LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE Sour SF 263 W69 DATE DUE 1 ^^^^- III « ■^ ^ WILLAED^S miiml %\tux f^m\t A COMPLETE TREATISE ON BUTTER-MAKING AT FACTORIES AND FAEM DAIRIES, INCLUDING THE SELECTION, FEKDING AND MANAGEMENT OF STOCK FOR BUTTER DAIRYING-WITH PLANS FOR DAIRY ROOMS AND CREAMERIES, DAIRY FIXTURES, UTENSILS, ETC. BY X. A. WILLAED, M.A., AUTHOR OF "PRACTICAL DAHIT HUSBANDRY," "ESSAYS ON AGRICUI/- TURE," "MILK CONDENSING FACTORIES," EDITOR OP DAIRY DEPARTMENT OP MOORE'S RURAL NFW-YORKER— PRESIDENT N. Y. STATE DAIRYMEN'S ASSO., ETC. FULLY ILLUSTRATED- SECOnSTD EDITION. NEW YORK: RXJRAIL. PXJBLISHIN-& CO]VlI»ATJrY, RURAL NEW-YORKER OFFICE. 637.4 W46 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by THE RURAL PUBLISHING CO., In the oflaoe of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. P1=IEF^CE BuTTER-dairying is a specialty of such large and growing im- portance that a treatise wholly devoted to that interest, it would seem, is very widely demanded. I have endeavored to meet this general want by supplying full information concerning the latest improvements in creamery practice, and by furnishing a work that is a safe, practical and comprehensive butter manual. The work has been freshly written, and gives the result not only of my own experience, and extensive personal observation, but the most ap- proved practice of the best butter-makers at home and a^^road. In the matter illustrating the secretion of milk and mammary gland, I am indebted mainly to the writings of Prof. Simonds, the distinguished Veterinary Surgeon to the Royal Agricultural Society, of England. Among the new topics of interest, and which heretofore have not been presented to the dairy pubhc are : Prof. Wilkinson's plan for controlling temperature in dairy rooms ; the Swedish Sys- tem of setting milk for cream in ice water ; the new^ practice adopted at the Ridge Mills Creamery, and the recent method for improving skimmed milk in skimmed-cheese manufacture. These are very fuUy discussed, and wiU be found suggestive to practical and progressive butter-makers. That the work may prova useful to the large class for which it is intended,, is the* sincere wish of the author. X A. W. Little Falls, N. Y., June, 1875. mDEX OF ILLUSTEATIOE"S. Aerator 66 Boiler, Anderson 122 " and Engine 118 " Iron Slave 119 " Roe's 120 Butter Box, with ice-chamber Ill " Factory, ground plan of 123 " Factory, original, ground plan of 93 "■ Pail, Wescoti; s Return 108 " Pail, enameled 145 " Pail, metalic 140 " Package, White's ; HO '• Worker, Champion 105 " Worker, Eureka 65 " Worker, Orange County 104 Cans, Wickoff 's Ventilating. . . Ifif Churn, Barrel 101 '* Blanchard 100 " dasher 97 " Tornado 63 " with -svalking beam 98 " Whipple's Rectangular 64 Coecal Extremities, view of 39 Colostrum, Microscopical appearance of 37 Cover, for cooling vat 164 Cream Dipper and Pail 95 " Strainer, Baker's 62 Creamery, ground plan of for large pans 128 " interior view of 165 " Eidge Mills, elevation 166 " Ridge Mills, ground plan 163 " Plan of for pail and pool 115 " Sectional view of 164 " Union, plan of 112 Dairy Room, ground plan of Gulf Stream 82-83 Gang Press, Frazer's , 160 Milk Cellar, Crozier's 74 " Globules, Microscopical appearance of 36 " Pan, Iron Clad 77 " Pan, Cowles 127 " Pan, Jewett 126 " Pan, Orange County 126 " Secreting Follicles, arrangement of 40 " Vault and Churn Room ; i 73 Pail, butter, Philadelphia 71 " Iron Clad 62 Scales, Jones' Factory 117 Steamer and Caldron 121 Udder of Cow 41 Vat and Portable Heater, Millar's 158 " and Heater, Roe's 159 '' " " 157 IMPORTANCE OF BUTTER DAIRYING. THE BUTTER CROP. The annual butter crop of the United States has been variously estimated at from 700,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 of pounds. But enormous as these figures are, the lead- ing butter merchants of New York believe the product to be larger. During the summer of 1864 the Kew York Butter and Cheese Exchange appointed a committee of emi- nent merchants to consider the subject of classifying and grading butter, in order to facilitate trade in this import- ant staple. The committee, in its report, states that the census re- turns of dairy products are incomplete and defective ; and it is afiirmed, further, that the latest, the most analytical and reasonable estimate in regard to the present butter crop of the country is the following, which was prepared by an experienced and ^.areful statistician, who estimates the annual product to be over 1,400,000,000 pounds. If the average price be put at 30c. per pound — a sum which would not be considered excessive for a fine quality of butter — w^e find the total value of the product to be $420,000,000. The quantity, in my opinion, is estimated at too high a figure ; yet it is believed by many persons who are well acquainted with the trade, to be much nearer the truth than the census returns. Mr. Fairfield, President of the Butter and Cheese Exchange, in a recent statement in regard to the statis- tics of American dairy products, puts the consumption of butter in the United States at 1,040,000,000 pounds per annum for table use alone, and says it is estimated that one-third more may be added for culinary purposes, mak- ing a total consumption of about 1,387,000,000 pounds. The exports from the United States and Canada are about 15,000,000 pounds, making an annual product of 1,402,- 000,000 pounds. Mr. Fairfield also calls attention to g WILLAKD'S FBAOTICAL the incompleteness and nselessness of the statistics of the Census Bureau, and suggests the establishment of a Bu- reau of Statistics at Washington, which shall furnish complete and trustworthy figures bearing upon all agri- cultural products. THE KATE OF BUTTER COXSUMPTIOX. Nor does the quantity seem so extravagant when the estimates of consumption are given in detail, especially when it is considered that Americans are excessively fond of this article of food. The report referred to estimates that out of our population, 5,000,000 consume one pound of butter each per week ; 10,000,000 consume three-fourths of a pound each per week; 10,000,000 consume one-half pound each per week and 10,000,000 consume one-quarter pound each per week. At this rate, 35,000,000 would consume 1,040,000,000 pounds per annum for table use and one-third as much as the above for culinary purposes. This leaves a popula- tion of 9,000,000 not included as consumers. In addition, the exports from the United States and Canada are esti- mated at upwards of 15,000,000 pounds, making the product aggregate as before stated — 1,400,000,000 of pounds. UTTMBER OF COWS REQUIRED FOR THE BUTTER CROP. Now, from statistics in regard to the distribution of the entire milk product of the country, it is estimated that at least 54 per cent, is employed for butter-making. Then, if 200 pounds ot butter per annum to the cow be taken as an average, it would require 7,200,000 cows to make the annual yield of 1,440,000,000 pounds. Tliis would make the number of milch cows in the United States at the present time to be a little over 13,000,000 — a number which many believe is not far out of the way, as would be shown if the census were accurately taken to-day, enumerating all the cows — the family cow as well as those employed in the various branches of dairying. COXSUJrPTIOX INCREASES AS QUALITY IMPROVES. It has been observed — and indeed, the fact seems to be beyond question — that as we improve the quality of our dairy products, the consumption j)er capita increases ; BUTTER BOOK. ^J and this has been especially so in regard to butter since the improvement in its quality on account of the introduc- tion of the creamery system. A well-known dealer of my acquaintance illustrates this by a conversation which took place during the past sum- mer between him and one of his customers. The dealer had been supplying his customer with fresh creamery butter of the finest quality. One day the customer came into the store and the dealer inquired as to the quality of the last tub of butter furnished. The customer said there could be no fault found with the quality, but that he should be obliged to discontinue its use, as a dollar per pound for butter was more than he could well afford. This statement very much disconcerted the dealer, as he thought that some of his clerks, perhaps, had carelessly sent up an erroneous and outrageous bill, and he hastened to assure his customer that there must be some mistake, as there was no intention of charging more than the market price, which was then some 33c. per pound. " And," said he, " I asked my book-keeper, with considerable trepida- tion, to turn back to the account and correct the error that had been made." But on referring to the books, it appeared that only the regular market price had been charged and credited ; and on announcing this to the cus- tomer, he acknowledged that indeed he had paid no more than the sum stated, but that the consumption of the creamery butter had been three times greater per day, by his family, than when supplied with the ordinary butter obtained of the grocer — and thus the cost might be said to average a dollar per pound. "In other words," said he, " your creamery butter is so delicious, that my family never seem to get enough to satisfy them, and a tub of butter vanishes like the dew." PBICE OF BUTTER ADVANCING ABROAD. Another feature of importance in regard to butter may be mentioned in this connection : the price — though at times liable to fluctuate like that for other commodities — appears on the whole to be gradually rising. The En- glish markets have shown this for several years past. During the last two years, and especially during 1874, the trade in London has complained of the scarcity of a good article. Butter imported into England from the 8 WILLABD'S PHACJTICAL continent of Europe has been quoted as high as 168 shil- lings sterling per cwt. That is to say about 36 cents, gold, per pound. High prices in England have a ten- dency to maintain good prices on this side. But in addition to this outlet the time is close at hand when the entire demand for dairy products in the West Indies and South America Avill be supplied from the United States, and will become an important trade. Increased transportation facilities, the use of metalic packages, and improved metliods of putting down butter, so that it will remain unimpaired during the sea voyage, together with the best methods of manufacture, must add greatly to the prosperity and permanency of this brancli of dairying. The estimates presented will be sufficient for dairymen to fully appreciate the situation. THE BUTTER COW-ITS MAXAGEMXT, ETC. The limit assigned for this book will not permit me to enter upon an elaborate treatise in regard to tlie different breeds of milcii stock. Xor can any one breed be recom- mended for all situations, or to best suit the wauts of all persons engaged in butter daii'ying. Farms differ widely in their character. Some lands have a level surface, others are rolling or gently undulating, while others yet are hilly and broken. Soils, too, vary from the richest to the poorest. Again, one farmer desires to make butter and cheese ; another wants to get the best returns from his animals in butter, cheese and beef, or in butter and beef, while a third is looking simply for the best butter yield alone. It is evident no one breed will fulfill all these conditions at once and at the same time. As a general principle, it may be affirmed that good butter cau be produced from any breed, and not unfrequently a BUTTER BOOK. A common