occasionally, provided the connection of the several parts be not too much obscured. In Plate 33, which is a composition for a panel of a similar form to the last, an experiment is made in the arrangement of curved with angular lines, giving a greater predominance than usual to the latter. The lines partake somewhat of the Classic lyre form, interlaced with angular branched forms as in nature. Horizontal lines are introduced, as being the greatest contrast which can be obtained with the upright ones of the central stem; but their harshness of junction is avoided by their falling into diagonal lines. The whole design is taken from nature, but without copying any particular type. It is conventionalized in an architectural manner. The general character of the foliage is that of the Ground Ivy, but several parts are taken from various other sources. The bud at the top of the whole is from the Dogwood, with Ground Ivy leaf in profile on each side. The flower is simplified from the Coreopsis, with buds of the Lilac on each side. The spiral branches are from the Comfrey, with the flowers of the Blue-bell. The angular GARBETT's Principles of Design in Architecture, H 50 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II branches terminate in Ivy buds, and the lower flowers are from the common Mallow. The angular curved branches, which develop the lower part of the lyre form, issue from sheathed leaves as in the grasses, and terminate in the leaf buds of the Rose, producing parallel lines to the central stem. Plate 34 contains foliated panels applied to doors of cabinets, or other small works in woodwork. They consist of conventional arrangements of the national emblems-the Rose, the Shamrock, and the Thistle, with the Leek for Wales. The circular panels are formed from the Wood Sorrel or Oxalis, and the Creeping Crowfoot. Plate 35 has two examples for foliated crosses, after the manner of Anglo-Norman Work. The natural type of the first is the Celandine, and of the second the Adoxa Moschatellina. There are also two small circular panels, the one at the top being taken from Wild Celery, and the lower one from Arum Maculatum. CHAPTER VI. BOSSES, OR CENTRE FLOWERS. LOWERS which radiate from a centre are arranged upon the triangle, the square, the pentagon, &c. The common White Lily is formed upon the triangle, the Wallflower upon the cross; but the cross form is seen better in plants and trees with opposite leaves, as when looking down upon the end of the branch. No. 1, Plate 36, is a treatment of the Hawthorn in this manner. No. 2 has been suggested by the Crowfoot, when growing on the ground in a radiated form, with its bud in the centre, before it throws up its flower stem. The common Daisy and Sow Thistle have the same habit, looking at times like perfect stars on the ground. The Sea Holly has a flower, with an involucre of six leaves accompanying it, forming a perfect natural rosette of six points. An attempt has here been made (No. 4) to con- ventionalize this rather unmanageable child of nature. The leaves are most lovely, reminding one of some of the ironwork of the Middle Ages. The centre is from a Dahlia flower bud, as the flower of the Sea Holly was unsuitable. No. 5 is formed with the buds of the Ground Ivy, slightly conventionalized from Fig. 101, which is an enlarged representation of the bud from nature. They are arranged crosswise, the effect of which was to leave four triangular hollows in the margin of the flower A ball form seemed most happily adapted to the space, which suggested the use of the Ivy bud, which is given · BOSSES, OR CENTRE FLOWERS. 51 FIG. 101. FIG. 102. enlarged from nature, in Fig. 102, thus obtaining a second principle of design by dividing the Ground Ivy in the line of radiation, and making the Ivy bud also a centre, with the appearance of a leaflet on either side. No. 3, the centre flower, is an adaptation from the Violet. Here nature is approached very closely in the leafage, but the flower is conven- tionalized, and made to assume the form of a leaf. Perhaps no ornamental arrangement has been more universally adopted, in all ages and in all styles of architecture, than the flower, under the various tech- nical terms of Rose, Patera, or Boss. It consists of the disposition of forms, at once purely geometrical and eminently natural-generally a repetition of one or more individual parts radiating to one common centre, as in natural flowers, presenting to the eye an everchanging position of the primary object acted upon, and conveying to the mind a complete whole, on which it can pleasingly dwell, without feeling as if it were a mere repetition of the same form. The centre flower given on Plate 27, and which fills a six-pointed panel, has the leaves of the Adoxa Moschatellina arranged upon a conventional treatment of the common White Lily. The boss, or centre flower, Plate 28, is formed by three leaves of the Ground Ivy, having buds lying in their hollows. The leaves alternate with thorn points upon the principle of a three-petalled flower, but interlace in a conventional manner in the centre. This arranging of leaves like flowers is in accordance with true art, and new combinations may be elicited by carefully observing and studying the formation of various flowers. On Plate 37 four examples of square flowers are given, which are adapted for being used in diapers for walling, or as separate flowers or bosses for hollows in cornices, or other positions. The arrangement of three of them is simply the common arrangement of four leaves issuing diagonally from the centre; still, by the variation in the form of the leaves and centre, a fresh and new variety of form and effect is attained. No. 1 consists of four leaves of the Hepatica, issuing from a circular stem, and a young leaf, thrown out irregularly, forms the centre. No. 2 is formed upon the dwarf Mallow. The centre consists of the seed—the "cheeses" of the children-the divisions being reduced from five to four in accordance with the cruciform arrangement. From the seed spring eight folded or half leaves, forming a cross, the diagonal spaces being filled in with four of the flowers of the Mallow in profile. No. 4 is taken from the minute flower of the common Rue, slightly altered from nature. This curious little flower, when minutely examined, is found to be strictly cruciform, with four curiously shaped greenish-yellow petals, each enclosing in its folds a stamen, surrounding the seed vessel in the centre of the flower, which is also divided crosswise, as shown in the design. The whole of this homely plant is a perfect study One of the petals, when taken off and viewed sideways, has a remarkable resemblance to the ordinary Gothic crocket. The leaf buds when first opening are most elegant, containing lines of the utmost gracefulness, although they are so minute that they require to be 52 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. examined with a powerful glass. The leaves when fully expanded are of beautiful form, but the seed vessels are most curious, and assume several highly suggestive forms while ripening, all upon the principle of the quatrefoil. No. 5 is formed of four leaves of the Creeping Crowfoot, not taken from the leaves when fully developed, but whilst young, and when they first expand, when they consist of three simple triple lobes. (See Natural Examples given on Plate 23.) The centre is formed by five berries or seeds, having a calyx of four triple divisions. The centre example, on Plate 37, is a conventional treatment of the Passion Flower, arranged as an emblem of the Passion of Our Lord, intended for a panel in an altar, or other appropriate position. The cruciform arrangement is retained throughout. The stamens are reduced from five, as in nature, to four, forming with the pistil a cross in the The corolla of the flower also, carrying out the same cruciform principle, is reduced from ten divisions to eight. centre. Two bosses for stone groining are given on Plate 38. In the first example, seven leaves of the Columbine are arranged revolving after the manner of the flower of the Holly- hock. They are highly convex in their modelling, coming out from the centre in a trumpet- like form. The second row of leafage revolves the contrary way, and is only partially expanded. The centre is formed by a conventional representation of the stamens, and surrounds the eye of the boss. The centres of both bosses, as is frequently the case in old examples, are pierced for the purpose of suspending chandeliers or scaffolding, or, it may be, to aid the ventilation of the building. In any case the perforation would be useful, and in the composition of the flower it assists by producing an intensely dark centre. The second example (Plate 38) has a central flower or corolla of Ivy leaves of a globular form, but depressed in the centre; from behind the corolla issue, in the form of its calyx, four crochets, each composed of two Ivy buds, crossing and twisting round upon each other. Intermedi- ately with them, as a second division of the calyx, issue four other minor crochets, with leaves to conceal the junctions of the larger ones. CHAPTER VII. STRING-COURSES, FRIEZES, AND CORNICES. ONTINUOUS ornament, such as string-courses, cornices, and other similar features, may be arranged in a simple, effective, and natural manner by branching from a straight stem as shown by the four first exainples on Plate 39. The first has the leaves growing alternately, as in the Oak, Thorn, and the greater number of trees, and is formed with the trilobed leaf of the Hepatica. The second has the leaves opposite or in pairs, one on each side of the stem, and is formed upon 1 · STRING-COURSES, FRIEZES, AND CORNICES. the common Maple, which has its leaves growing in this manner. • 53 The third has the leaves upright from the stem, with fruit alternately, and is an adaptation from the Honeysuckle. The natural leaves and fruit of the Honeysuckle are shown on Plate 21. The fourth example on Plate 39 is formed with the leaf of the Tulip tree, and is very applicable to its situation, from its having a square split point, which harmonizes with the straight line upon which it abuts. Other variations of continuous ornaments by simple leaves, may be made by placing them diagonally, as, for instance, by taking the upper or lower half of the example No. 2. The fifth example is arranged in zig-zag, with young Fern (common Brake) just expanding. The spiral buds are intended to be made more prominent than the other parts, so as to give a succession of brilliant high lights, while the other portions are kept subdued. The sixth example, with the stem assuming the wavy line, has the leaves of the common Bind-weed arranged in zig-zag. The first example given on Plate 40 is an application from the celery-leaved Crowfoot, introducing the.buds of the Ivy. The leading line upon which it is formed is FIG. 103. FIG. 104. Fefe co FLEL a variation upon the old stereotype scroll-line, by a species of interlacing or branching of the scrolls, as shown by the small diagram, Fig. 103; instead of their flowing from each other in the old manner, as Fig. 104. This mode of branching, that is, by a curve which is directly opposite to the tangential, is seen in the Lombardy poplar, and often in the lower branches of many trees. The second example is an arrangement for a string-course, or other continuous ornament, of rose leaves, embracing a stem upon the zig-zag line in the Medieval manner. In the third and fourth examples the zig-zag line is again adopted. No. 3 is a conventional rendering of the common Avens, and No. 4 an adaptation from the Thistle, with a central stem and Ivy buds. No. 5 is formed with the expanded leaf of the Ivy, arranged diagonally, accompanied by its globular bud; the leaf being hollowed, as in nature, and the ground made convex, as an opposing form to the concave leaf. In the antique Roman scrolled friezes, of which there are many fine examples remaining of most elaborate character, the scroll invariably issued from, and was formed by, sheaths of foliage growing out of each other, with flowers usually forming the centres or eyes of the scrolls. The starting-point of the sheath from the stem was indicated by a bulbous knot or joint, which was often enriched by a fringe of foliage, something like a flower turned back upon the stem. This antique manner became much modified during the Romanesque and Byzantine periods, until at length the sheaths and knots were omitted altogether, and in all the numerous ramifications of Medieval scroll- work no appearance of them is found whatever. With the Renaissance came again the sheathed foliage, when it became still further elaborated. In France, during the reign 54 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. of Louis Seize, the sheath was carried to such an extent, more especially in the fanciful and elegant works of Salembier, the most celebrated artist of the period, that it often enveloped the whole scroll. The scrolls were sometimes made of an oval form, and the terminations of the foliage of the sheaths inclined inwards towards the stem, the stem itself being reduced to a mere line. The eyes of the scrolls were formed by oval flowers, and occasionally the scrolls continued again from their centres, instead of by continuous branching. With the entire omission of the sheathed foliage in Medieval work, although not missed in small examples, came a baldness at the points of junction of the leaves and stems. This was ingeniously got over in many Gothic examples by the continual crossing and interlacing of the foliage, or by a greater exuberance and breadth of the leaves themselves, which partially concealed the scroll. Where the beauty of the scroll, however, is sought to be developed, there is a want of something at the intersections. Instead of using the old sheath, this want may be successfully supplied in a perfectly natural manner by the stipule, and it has the advantage of being quite unworked for ornamental purposes. To both the present examples (Plate 41) I have applied the stipule, and although each pair could not, except in one or two of the junctions, be indicated in the drawing, they could easily be sufficiently developed in the carving. The first frieze is designed from the Adora Moschatellina, with the simple stipules of the Vetch. The stems are square, but the younger or smaller ones are rounded, at the angles. The second frieze, formed with interlacing scrolls, is conventionalized from the leaf of the Flowering Currant, although its form is not followed literally. The stipules are from those of the Hawthorn, and the stems are angular. The modelling of the leaves is hollow, passing into a convex form in some of the lobes, the veining of the leaves being omitted to gain softness and gradation of light and shade. In nature the surface of the leaves is generally very simple, their upper sides being usually hollowed towards the leaf-stalk. In sculpture, also, the modelling on the surface of the leaves should never be too sudden, if the ground is intended to be the darkest, for, however much their forms may be studied, if the light and shade on the leaves be too great, the form will be lost, as the shadows become as strong and broad as those upon the ground. It cannot be too distinctly stated, and I have before endeavoured to point out its importance, that the ground requires as much consideration as the foliage itself, and much of the art of the carver should consist in causing them to unite harmoniously together. If it be intended to form a dark background to the work, the ground should be made to do its duty by deeply recessing, by being contracted in extent, or by strongly marked roughing, so as to produce tone and colour to throw up the carving in sufficient relief. A neat, smooth, uniform ground is an absurdity when it is to be dark, for unevenness is an assistance, as it helps to produce shadow. The enrichments in cornices and string-courses are of two kinds-interrupted, consisting of heads, roses, or bosses, placed at intervals, such as those given on Plate 37, Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5 ; or, continuous, examples of which are given on Plates 39 and 40. Two others are given. *See Plate 22. STRING-COURSES, FRIEZES, AND CORNICES. 