cow, with no renowned blood in her veins to boast of, will yield as much and as good butter as the boasted cow that has a long record in the herd book. As a rule, it may be said that the small breeds give the richest milk. The Jersey, the Devon and the Kerry are perhaps the most noted in this regard. They do not yield so large a quantity as some other breeds ; nor does it always follow that a cow giving very rich milk will be the most prolitable for butter-making, because a cow yielding a larger quantity of average good milk may make better returns in butter. The Ayrshire is con- ceded to give a large quantity of milk of average good quality, but inferior in richness to that of the Jersey or Devon, and on some farms she may be the best butter cow. The same may be said of the Short Horn and other breeds. The Jersey cow has some characteristics not common with other breeds. She yields not only a very rich milk, but it is of a deep, yellow color, and the butter is of a harder and more waxy texture than that from other breeds. Among butter dairymen the pure-bred Jersev, or a dash of Jersey blood, is very much esteemed. Some have claimed that the butter from Jersey cows, on ac- count of the peculiarities named, has a superiority Avhich will command a better price than other butteiH This, however, may be considered a doubtful claim. At least it is not made good in the London market, where con- siderable quantities of Jersey butter are sold, which al- ways brings a lower price than several other kinds. But whether this be due to peculiarities in flavor and texture, or to a less skillful method of manufacturing, is a ques- tion also of consideration. Mr. Charles L. Flint, Sec- retary of the Massachusetts Board of Agi-iculture, affirms that Jersey butter has a peculiar flavor, which is not fancied in Boston. On tlie other hand, much of the high- priced butter of Philadelphia is made from eTersey cows. Hence we do not regard the claim of superiority or in- fei'iority, on account of the breed, of much account, be- lieving that fine butter, by proper manufacture, can be made from different breeds. The dairyman should have a clear understanding as to his situation, the character of his lauds, and what he is seeking to realize from his stock, and then choose that 10 WILLAED'S PRACTICAL breed which is best adapted to his purpose. But in say- ing this it must not be inferred that Ave regard a thor- ough-bred herd as indispensable ; on the other hand, the cheapest and perhaps the most practical course to be adopted will be to select the best common cows that are to be had, and cross them with a thorough-bred bull of the breed best adapted to his purpose. Breeding in this way, from year to year, he will be likely to obtain a herd that will yield him the most profit, and at the least ex- pense. THE MILK OF EACH AXIMAL SHOULD BE TESTED. In choosing stock for the butter dairy, each cow should be tested separately as to the quantity and quality of milk she is capable of pelding. The milk should be accurately weighed or measured and then set aside to cream, and the percentage of cream determined. But this will not be sufficient, for some cows will give a large percentage of cream, yielding a comparatively small quan- tity of butter. The cream, therefore, must be churned and the percentage of butter obtained. In this way the dairy- man will be able to form a true estimate of the amount of butter in each cow's milk, and from such estimate he will learn what animals in his herd are best adapted to butter-dairying, and those that should be discarded as not fitted for his business. Large losses are often sustained by keeping inferior stock. Many dairymen can give no accurate account of the value of any cow's milk in the herd. They know at the end of the year the quantity of butter that has been produced from the whole herd ; but if it falls below what would be considered an average product they are unable to point to the true cause of the deficiency. Not unfre- quently the cow that gives a large mess of milk is cred- ited much higher than the one yielding a moderate quan- tity, and yet the latter, on account of its superior rich- ness, may be altogether the best butter cow. Some dairymen are under the impression that exceedingly rich milk is made by excessive feediug, ignoring the fact that the real butter cows must be sought for in particular ani- mals or breeds noted for this peculiarity. Every cow has a structural limit in the richness of milk which she will yield, and beyond this standard of richness no amount of BUTTEE BOOK. jj feeding will increase. Butter dairymen, therefore, should be careful to test the capacity of each cow in this regard, and they should enter her record on a book kept for the purpose, so that they may know what animals are yield- ing a profit and those that are not papng the expenses of their keep. THE PEE CENT. CKEAil GAUGE. A vessel for obtaining the percentage of cream can be readily made on the plan suggested by Mr. Douglass, of Vermont. He takes one of the common cans or pails used in the pool system — a can, say 20 inches deep by 8 inches in diameter. Then by cutting out a slot in the can and inserting a strip of glass in grooves, the edges cemented with white lead, so as to be water-tight, a con- venient per cent, cream gauge may be had. Now graduate the vessel, placing the marks on the tin alongside of the glass strip, and the work is done. By setting the milk in this vessel and allowing the cream to rise, its percent- age may be seen through the glass, and read on the scale. THE AVERAGE BUTTEE PRODUCT OF COWS. The average annual product of good cows, say in moderate sized herds of from 15 to 25 animals, in good dairy districts, is about 200 pounds. Extra herds not uufrequently make an average of 250 to 300 pounds to each cow, while individual cows, as it is well known, are often reported as yielding a much larger product. The quantity of milk required to make a pound of butter ranges from eight to twenty quarts. The dairyman, there- fore, as we have remarked, should satisfy himself by re- peated experiments on individual cows, whether those that yield most milk are, after all, the most profitable for his particular purpose. A writer in " Morton's Cyclope- dia " obtained the following results in experiments on a small dairy of 5 cows ; the object being to determine the exact quantities of butter and cheese in the milk of each : A weighed quantity of milk was taken from the noon's milking of each, and allowed to stand in separate glass vessels for forty-five hours. A portion of the " stri])- pings''^ of all the cows, mixed, was also set apart, to de- termine the amount of butter and cheese in the last 12 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL drawn milk. When the cream had completely separated from the milk, a fine-pointed glass syphon — sufficiently wide in the bore to allow the milk to run through it, but not the cream — was introduced into the vessel, and nearly touching the bottom. The air was then exhausted from the syphon, and the milk withdrawn into another vessel. The cream was then weighed and agitated in a glass tube, until the butter came, which was then well washed with pure water and repeated decantings until the water ran ofi* colorless. The weight of the butter was then care- fully ascertained, and the difference between it and the cream gave the weight of the buttermilk. The butter was then put in a minim tube, and melted at a low tem- perature by immersing the tube in warm water. The re- maining buttermilk and cheesy matter sunk to the bottom on cooling, and the proportion, by bulk, noted down. The sknnmed milk was gently warmed to 90 degrees after adding a little acetic acid to make it curdle. The whey was separated from the curd by filtration and washing, and the latter dried at a heat not exceeding 212 degrees, until it ceased to lose weight. The weight of the dried curd (pure caseine) when deducted from that of the milk, left as a remainder the weight of the whey. The following table shows the relative quantities of butter, caseine, (cheese) and whey, the latter includes the buttermilk also : No.l. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5, Ill ill #3 So Z4> r 00 S =• t Pkr Cent, m • ^6 m . - & : 5 IP : o ■ B^ : S = : % E^ i-h : S^ : a • G ^f : vi ■ 5 - £ : n"^ •■ii : -J TO ; K^ . '^o '. '< : ^g if? ' ^ ■ C K ft : cro, ;l= \?J ^ 4.31S 3.017 4.20i) .S.412 2.90t 3.144 3.079 3.389 4.700 3.209 10. 102 On seine (chain) 3.294 Whey, &c 92.665 92.37y 93.95t5 93.532 92.091 80.604 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 The large proportion of butter in the last drawn milk is seen from the figures in the last column. It indicates BUTTER BOOK. 13 the truth of the remark we once heard made by a dairy farmer, that tlie profits of his business depended princi- pally on the perfect performance of the operation of milking. The quantity of milk daily from each of these cows during seven days in the month of July was as follows: Daily.... Weekly. Quarts. No. 1- 9% No. 1-68 Quarts. No. 2-12>^ No. 2-89 Quarts. No. 3-13M No. 3-96 Quarts. Quarts. No. 4-]0% No. 5-inji No. 4—75 Ne. 5—72 If we take the weight of an imperial gallon of milk at ten pounds three ounces, the Aveekly yield per cow of butter, cheese (caseine) and whey Avould be as follows : No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No, 4 No. 5 Prod'e per cow inqts, iind lbs. 68 qts. I 89 qts. 173 3-10 lbs. j 22«^lbs. 96 qts. 24434 lbs. 75 qts. 191 lbs. 72 qts. 183^ lbs. Butter Cii.seine... Whey, &c Lbs. 1 I,bs. 7. .97 1 9.»t0 5,225 1 7,734 160.496 1 209.476 6 89 230.52 Lbs. i Lbs. 5.8^1 8,620 6.473 5.S85 17S.t:46 1 16S.895 Total 173.20y I 226.750 244.50 191.00C ]s;i400 Of course the caseine in this table does not represent the whole of the cheese which the milk contained, because the process employed to extract it separated the butter entirely from it, besides the cheesy matter was dried to the consistency of horn before being weighed. Common milk-cheese, however poor, and as it is usually made, not only contains a little butter, but also a large proportion of water or wheyey matter. On the other hand, the quantity of butter given above is no doubt larger than could have been obtained by com- mon churning. Still, the table will serve to sho^y cor- rectly the comparative as well as absolute amount of pure butter and caseine contained in the milk of each cow. The reader will see from these tables that the cow ISTo. 3, although giving six gallons of milk more than No. 5, and seven gallons more than No. 1, per week, is under both of them in butter, and were it not that the quantity of buttennilk is great, she would fall below them in profit too. Her milk is poor in butter and cheese, and there is reason to suspect tliat the quality of both is inferior also. To the inland dairy farmer it is of the greatest conse- quence to get cows that yield rich milk, even though the quantity should not be so very great, for this reason that the refuse either of cheese or butter making can be turned to little account in such localities. 