55 in the present plate (Plate 42), of a more important character than those before given. Continuous enrichments have two distinct arrangements—the horizontal and the vertical. In English Medieval buildings the horizontal arrangement is by far the most prevalent, while, on the Continent, and in all classical ornamentation the vertical is the most common—that is, the ornament springs from the bottom of the moulding, as from the necking of a capital, and is not connected by a horizontal stem.* The form in which the vertical arrangement is most clearly seen is in the Early French crochet cornice, and which is evidently of Classic origin. It is, in reality, the leafage of the Corinthian type of capital, applied to a continuous moulding. The application was first made by the Romans, who enriched the cymatium of their temples with the Acanthus leaves of the Corinthian capital, alternated with water leaves. In the Venetian and Italian Gothic, the Classic form of leaf was used in.cornices, with the head very boldly turned over; but the true crochet is found only in the Early French, where it was applied to capitals, cornices, and many other features. In England it was never fully developed, which would appear to be in consequence of the abandonment of the square abacus of our capitals, when, for the want of the necessary projection at the angles, the crochet came to be applied sideways, and flowing round the bell. Probably this at length gave rise to the horizontal foliage in the capitals of the Decorated period. Plate 42 gives two examples of a modified arrangement of the Early French crochet cornice-intended to be applied at a moderate elevation. The upper example has the principal range of crochets placed sideways; somewhat in the English manner. The lower leaves meet and form a row of subordinate crochets, alternating with the upper. They consist of the tender shoots of the young Brake lapping over each other, and Geranium leaves filling the lower central spaces. The upper range is filled in with the lapping, crescent-formed fronds of the Moonwort, which spring from the base of the moulding. The head is shaped with the opening spirals of the Maiden-hair Spleenwort. In the second example the elegant foliage of the Columbine is moulded into a crochet, with two half leaves meeting each other, and filled in below with the upper portion of the leaf of the Yellow-horned Poppy. The Poppy leaf, springing from the bead, advances in an ogee form to meet the half leaves of the Columbine, and with them to give a broad mass of light alternating with the still more prominent head of the crochet. * As in Nos. 3 and 4, Plate 39. 56 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. CHAPTER VIII. ARCH MOULDINGS. OW is it that so much positively bad ornament is perpetrated in nearly every branch of the decorative arts in this country? Wretched ornaments, containing vicious forms and bad lines, are copied over and over again, until our eyes are met by them at every turn. In architecture, in furniture, in metal work, in woven fabrics, and in nearly every other species of work where ornament is introduced, we constantly meet with an endless repetition of worthless forms and inelegant lines. But why should it be so? It arises simply from the want of a proper education of the eye-the study of what constitutes the beautiful in line and form. Thousands of persons know no difference between the most wretchedly vulgar foliage, carved upon the commonest piece of furniture, and the most refined example which can be found of the best period of Athenian art. They can see no distinction between them; they are to them both alike. "On trouve des hommes pour lesquels toutes les formes se confondent et qui ne peuvent distinguer ce qui est beau de ce qui est laid.” * Yet it is a fact that all common people prefer the ornamental to the plain; and there is a taste even among the lowest, for anything which is carved or painted, no matter how vulgar it may be. The taste for ornament, therefore, appears to be natural, but it requires to be educated before it can distinguish the beautiful from the ugly. We hear of an ear for music, and an eye for colour, but never of an eye for form and beauty of line. General form may sometimes be studied to some extent; but not the beauty of line as applied to foliated ornamentation. There are certain examples of foliage in our various schools of design which are repeated and multiplied by plaster casts, and which the pupils copy and re-copy year after year, producing an array of elaborately shadowed drawings of the same thing; and this process is supposed to educate their eye, and to instruct them in the beauty of line. It may teach them to copy accurately, but it does not teach them to discriminate and appreciate the elegance of form. There is no recognized system for instruc- tion in the combination of line, so as to produce that æsthetic feeling for the beautiful which is so necessary in the designing of every species of ornamentation. The consequence is, pupils come out of the schools with a jumble of forms in their heads, and, in some respects, are worse off than if they had received no education whatever. They are somewhat in the position of those persons who, going into a shop, have such a number of various patterns laid before them, that they end by choosing the worst of the whole. They have no system by which they can discriminate the good qualities of one from the other, and they become confused by the multiplicity of forms which they see around them. It is only by severe study and analysis, and by comparing the forms in nature with those of art, that the eye is at length enabled to appreciate and detect that which is good in * Monsieur DE CAUMONT'S Abécédaire d'Archéologie. 1 ARCH MOULDINGS. 57 · form'; and no improvement will take place in the taste of the general public until this is taught in our schools of art. If, instead of confining our young men to a few selected copies from the antique, in the drawing of which they seem to vie with each other in the production of thin wiry outlines, they were given some surface to decorate, or some feature to ornament upon natural principles, it would call forth their own thoughts and energies, by which, under proper supervision to direct them to commence with the most simple forms of composition, they would be gradually led to analyze the various lines which have been hitherto used in art, and by fresh reference to nature, to learn how to improve, alter, or adapt them to fresh compositions. By careful training thus, in actual design, without embarrassing them so much with neatness of drawing or delicacy of shading, the eye would become educated in form, and at length arrive at the power of detecting that which is good, and separating it from that which is bad, a power which is far more valuable than any acquired skill of manipulation and finish in drawing. Perhaps there are few works which contain more real design, with less finish of execution, than many of our sculptured Norman doorways—as at Ely, Barfreston, Patrixbourne, and others. The carving, executed often in the flat, always tells that the artist put energy into the work he had to do, and that his whole vigour and power was thrown into it. Ages have passed away, but these stones still speak forth the devoted earnestness and power of feeling shown by these "cunning workmen" of old. With an earnest endeavour to carry out the same spirit of ornamentation of flat surface in the decoration by natural foliage, the spandrils and voussoirs for a small doorway are given on the accompanying plate (Plate 43). The spandrils represent two winged nondescripts in violent action, the upper one having the wings expanded in a somewhat symmetrical manner, for the purpose of giving contrast to the freedom of line imperative upon animal form, the manner of the wings being taken from the well-known winged globe in the Egyptian temples. The tail of the animal terminates in a foliated spiral formed from the leaves of the Cardamine or Cuckoo flower-the "Ladysmocks all silver white" of Shake- speare-an elegant little four-petalled flower, with succulent stems and brilliant green pinnate leaves, of exquisitely simple modelling and endless variety of form. The Watercress, and, in the central bud, the Wood Anemone, also lend a feeling to the foliage. The tail of the left-hand animal is idealized from the pinnate leaves of the Vetch, when in its vigorous early growth, and its stems are thick and full of sap. A suggestion, alsó, is taken from the spirals of the Heliotrope, and the central or terminal bud is from the Rose. It is seldom that pinnate leaves that is, compound leaves formed of several leaflets in pairs-are attempted to be introduced in foliated composition. The centre voussoir of the arch below the spandrils contains a nearly symmetrical arrangement from the Water Avens or Herba Benedicta, the favourite plant of the Early English sculptors. A fish and a vampire occupy the stones on either side of the centre, with half foliated fins and tails, embracing an odd conventional thought or two. The right-hand stone is composed from the Celery-leaved Crowfoot, while the one to the extreme left is formed with the seeds of the Hornbeam, the characteristic plaited leaf of the tree being introduced to assist in giving it individuality. I 58 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. FIG. 105. The parts are put together on the plate, in order to economize space, without mouldings, but the accompanying woodcut (Fig 105) gives a section, showing how the parts would be arranged in execution. The spandrils carved on the wall surface with a horizontal moulded string-course above, the voussoirs recessed from the spandrils, and separated by a bold filleted bead. The soffit of the voussoirs would be again enriched by a simple carved diaper pattern, and a plain inner arch would complete the doorway. In the first example (Plate 44) the enrichment consists of a double crochet form, somewhat after the Lincoln manner, springing from and growing out of the circular mouldings on each side of a bold hollow, and are conventionalized from half-expanded and opening fronds of the Brake Fern. The ground or back of the hollow is filled with subordinate, continuous foliage, designed from the Polypody. This is kept flat and subdued, recessed in the hollow, to add richness, but not so as to interfere with the bright light and shade of the principal forms. This example would require to be developed and executed at a considerable scale. It would be suited, for instance, to form a portion of the arch mouldings to a grand double doorway. ་ The second example is a much smaller enrichment, but of a somewhat similar character, springing from a round moulding on one side of a hollow. It is a con- ventional rendering of the compound leaf of the Saintfoin or Holy Hay, which has a number of heart-shaped leaflets in pairs, and the head or extremity of which curls over in a very pleasing manner. The junction of the foliage with the moulding from which it grows is concealed by pairs of stipules, taken from the Hawthorn, and these serve to give a rich,, continuous effect and clothing to the moulding. The space left by the foliage at the bottom, or springing of the arch, is filled in with an owl, a position which was constantly filled, in Early Medieval examples, with birds or grotesque animal forms. CHAPTER IX. ENRICHED MOULDINGS. LASSIC enriched mouldings consist of surfaces sculptured, but at the same time preserving more or less the contour of the plain moulding, which is of a certain conventional form; while in Gothic the enrichment is contained in the moulding, and it usually takes an opposite outline, nearly always consisting of an ornament of a convex form put in a hollow moulding. The Gothic is placed so that the light must fall upon it, while the Classic is as continually receding from the light. The origin is evident: the Classic has been arranged for those countries where the natural contrast of light and shade is most intense; but the Gothic has been ENRICHED MOULDINGS. 59 designed for those more Northern climates, where the light and shade have to be made the most of, and buildings were meant to look effective even in dull and cloudy weather. The ornament, therefore, was thrown boldly into the light, and the shadows were made as intense as possible, by forming the moulding into a hollow, the opposite form to the enrichment it contained. In strings and cornices, the foliage usually projects as much as the member above it, but in Classic the enrichment is invariably crowned by an over- hanging fillet. Gothic enriched mouldings are more often formed by continuous lines in the direction of the moulding, as shown by most of the examples given in Plates 39 and. 40, while Classic ones are generally the reverse, being arranged transversely by adding one form by the side of another. It is evident that the latter is more suited for Classical purposes than continuous form would be, from the necessity, there usually is, of making such frequent mitres in the enrichments, and for doing which, the transverse form gives greater facilities. Why I refer so particularly to this peculiarity between Classic and Gothic enriched mouldings, is that in any successful modern adaptation of architecture for domestic purposes the horizontal line must necessarily enter very largely into compósition, and no enrichments are so suited to horizontal lines as those that are upon the Classic principal; but I would take advantage of the Gothic manner of deeply hollowing-the ground, for the purpose of gaining more shadow. In this country, where light and shade are so subdued by clouds or a dull atmosphere, often for as much as three parts of the year, or, as in large cities, enrichments become choked up with soot and dirt, the Gothic manner of hollowing the ground must necessarily be very desirable. The Romans appeared to have felt the same thing-that is, the need of increased boldness of light and shade—and, if it was necessary in Rome, how much more so must it be in our own climate? With this idea the mouldings given on Plates 45 and 46 have been arranged, by introducing new forms from nature, and rendering them in a bold but simple manner. • The number and the variety of enrichments at present used for Classical mouldings are very limited, so much so, that, undoubtedly beautiful as they are, we have of late years been perfectly inundated with "Eggs and tongues," "Reels and beads," and enriched "ogees," modelled strictly from the Greek examples, until we have become completely nauseated by them. There has not been much attempt at gaining variety, or of inventing new forms. Classical architects, in their detail at any rate, have been content to reproduce such forms as they have found at their hands. There is, however, no reason why the old stock patterns should not be broken through and fresh forms introduced. The examples given are probably not perfect, but all are arranged upon natural forms, although they do not follow closely any particular natural type. The split- leaved ones, Nos. 4, 5, 6, Plate 45, and No. 1, Plate 46, have been suggested by the point of the leaf of the Tulip tree. In No. 3, Plate 45, and Nos. 5, 8, and 9, Plate 46, the ground is hollowed, after the Gothic manner, in order to get a greater degree of light and shade, and the berries of No. 3 are made to project beyond the line of moulding, so as to produce points of high bright light at intervals. flat simply following the contour of the moulding. The forms of the leaves are kept The two last examples, Plate 45, 60 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. may be considered as adaptations from the conventional "Egg and tongue" moulding, but partaking also of the character of the Gothic ball flower ornament. The first of them is a leaf and globular bud, like the flower bud of the Peony. The last is a ball and trefoil, the ball being highly relieved by forming a hollow round it sunk out of the ground, The ball as an ornament is alike common to the Gothic as to the Classic, and probably has been equally suggested by objects in nature. FIG. 106. In the pods of the Sweet Pea and the Vetches, which when dried curl up as shown by Fig. 106, retaining the Peas in the intervals of the twist, we see very clearly the type of the bead and twisted ribbon of the Classic or Renaissance period-while the "Decorated "ball flower has been probably suggested by the bursting seeds or nuts of the Horse Chestnut. Here again we see the difference between Gothic and Classic light and shade, for while the (( eggs and "beads" of the Classic are closely surrounded with lines and delicate shadows, the "ball flower" is imbedded in shade produced by a deep hollow, so as to make the light upon the ball as intense as possible. No. 2 (Plate 46) is for an ovolo or quarter round, moulded upon the surface, which, from the greater number of lines and less depth of shadow, would require to be used near the eye. It is formed with young Hawthorn leaves, which, when they are first developed, have but three lobes. No. 3, for an ovolo, is arranged with natural boldly- serrated leaves, alternated with Thorn berries. No. 4 is for a small cavetto, with a half- trefoil leaf set out upon alternating quarter circles. No. 6, for a large cyma reversa, is. formed with a three-pointed leaf, alternated with a five-lobed leaf, with very slight moulding of the surface. No. 7, for a cyma recta, is an arrangement of the simple leaves of the London Pride. The leaves are in the flat, retaining the profile of the moulding, and are developed entirely by the recessed ground. No. 8 is for a cyma recta and bead, the leaf, which is from the Cow Parsnip, sweeping from the bead continuously to the top of the member. No. 9 is an arrangement of a trefoil and fluted bud, somewhat after the manner of the Classic wave moulding. It is suited for a flat surface, the ground being worked into a deep hollow. ་ CHAPTER X. CAPITALS. APITALS of columns are among the most important and distinguishing features in architecture, and admit of considerable variety in arrangement. The most beautiful of the antique capitals is the Corinthian, and it undoubtedly became the type of many of the Medieval capitals. It was not copied by them literally, as we are in the habit of servilely copying it now; yet. in many of the early foliated capitals, the origin from the Corinthian can be clearly seen. The Greeks never per- CAPITALS. 61 fected the Corinthian capital; that is, as far as we can tell by what has been left to us, the only pure Greek example that we have being the small one from the monument of Lysicrates. But beautiful as it unquestionably is, it is far from perfect. There is an awkward deficiency or nakedness between the heads of the leaves and the scrolls at the angles; but, such as it is, it has been literally copied and executed by us in every possible way, and put in every kind of position. The whole monument has been placed on the top of a church to do duty as a tower, and now it has been degraded to a cast-iron drinking fountain; but whether the capital has been placed close to the eye, or put at a considerable elevation, it has been invariably copied precisely in the same manner. The delicate chiselling of the leaves, which no doubt was admirably suited, in the original, to the material and to the distance it was placed from the eye, has been imitated, and every minute detail copied without reference to its position; so that it appears to us nothing but a mass of intricate lines which are impossible to be made out. No allowance either is made for our coarser materials, their darker colour, or the want of that powerful sun of which the Greek example has the advantage. The most perfect antique Corinthian capital is that from the Temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, and there can be no doubt that it is the most beautiful of the kind which has been handed down to us. Gwilt says, "that it has received the admiration of ages," and very justly so; but at the same time it cannot be advanced as a model to be copied, for, in the first place, it is not suited to our climate. It is too elaborate and too full of minute parts; and above all there is a want of that simplicity which is necessary to produce clear and effective light and shade. In our climate, where we do not have too much sun, and more especially in our large towns, where materials become very much blackened by smoke, external carving generally, according to its distance from the eye, should be simple, clear, and distinct. The capitals of columns should be executed in a broader manner than either the Greek or Roman examples-with an eye to the massing of the light and shade, and developing the forms of the several parts in a more decided manner. The forms of the leaves and scrolls should be well pronounced, and there should be very little surface carving upon them to interfere with their forms and outlines. Distinctness in carving, when viewed from a distance, gives it a great charm. This is one reason why guilloches and frets, zig- zags and tooth ornaments, look so well; they are always clear and distinct. Confusion of form may produce overloaded richness, but it can never be good and judicious ornamenta- tion. Without distinctness the eye takes no interest in what it sees. Every advertising tailor understands this principle, for the higher he puts his sign, the clearer, he takes care, it shall be to read; and we throw away our ornament if we put it so that it cannot be read also. In modern carving, the outline and forms of the foliage are often very slightly attended to, and the workman, in order, as he thinks, to obtain boldness, cuts up the whole surface of his leaves with innumerable lines, until the form or outline of the leaf, to the eye, is com- pletely destroyed. When he observes that his lines produce so little effect at the distance from which they have to be viewed, he proceeds to cut some of them in much deeper, which, 62 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. This is a mistake, how- Much of the carving of by destroying the lights, probably only makes the matter worse. ever, which is not confined to the sculptors of the present day. St. Paul's Cathedral has the same fault. Some of the bosses in the ceiling of the nave are so cut away, and are so full of minute parts, that they look from below nothing but masses of shadow. There is a multiplicity of small shadows, but no parts broad enough to receive the necessary amount of light. The guilloche in the arch-bands of the same ceiling shows by contrast how well ornament looks when properly relieved by shadow. Here, simply by the guilloche being in full light, surrounded by shade, it shows itself boldly and effectively. The Acanthus leaves of Corinthian capitals have often the same fault, as the bosses in St. Paul's Cathedral of which I have spoken. The number of lines upon their surfaces produce quite a dark tint, having anything but the effect intended: they are scored all over with lines. Thus, when a capital is made up of such leaves, you have a mass of intricate shade, with scarcely room left for the play of a single light broad enough to be seen from below. But the great difficulty with the Corinthian capital is its multiplicity of parts ; containing, as it does, sixteen leaves, besides the eight scrolls or volutes supporting the angles. of the abacus; in addition to which there are yet the eight smaller scrolls which meet in the centre, and support a flower which is placed on the four faces of the abacus. There are, in fact, three distinct ranges of ornamentation; two of leaves and one of scrolls. The first suggestion would appear to be, without omitting any of the parts, to simplify them, by leaving out many of the lines of which I have spoken, and producing more light on the surface of the leaves and scrolls. I have tried this, and have produced a partially successful result; but still, to my eye, it has had a crowded effect, and I have felt a strong desire to weed it out, and to do away with some of the parts. Now, the great alteration caused by the Medieval treatment of the Classic capital was precisely to do this, and to form it with two rows of leaves only-two ranges of ornamentation instead of three. In the Early French examples the leaves became a happy mixture of the turned-over leaves and the angle scrolls of the Classic, and were arranged much after the manner shown in Plate 47. Here, then, is indicated the remedy; and I would take the Early French capital and graft upon it again the Corinthian, to produce a new variety. This example is formed upon the leaves and flowers of the Sweet pea. In the capital given, Plate 48, although a small example, an endeavour has been made to give a more simple version of the Corinthian, but omitting the conventional scrolls. It is formed with natural leaves, arranged in the Corinthian manner. The lower leaves are a modification from the triple leaves of the common Creeping Crowfoot; while the upper, in order to get a substitute for the bulk and importance of the scrolls, consist of the trilobed leaves of the Hepatica. The manner in which the points of the leaves are brought together, especially the lower lobes of the upper leaves with the centre lobe of the lower leaf, is in accordance with a very elegant Medieval practice, as seen in the finials, from the arcade at the back of the altar, in the Presbytery of Winchester Cathedral.* The shaft * See Plates 93 and 94, Vol. I. Gothic Ornaments. CAPITALS. 