14 WLLLABD S FRACTIOAL CAEE. The success of butter dairying depends so much upon the care and feeding of the stock that no manual on but- ter making would be complete without touching upon this branch of the business. It is really astonishing what a large diiference in the yield of milk it makes by. attend- ing properly to a number of small things in the manage- ment of stock — things which would seem to many quite too insigniticant to be worth observing. The dairyman should have a genuine, hearty love for the animals under his control, attending to every detail for their comfort, providing wholesome, nutritious food, pure water and pure air — everything of this kind in abundance — keeping the animals properly sheltered, from storms ; feeding always with great regularity ; paying the most marked attention to the time and manner ot milking, and withal, preserving a uniform kindness and gentleness of treat- ment throughout every operation, a gentleness extending even to the tones ol tlie voice. Generally speaking, that cow will do her best that is loved the best and petted the most by those who have her in charge. If you wish a cow to do her best you must cultivate her acquaintance intimately, and be unsparing in little acts of kindness. Tou may whip and torture a cow into submission, but she will strike the balance against you in the milk pail. One of the greatest faults among dairy farmers to-day is lack of kindness and con- sideration to domestic animals. Cows should be petted daily, and be made to feel that man is a friend and pro- tector. All pain, fright and uneasiness checks the secre- tion of milk, and the man who is passionate and abusive to his herd never did and never can realise a full yield of milk from it. I think that any one who has the charge of animals should study their character and disposition. It is an interesting study, and, under the law of kindness, you will not unfrequently bring out wonderful traits and exhibitions of aifection, which will show a forethought and design, which may well be ranked with the higher intel- lisfence of reasonable beinscs. QUESTIONS FOR DAIEYilEX. Every dairyman should have a printed list of questions posted in some suitable place on his premises where his BUTTER BOOK. 15 family and those in his employ, as well as his visitors, will have opportunity to read frequently. We give some of them, but the list can be extended : Do your cows feed in swamps and on boggy lands ? Have you good, sweet running water convenient for stock, and is it abundant and permanent in hot, dry weather ? Have you shade trees in your pasture, or do you think that cows make better milk Avhile lying down to rest in discomfort in the hot broiling sun ? Do you use dogs and stones to hurry up the cows from pasture at milking time, thus overheating their blood and bruising their udders ? Do you cleanse the udders of cows before milking by washing their teats with their own milk, and practice further economy by allowing the droppings to go into the milk pail ? Do you enjoin npon your milkers to wash theii* hands thoroughly before sitting down to milk, or do you think that un cleanliness in this respect is not important for milk that is to be treated for butter-making ? When a cow makes a misstep while being milked, do you allow your milkers to kick her with heavy boots, or to pound her over the back and sides with a heavy stool, accompanied by sundry profane remarks addressed to the cow to teach her manners? Is the air about your " milk barn " or milk house reek- ing with the foul emanations of the pig sty, the manure heap, or other pestiferous odors ? Good, fresh, clean water, and in abundance, is one of the most important requisites for milch cows, and it should be in convenient places, where stock will not be required to travel long distances to slake their thirst. If springs and running streams cannot be had in j^astures, a good well, with windmill and pump, makes an efficient substitute, and the waste water may, if necessary, be conducted back into the well, so as to keep up a constant supply of good, fresh water. BKIEF SUMMART OF ITEMS IX THE MAXAGEMEXT OF MILCH COTVS. The following summary of items, written recently by Mr. A. L. Fish of Herkimer County, widely known as IQ WILIiAEDS PRACTICAL one of the most successful practical dairymen of New York, gives the result of the experience of his life in the treatment of dairy stock. They will be found of value : THE " MILKING-HABIT " EDUCATED. All profits obtainable from the cow in milk depend upon her constitution and physical economy in appropri- ating a portion of her food to thrift and milk. Her fac- ulty of appropriation is developed and fixed in the con- stitution by usage and habit. In her wild, uncultivated state she yields .a small amount of milk to sustain her calf till its second and third stomachs are sufiiciently devel- oj)ed to digest plant food, when she weans it by instinct, and her milk ceases to floAV. Any deviation from that habit must be developed by incessant milking and proper adaptation of food to make a supply of milk proportion- ate to the demand. Thus it is upon the principle of de- mand and supply that her faculties are educated to a high degree of fluency in milk. If cows are milked in cold weather, they should be housed and kept comfortably warm, that their vital forces may be employed to convert food into milk rich in cream, instead of the fatty portions being used up by combustion to keep the animal heat of the body at the required temperature (98 degrees), the point fixed in her physical organism for health. If she is unaccustomed to higher feed than hay, a change must be carefully made with light feeding, gradu- ally increasing as the system becomes inured to it. Her digestive organs require systematic training like the mus- cles of the pugilist or race-horse. A proper adaptation of food to the lacteal system is first in the order of training. Succulent food is better adapted to lactescence than grain. If grain is fed in the milk season, it should be cooked and made into thin slop or porridge, that it may readily as- similate with the lacteal fluids of the system, So suscep- tible are the lacteal faculties of cultivation, that heifers from deep-milking mothers have been brought to a good flow of milk under two years old, without impregnation, by continued usage of the udder and teats like milking hab- its. It should be kept in mind that feeding more than is appropriated to the object desired goes to waste by pass- ing off imperfectly-digested or being taken up by other than the lacteal functions. It, therefore, behooves all who BUTTER BOOK. 2Y keep cows for dairy or family use to closely observe the effect of various kinds of food, as some will appropriate to a different purpose than others, by force of liabit. DOCILITY OF TEMPER HOW ACQUIRED. Docility of temper, like lactescence, may be cultivated and established constitutionally, and is as surely transmis- sible to posterity as color, size, shape, &c. Uniform kind- ness in handling, in care and general treatment, Tvith easy access to good water, good feed and good fences, are es- sential to confirm docile habits. Adversely will detesta- able habits be confirmed. Harsh, scarey treatment in handling, hurrying them out of narrow stanchions, to pinch and bruise ttieir ears, tear off a horn or break a neck (each of which I have had done), poor feed, poor fences, scanty water, and poor milkers, are appliances to fit a cow to graduate, w^here she may be turned into a drove and sold among strangers. JERKING OUT OF THE STAXCHION. To prevent cows from acquiring a habit of jerking back out of the stanchion (by which they are liable to be seri- ously injured), set them on a slant toward the falling sides, so they will fall back quickly from their neck by their own gravity as the latch is raised to release them, and let the drop bar fall back wide enough that the horns will not catch on backing out. • ■WATER NEEDED AFTER SALTING. Care should be taken that they have salt twice a week, and that they have access to water soon after taking the salt, because salt in its crude state is poisonous and will create a high fever in the stomach, unless dilated by water, which relieves the animal from burning thirst. BREATHING FOUL AIR. It is becoraingr a universal custom to milkthrousrh the ... ^ season in wintermg stables that are constructed to econo- mize room and keep the inmates warm. That is all right in economy if not carried too far. If too many are crowded into illy-ventilated apartments the air becomes vitiated and unfit for respiration, because it is breathed over and over again after it has passed through the lungs and been robbed of its vital power. Food once taken into the stomach and passed through the digestive organs is 18 WILLAKD'S PRACTICAL repugnant to all animals, and if forced into the stomach will cause disease and death. It is a fact not to be ig- nored that animals and insects whose life is sustained by inhaling the common atmosphere, must have a change of air or death ensues. If stables are not tight enough to cause immediate death, they may weaken the vital forces of the inmates and thus predispose them to disease. RESULT OF CROWDING TOO CLOSE IN THE STABLE. If cows are packed too closely in stanchions they will lie against each other and get too warm; then when turned out in very cold weather the change is too great, and Avhen lying down to rest the center cow (of three) is often compelled to stand till others rise, and they are irritated by each others' horns. All these are annoyances that tell upon their constitution, but they may be avoided by giving each cow four feet wide standing room, and addmuch to convenience in milking. VENTILATION. Proper ventilation is indispensable to health of cows both summer and winter, and to cleanliness in milking. If stables are without ample openings over the cows' heads, the pressure of air from yvithout drives the noxious odors from their voidings, and the venomous exhalation, perhaps from old stale urine under loose, squashy floors, forward to their heads, where they are compelled to inhale them. Such stables are unfit to milk in because the milk while milking will imbibe those odors and unfit it for good cheese or butter. From my observations in searching for causes of the ailments that cows are liable to, I have come to the conclusion that more disease is generated by veno- mous atmosphere in damp, ill-ventilated stables than all other causes. As a preventive I would advise that the floor of the stable be laid upon a solid bed of earth and gravel, witli a fall of six inches in twelve feet from the stanchions, with the same ratio of descent, to a point for outlet of liquids, with a platform raised six inches for cows to stand and lie on. The floor and platform plank should be bedded in water-lime mortar, so there shall be no soaking doTvm nor hiding-place for stale urine to deposit and generate venomous odors. Openings in the sides of stables are useful in warm, still weather, and to dry and cleanse them, but should not BUTTER BOOK. "^ jg be relied on for breathing air, for they should be closed in severe weather to prevent currents of air striking the in- mates, which should always be avoided. An opening. forward and over their heads large enough to fodder through the Avhole length oi the stable is little room enough for circulation ot breathing air, and would not draw through in currents unless the siding is open below and too airy above. WATER. Cows will drink twice a day and oftener if an oppor- tunity is offered, and it is better than to drink a large amount at once. If cows in milk have water but once, they should be slopped morning and evening to increase the flow of milk. FIRST TURNING TO GRASS. Cows should not be allowed a full range of pasture till there is a supply of grass, because they will acquire a rov- ing habit, and their unnecessary travel will pack the soil and destroy much grass. When first turned to grass they should be allowed only a limited range between the usual hours of feeding hay. This