63 consists of a double interlacing of flat bands, enriched with roses and a trefoiled scroll alternately. Many of the smaller variations upon the Corinthian type of capital during the last century were formed with plain leaves-technically called "water leaves "—instead of the usual "raffled" leaf. Capitals, also of the Medieval period, were sometimes formed with plain leaves of a very bold character, as at the church of St. Nicholas, Blois, from which a good example of the kind is given by the Rev. J. L. Petit, in his "Studies in France." This mode of treatment offers a means of gaining much simplicity of line united to great boldness of light and shade; points of the utmost importance when capitals are to be viewed from a distance. FIG. 107. FIG. 108. There are in nature leaves undivided by distinct lobes, which are of the most elegant forms, more especially in the manner in which they turn or curl back upon the stem, somewhat after the shape of an arrow. Among these may be classed the leaves of the common Arum or Cuckoo-pint, the Bind-weed, and several of the tribe of Docks. The capital given, Plate 49, is formed with leaves of this simple character. The main leaves are from the fronds of the Hart's-tongue Fern, and are united at the bottom, to obviate the usual abruptness of leaves starting immediately from the necking, as if merely stuck up in their places. The angle-scrolls are from the same Fern, as seen when first issuing from the ground. All Ferns, with one or two exceptions, have their fronds rolled up in spirals when in embryo, and form most beautiful ob- jects while expanding. The French artists of the 12th century appear to have watched them very attentively, and probably it was these little spirals that first suggested to them the "crochet," which was afterwards so largely developed. Figs. 107 and 108 represent the front apd profile of one of the half-expanded fronds of the Hart's- tongue Fern, drawn from nature and about the natural size. The abacus, which is square, is of the Norman type, with a conventional ornamentation in flat relief. The arch above is intended to be well brought over upon the capital. The capitals given on Plate 50 are arranged upon the Anglo-Norman type. In the first, the very beautiful floriated spirals of the Heliotrope have been taken advantage of, giving a sort of radiated halo and crochet at the head of the cap between the angle crochets. The leafage partakes somewhat of the Poppy character, but the angle crochets are closely conventionalized from the young fronds of the Lady Fern, as they are found when first issuing from the ground, curled up in elegant little spirals. The natural type of the second capital is the Wild Briar or common Dog Rose. The angle crochets will be recognized as the character of the leaf bud, when it unfolds itself in spring, shooting off at an angle to the parent stem. The leaves of the buds are folded and curiously plaited one upon another. The third example is a coupled capital taking up the Norman cushion capitals. The 64 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. two first examples have the Corinthian form of bell, which was not introduced until late in the Norman period, as may be seen by the capitals in the choir of Canterbury Cathedral. In the coupled capital the cushion character is retained by the principal lines of the foliage, after springing out of the bell, curving down from the centre and rising to the angle crochets. The foliage is brought square out to the form of the abacus, and the crochets, which are taken from the Hard Fern, form solid square angles, thus preserving the conventional out- line of the Norman cushion capital. Water Cress and Wild Strawberry spring in an upright line from the bell, whilst their extreme shoots fall under the crochets at the angles. Seed leaves mark the springing of the foliage from the necking. The plain portion of the bell is enriched by an inlay in dark cement, or with glass mosaic, representing delicate Fern fronds, which would be rendered far too coarsely by ordinary carving. The abacus is also inlaid, suggesting a double ornamentation, the dark part being a conventional rendering of the Snowdrop, while the light portion is from the Lily. A large coupled capital is given at Plate 51, embracing also a small corbel issuing from the same foliage, to take the central band of arch mouldings. The capital is formed upon what I have before distinguished as the Corinthian type-that is, having a basket-formed bell, with foliage springing from the necking, with large crochets or scrolls supporting the angles of the abacus. The crochets are formed of expanding Fern fronds, accompanied with conventional foliage. The central stem of the large crochet is inlaid with one of the narrow delicate branches of the frond of the Shield Fern, having on each side the leaves of the Celandine. The lower crochets are filled in with the leaves of a hothouse plant, called the Grevillea Acanthifolia,* having central stems formed by a series of the scrolls of young Fern arranged above each other. The corbel springs from the intersection of the capitals from behind a leaf of the Grevillea Acanthifolia, which curves forward to permit of its doing so. Leaves in sculpture can seldom be rendered precisely as they are found in nature, especially in a work which requires boldness and breadth of design. Many of the delicate divisions that are found in nature must be omitted, as they would be lost and not at all effective in stone. There are many cases where more latitude may be allowed, as in fat ornament and painted decoration, where the delicate forms of nature may be much more closely followed. In sculptured foliage there is required a peculiar rendering and a massing of light and shade, which cannot be obtained from nature. It often happens that leaves, when so rendered, do not much resemble the original type from which they were taken, but resolve themselves occasionally into leaves having a resemblance to other species. As an instance, one of the modes of architecturalizing a leaf is to modify it by reducing its number of parts. This has been done in the present capital with the Fern fronds and the leaves of the Celandine. In the treatment of a five-lobed leaf, as of the Vine, if the serrations of the lobes are reduced to three it has a resemblance to the Maple, and if they are entirely omitted it has an affinity to the Ivy leaf. In the same way, the Parsley will assimilate to the Crow- foot and Wood Anemone; the Horse Chestnut to the Cinquefoil; and the Cinquefoil to the Strawberry, Trefoil, Hepatica, or Water Avens, according to the number of parts, or the See Art Botany, by the author. CAPITALS. 65 peculiar form given to the turn of the lobe, so that when carved there may be doubt as to what particular leaf it is intended for. This, however, need not trouble the artist, nor prevent him making any alteration or reduction of parts that may suit the object before him. Let it be but natural and in accordance with nature's laws when she herself makes her leaves less intricate, and the result cannot but be successful. Leaves are much less complicated and have fewer parts when young. The Thorn is only divided into three when it first expands, and the leaflets of the Strawberry have but three serrations each, and probably are at first perfectly plain and uncut. It is the same with many other species of foliage, and, consequently, there can be nothing improper in adopting nature in its more primitive form. The object should be to aim at the broad general character of the leaves; still there are minute points and beauties which the true artist will not overlook, and the detecting and applying of which will give an infinite charm and grace to his work, which will show the true artistic feeling. It is necessary to be careful how you fall into conventionalism, for if the same form be too often repeated, let it be ever so beautiful, it at length becomes mannerism, and nature then will soon be lost sight of. This is seen clearly by several phases in the history of art, particularly in the foliage of the Perpendicular period. Much of it is very beautiful, but the mannerism of the time is seen everywhere, producing mono- tony and sameness. The hand of the workman, by constant reproduction of the same form, becomes machine-like, and it is no longer Art Foliage. There are no distinctive features by which it is associated with the variety and ever-varying forms of the original types in nature. Foliage may either be too conventional or too natural-the happy medium is the most preferable. That which is wrought in this, the nineteenth, century should be imbued with nature, and not be a copy of any particular style or period; for, let it be ever so successfully copied, it is but speaking to the present generation in a dead language. CHAPTER XI. CORBELS. HE highest class of foliated sculpture is that which expresses some thought or idea beyond the mere combination of leaf form-not exactly by a representation of the thing itself, but by adopting some form of expression which will be www.symbolical of that which is to be pictured forth, the meaning of which is rendered sufficiently clear and expressive to those who attempt to look beyond the mere surface of things. Alas, that language by symbolic ornamentation should be now so much neglected !—that we should be content with copying and recopying foliage which is not only bad in form, but is utterly meaningless in its application! Yet the symbolic form is the most ancient mode adopted by mankind to express their thoughts, and the symbolic form of ornamentation followed as the most natural means of decorating their works. K 66 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. FIG.109. Look for a moment at the meaning and force of expression in some of the most ordinary of the Egyptian ornaments. Fig. 109 is from an ornamental border upon a mummy case, where the closed buds of the Lotus, the sacred lily of the Egyptians, are represented as appearing through the conventionally expressed water, while the fully ex- panded flower speaks of the waters having receded. The Egyptian cast his bread upon the waters of the Nile, hoping to find it after many days, and the plen- tiful appearance of the Lotus told of the lowering of the waters, and gave promise of an abundant harvest. The Lotus, therefore, was the welcome harbinger of plenty, and came to be regarded as an emblem of faith, speaking of a happy land, where this worshipped flower would henceforth bloom eternally. WES It may, however, be said that all such symbolic form is useless in our age-that we have a comprehen- sive written language which will express our thoughts much clearer and more perfectly than by any such means-which, by the powerful aid of type and the printing press, can be repeated a thousandfold, and sent to the four corners of the earth. True, but sym- bols are the poetry of form, as verse is the poetry of language, and we are not so rich in poetic feeling that we can afford to give up this, humble as it may be. It is a language that all ages may trans- late, if they do but search for that thread which leads to its unravelment. 1 ለለለ Medieval artists speak to us of the Trinity by their triple foliage, and of their faith, by the way they dwelt upon and developed so many beautiful forms of the cross. Heraldry, again, was a language of symbols of the most interesting character, and heraldic forms entered very largely into Medieval decoration. It is still used to a limited extent, but it would be well if it were more studied, and its forms introduced among the ornamentation of domestic and other buildings. Monograms, also, if judiciously treated, and not too often repeated, are useful auxiliaries to ornamentation. An example upon a wall diaper has been given at Plate 11. There are several plates where a symbolic meaning has been sought to be given to the designs. In Plate 20 the parable of the Lilies of the Field is illustrated, and in Plate 32 the parable of the Wheat and Tares has been rendered by a symmetrical arrangement of foliage. Many examples of the kind are to be found in Medieval buildings. Among others the parable of the Good and the Bad Tree is found wrought among the carvings in the Cathedral at Amiens. In Plates 52 and 53 I have endeavoured to render, although in a different manner, the same iḍea in the form of stone corbels. In Plate 52 the Fig Tree has been selected for the Good Tree, as a foliage in unison with the saying of our Lord, and suitable to the quietude CORBELS. 67 which should characterize the work. The variety of the leafage of the Fig Tree is endless, from the simple bud to the fully developed five-lobed leaf. The fruit, which in nature is more equally spread among the foliage, has been here clustered with the leaves into bunches or crochets. "Ye shall know them by their fruits. Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles; even so, every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit."-Matt. vii., 16 and 17. Birds are introduced in the corbel to give contrast by action to the stillness of the subject, and to open up the foliage. The tree has its origin in a boss of Lilies, the Lily being the emblem of purity, which suggested itself as a fitting commencement of the subject. Plate 53 is the accompanying corbel, and represents the Bad or corrupt tree. In its treatment the Woody Nightshade, with its poisonous fruit, of a shining, bright red colour, so temptingly attractive in the hedges, has been selected as the type or symbol of the corrupt tree. "For a good tree bringeth not forth corrupt fruit; neither doth a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit."-St. Luke vi., 43. The sharp and divided form of the foliage of the Woody Nightshade, and the clustered character of its fruit, required but slight effort to form them into a conventional tree. The thought of the design was to give as much luxuriance to this as to the other tree-in fact, more apparent life, as the wicked are often more prosperous in this world than the good; but the corrupt nature of the fruit is rendered obvious by the Evil Spirits, with which it is accompanied. The spirits are the embodiment of the fruit—“ For every tree is known by his own fruit." The Birds, also, in the other corbel, are typical of the good fruit. A mass of Fungi, or Toad-stools, are supposed to give a poisonous nourishment to the roots of the corrupt tree. The tribe of Fungi have long been associated with weird thoughts and evil spirits, and, therefore, are appropriate as the source of corruption. The foliage of the corbels, although from the nature of the subjects necessarily very natural in character, is still arranged in a conventional manner, in the form of bunches or crochets, in two rows of three each. Much depends, in the composition of sculptured foliage, upon the proper balancing of the light and shade, and arranging it in sufficiently broad masses. A thin cut-up appearance should be avoided, and the forms left by the piercings between the leaves and other parts should be studied, so as to present agreeable forms and lines. The light and shade should not give an appearance, when seen from a distance, as if the stone had been honeycombed, or eaten away by the weather, but should be massed and grouped, with smaller lights and shades breaking into the principal masses, to obviate a too monotonous appearance. 