hay feed, of the "first quality, should be continued till they refuse to eat it. This keeps up their strength and avoids too sudden change in the habits of digestion. CLEA.NSING THE BLOOD. After parturition, one table spoon full of sulphur should be given to each cow twice a week, to cleanse the blood of any impurities that may he lurking in the system which are liable to settle upon different organs, causing garget, horn-ail, hoof-ail, or a morbid condition of the generative organs, by reason of which many cows go far- row, or are predisposed to abortion. SALTPETER FOR GARGET. If symptoms of garget appear, one tea spoon of salt- peter once a week is good. When the season arrives for turning with the bull, this should be discontinued. Salt three mornings and skip three for two weeks. COMING IN MILK. To bring them into milk nearly the same time the next season, cows should not be allowed to worry with other cattle after being turned with the bull. 2Q WILLARD'S PRACTICAL GBAIN FEEDING AND GKASS. No profit will accrue from grain feed in flush of grass feed. When it diminishes, its equivalent should be kept up by soiling or otherwise, for if the flow of milk is al- lowed to decrease to a great extent, extra feed late in the season will be appropriated to flesh instead of milk. If cows are to be turned into clover, it should be done after the sun has aided the plant to elaborate the gases of night-fall. REMEDY FOR HOVEN. In case of hoven, a quarter of a pound of soda dis- solved in a gallon of water, and poured down is an ef- fectual remedy. Should the case be severe and require instant relief, plunge a butcher knife into the paunch on the left side behind the last rib near the back, at the point wherci the paunch adheres to the back and ribs. There is no danger in opening the joaunch there, because it would not let its contents out into the body. Keep the hole open with an alder, quill, or hollow stick, secured from dropping into the paunch, till the medicine in the stomach takes effect. Hoven is often mistaken for chok- ing. If a choke can not be felt in the meat pipe, it may be determined by crowding a "tarred" rope, one and a half inch in diameter, down the creature's throat. Such a rope, four feet long, with a sailor's wall knot on each end to crowd against the obstacle in the throat, should be pos- sessed by every farmer owning a herd of cattle. Any vegetable that a creature can swallow into the meat pipe may be pushed into the stomach with such a rope with safety, after pouring down a pint of soft soap. In closing my remarks on the care and treatment of milch stock I cannot do better than present some facts in regard to — THE EFFECTS PRODUCED ON THE MILK FROM ILL-TREATMENT OF COWS. It is only quite recently that the subject of milk poison has begun to claim attention. Farmers and dairymen are for the most part incredulous concerning changes liable to be wrought in milk, as a consequence of the manner in which stock is treated. If a farmer beats or otherwise maltreats his cows, he may perhaps admit. BUTTER BOOK 21 when his passion has become sobered, that the animals, under bad treatment, will yield a diminished quantity of milk ; but that the milk from this cause is rendered less nutritious, or is so changed as not to be a healthful ar- ticle of human food, is regarded as preposterous. No greater service, it seems to me, can be done for the dairy public, or for the community at large, than to dis- seminate correct information in regard to the various causes affecting the healthfulness of milk. And I am glad to see that the subject is arresting the attention of medical men, because when they give the result of their investi- gation on questions of this character it carries with it the weight of authority and is more readily believed than when it originates from other sources. We cannot expect a change of practice or reform unless men are convinced of their errors. A mere statement of facts, if they do not carry conviction to the mind, will effect but little ; hence, in presenting the following account of the diseases resulting from the use of imperfect milk and the causes which led to its imperfection, I am glad to present the subject from a medical stand-point, or as com- ing under the experience of a well known practitioner of medicine. The facts given I have condensed from an article in a late number of the " Medical and Surgical Reporter," by Dr. T. D. Ckothers of Albany, N. Y. The latter part of October, 1874, and since the publi- cation of the article referred to, I had an interview with Dr. Crothers and obtained from him many of the cir- cumstances connected with liis investigations, and I am of the opinion that the conclusions arrived at by him are substantially correct. Indeed, they correspond with facts coming under my own observation and experience. DISEASED MILK CAUSED BY FILTHY STABLES AND ROTTEN VEGETABLES. Referring to the almost universal use of milk as a diet, and the many cases reported during the last year, which give strong evidence that milk is an agent of far greater danger and more widely diffiised as a source of disease than we are aware of, Dr. Crothers describes a severe case of diarrhea occurring in a healthy family and living in good hygienic surroundings. Called to prescribe for the sufferers, he found that the family had never suffered 2 22 WILLAED'S PRACTICAL from this disease before, and it seemed more violent among the younger members than in those grown up. A careful inquiry into the habits of this family indicated nothing unusual, except the free use of milk as an article of food. Sunday, milk was made a prominent dish at dinner, and it was noticed that the days following the disease was increased unless checked by medicines. The milk came from one cow kept in the neighborhood. Suspecting the milk was not all right, Dr. C. found on visiting the stable that the cow was a small, ill-conditioned animal, standing in a close, filthy stable, ill-ventilated and containing hardly room enough to turn about. The food of this cow was garbage from the street, consisting of vegetables in all degrees of decomposition, cooked and raw, alternated with brewers' grains once per day. Water was given in the food, but occasionally, depending on chance, a pail was brought in. The stable was cleaned once or twice a week, and the doors were closed to keep in some hens. The walls of the building were brick, and the ventilation or renewal of the air must come from the open seams in the door and window. In this place for over three months this cow had been confined, her body was filthy and her hair stood up in all directions. That the milk was impure and the cause of the diarrhea was proven by the comjjlete disappearance of the disease when the family stopped using the milk. THE NATTJEE OF THE POISON UNCERTAIN. Dr. Crothees thinks the nature of the poison is uncer- tain, and he refers to the investigations of Dr. Chandler of New York, who failed to find any specific poison in milk known to be impure. In this case the impure milk acted as an irritant, causing a low grade of inflammation — a certain forerunner of other lesions. death from using impure milk. This was the case of an elderly gentleman, previously well and strong, who, while convalescing from a severe at- tack of intermittent fever was ordered to use milk freely by his physician. Four days after he began to use milk as a medicine, he was attacked with exhaustive diarrhea, re- sisting all medicines and terminating fatally in six days. The family of the owner of the cow from which the milk BUTTER BOOK. 23 was furnished likewise suffered from diarrhea. The cow was kept in a similar way to that first described ; and when this cow was turned out in the yard and received better food and more cleanly surroundings, the diarrhea in the family disappeared. Another severe case of the same complaint was noticed in a middle-aged man using the milk of swill-fed cows. The disease terminated in death after four weeks. INFLUENCE OF INSUFFICIENT FOOD ON MILK. Some remarkable experiments on this subject were con- ducted by M. Decaisne of Paris, during the siege of 1871, and detailed in a paper before the French Academy, prefacing his j^aper with observations of Dumas, Payen and BoussiNGAULT, in which were shown the fact that a cow gave healthy milk in exact proportion to the surplus of food beyond what was necessary for its own maintain- ance. If the animal was kept upon food barely suflicient for proper nourishment, the milk produced must be at a loss of animal tissue, with general deterioration of the milk and also of the cow. Milk formed at an expense of the nutrients and tissues of the body has less caseine, but- ter, sugar and salts, while the albumen will be increased. It follows that the value of milk must depend upon the excess of food beyond what is required by nature to keep up the normal vigor of the body. Decaisne shows that nearly an analogous condition exists in women, which he demonstrated by exj^eriments during the siege of 1871, in 43 cases of nursing women. These cases were in private families and suffered from the want of insufficient nourishment. Some of the results of his observations are stated thus: Insufficient food always produces a diminution in the normal quality of the milk, also a variation of its chemical constituents, such as an increase of albumen and diminu- tion of caseine, butter and sugar. The proportion of albumen, in such cases, is generally in inverse ratio to that of caseine. The health of the mother declined with this variation in the quality of milk, depending upon age, hygienic conditions, constitutional vigor, &c., until the milk became minimum in quantity and quality. Also, that these effects are seen in four or five days from the time of using an insufficient diet. 24 WILLAHD'S PRACTICAL TYPHOID FEVER GERMS COMMUNICATED THROUGH MILK. An epidemic of typhoid fever which occurred near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1872-3, indicated the prevalence of this fever in 32 out of 39 families which were supplied with milk from one dairyman. Families supplied by other milkmen were singularly exempt. The family of the dairyman were also attacked, particularly those who had used the largest amount of milk. The fever germs were supposed to have been propagated through adulter- ating the milk with bad water, and probably by allowing or forcing the cows to slake thirst from impure water. Again, in one of the healthiest suburban sections of London, 500 cases of typlioid fever were found distributed in 104 families, 96 of which were supplied with milk from one dairy. The contagion was traced directly to the water used for washing the milk cans and retained in the milk, the water being previously polluted by sewer drainage. MILK POISONED BY ANIMALCULE. Cases marked by violent cramping and purging have been traced to the milk used, which was found to contain animalculse, supposed to be taken up in the drinking water and developed in the system. Dr. Brown, of Gault, Ontario, reports in the Canada Lancet two very striking cases of this kind. Vogle, years ago, showed that vibri- ones in human milk arose from a condition of mal-nutri- tion. Dr. Gibes found two genera of animalculge present in milk, when the health of the mother was disordered by prolonged lactation. Other authorities have shown that milk may contain animalculse as well as poisonous germs equally dangerous. MILK POISONED EROM VIOLENT EMOTIONS OR SHOCKS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. A familiar illustration is that of milk, when the mother