68 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. CHAPTER XII. FINIALS AND CROCKETS. MALL objects, when coming against the sky, are usually seen dark against the light, giving them a distinct and marked outline. The forms, therefore, of finials require considerable attention, and surface carving is scarcely at all required. Plate 54 represents two finials arranged upon the Clover, which are indicative of Morning and Evening. The foliage is arranged cross-wise, cach series of leaves alternating with the last, as is always the case in nature. The Trefoil was ever a great favourite with the old art workman, who delighted in its use to express the fulness of his faith, by the triune character of its leafage. In common with many other plants, the Clover closes its leaf towards evening. Two of the delicate little leaflets may be observed after sunset to be compactly folded one within the other, while the third depends hood-like over them. Fig. 110 represents its closed appearance in four different positions, cherished within itself as naturally, and with the same intent, as when the bird nestles its head beneath its wing. It is the plant sleep; and indicates a natural cessation of life force, doubtless as re-invigorating to the plant as sleep to the animal. The closing and opening FIG. 110. of the modest Daisy have been noticed from the time of Chaucer, who called it the "Day's Eye," because it opened to the returning light of the sun. But this closing or folding is common also to the Oxalis and many other plants, and it is somewhat surprising that so little beyond mere theory is known of the sleep of the floral world. Closely allied to plant sleep is plant motion, or the turning of many flowers to the centre of light, as the Sun-flower and Heliotrope, or, as it was anciently called, the "Turnsole." As also, again, in the little Pimpernel, or Shepherd's Weather-glass, which closes its flower from the effect of a mere cloud passing over the face of the sun. In the two finials before us (Plate 54), an endeavour has been made to render in stone this idea of plant sleep in the Clover. The one has the foliage refreshed, as it were, by sleep, expanded into light and morning life; while the other takes the character of the repose above spoken of, with the foliage more or less doubled up or lapped together. One cannot but feel, in composing architectural ornament idealizing the sleep of plants, that, however perfect may be the intention, unless the sculptor in rendering it be a true artist, his foliage will but represent mere drooping and lifeless form. Still, to the carver who, side by side, can chisel the sleep of life and death in the human creature, this would offer but little difficulty. The practice of ornamenting spires, gables, and canopies with crockets, or, as the French call them, crochets, from which no doubt our word crocket is taken, commenced FINIALS AND CROCKETS. 69 during the thirteenth century. Probably those upon the turrets and gables at the east end of Lincoln Cathedral are some of the earliest examples to be found in this country. They were, however, used in other positions, such as in hollows between the shafts of columns, and in arch mouldings, as may be seen in the interior of the presbytery of Lincoln Cathedral, the choir of Ely Cathedral, and several other buildings during the Early English period. But in their application to the latter purposes they cease to be known by our English name, crocket, and as we have no distinctive name for them, we have latterly adopted the French term of crochet. They also, as I have already before noticed, are sometimes used in the formation of capitals. The crocket, or crochet, is purely of natural character, it being evidently derived from the budding of foliage in the spring. "Les premiers signes du retour des beaux jours," as M. Viollet-le-Duc expresses it. Take, for example, the common Ivy, and examine the minute little buds, and see what elegant little crockets they form. † Look also at the buds of the Fern tribe, two of which are given enlarged from nature on Plate 55, the Maiden-hair Spleenwort and Hard Fern, the latter of which was used in the coupled capitals, Plate 50; also in the Vesica, Plate 32. Other Ferns, as the common Brake and the Lady Fern, offer again most elegant motifs for crocket form. Of the crockets given on Plate 55, the first is an architectural interpretation of a bud of Wild Briar, and upon which the snail, that enemy to those delicate and tender shoots, is introduced as a too frequently natural accompaniment. The second example is from the clover bud, and is intended as a crocket to accompany the finials given on Plate 54. The third example is from a triple-divided leaf, and the leaves are shown, as it were, embracing each other, as they are so often most beautifully seen in the folding of plant buds. The fourth and last example is from that elegant little Fern, the Maiden- hair Fern. The natural buds, however, are so minute as to require a powerful glass to discover the bent of their wayward loveliness. A leaf of the Hart's-tongue Fern, to support the ball, completes the crocket. Such minute and elegant little buds as these, so full of the germs of life and beauty, were the objects that our artist fathers so delighted to examine and imitate. CHAPTER XIII. WOODEN BRACKETS AND STALL ELBOWS. LATE 56 represents a bracket for an oak reading-desk or lectern. It springs from a small shaft, worked on the front edge of the oak standard out of the solid, and has a pierced spandril and cross. The mouldings forming the front edge of the bracket are a filleted bowtell, with a hollow on each side. The principal crochet on the moulding, which springs from the capital of the shaft, is * See Plates 22, 35, 36, English Medieval Foliage. + See Art Botany, by the author. 70 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. taken from the opening frond of the Scale Fern, or Scaly Spleenwort, while the smaller one in the hollow is from the Hart's-tongue Fern. More fully expanded fronds of the same Ferns curl into the angle, and extend upwards with the form of the bracket. The head of the bracket terminates with a cluster of foliage under the book-board, taken from the common Water Cress, the leaves of which contain, in the principal lobe, a delicately suggested Trefoil of a rounded and globular form. Monsieur V.-le-Duc says of this humble and vulgar plant, "Regardons cependant avec attention ces tiges souples et grasses, ces pétioles bien soudées, ces courbes gracieuses des limbes. *** Pour faire un ornement avec cette plante, il faut en sacrificer quelque chose, donner de la fermeté aux silhouettes des pétioles; il faut prendre et laisser, ajouter et retrancher; ce qu'il faut conserver, c'est la force, la grâce, la souplesse, l'aisance de ces contours." • The The spandril is formed from the foliage of the Wood Betony in its young state. cross is of a conventional character, formed with half expanded foliage, and containing five ruby coloured jewels, set in copper gilt, typical of the five wounds of our Saviour. The Lily is inlaid upon the plain surface. The stems and leaves of Rosewood, the flowers Lime, and the vase Ebony. The arrangement of the Lily has been suggested by observing the elegant treatment of the Lotus-lily upon some of the Egyptian sculptures. (Fig. 89.) It is a pity that the art of inlaying woods is not practised more than it is. It is a very graceful mode of ornamentation upon the plain surface of woodwork, and, with our modern appliances for cutting out the forms, it no doubt can be done with great precision and facility. Spandrils and panels carved in thin woodwork, having the interstices cut through, as in the examples given on Plate 25, are particularly applicable to panels of doors, spandrils in screenwork, or arcades. Where it is an object to prevent the passage of air through the open carving, it may be backed up with plate glass. Should a dark back- ground be desirable, with a sufficient amount of intense shadow to make the enrichments stand out clearly, it may easily be produced by recessing the wooden ground from the back of the carving—that is, by leaving a hollow space between the carving and the ground, as in the spandrils of the stall work in the choir of Winchester Cathedral.† In carving upon furniture, wood gives a great facility for piercing portions of the enrichments with excellent effect, as shown, for example, by the stall elbows given on Plate 57. The first is arranged with a branch of the Vine in a spiral form, shooting forth three leaves, which are articulated to the stem in a manner natural to the Vine. Fruit, leaflet, and tendrils complete the design, and although the foliage is carved through, it possesses sufficient solidity to efficiently do its duty as an arm rest. A plant of the Pea tribe, with flower, is inlaid on the oak ground, in ebony and box. The inlay is placed here to fill up the surface of the plain work, and therefore does not necessarily form part of the design. The second example for a stall elbow is intended to be pierced and cut out of the *Dictionnaire Raisonné de l'Architecture. + See Gothic Ornaments, Vol. 1., Plates 80 and 81. WOODEN BRACKETS AND STALL ELBOWS. 71 solid. The bead on the edge of the ramp resolves itself into a foliated volute, throwing out leaves and buds at intervals. The idea was first suggested by the sprouting fronds of Brake; but a more decided development of leaf form being required than the Fern afforded, the succulent foliage of the Nasturtium was adopted in its place, using the spiral line of the Brake frond. 陶 ​CHAPTER XIV. IRON-WORK. HE enrichment of the plain surfaces of doors by the expansion of the hinges and the application of cross bands, formed into all kinds of elegant foliage and scroll work in iron, was a favourite mode of ornamentation, even among the Anglo-Normans. Many excellent examples of this are still remaining on the doors of our old churches. Ornamental iron-work and hinges are represented on doors, in drawings and paintings upon manuscripts dating as early as the tenth century. Some examples of these drawings, taken from early manuscripts, are given in the first volume of the Domestic Architecture of England, by Hudson Turner. During the thirteenth century the art attained a most marvellous degree of excellence embracing a wonderful beauty in design, and the utmost skill in workmanship. When we look into and minutely examine such works as the iron-work on the west doors of Lichfield Cathedral, or the still more magnificent iron-work on the west doors of Notre Dame at Paris, we are lost in admiration and wonder. But, like all other things in art, when it once had culminated, it became, after a time, debased and neglected. Such was the case with iron-work on doors. The early pure forms were altered and departed from until the art became but a pale reflection of what it had been in its more glorious days. At length, during the fifteenth century, its application to the surface of doors was altogether discontinued, and doors became covered with elaborate combinations of wooden mullions and tracery. In the present day much has been done to resuscitate the old art of working in metals, and, to a great extent, it may be said that it again equals its existence in former days. The magnificent screen executed for Hereford Cathedral, and exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862, is worthy of being placed side by side with those great works of old. All honour to the architect to whom we owe the design, and to the artists who so zealously wrought out the conception. There are, however, far humbler works than these to which this art is being successfully applied, and in which metal workers have made rapid strides of late years so much so, that ordinary Gothic metal work is now immeasurably superior to what could be obtained fifteen or twenty years ago. The hinge given on Plate 58 is taken almost literally from nature. It consists, both in 72 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. branches and foliage, of a small sprig of Clematis. The curves in the natural example partook of the oval character, as seen in the hinge, and the upper branches, with the leaves partly expanded, met in a point over the central bud. The lock plate is also from the Clematis, but interpreted with greater freedom and irregularity, partaking more of the general character of the plant. The foliage springing from a knot at the bottom is made to break up the stiff rectangular form of the lock plate, and the upper and lower parts of the composition are designed on different elementary lines, embracing both the angular and the curved. The closing ring is also, generally, from the foliage of the Clematis. The petals ranged round the centre are intended to half conceal the springing of the leading lines. Each lobe of the quatrefoil is filled with a small flower and profile leaf of a different type, which was necessitated by its following so nearly the curve of the cross form stems of the Clematis. It may be well to mention that the ring is fixed higher up the stem than usual, making it form part of the floral composition. At the same time, it is kept distinct by the staple and upper part being composed of animal life, and the bottom having a knot of Acorns for the hand to grasp. The ring can either be applied as a latch or a knocker, or both at the same time. The success of freedom in design depends almost entirely upon the lines in the composition being arranged in a geometrical manner after some rule in art, while certain minor parts are treated irregularly, and even, occasionally, in direct opposition to the leading forms and established rules. Apparently it may be done without rule, or in opposi- tion to rule; still there is a rule-the rule of nature. Nature is very regular, even more so than art; yet its regularity is so wonderfully concealed by its irregularity, and the blending is so marvellous, that art can only attempt to follow at a humble distance. All art, however, should be imbued, more or less, with the same spirit. There are two great principles, if they may be so called, which exist in nature, and are equally applicable in art. Regularity, which pleases and satisfies the eye by its correctness and order; and irregularity, which gives freedom and piquancy by its opposition-in nature it is that life which in its vigorous growth oversteps the rule. In art compositions the principle of regularity must always be apparent, otherwise freedom will merge into vulgarity, and become rudeness without design. The principle of irregularity is also that of the picturesque, and all nature is picturesque to a more or less degree. Freedom in design, therefore, is the element of the picturesque, or that which is natural, while symmetry and geometrical regularity is the rule of art. Lines in nature are bent, and what is commonly called "crooked;" art makes them straight. Curves in nature are often irregular; art regulates them. But if art dispenses entirely with the irregular it becomes stiff and stilted, and no longer natural. No art should be without this element of the picturesque, the irregular, or the natural--no matter what it is called. The mind and eye are quiescent while viewing perfectly geometrical composition- there is a quiet satisfaction that everything is correct and according to rule; but engraft upon it the irregular, and we are at once drawn towards it with very different feelings. It then becomes picturesque. Before it was a beautiful object, even and uniform; now it is IRON-WORK. 73 natural, it has variety and freedom, and we look upon it and meditate