is violently agitated, causing convulsions and death in the child. The text books give particular caution on this point; yet an hour after, when the emotions have sub- sided, the peril seems to have passed away. We are yet ignorant of the nature of this poison, which seems to have such a peculiar action on tbe nervous function. Dr. Cro- THERS instances a case at a late clinic at the Albany Hos- BUTTER BOOK. 05 pital, of a child six years old suffering from epilepsy. The history indicated tliat the child was in healtli up to a cer- tain, time when the mother, laboring under intense excite- ment, put the child to her breast ; soon after the con- vulsions came on, which developed into a full case of epilepsy. A case of chorea recently, under Dr. C.'s care, he says can be traced back to nursing the child when the mother was violently excited. Other cases have been noted of feeble and broken-down nervous systems in children, which were referred back to the same cause. HOW BRUTAL TREATMENT OF COWS AFFECTS THE MILK. A gentleman of Albany was advised to secure the milk of a young, blooded cow for his infant child. A cow whose first calf was running by her side was purchased, and the calf taken away, and his servant was ordered to milk hei", bringing the milk direct to his house. Two months later this child, wlio W'as previously healthy, was broken out over the body with a strange, undetinable rash, which finally developed into pustules, called by the physician scrofula. Following this came a fever, which seemed to affect the brain and nervous system. In the meantime, the bowels suffered from intestinal in-itation, alternately constipated and relaxed. The child, for a year or more, while using the milk, was under the con- stant care of physicians, and after the second year had a weak, broken-down nervous system, with frequent pus- tular eruptions over the body. Subsequently it was ascertained that this cow was driven into a close stall, and whipped into subjection, to allow the milking to go on, and, for the entire season, this process was one of force and more or less brutality. Under these circumstances the milk was made poisonous by the nervous condition of the cow. Another instance came under the observation of Dr. Crothers. It was that of a farmer who, by the advice of his physician, procured the milk of an Alderney cow, on account of its supposed richness. This cow, from her vicious habits, had been considered unfit for the dairy. The milking was attended with much excitement, and the child to whom the milk was given suffered from gastro- intestinal irritation and what were called scrofulous ulcers, 2 26 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL during all the time of using the milk. Two years later this cinld was presented at the Albany Hospital clinic with symptoms of chorea, a weak nervous system, and low tone of physical vigor — an exception to other chil- dren of the same family. Other cases are given of seri- ous diseases arising from the use of milk from cows brutally treated. INPOKTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE CARE OF STOCK. Dr. Crothers, from all the facts observed, comes to a series of conclusions, some of which we give as follows : 1. Milk coming from ill-nourished, half-fed cows, having no surplus of food beyond minimum requirements of nature, is injurious, and may be a source of disease. 2. Cows deprived of abundance of good water, ventilation and exercise, secrete impure and dangerous milk, which may be loaded with gases, animalcule and fever germs. 3. The milk from old, debilitated cows fed on grains or over-stimulating food is also imperfect and unhealthy to a variable degree. 4. The nervous condition of the cow at the time of milking determines the pniity of the milk. If this is neglected, the milk is an active source of dis- ease, x>ositively dangerous and fatal. In conclusion, he says that facts show that milk is the prolific source of many diseases now obscure, and unless careful inquiry is made into the condition and surround- ings from which we receive our supply, we neglect a sanitary measure of great importance. I should be glad to have every dairyman in the land read this statement and consider how far the facts herein given will fipply to cases coming under his observation or experience. The questions presented, it seems to me, are of grave importance. FEEDING. Different kinds of food have more or less influence on the fllavor of milk. Some kinds are much more efficient than others, not only in promoting good flavor in the milk, but in maintaining health and thrift in the animal. For butter-making it is essential that the cows have an abundance of rich and nutritious food. Cows giving milk require more food than when not in milk. A certain amount of food is needed to support the animal, and a BUTTER BOOK. 27 surplus above that must be consumed and assimilated to make milk. Food should be abundant and easy of ac- cess, because miich traveling or exercise in obtaining it checks the milk secretion, the food going to supply the waste of tissue lost in extra labor rather than for milk. Cows should always be kept in good flesh and condition, because, if from inclement weather or other causes there be a slight interruption in the usual quantity of food, the good-conditioned cow has a store of fat laid up in the system that will bridge over these short periods without feeling the loss so sensibly as the cow thin in flesh, which has no surplus fat to spare. I know of no better food for milch cows than rich, old upland pastures, where there is a variety of grasses, and the turf is thickly set with grass, showing no intervening spaces. Eich old pastures, clear of weeds, where the herbage is tliick, sweet and nutritious — where a cow can get her fill without much labor — where good, sweet water is convenient — where there is shade under which she can rest and ruminate these, in my opinion, will be about the best conditions in which the animal can be placed for yielding much and very fine butter. Under such circumstances I do not think any profit will be real- ized by feeding ground grain, or meal of any kind, as a supplementary food. There is a great difference in pas- turage, and the trouble with dairymen is, that they do not discriminate closely enough as to the quality of the grasses that make up the pastures on different farms. The coarse, sour herbage of low lands or swales — pastures foul with weeds or abounding in grasses having a large percentage of woody fiber are not calculated to give satisfactory returns. And in all cases where pastures have depreciated, and afford a scanty supply of nutriment, they should be supplemented by giving the cows a daily ration of bran, ground oats, or some other food, to sup- ply the deficiency. VARIETIES ESTEEMED FOB BUTTE K-DAIKTING. On the old pastures of the best butter districts there are several varieties of grasses that spring up spontane- ously, and are much esteemed as affording sweet and nutritious feed, and from which the best qualities of milk and butter are produced. They embrace the June or 28 WILLARD S PRACTICAL Kentucky blue grass (poa pratensis)^ the foul meadow grass, [poa seroti?ia), meadow fescue {festuca pratensis) , red top (agrostis vulgaris), the wire grass (^:>0(2 com- pressa), the sweet-scented vernal and vanilla grass, or- chard grass (dactylis glomerata), together with timothy, clover, and other forage i3lants. The June grass is regarded as very valuable ; it throws out a dense mass of leaves, is highly relished by cattle, and produces milk from which a superior quality of butter is made. It is found growing throughout the butter districts of the country. The Wire grass is deemed one of the most nutritious of the grasses, is very hardy, eagerly sought aftei* by cattle, and is one of the best grasses for fattening. Cows feeding upon it yield milk of the richest quality, from which the nicest butter is made. It flourishes well upon gravelly knolls and in shady places, and its stem is green after the seed has ripened. The Meadow fescue is common in old grass lands where the sod is thick, and grasses of difterent varieties are mingled together. It starts up early in the spring, is relished by stock and furnishes good, early feed. The milk farmers hold it in high estimation as a reliable grass, tenacious of life and not running out like timothy or clover. The white clover springs up spontaneously in the old pastures, and is esteemed as giving flavor and quality to butter. The sweet-scented vernal grass grows best upon moist soil of old meadows. It starts very early and gives oft' an agreeable odor. Orchard grass is one of the earliest as well as most nutritious and productive grasses. It is exceedingly palatable to stock of all kinds, and bears cropping close. It is a most valuable grass, and should enter largely into all mixtures intended for permanent pasture. Mr. Daniel Bachelor of Utica, IST. Y., who has had con- siderable experience in introducing tlie best mixtures of grasses, both for pasture and meadow, says of the sev- eral pasture grasses for our climate : "I know of nothing better than our native June and orchard grasses mixed with bent grass, crested dog's-tail-and meadow fescue ; for after ^11, it is the hardy grasses that we want, and none other. Of the artificial grasses, as those plants are BUTTER BOOK. 29 called which are cultivated in Euglaiid, and used like the grasses, there are many kinds— annual, biennial and per- ennial, legumes and brassica, some of which are not hardy enough for our climate. Lotus, sainfoin, parsley, saradeUa and yarrow cannot be successfully grown here. Kape, mustard, lucerne and vetches can be grown here as easily as clover. But at the head of all leguminous plants stands the alfalfa or lucerne, which is destined, I believe, to greater success in this country than the red clover, es- pecially in the hot, dry soils of the West and Southwest; as it will withstand drouth and heat, look fresh and green when all otlier forage plants are dry and drooping. Lu- cerne has been known to old world agriculture for the last two thousand years, and perhaps longer than that. It is a hardy, herbaceous perennial, and will send down its long roots into mellow subsoil to a depth of ten or twelve feet. It is very tenacious and will take possession of the soil to the exclusion of all the grasses and herbaceous plants. Notwithstanding the large amount of forage it produces, the lucerne does not exhaust but improves the soil, for the leguminoscB draw almost their entii'e initri- tion from the atmosphere, and the lucerne produces ten times more roots than any of the clovers. Vast masses of these roots decay in the soil every season, thereby en- riching the land. The plant, too, is so dense that it sliades the soil. That lucerne will flourish in this region (Central Xew York) is proved by the fact that Messrs. Walcott & Campbell have grown it for many seasons and prefer it to any other forage plant. " I take theliberty, in conclusion, to say that no matter what seed is sown, unless the soil be kept in good heart both pasture and meadow will foil. Johnston shows that for every ton of hay carried off the farm, there goes with it not less than one hundred and forty pounds of silicates, phosphates and potash. Now, if these ingredients are not returned in some shape to the land, the crops will fail ; moss, sorrel and wireweeds will usurp the ground, and barrenness take the place of fertility." THE GRASSES ARK SOCIAL. The grasses, so to speak, are social in their cliaracter, and thrive best Avhen different kinds are grown together in the same sod. The practical farmer, then, should un- 30 WILLAED'S PRA.CTICAL derstand this fact and take advantage of it in laying down grass lands if he is seeking for the largest product ; as it is well known that individual plants of the same species will not grow close to each other for any length of time ; for, liowever thickly planted from seed, in one or two sea- sons intermediate plants decay and leave vacant spaces which are soon filled up with spurious grasses, weeds or moss. But when a variety of different species adapted to the soil are mixed together they grow close, form a dense bottom and continue permanent. A DIFFERENT OEDEK OF SEEDS FOE PASTURES THAN MEADOWS. In seeding for pastures a different order of seeds should he used than for meadows. In pastures we seek to have those varieties that spring up in succession, so that a good, fresh bite may be had from spring to fall. For meadows, on the other hand, Ave seek plants that Avill come to maturity at about the same time, otherwise a portion of the plants are cut too early or too late, and thus loss is entailed. OYEE-STOCKING. Many dairymen habitually over-stock their pastures, thus not only doing great injury to the grasses, but the cows, from an insufficient quantity of food in a given space, are required to travel long distances in quest of food, and thus the yield of milk is diminished. By this practice the roots of the grasses and tlie whole plants are kept so small that their growth is feeble, and not one- half the feed is afforded that the land would produce if stocked properly and the grass allowed to get a good, thrifty start. But this is not the only disadvantage to the pasture from over-stocking. The feeble growth of the grasses allows other plants to creep in, and the ground soon becomes overrun with weeds, which, on account of their not being cropped by stock, grow in great luxuri- ance, maturing their seed and thus impoverishing the soil. The curse of American dairying to-day is weeds. When once they get full possession they become so formidable that the farmer is often disheartened and gives up their eradication. - It is always advisable to pull up or exter- minate bad weeds on their first appearance in pastures, and not allow them to spread. There are many weeds BUTTER BOOK. 31 that cows, will eat during a dearth of nutritious food, that give a taint to the milk, and thus are prejudicial to a line quality of butter. When pastures are over-stocked, or wlien they are not yielding a sufficient supply of good, sweet, nutritious feed, additional rations should be al- lowed the cows, such as bran, ground oats, shorts or mill feed, corn fodder, cut grass, or some other forage plant. Some butter dairymen are strong advocates of corn meal as a supplementary feed in summer. Corn meal being of a heating nature, Ave do not regard it as the best selec- tion in hot weather, and if on account of its low price it is deemed advisable to use it at such times, it should be mingled with twice or thrice its bulk of bran. In this w^ay the elements of milk are supplied in better propor- tion, while the animals will maintain better health. In cold weather corn meal can often be fed with advantage. In winter and spring roots are exceedingly valuable in keeping up a flow of milk and in maintaining the health of the animal, a point of very great importance, and which must not be overlooked by the practical dairyman who is seeking the best returns from his herd. cows SHOULD BE FULL FED. What we especially desire to urge in this connection is, that cows should at all times be full fed with sweet and nutritious food. We do not believe in over-feeding, and particularly with rich grains or highly-concentrated food. Dairy stock is often very much injured by injudicious feeding with this kind of food. Besides, it is a great Avaste to push the animal to consume a large quantity of expensive concentrated food which cannot be assimilated but must be cast off in the excrements. Kothing will be gained in the quality or richness of milk from such over- feeding, since every animal has a structural limit to her milk in this regard Avhich no excess of feeding will im- prove. It is true, by over-feeding the richness and value of the manure are increased; but as the same elements can be furnished at much cheaper rates from other sources than in the undigested or unassimilated meal and other highly-concentrated food, it would be very poor economy on this score. But when we bring into account the dan- ger of doing injury to the cow, it will be evident that such a course is not to be recommended. The tendency of 32 WILLAKD'S PHAOTIOAL over-feeding is, however, not so great in summer as in spring, or at sucli times as wlien the animals deprived of pasturage are upon a stable diet. In summer the main fault among dairymen is under-feeding, from a misappre- hension of the capacity of pasture lands, and, in conse- quence, over-stocking. A pasture that is over-stocked with but one or two animals, if no additional food is given to the herd to counterbalance the excess of stock, will de- cre;:ise the yield of milk much more than the average quantity obtained from the excess of stock. In other words, the dairyman, under such circumstances, would have increased his profits had he in spring selected out from the herd two of tlie poorest cows and given their milk to some neighbor for their pasturage. But the true course in such cases is to supplement the feed, making up the deficiency occasioned by over-stocking. WINTER DAIRYING. Somewhat recently the plan of winter dairying has been suggested, and is strongly advocated by a few persons who claim to have thoroughly tested the matter; and j^rominent among these is Mr. Boies of Marengo, 111., who has a herd of about 130 cows employed in butter dairying. The plan is to have the cows "come in milk" during the fall, to feed high during winter and then in spring, when the animals naturally begin to fall off in milk, the May and June pastures send them up to nearly their full yield again. Later, as the summer drouth occurs, or as grass begins to deteriorate, the cows are " dried off" and take their rest preparatory for the next calving. It is clahned for this system that cool weather is more favorable for the manufacture of butter than the heat of summer ; and as the butter market is generally better in winter than in summer, together with less risk to butter in the transportation, these considerations have weight in favor of the system. On the other hand special provision, it would seem, must be made for keeping the cows in warm quarters, well ventilated, together with an ample supply of succulent food, roots, &g., while the labor of milking and the manufacture of butter in all its details must subject the operators to more or less exposure to cold weather, thereby rendering the work less agreeable than in warm weather, to say the least. BUTTER BOOK. 33 MR. BOIES PRACTICE. As Mr. Boies has been a very successful operator under this system, it may be of interest to give a brief account of liis practice as detailed by liim to Mr. J. H. Real, a well-known butter dealer of Philadelphia. Mr. Real says he knows of no one who has produced better butter or who has made more money out of the business in the same length of tiuie than Mr. Boies, and we quote from a recent address of Mr. Real before the Xew York State Dairymen's Convention at Binghamton, in which he gives Mr. Boies' statements concerning his practice, as follows : " My father and I commenced the dairy business five years ago, without any capital, except our cows. We started with thirty -five cows, and shipped our milk to Chicago, in regular milk cans ; but finding it very costly, we began making our milk into cheese the following sum- mer, and in the succeeding year commenced making butter. At first we put it up in pound lumps and shipped to Chicago once a week. This butter realized us 24 cents per pound. That summer we bought a dairy of milk iu addition to our own dairy, and in the follow^ing season contracted for one more. Each year since we made addi- tions, until at present we take the milk from over 400 cows, and have 135 cows of our own and a farm of 300 acres in a high state of cultivation. We have also made addi- tions to our milk-house every year, and now work up 17,000 pounds of milk per day. The milk-house is 24 by 40 feet, and our workroom 20 feet square. " We dry our cows off about the first of July, and have them come in fresh in the fall of the year instead of drying them off in November, as is the sreneral practice. We give our cows the most nourishing kind of food and find it almost impossible to dry them off on account of its richness. The quality of the feed makes a very great dif- ference in the quality and yield of butter. " We always milk our cows at the same time of day. In the morning we give each cow four quarts of meal, and do the milking while they are eating, after Avhich we give them a very small amount of salt, perhaps a teaspoonful. We also give them a quart of oil meal every day, to assist digestion. After we are done milking and the cows have finished eating, they are let out to drink. The water is always warmed in the winter. 34 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL " When the weather is pleasant and warm, the cows are let out in the sun for three or four hours during the middle of the day. When brought in they are fed with early-cut hay. Our hay is cut early, in order to retain its natural sweetness. At five o'clock in the afternoon we give each cow five quarts of corn and oatmeal mixed together, and then milk them again. " We are very careful about our stables, and enforce strict quietness in them. No striking or pounding of the cows is allowed ; they are always driven quietly. We keep them warm, but avoid too high a temperature. A number of cows in a very warm stable produces an un- healthy atmosphere. We consider that there is more danger of the stable being too warm than of its being too cold. " The milk is delivered from the surrounding dairies to our factory twice a day, morning and evening. In the morning it is taken into the milk-house and strained into three large pans, each of which is 13 feet long, 4 feet wide and 9 inches deep. " We keep the thermometer in our milk-room from 60 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit. We consider it better to let the cream sour before churning, for the reason that the butter is a good deal more solid, and a larger quantity and a better quality result from sour cream. We churn every day, Sunday excepted. We use three-quarters of an ounce of salt to a pound of butter. " Our butter is taken directly from the churn and laid upon a white ash butter-worker and placed in a cool cel- lar, being washed before taken from the churn." He affirms that it does not require nearly so much milk to the pound of butter in winter as in summer ; that the difierence, according to his experience, is full 25 per cent, in favor of winter milk ; that cows would not give any more milk in summer than in winter if properly taken care of, while in winter we get better prices for butter. He said their cows produced on an average 300 pounds of butter each per annum ; that the manure from cattle taken care of by his system is of the most valuable kind, almost equal in strength to guano. Mr. Real adds that he knows that Mr. Boies, as well as others in his locality who pursue the same plan, pro- duce the finesti kind of butter, and that Mr. B. has attained BUTTER BOOK. 35 a position