its character. If we there see the thought of the artist mind, and if it be fraught with life, it will light up that which is in our own, the eliciting of which constitutes the true poetry of art. On the other hand, freedom in design is often carried to the extreme, without observing any of the rules of art. All that which has been hitherto acknowledged as "the beautiful" is ignored, all is sacrificed to an insatiate craving after originality—an originality which sets at defiance all rules or forms of beauty. Rules of art are found by carefully studying those glorious works which have been handed down to us by the great workers of old. Such rules should not be departed from, except by engrafting upon them that which is natural and lovely, to do which successfully we must assiduously study nature hand in hand with the study of these works. In the example given of a hinge (Plate 59), the arrangement of the design is conventional (that is, according to certain rules of art), but the treatment is purely natural. Two branches spring diagonally from near the base of the hinge, from a point in each of which shoot two scrolls, a small one and a large one, and from the base of the smaller one, a spur or stipule. The main scroll throws out branches, two of which grow from the contrary side of the stem, and cross in their growing direction as they often do in nature; seen in the Vine, the Ivy, and other plants, as shown by an example from the Vine, Fig. 111. The square shoulders at the springing of the branches are taken from old examples of metal-work, and are evidently a conventional rendering of the swelling of the leaf stalk, at its point of junction with the parent stem; shown also by woodcut, Fig. 111. The foliage is from partly FIG. 111. expanded fronds of the young Brake, when first issuing from the ground. The closing ring is a symmetrical arrangement of plant form, the handle being composed of profile fronds of the Hart's-tongue Fern and a central flower, with one touch of the irregular, in the side growth of the Trefoil at the bottom. The long lines of the ridges of roofs offer an appropriate position for open-work ornamentation, to break their abruptness or suddenness in the sky-line. Where the roof covering is of slate or lead, an iron or other metal ornament, technically called a cresting, appears to be the most suitable. Tile cresting has of late years been used to a great extent, but metal, either wrought or cast, offers facilities for greater development and gives a scope for greater elegance of form. The walls of our feudal castles were terminated by battlements, which from being first designed for use, afterwards became adopted for ornament, and formed a sort of cresting to break the monotony of the horizontal straight lines. The Greeks also broke up the long horizontal lines formed by the cymatium of their temples by antefixa, as seen in the flank of the Parthenon, and in the Honeysuckle ornament upon the cornice of the monument of Lysicrates. Termi- nations of a similar kind can again be traced in Moorish, Saracenic, Indian, and even in L 74 ART FOLIAGE.-PART II. Assyrian architecture. The purpose in all was evidently to soften off the hard lines of walls and tops of buildings, coming against the sky-being the penumbra, as it were, to the shadow. It was but natural, therefore, that with the adoption of the high-pitched roof Medieval artists should have selected the ridge for decoration. There are not many examples of roof-cresting remaining in this country, beyond a few very simple ones in tile, and one of lead which still exists on the roof of Exeter Cathedral. There can be no doubt, however, that numerous examples were at one time in existence, but they have long since disappeared with the high roofs themselves, or from the necessity of renewing the covering. That it was an ordinary Medieval practice is evident, from roof-cresting being so often indicated in many of the ancient illuminated manuscripts. Unfortunately, the coverings of ancient roofs were frequently of the most fragile mate- rials, such as shingles of wood, and "thatching was not unfrequently used in buildings even of the better class." "The fish house at Meare, in Somersetshire, of about the middle of the fourteenth century, still retains its thatched roof."* Probably, also, thatched roofs were ornamented by a species of cresting, for in some parts of the country we still see what would appear to be the remains of this old Medieval custom. The withys," or Willow twigs that bind the thatch, are sometimes arranged on the top of ricks and cottages in an interlacing manner, so as to form a species of ridge-cresting, terminating with a spike with a rudely formed cock. M. Viollet-le-Duc, in his Diction- naire Raisonné de l'Architecture, alludes to the custom, which is also sometimes seen, of peasants forming the ridge of the roofs of their thatched cottages in mud, in which they insert plants and grasses to prevent the earth being dissolved and washed away by the rain. This practice, he considers, has been the origin of roof-cresting. (6 Six examples are given, on Plate 60, for crestings in metal applicable to the ridges of roofs, all of which are adapted from nature. Among other types made use of, are those of the buds of the Ground Ivy and the Geranium, in Nos. 1 and 4. The Poppy, in No. 3; the leaves of the Adoxa Moschatellina, in No. 5; and of the Canariensis, in No. 6. The two first examples are perhaps more suited to the pyramidal roofs of towers. In leaving this part of the subject, I cannot but feel, although the designs have all been based upon natural foliage, how little of that exquisite beauty, which we see in their natural types, I have been able to introduce among them, and what a vast field there still is left untouched and untrodden. It is, however, confidently hoped that some portions of nature have been successfully translated, and that her principles have been sufficiently explained, to show that they are the only sure guides for the proper study and advancement of art. * See Ancient Domestic Architecture, by J. H. PARKER, F.S.A. END OF PART II. PART III.-APPENDIX. . CHAPTER I. INLAY. N the former part of this work I have given a few examples of inlay. Two other specimens are now given. Plate 61 being a combination of inlay and carving, and plate 62, an example for inlaid marble paving. In the first example a small quantity of mosaic glass inlay is introduced, and it is much to be regretted that this beautiful art of mosaic inlay is not more practised among us. As a pictorial art for the extensive decoration of wall surface, as may be seen in such glorious works as St. Mark's at Venice and the Cathedral of Montreal near Palermo, it was practised at a very early period, and "experience has proved that a thousand years may pass and steal no grace away.” Pictorial fresco painting has been attempted in this country, as at the Houses of Parliament, and it was hoped, at one time, that this would prove a very valuable means of decoration. But unfortunately this hope has been destroyed, for in consequence of the humidity of our atmosphere, or on account of the great consumption of coal, some of the frescoes at the Houses of Parliament had scarcely been painted before decay commenced and threatened their complete destruction. They are now, most of them, obliged to be pro- tected by plate glass. Glass mosaic, however, is apparently indestructible and requires no protection; it is therefore peculiarly adapted for use in our climate, and whether on a large or a small scale it invariably has a rich and enlivening appearance wherever introduced. Geometrical mosaic, in small portions, may be applied with excellent effect in combination with marble work, as in twisted columns, inlays for freizes, bands, panels, and other situations, as may be observed by what is left of the beautiful mosaic work upon the tomb of Henry III. at Westminster Abbey. If skilfully used it becomes of the utmost value to gain richness and colour. 76. ART FOLIAGE.-PART III. 甲 ​The Cross (plate 61) is meant to be executed in statuary marble for the centre panel of a reredos of a church, and to be inlaid with geometrical glass mosaic, in blue and gold, with jewels of red jasper or Derbyshire spar, for the centre and terminations of the arms, raised of an oval or circular form. The centre is also accompanied by four nail-heads to be executed in green marble or jasper. The Cross which is raised from the ground is further enriched by Hawthorn foliage. The Vesica, connecting the arms of the cross, is outlined in red marble, and has a border filled in with triangular inlay in white, yellow, and green marble. The centre ground is filled in with gold moasic, the whole being outlined by a line of gold. It must not be supposed that this is considered more than a very slight attempt in the use of Mosaic inlay. Still it may be enough, slight as it is, to point attention to its wonderful capabilities as a decorative medium for obtaining permanent and brilliant colour, and that there is no reason why it should not be used in small quantities, and in connection with carving as suggested by the example. Many beautiful patterns for geometrical glass mosaic, will be found in Sir Digby Wyatt's work on the "Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages." Plate 62 is an attempt to amalgamate foliated and floral forms with geometrical for FIG. 112. inlaid marble pavements. The remains of a very fine pavement somewhat of this kind will be found in the Trinity Chapel of Canter- bury Cathedral, from which the centres filling the circles of the guilloche in the design are partly taken. The general ground should be of white marble, but if economy is necessary this may be substituted by Portland or Hopton Wood stone, the spaces to receive the marble inlay being cut out of the solid stone or marble about half an inch in depth. The colours may be arranged much according to circumstances and the variety of marbles at command, but taking care to contrast them sufficiently, and not to use any which are much variegated in colour in themselves. As a general guide the lines used indicate the colours, the upright re- presenting red; horizontal, blue; diagonal, green; crossed lines, black; dotted, yellow; and plain, white. Excellent pavements of this kind remain at San Vitale, Ravenna, and at San Miniato, Florence. Fig. 112 is a portion from a marble pavement in the latter building, and Fig. 113 is an example of foliated inlay from St. Francis d'Assisi. Inlaid floors formed of small cubes, or tesseræ, of marble or other substances, was a favourite mode of forming pavements among the Romans in their public and private buildings. Many examples of INLAY. 77 FIG. 113. these have been found in this country, some of which may be seen in the British Museum; besides others, of a very beautiful description, which have been brought here from Italy and other places. These are well worthy of close inspection, but the form of inlay in the present design (plate 62) is not formed by tes- seræ, but by small portions of marble shaped to the different forms required, and the grounds filled in at random, or shaped in the principal parts of the design. Of course, tiles or terra cotta can be substituted for marble, where ex- pense is an object, and very beautiful results may be obtained even with these materials, using them after the same manner as the marble. Inlay appears to be appreciated more highly and is practised successfully in many other countries more than in our own. In India the natives are peculiarly gifted in this art. The charming manner in which flowers and foliage are inlaid in the Taj Mehal at Agra is, according to those who have seen the work, perfectly enchanting. We have in our own English marbles and spars abundant materials which would give, if properly applied, a vast variety of the most beautiful combinations of colour. CHAPTER II. STONE CARVING. F all the kinds of architectural decoration, there can be no question that carving is the most important and the most beautiful, serving as it does to give variety to the light and shade, and interest to the work decorated. But in order to attain this position it is necessary that it should be skilfully executed and thoughtfully designed. Mere chopping up of stone, as is too often seen, into a random assemblage of leafage, badly copied from some conventional foliage, will do little towards the embellishment of architecture. Bad carving is simply a waste of time and money, and rather than have it ill done it is far better omitted altogether. Yet how often do we see carving of the most wretched description combined with a work which otherwise would be of great excellence? Is it that architects are indifferent to the manner in which such work is executed, and that they leave it to the most ill-paid chipper of stone, calling himself a 78 ART FOLIAGE.