as a representative dairyman second to none other in the country. Mr. Boies, he says, supplies the best hotels in the United States regularly with his butter and rarely ever sells a pound under forty-five cents. Having presented the main features of this system, the question need not be discussed further, since every prac- tical dairyman will see its advantages and disadvantages, and will adopt or discard the system as it best suits his views and his convenience. MILK m ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS. Of milk, Dr. Aberneth y was accustomed to say, it was "the most nutritious of all things." Prout designated it as "the true type of all food." Gosse claims milk among the most easily-digested articles of food, which in- clude, according to him, substances which are converted into chyme within one to one and a half hours. Of all the secretions which are elaborated from the blood there is none which comes so near it in chemical composition as milk. It is almost the only food which will, when used alone, support life and maintain health and vigor for an indefinite length of time, and Dr. Carpenter, in his Manual of Physiology, observes that milk being an ad- mixture of albuminous, saccharine and oleaginous substan- ces, indicates the intention of the Creator that all these should be employed as components of ordinary diet. Besides this mixture of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous matters so essential to the maintenance of life, the saline or mineral matters which milk also contains, especially the phosphates of lime and magnesia, are no less necessary to the growth and development of the young animal. Milk, as is well known, is a glandular secretion peculiar to the mammalia. It is a whitish, opaque liquid, of an agree- able, sweetish taste and a faint but peculiar odor. Its specific gravity fluctuates, according to Scherer, between 1.018 and 1.045, but, according to Voelcker, cows' milk of good quality has a specific gravity of 1,030. 36 WILLAED'S PRACTICAL Milk is essentially an emulsion of fatty particles in a solution of caseine and milk sugar. The fatty matter is not contained in it in a free condition, but enclosed in a little cell. The membrane forming the walls of this cell, is suoposed by some authors to be caseine, a substance which is also found in a state of solution in the milk. Others have ventured the opinion, that this investing membrane consists of an albuminous substance, the com- position of which has not, as yet, been -defined. When examined under the microscope, without the addition of any chemical reagent, these globules exhibit no trace of any investing membrane, although its existence has been demonstrated beyond a doubt. Draper affirms that caseine may be separated into two parts, one containing sulphur, and the other not, and he comes to the conclusion that the substance we designate as caseine consists of two ingredients, the proteine com- pound which exists in a state of solution in milk, and also that which forms the membrane of the fat corpus- cles. These fat globules are of dilFerent sizes in differ- ent animals, and even in animals of the same kind they vary from the l-2000th to the l-4000th part of an inch. The illustration Fig. 1, gives the ordinary appear- ance of healthy milk when examined by a highly magnifying poAver. In proportion as milk is rich in butter, so are the glo- bules present in increased number and size. The color and opacity of milk are both due to their presence. As these glo- bules are separated in the shape of cream, the milk becomes clearer, and acquires a peculiar, blueish tint, which is a very good indication of its character. The less transparent milk is the better and more butter it con- tains. Fig. 1— Microscopical appearance of the milk globules. BUTTER BOOK. g/y Dr. Sturtevant, of Massachusetts, who has recently- made some valuable investigations in regard to milk g^bules of different breeds, states that the size of tliese globules is always larger near the time of calving, de- creasing in size the longer the time advances from that period, and as the larger the globule the more readily it rises to the surface, we have an explanation why milk that has been set for cream, and skimmed during the spring, or soon after the cows have calved, is so poor. In other words the milk which is less rich in butter dur- ing spring than in fall, also parts more readily with its fat, and thus the skimmed milk is comparatively poorer than at any other time. The cheese-maker may learn from this, that he cannot skim milk with impunity at such seasons. That in fjict there is no time when the cheese feels the skimmer so sensibly. COLOSTRUM. The first milk of the cow after calving is called Colos- trum. When examined under the microscope, it is found that in addition to the ordinary milk globules, granular corpuscles of a pale yellowish color, measuring from l-800th to l-2000th of an inch are present. (See Fig. 2). The existence of these granular cells imj^arts a purgative action to the fluid, which is generally viewed as being of great use in assisting in the ex- pulsion of the meconium from the intestines of the young animal. This pe- culiar substance accumu- lates in considerable quantities in the intes- tinal canal, during the latter period o^ iitero ges- tation^ and it would ap- pear that after birth the stimulating or cathartic action of the colostrum is y,^. ..Microscopical appearance of I'eqUired lOl* its removal, colostrum -a.a- gnmutiir corpuscles. gg WILLAEDS PRACTICAL Colostral milk differs essentially from the subsequent ordinary secretion. The colostrum contains a much larger proportion of solid materials than the milk. According to Draper, the quantity of fat in some cases is nearly double, the quantity of sugar is likewise much greater, but the relative quantity of caseine is less. On the other hand, according to Yoelckee and Bous- siN'GAULT, the colostrum contains an unusually large quantity of curd. Boussixgault gives the following as the COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM, OR FIRST - DEAWX^ MILK OF THE cow: Water 75.8 Butter (pure fat) 2.6 Caseine 15.0 Milk sugar 3.6 Mineral matter (ash) 3.0 100.0 In from eight to ten days after calving this peculiarity disappears and the milk assumes its ordinary condition. Lehmanx describes colostrum as a turbid, yellowish fluid similar to soap and wafer, having a viscid consistence and a strongly alkaline reaction. It passes more rapidly into lactic acid fermentation than normal milk, and it con- stantly exhibits an excess of solid constituents, both in wo n3u and anim lis, as we learn from Simox, Chevalier, and Hexry. According to the last-named observer, this augmentation is most marked in the caseine in the milk of cows, asses and goats. Although on microscopical investigation its external ap- pearance would seem to show that colostrum contains less fat, the contrary is proved by the results of most analy- ses. The colostrum is richer in fat than the corresponding milk. The cause of this striking ])henomenon may perhaps depend upon the quantity of fat contained in the* granular masses. The colostrum contains, moreover, from two to three times more salts than the milk. secretion. The secretion of milk, says Prof Simoxds, forms no exception to the rule which obtains with reference to ani- mal products in general, namely, that it is formed from arterial blood. So large an amount of milk as. is well known to be furnished within a few hours by the cow BUTTER BOOK. 39 necessarily requires a corresponding quantity of blood for its secretion. We find, therefore, that the arteries going to the udder are both large and numerous, and the branches of each vessel freely anastomose together, so that no interruption to the regularity of the supply of blood to every part of the gland may take place. The anterior portion of the mammce receives its blood chiefly from the internal pectoral arteries^ which, quitting the chest, run in a backward course to reach the glands. The posterior parts are sup- plied principally by branches called the mammary arteries, which come off from the epi- gastric artery. In addition to these, the circumflex artery of the ileum sends numerous branches to the glands, which likewise anastomose with the other vessels. The several vessels which come off from these trunks penetrate into the substance of the mam- mae, within which they free- fig. s-a hiphiy icaCTiifled view of , •/. 1 '' T the coecal extremities or follicles \\ ramUV bv numerous dl- of the lacUferons ducts in which the *"• • * J 1 J • • • „ secretion of milk tiikes place. Visions and sub-divisions. Ultimately, by further splitting up, and consequent diminution of their caliber, they form vessels so minute as to be unobservable to the naked eye, and which have been designated capillaries. These are distributed to the follicles, or coecal extremities of the lactiferous ducts, upon which they form a minute re^e of vessels, and furnish blood, both in a sufficient quantity, and also in a condi- tion fitted for the secretion of milk. The cut (Fig. 3) represents the ccecal extremities of the lactiferous ducts, highly magnified, and surrounded by their net-like struc- ture of capillaries. From the coecal extremities the milk, as quickly as it is formed, finds its way along the minute excretory ducts to which they are attached, into large tubes, and thence into various sized cavities, which are termed reservoirs. The arrangement of this portion of tlie gland may be compared to bunches of currants, as connected with, or 40 WILLAED'S PRACTICAL growing upon, their foot-stalks. The fruit would here represent the milk-secreting follicles, and the stalks the tubes by which it is conveyed away. Fig. 4 will convey a clear idea of this structure. The lactiferous or excietory ducts are heie marked «, and milk-secreting follicles b. From the smaller sized reservoirs which are shown in Fig. 5 the milk passes through numerous canals into the large re- servoir of tlie gland which is sit- uated just above the teat. (See a. Fig. 5.) Here it is detained in con- siderable quantity, often to the ex- ^n^iutsl^crS^^f^^^^^^^^ of two or morc quarts, says lacifeious ducts. Prof SiMONDS,until drawu oif by the sucking of the calf, or by the act of milking, which not only empties the large, but all the other reservoirs and milk ducts. In regard to the size of the large reservoir situated just above the teat, authorities differ. Some make it of a size holding from less than a gill to a quart, and Dr. Sturtea^ant affirms that in his dissections of the udder he has never found it more than an inch and a half in diameter. It will thus be seen by the arrangement of the component parts of the mammae provision is made not merely for the secretion but for the reten- tion of a large quantity of milk. In Fig. 5, which represents the udder of the cow stripped of the skin, its vessels injected, &c., one of the anterior glands is laid open to show the large reservoir ; a the end of a probe is depicted as being passed into it, having been carried upward through the teat, through the duct in the teitt ; ^, h represent the smaller reservoirs, some of which are openino; into the large one, and c, c sho^y the lobu- lated condition of the external portion of the posterior glands, which is produced by collections of lactiferous ducts. The mammary veins are represented by c?, c/, and e is the origin of the superficial abdominal vein, commonly called the milk vein. In regard to the veins of the mammae, as shown in Fig. 5 (^, c? and e), they are very numerous and large, it being necessary that every facility should be given for the re- Fifi. .Wiew of the udder of the cow after being stripped of the skin which covers it.