-PART III. carver, that the contractor can find? I am afraid that this is one of the principal causes for much bad carving, and what takes place in architecture follows naturally in all the subsidiary arts. It is a fact, which I have observed over and over again, that architects will spend a large amount of time over a very unimportant turn in the contour of their mouldings, but when they come to the ornament, they are quite satisfied to write the word "carving" on their drawings, and leave the space blank, trusting entirely to chance for this to get done as it may. But was this the plan with the temples of the Greeks or in the cathedrals of the Goths? No. All the ornamental details were dwelt upon with a lingering love for the beautiful, and nature was closely searched for forms to be wrought in stone. Whether it was previously done by the aid of drawings or by modelling in clay, the artist thought upon and perfected his work before transferring it to stone. If then architects are indifferent or unable to raise the character of their carving and other ornament, it behoves the sculptor, for the sake of art, to do the utmost in his power to stamp them with true feeling. No style of architecture, which embraces carving, should be neglected by him wherever an opportunity exists for its study. For this purpose the carver of the present day possesses great advantages over those of his profession which have gone before him. In the various museums, more especially the Architectural Museum and South Kensington Museum, he is enabled to see casts of some of the finest examples of his art which have ever existed. At the latter museum, among many other works, may be seer the magnificent and elaborate doorway from Santiago, and near it a large portion of the Roslin Chapel. In the next gallery, also, will be found the gateway of the Sanchi Tope; all three extremely valuable types of art of different character, the careful study of which cannot fail but to assist and extend the powers of every artist who looks into them with the attention they deserve. Plate 63 gives an example of foliage for use in the arches and capitals of arcades, doorways, and other similar positions. In the first portion of the arch the enrichment is formed of the Red-berried Bryony, arranged upon a wavy line of stem, with a bird introduced at the starting point. The other two portions of the arches, which represent their inter- sections, have birds in different attitudes, with foliage from the Hawthorn. The capitals are arranged with Hawthorn and Maple foliage, accompanied by berries and key seeds. Plate 64 contains two examples for knots of bold foliage for a church cornice, projecting after the manner of gurgoyles; they are kept simple, and the leaves broad and massive, in order that they may be distinctly seen from the ground. The upper one consists of four Ivy leaves and berries; the lower one has an arrangement of Hawthorn leaves, supporting an overflow pipe from the gutter. The lobes of the upper leaves meet at their edges. Plate 65 gives four specimens of foliage adapted for forming rain-water pipe-heads. The first has the head of a dragon issuing from Oak foliage; the second is formed of the leafage of the Bramble with blackberries; the third from the Hazel and nuts, and the fourth contains a hawk perched on a branch of the Hawthorn. They are all arranged with simplicity and boldness, so as to be effective when at a height. This is a point which is not sufficiently attended to in the execution of ornament placed at a considerable height from the ground. STONE CARVING. 79 It is not an easy matter, either, to calculate the amount of work it is necessary to omit for any given height, it can only be determined by an experienced eye on the spot by examining the effect from the ground. FIG. 114. Another matter of great importance, but very seldom attended to, is the necessary elongation of finials and other objects of a similar nature when crowning a gable at a considerable elevation, to allow for the fore- shortening which takes place when viewed from the ground. If situated in a narrow street, for example, the finial, to have its proper effect when viewed from below, will have to be made twice or even three times its ordinary height that it would be if placed near the eye. Some of the early French finials are cleverly arranged in this respect to pre- vent their having a stumpy appearance when viewed from the ground. Plate 66 contains a corbel intended to receive the curved timbers of a roof truss, or a vaulting shaft in a church, and is made of an elon- gated form so as to occupy the space between the labels of the nave arches, as shown by fig. 114. The foliage is Beech, with Beech-nuts and birds introduced among the branches. The choir and nave of Exeter Cathedral have some very fine corbels of this kind carrying the vaulting shafts. They are formed of natural foliage and fruit in the very best manner, with birds and animals intermingled. Plates 67, 68, 69 contain quatrefoil panels filled with foliage and insects, for carving in a fine grained stone placed near the level of the eye. The first (plate 67) is formed of the Ivy issuing from the back-ground of the panel in a scroll form, and throwing triple leaves into each circular division of the quatrefoil and bunches of berries into the angles. The stem is arranged with articulations at the junctions of the leaves and stems, and the branches terminate in leaf-buds. The leaves, which indicate the front and back, have very little flowing of the surface, the ground being deeply recessed to obtain depth of shadow. The points of the leaves which lie in the hollow should fall delicately down almost to the surface to avoid the disagreeable effect of invariable undercutting. The leaf containing the butterfly should be deeply recessed to give relief to the insect. Plate 68 is formed with the Maple arranged with upright natural branching. The leaf stalks are made to clasp the stem, and two bunches of key seeds are thrown up one on either side. These in nature hang downwards, but this is not necessary to be observed in art, as any idea of gravitation is not attended to in designing ornament. The leaves are arranged to show their fronts and backs, and are left comparatively flat. A leaf turning over at the bottom conceals the springing of the main stem. The snail is introduced to break the monotony of a perfectly symmetrical arrangement. Plate 69 has a curved branch of Hawthorn springing from a root with knotted and pruned stumps; the flowers are arranged in globular clusters, and the leaves are made of a more palmate form than found in nature. The artist need never scruple to alter the natural forms if by doing so it makes them more suitable for the purpose to which they are applied. In this case the circular portions of the quatrefoil required broader leafage than is given by 80 ART FOLIAGE.-PART III. the natural Thorn leaf. The character of the leaf is still retained by the sharp and angular lobes, which constitute the great beauty of the Thorn leaf. The junctions of two of the leaves with the main stem have the stipules, and a butterfly gives a slight amount of life and variety to the composition. B CHAPTER III. WOOD CARVING. ERHAPS no position is more suited for the display of good wood carving than the panels of the doors of cabinets. Many of our choicest examples of old Flemish or other foreign works were thus ornamented. Adapted for this purpose, a series of six upright panels are given (Plates 70, 71, 72). The first (Plate 70) contains a branch of apples with the knots and other excrescences as found on the stem, which serves to give the character of the natural type. The second example contains a group of Bull-rushes, forming upright lines, surrounded or entwined by a branch of Water- crowfoot. The stem is circular, but splits into a V-form as it divides into the leaf- stalks. This leaf is a very useful form of palmate leaf, and its rounded lobes give an agreeable change from those having sharp and pointed lobes, as in the Hawthorn. A frog and a water-newt are introduced to give variety and to assist in connecting the plants with the watery element in which they grow. The panels should be executed in low relief and carved entirely out of the solid, no parts rising above the margins at the sides. The dotting of the ground assists to give colour and relief to the foliage. • Plate 71 has in the first panel a branch of Oak (quercus sessiliflora) with the acorns sessile (that is, without stems), as in nature. The backs of some of the leaves have the scales, formed by insects, so often seen on the backs of Oak leaves. The second panel on the plate contains the wheat, with the Lesser Bind-weed twining round the stems, a plant frequently found growing in cornfields. Panels of this character for furniture, and seen, as they would be, nearly on a level with the eye, admit of a closer treatment of natural form than for architectural purposes, or when seen only from a distance. The treatment is conven- tional, although the forms are natural. Plate 72 has the Hazel with nuts and catkins in the first panel, and the second is adapted from the Black Bryony, with its clusters of berries round the stem. In designing foliage of this description one of the first things to be determined upon is the lines that the stems are to take, which are afterwards clothed with leaves and fruit or flowers. In the Bryony panel the stem takes a bold wave-line. In the Hazel the stem is still a wave-line, but with less curve. In the Oak panel the stem is central and upright, with a curve in the lower portion. The Wheat and the Bull-rush panels have the lines perpendicular, broken by WOOD CARVING. 81 the spiral stems twisting round them, and in the apple panel the stem forms a bow or crescent. Attention to these, what may be called setting-out lines, gives great facility for variety of treatment, and the want of carefully considering them in the first instance causes the ruin of many otherwise good compositions. Plates 73, 74, 75, 76 are examples of oblong panels of various proportions for furniture or friezes, and are intended to be executed in oak, or other hard wood in low relief, and to be carved out of the solid. The grounds may be dotted or pricked to gain more relief. The upper panel (Plate 73) is a conventionalized arrangement from the Trefoil or Clover. The setting-out lines are very simple. In the centre is a perpendicular line with the leaf forming a perfect cross. From the base, which is enclosed by two half expanded leaves,* spring two arched stems, flowing to the extremity of the panel, with the leaves and flowers branching from them angularly, filling up the surface, but without crowding and only slightly overlapping. The lower panel (Plate 73) takes for its natural type the Acacia or Locust tree. The branches are arranged in straight lines, forking to the angles of the panel, and in this it is different from the natural branch which is pendulous and curved. The surface of the leaves, where the upper side is represented, is slightly curved towards the mid-rib, and the outer edges sharply rounded. The under surface of the leaves has the mid-rib raised and the leaf slightly hollowed. A butterfly assists to fill up the spaces between the branches, and a humble bee occupies the lower left-hand corner. Pinnate leafage of this description is somewhat difficult to arrange, and necessitates a considerable amount of overlapping which may cause confusion. This effect, however, may be subdued by raising the under leaves but very slightly from the ground. The upper leaves should be undercut where much raised. The ground of the panel, as is the case with all the others, is hol- lowed from the margin, and in the deepest part should not exceed half an inch. The leaves as they approach the margin should lie in the hollow very delicately, and only be slightly raised. The upper panel of Plate 74 is an adaptation from the Bay Tree, or Noble Laurel as it is sometimes called. The branches are arranged geometrically, as shown by fig. 115. The carver should avoid, by the judicious use of undercutting, leaving thick edges to his leaves when seen side- ways; but at the same time all must not be under- cut so as to give the appearance of the work having FIG. 115. been carved separately and afterwards laid into the panel; some portions should be softened down almost close to the ground. By this means, variety of light and shade is obtained, and it at once shows that the undercutting is not a mere backing-off before laying the work upon the ground, but that the carving is a portion of the panel itself. In the lower panel (Plate 74) fish with sea-weed (Fucus Serratus) and shells are introduced. The observations made respecting the undercutting and the thick edges of the * See Fig. 110. M 82 ART FOLIAGE.-PART III. leaves, in the former panel, equally apply to the treatment of the sea-weed, particularly to those parts which are overlapped. The ground which falls every way in a gradual hollow from the margins is scored with lines to indicate water. Plate 75. These panel, are more particularly applicable for frieze-panels for furniture. An attempt has been made in the upper example to bring in two spikes of the seeds of Meadow-grass, arranged diagonally. Although grass seeds are somewhat minute in nature, there can be no reason why such elegant forms should not be adapted, by enlargement, to carving. By the broader forms of the Bind-weed opposition is obtained to the lininess of the grass, and the curved and wavy stems oppose and cross the straight. A swallow pursuing its prey occupies the centre of the lower panel. The foliage of the Ash conven- tionally arranged, and subordinate to the bird, occupies with a few insects the remainder of the panel. Plate 76. The upper panel has a geometrical arrangement from the Maple. Starting in the centre with the cross form of the natural branch (shown by No. 4, Plate 31), a small cruciform flower supplies the place of the bud. From the centre slightly curved branches issue, running to the angles of the panel, which branch with opposite leaves, as in nature. The seeds are those of the Sycamore, which are of a similar kind to those of the Maple, but rather more elegant in form. The lower panel (Plate 76) contains the Bramble or Blackberry, with flowers and fruit arranged symmetrically in the centre. Curved branches leading to the upper angles of the panel spring from the growing point from behind a fully developed leaf. Two other branches, one on either side, flow from the centre in an arched form, crossing the upper branches and reaching the bottom angles, after the manner of the graceful embowed stems so frequently seen growing out of the hedges or thickets when the Bramble is allowed to exhibit its natural habit. The younger leaves are formed of three leaflets, while the older are divided into five by the formation of side-lobes to the lateral leaflets. These in nature after a time split themselves off until they also form separate leaflets. These panels may be further enriched for decorative purposes by gilding the grounds. The designs may be also easily adapted to other purposes besides carving, such as being painted on tiles or china, either in flat monochrome or natural colours. Plates 77, 78, 79 exhibit seven examples for pierced spandrils suitable for oak screen- work in churches. Plate 77 contains two side spandrils. In the first the Bull-rushes form a central curved line from the bottom to the upper right-hand angle, interlaced by a stem of the Meadow-sweet formed into a wavy line, the King-fisher giving a cross diagonal line from the upper left-hand angle. In the second spandril (Plate 77) the Garden Pea is introduced spirally, with the Peas of the central and minor scroll radiating tangentially. Some of the pods are represented partly open, and the central stalk of the leaves terminate in tendrils, as in nature. Plate 78. The large double spandril is composed with the leaves and flowers of what is commonly called the Oak-leaved Geranium, growing from a vase. The leaves are less divided than in nature, but the same principle of division is observed. The leading lines WOOD CARVING. 83 formed by the stems are arranged in a very simple manner as shown by fig. 116. The side spandril is formed with the dentate and curled leaves of the Holly, accompanied by its berries. The stems are conventionally arranged in curved and interlacing wavy lines. Plate 79. The large spandril is an arrange- ment from the Vine with its fruit. The stem lines are formed spirally, with the leaves crossing them in various directions. The leaves show their upper and lower sides, the backs being indicated by the raised ribs. The leaf-stalks spring from swollen junctions, enclosing leaf-buds, as in nature. The tendrils, instead of being introduced in the usual corkscrew fashion, entwine upon themselves : FIG. 116. and cling to the larger stems, as is their habit in nature, and in the carving they serve to sup- port some of the lobes of the leaves, and fill up gaps which would otherwise appear too open. The side spandrils (Plate 79) have in the first the foliage and fruit of the Hawthorn, with a curved and wavy stem. In the second the delicately divided leaves of the Garden Fumitory are applied with, crossing and curved, flat V-formed branches. The leaf of the Fumitory is divided into three main leaflets, each divided into three lobes, which are again subdivided, the centre into three and the side lobes into two. Plate 80 is an example for Gothic tracery panels being filled with foliage, for oak bench-ends or other purposes. In the first the expanding frond of the Brake Fern is arranged in the centre; parts of the frond are shown fully opened, while others are still rolled up into little spiral heads. A section is shown of the form of the stem. The divisions below are filled with the frond of the Buckler Fern, and the leaves and flower of the Navel-wort. The second example has a branch of the Marsh Marigold with the flower arranged conventionally to form a centre to the quatrefoil. The lower spaces are filled with the leafage of the Diclytra. There are also two small spandrils below which contain the triple leaves of the Hepatica and a five-petalled flower. It will be readily seen that I lay great stress upon the importance of the leading or setting-out lines, for unless these are good, and such as harmonize with the form to be filled by the foliage, I consider that no design for foliated arrangement can be successful. To call attention to these a diagram or two is given that they may be seen without the filling-in of leaves, flowers, or fruit, which may be afterwards added. It is extremely useful to study carving in this manner, by making slight sketches of the setting-out lines only. When the foliage of the Greeks or the compositions of the Middle Ages are examined in this respect, it will be discovered that they owe much of their charm to the lines on which they are founded. But where flowers and fruit are introduced without side lines, as in the Renaissance, gathered into bunches or suspended in swags or pendants, they will always have a confused and huddled up effect, which may possibly tend towards the richness of a work, but will add nothing to its beauty. By the geometrical arrange- 84 ART FOLIAGE.-PART III. ment of the leading lines in a composition, we also possess the means of rendering our work architectural and fitted for the parts which surround them. In fact it is princi- pally by this geometrical foundation that nature becomes conventionalized for the pur- poses of art. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the carver that his foliated ornament will hold a higher position by its being kept in its right place, and not, as is too commonly seen, bolstered out into imposing and enormous projections. I here repeat, as I have endeavoured before to point out, that all curved ornament should be taken out of the surface of the thing ornamented, and not applied or added upon it; and painted enrichments should not be an imitation of raised sculptured work. Foliated decoration, whether by carving, painting, or any other process, is not a thing of itself, but the sole reason for its existence is to ornament or enrich something else; it is, therefore, in its highest position when it is made duly subordinate to that which it is upon. Make your foliage interesting by every available means, so that it be worth examining for itself; strive after beauty of form and arrangement; gain variety and brilliancy of light and shade, but never let it endeavour to thrust itself into undue importance as if you would make mere ornament of more conse- quence than the building or other work upon which it is placed, for by so doing you degrade your own work and lose sight of true art! On the other hand, the importance of good decoration and carving cannot be too highly estimated, for by these alone a common-place work may be sometimes raised to a position, as a work of art, which it could never otherwise attain. What study therefore can be more important or more interesting than that of ornamental art? For although it cannot be considered to be of the highest form of art, yet the highest is frequently dependent upon it. There should, in reality, be no separation, but the one should work in harmony with the other. END OF PART III. ART FOLIAGE P1.1. 1 2 Co 4 сл 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 17 18 * 19 20 21 • 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 80 XXX 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 J.K. Colling, del. मृ ANALYSIS_OF_FORM. DIAPERS. ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 2. J.K. Colling, del 1 2 3 4 7 сл 5 8 ען 6 9 10 11 19 ANALYSIS OF FORM.. DIAPERS. K ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 3. 1 NZSZÁZ 3 9 AAAA 13 15 7 5 6 10 小 ​4 2 ลง 8 XXXXXX 11 16 14 17 NAVAVAYA : 19 YYYY 18 20 ANALYSIS OF FORM. BORDERS, TRIANGULAR. J.K. Colling, del 11 12 तुक्ष ART FOLIAGE Pl. 4. 1 TITT LO 5 2 3 4 6 XXXX XXXX 7 8 ור 12 15 ∙17 19 9 1 Th 10 X 19 14 16 u Xx ܐܐ܂ 18 ZENZEN 20 21 29 22 verse 24 ENENE Dî ANALYSIS OF FORM. BORDERS, RECTANGULAR. K J.K.Colling, del. ART FOLIAGE Pl. 5. 1 2 8 4 5 7 6 SSSSSSS 8 تسيك 10 aaaaa 12 13 14 15... 16 17 G MYAYA E ال .18 19 AAA ANALYSIS OF FORM BORDERS, BRANCHING AND HEART FORM. J.K.Colling, del. ART FOLIAGE 1 2 Pl. 6. 3 4 LO 6 5 7 8 9 10 11 13 12 JAVAVAV 14 15 16 17 18 ANALYSIS OF FORM. BORDERS GUILLO CHE AND WAVE LINE. K J.K.Colling, del. ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 7. 1 2 3 5 6 6667 9 1515.555.55 5 11 4 20000 9 9 9 9 9 9 7 8 AAAA PPPPPP 10 12 13 14 15 6329682966 17 72 16 18 8888888888 Ammy 19 21 20 22 252525252525 58OOOOS MUSUSUNUS THONO 23 27 24 25 sasas 28 28 J.K. Colling, del ANALYSIS OF FORM. BORDERS — FRET AND ANTHEMION. K ART FOLIACÉ. F1: 8. 1 6 11 4- ca O 14 J.K. Colling, del. 16 2 7 12 17 ما 10 15 3 ANALYSIS OF FORM. CENTRES — CIRCULAR, 8 13 18 K > ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 9 7 1 2 3 4 9 12 R J.K.Colling, del. L 6 11 ANALYSIS OF FORM. CENTRES — SQUARE. 10 5 10 13 8 K ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 10. 1 > 4 2 7. 5 6 8 9 J.K. Colling, del ANALYSIS OF FORM. _ SPRIGS. ! Kr Page Missing in Original Volume Page Missing in Original Volume P1.12. ART FOLIAGE. J.K.Colling, del. (HD K 10939- PAPER HANGINGS OR WOVEN FABRIC S. PANAS P1.13. ART FOLIAGE. J.K.Calling, del. 尽 ​˙ PAINTED WALL DIAPERS- 寳 ​眼​鋰 ​寶 ​眼球 ​ ART FOLIAGE. P1:14. CAL J.K. Colling, del 3 ст 5 ?. 1 2 PANE L DECORATION. …. . . . . 4 6 CO 8 WALL AA. Fri ART FOLIAGE. • Pl. 15. 4- 7 J.K.Colling, del. ! 2 ลง LO 5 PAINTED DECORATION. 3 6 ՈՐ MARI 8 ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 16. KEY STONES AND J.K.Colling, del. K " ARCH BANDS. Pl. 17. ART FOLIAGE. J.K. Colling, del. n W STONE QUOINS AND RUSTIC WORK. उह ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 18. J.K. Colling, del. CARVED DIAPERS. उह ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 19. J. K. Colling, del. MARBLE INLAY. ART FOLIAGE TOUNTRIES IRISHURUMULA. Pl. 20. ADCB .4 GURAN YOGARIT. J.K.Colling, del. ԱՌ MOISANUM 1STUTABBA? MAORI IMAMBARAMURALSMAPEPONIATURAMENTE "MAD hi MARBLE INLAY. ART FOLIAGE. P1.21 Honey Suckle E.Calling, del et latin. SPANDRIL.. Natural type, Wood Anemone. Wood Anemone: ART FOLIAGE Pl.22 Hawthorn with Stipules..twice the natural size. ... With 宁 ​do H OH. SPANDRILS म्ह ... །༽ ནད Hazel with Nuts Hawthorn with Stipules. _____ftw]!IK、 ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 23. J.K.Colling dei Guelder Rose. STONE Creeping Crowfoot でも​ここ ​Hepatica. SPANDR ILS. उह Creeping Crowfoot. ART FOLIACE. Pl. 24. J.K. Colling, del. SPAN DRIL Natural i, e af اللبانشان तुझ Natural Туре Red Bryony. 24 ART FOLIAGE. PL. 25. J.K. Colling, del. 2. Ash. 4. Fumitory. Fr 1. Forked Spleenwort 3. Holly WOODEN PIERCED SPANDRILS. ART FOLIAGE. J.K. Colling, Pl. 26.. Plane. Turkey Oak. さ ​MIN. STONE SPANDRI L. ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 27. سنا J.K. Colling, del. יו :\ BRACKET. With Hawthorn Foliage, and Bose or Centre Flower, With Adoxa Moschatellina Arranged on the Lily. K ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 28. BRACKET. With Maple Foliage, and Centre Flower, or Boss of Ground Ivy J.K. Calling, del 1 血 ​Ķ ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 29. STONE PANEL. Oak. J.K. Colling, del.. K ART FOLIACE. J.K.Colling, del. K wir STONE PANEL. Natural type of foliage. Dove's foot Cranesbill. P1.30. 1 ART FOLIAGE. J.K. Colling, del. 1. Lilac 3. Maple 2018 PANE L K OR BOSS. Maple. Pl. 31. 2. Sycamore 4. Maplo. ART FOLIAGE. Pl.32. But when the blade and brought forth appeared the was sprung up, fruit, then tares also." Qat. XIII. 26. V CARVED VESICA. WHEAT AND TARES. J. K. Colling, del. ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 33. Hill W J.K. Colling, del. CARVED Natural Type VESICA. Ground Ivy ART FOLIAGE. 1. 34. די J.K. Colling, del. དད CABINET DOOR S ΚΙΤΗ ΝΑΤΙΟΝΑΙ, EMBLEMS. FL. 35. J.K. Colling, del. ART FOLIAGE. -- CROSSES, &c. m Fillin ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 86. J.K Colling del. Hawthorn. 3 B 2. Crowfoot. Violet they 5. 4.. Ground I v y Sea holly. BOSSES OR CENTRE FLOWERS. ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 37. J.K. Colling, del. " 4 1. Hepatica. 2. Dwarf Mallow. 3. Passion Flower. 4. Rue. 5. Creeping Crowfoot. 3 BOSSES OR CENTRE FLOWERS. W 2 श्र P1.38. ART FOLIAGE. J.K. Colling, del Columbine. BOSSES. 語​: Ivy. ART FOLIAGE. Pl 39. J.K. Colling, del et lith. Tu ulip Tree. 4. در روند کنده Hepatica. 1 Maple. 2. : Young Fern. 5. Bind weed. 6 Honey Suckle. 3. म्ह STRINGS, CORNICES, &c.. ART FOLIAGE. PL. 40. J.K. Colling, del. 1. Celery-leaved Crowfoot. 2. Rose. • 3. Aven ɓ . 4. Thistle. 5. Ivy ह STRING COURSES. PL 41. ART FOLIAGE. ހހހހ. K ENRICHED FRIEZE S. JK.Colling, del. 州 ​ART FOLIAGE. PL.42. 0 J.K. Colling, del . }. \. it STONE CORNICES. で ​Ky וניה 1. 13 ART FOLIAGE. ་་་ JK olling, del. fast MATTUTRAS CARVED VOUS SOIRS, AND DOUBLE SPANDRIL. {}}} 14 乳 ​ P1.44. ART FOLIAGE. ENRICHMENTS FOR ARCH MOULDINGS JK Colling.del 三 ​ART FOLIAGE. Pl, 45. K A I ය 6 T 11 7 J.K. Colling, del. 9 8 CLASSIC MOULDINGS. F 2 OF ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 46. W 1. 4- اااان 3 M 2 6 7 8 9 小 ​D 4242 J.K. Colling, del CLASSIC MOULDINGS. 5 K Pl.47 ART FOLIAGE K الردود J.K. Coffing, del et lith. IT TALS. CAPI Natural type, Sweet Pea. : ART FOLIAGE. Pl.48. CAPITAL AND SHAFT FOR WOODWORK. Natural Types. Hepatica and Creeping Crowfoot. J.K. Colling, del . म्ह ART FOLIAGE. P1.49 J.K.Colling, del ह STONE 11 CAPITAL Arum and Hart's Tongue Fern. will ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 50. J.K. Colling,del. M nituo UNI STONE CAPITALS. AAAAAAAAAA J IR חוני RIKUIKI ART FOLIAGE. Pl: 51. 或 ​J.K.Calling, del. 玩 ​COUPLED CAPITAL. Fern, Celandine and Grevillea Acanthifolia. „dilin ART FOLIAGE. Pl.52. J.K. Colling, del. Fig and Lily. ! STONE CORBEL. "Elvery good tree bringeth forth good fruit" ART FOLIAGE.. PL 53. t Woody nightshade and Fungus. "A corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit" J.K. Calling, del. STONE CORBEL. Pl. 54. ART FOLIAGE. Dorning. STONE FINIALS. J.K. Colling, del. F Evening. ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 55. J.K. Colling, del پرر Maiden Hair Spleenwort. Hard Fern. STONE CROCKETS. K ART FOLIAGE. PL. 56. : 3.K.Calling, del " • * $ 1 BRACKET FOR CHURCEL LETTERN. Pl.57. ART FOLIAGE. J.K. Colling, del (CRY 17. STALL ELBOW S. Vine Nasturtium. ART FOLIAGE. חזו HINGE, LOCK PLATE AND CLOSING RING. J.K. Colling, del. Clematis 1 " { D उह C.F.Kell Lith. Castle St. London.F 11:58. Pl.59. ART FOLIAGE. WROUGHT IRON HINGE AND CLOSING RING Brake and Hart's Tongue Fern J.K. Colling, del. Fr ART FOLIAGE. Pl. 60. " J.K. Colling, del. 柳 ​1 2 3 4. LO 5 6 METAL CRESTING S. ART FOLIAGE, Pl.a. J.K. Colling del INLAID CROSS FOR REREDOS in Marble and Mosaic. Reil Jewel | Gold Nogare Red Marble White Red Marble Statuary Marble Cold Mosaic Red Truvel Red Juvel ART FOLIAGE, Pl. 62 ^ JECAling di INLAID MARBLE FLOORING ART FOLIAGE, F163. T.KLdling del. ARCHES.. STONE CAPITALS FOLIAGE FOR Red Berried Bryony, Hawthorn, Maple AND AR FOLIAGE, FL64. J.K.Calling del Profile. Profile. Overflow Pipe. FOLIATED GURGOYLES. Ivy, Hawthorn. Frent. Averflow Fipe. Front. ART FOLIAGE, PL65. J.R.Colling dd. STONE RAIN WATER PIPE HEADS. Oak, Bramble Bluzel, Hawthorn. ART FOLIAGE, P1.66 J.K.Calling del STONE CORBEL. Beach ART FOLIAGE PL67. JH. Calling stat. STONE PANEL. Ivy. ART ART FOLIAGE PL.68 J.M Gylling det. STONE PANEL. Maple. ART FOLIAGE, PL 69 I.M.Calling_del. STONE PANEL. Hawthorn. K ART FOLIAGE, PL 70. J.K. Colling. del. Dotted. OAK PANELS. Apples, Bull-rushes and Water Crowfoot. ART FOLIAGE, J.K.Colling del. ma OAK PANELS. Oak, Wheat and Bindweed. รับบ P1 71 ART FOLIAGE, PL. 72. تک J.K.Calling det. Dotted ground. OAK PANELS. Hazel, Black Bryony ART FOLIAGE, PL. 73. J.K.Colling del. OAK PANELS. Clover, Acacia. ART FOLIAGE, Pl.74. J.K. Calling Zet. en OAK PANELS. Bay or Noble Laurel, Sea-weed, Fucus Serratus ART FOLIAGE, PL.75. J.R.Cotting del. : OAK PANELS. Meadow Grass and Bindweed. Swallow and Ash. ART FOLIAGE, PL76 FK Aling del ས་ OAK PANELS. Maple, Bramble. ՀԱ ART FOLIAGE Pl. 77 J.K.Calling del. OAK PIERCED SPANDRILS Meadow-Sweet and Bull Rushes, Pea. GHIK ART FOLIACE Fl. 78. Lelling dil شكلنتك OAK PIERCED SPANDRILS Holly, Geranium. ART FOLIAGE, Pl. 79. 池 ​S.K. Calling del > OAK PIERCED SPANDRILS. Hawthorn, Vina, Fumitory. ART FOLIAGE, Pl.80. A e Section of stem at A PANELLING FOR OAK BENCH ENDS. Brake, Buckler Fern, Navelwort Mursh Marigold, Diclytmu, Oak. J.K. Colling del. C 745 C691 R 9-87 UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA wils 745 C691 Colling, James Kellaway. Art foliage / by J.K. Colling. From the 3 1951 002 061 642 G ? 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