— ?tu A. Poopek. 42 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL turn into the system of the blood which has not been appropriated for the secretion of milk, or for the main- tainance of the integrity of the glands. Taking their rise chiefly from the capillary network of the milk follicles the small vesticles coalesce to form dis- dinct branches of veins — the mammary veins. Many of these pursue a course toward the upper and front part of it for the purpose of carrying the blood into the large vessels which are met with in both these situations. The veins which pass backward empty themselves into the inguinal and these in turn into the iliac veins, by which this portion of the blood is returned to the heart through the posterior vena cava. Those, on the contrary, which proceed forward convey the blood into large vessels — the superficial abdominal veins, commonly known as the milk veins^ and by them it is transmitted into the internal pec- toral veins, reaching the heart by means of the anterior vena cava. The size of the superficial abdominal vein (see e. Fig. 5) on either side of the belly, sufiiciently indicates that the greater part of the blood coming from the udder passes through them. The size of these veins, as is well known, has always been taken as an indication to some extent of the capacity of the cow for yielding milk. A large flow of milk would necessarily require a large amount of blood to be distributed through the mammae, and as tliis blood must be carried back to the heart, the milk veins must necessarily be larger or smaller in proportion to the amount of blood used in these parts. The four glands forming the udder, it may be observed, are as separate and distinct from each other as if they had been placed at considerable distance apart. This perfect and complete isolation of the mammae is a wise provision of nature ; for should one, two, or even tliree become afi*ected with disease and lose the power of secreting milk, the remain- ing gland or glands would still furnish a sufficiency of the fluid to maintain at least the vitality of the offspring. The separation of the one gland from the other is effected by a reflection of fibrous tissue coming off from the walls of the abdomen and dipping as a septum between them. The same tissue, also, is continued as a covering to each gland, and thus binds the whole of them together. This arrangement places the entire udder in a kind of sling, BUTTER BOOK. 43 and maintains its close connection with the abdominal parietes. In many aged cows the external reflection of fibrous tissue, from having been kept long on the stretch, loses some of its suspending power, and hence in such animals the udder is often very loose and pendulous, occasionally hanging, in consequence, to within a few inches of the ground — a state of things which is irremediable. MODE OF ACTION OF THE MAMMA.RY GLAXD. A question of some interest in connection with the fimction of the mammary gland, is whether it fiibricates in itself by the agency of cells the proximate constituents of milk, or wlieLher it merely strains them from the blood in which they pre-exist. Authorities differ in regard to this question. Draper, the well-known physiologist, says : " The influence of special structure is disproved by the numerous, well - authenticated cases now on record, in wdiicli portions of the skin, or the stomach, the navel, in- testines, the axilla and glands in the groin have assumed a vicarious action and secreted milk." He infers, there- fore, that the proximate constituents of the milk are not manufactured by reason of any special structure of the gland which secretes them, since other structures can assume a vicarious action. Of the proximate elements of milk, many, such as the entire group of its salts, are acknowledged on all hands to pre-exist in the blood; and these constituents, about l-25th of its solid ingredients, must be admitted to pass into the secretion by straining only. Of the other solid ingredients the fat, which constitutes about one-fourth, also exists in the blood, being derived by lacteal absorption from the food. There are many facts which show that the identical fit occurring in the food is actually delivered by the mammary gland with many of its qualities un- changed. Thus, if by chance cows should eat the tender shoots of pine trees or wild onions or other strong-smelling herbs, the milk is at once contaminated with the special flavor of these oils. The feeding of turnips also pro- duces the same effect. If half the allowance of hay for a cow is replaced by an equivalent of linseed cake rich in oil, the cow maintains herself in good condition, but the 44 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL milk produces a butter more than usually soft, and tainted with a peculiar flavor derived from the linseed oil. Again he says, that fits of various kinds must always exist in the blood. A simple arithmetical computation, founded on tlie data furnished by the tables, of the con- stitution of blood and of milk, will show that there is at any moment a sufiicient supply of fatty matters in the blood to furnish two-thirds of the diurnal amount of milk. It does not therefore, seem philosophical, under these circumstances, to impute to the mammary gland the power of forming butter. It doubtless obtains that substance directly from the blood, and it may be, he observes, that those bodies which are conceived of as cells, and which are supposed to arise in the lobules of the gland in suc- cessive broods, Avhich run a rapid career, coming into ex- istence, reaching maturity, dying and deliquescing with incredible rapidity, are in reality nothing more than oil globules, which have coated themselves over with a cyst of coagulated caseine, as in Ascherox's experiments, or just as they become coated with a similar film, immedi- ately on passing from the intestine into the lacteal ves- sels ; and this, accordingly, is the opinion which Draper entertains. Again, he says there has been much controversy among chemists respecting the existence of caseine as a normal ingredient in the blood. Theoretically there does not ap- pear any solid reason for denying that it may be one of those constituents, considering the analogy of constitution which it shows with albumen. From the acknowledged fact that the acid, interstitial juice of muscle-fiber contains caseine, there cannot be any doubt that that substance must pre-exist in the blood. Chemically, the transition from albumen to caseine is not to be regarded either as an ascending or declining metamorphosis, but only as the temporary assumption of a state of passage onward to the condition of fibrine. The question is argued by Draper at considerable length, and he concludes from the data at hand respecting the ori- gin of the different constituents of the milk, the caseine, the butter, the sugar and the salts, that he may come to a definite conclusion regarding the physiological action of the mammary gland. And as it appears that all the con- stituents which its secretion contains are found in the BUTTER BOOK. 45 blood, we can scarcely suppose that the gland itself does more than merely strain them out. But of course, in common with all such structures, it possesses what might be aptly termed an elective filtrating power ; thus it per- mits the exudation of some substances from the blood, but refuses a passage to others. Dr. Stuktetaxt, in a recent lecture before the Connect- icut State Board of Agriculture, seems to have taken the same views as those expressed by Draper — at least so far as relates to the formation of the butter globules. He says : — " The minute secreting cells of the udder are really but a stage of development of the butter globule itself The cells grow by budding and the new cell is cast off and becomes a butter globule. What was before a part of the animal is now a globule. In the early stages of lactation and before parturition, the process of casting off milk cells is not so complete as later. " The milk globules are found to be larger in the Jersey cow than in the Ayrshire, and larger in the Ayrshire than in the American Holsteiu. The membrane which covers them and which has to be ruptured in churning, is more easily broken in the Jersey than in the Ayrshire, and thus butter is formed quicker. The contents of the globules vary in character — in some kinds Avaxy, in others not. That of the large globules makes the best butter. As to the variation consequent on time, the functional activity of the udder decreases with time after calving, and finally its action ceases. The globule is larger too, at the time of calving, and butter is then brought more easily by churning. Per contra^ the autumn cheese is richer than the early cheese, the globules being smaller and more of them escaping butter making and getting into the cheese. "These two points of variation by breed and time from calving, are important points for the dairyman to consider and act upon. The influence of food upon the milk glob- ules must be either to increase the size of the globules, or by increasing the energy of the glands produce greater rapidity of production." Other physiologists take the ground that the sugar of milk, caseine and true butyrine have a doubtful existence in, or have not been clearly recognized in the blood, and hence that these constituents are formed in the mammary gland. Lehmanx says, we cannot assume, as Chevreul 8 46 WILLARDS PKACTICAL and other chemists (and even he himself) formerly did, that the constituents of milk exist performed in the blood ; and finally, after reviewing the arguments that are given which favor the view that there occurs a preliminary remodeling of the substances to be conveyed by the blood to the glands for secretion, he is inclined to recog- nize the principle that the main constituents of all true secretions, like those of the liver and mammary glands, are first formed within the glandular organs themselves. MILK BEST FROM YOUNG ANIMALS. Variations in the composition of milk are observed to depend upon age and bodily health. Young cows yield a milk more rich in solids than old cows. This point seems to be well understood by dairymen in England, many of whom make it a rule to turn their cows off* when they have arrived at from seven to eight years of age. On this side of the Atlantic, the difference in the quality of milk on account of age, has received scarcely any at- tention from dairymen, the general view taken being that an old cow's milk is as good, if not better, than the milk of young cows. I have now given the generally accepted views of dis- tinguished physiologists in regard to the structure of the udder and the functions of the glands in the secretion of milk, and we now pass to what, in a commercial aspect, may be considered the chief constituent of milk, namely — THE FATTY MATl'ER OF MILK. While the proportion of caseine is tolerably varying but little, the amount of butter or fatty milk is subject to great variation. From an series of analyses made by Dr. Voelcker, the di ed chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of he gives the following as the greatest A'ariation : cow's milk ; that is to say, in healthy milk, or produced in any way abnormally : constant, matter in extensive stinguish- England, in genuine milk not COMPOSITION OP NEW MILK. 1. 2. 3. 4. Water Butter 83.90 7.f;2 3.31 4.4fi .71 85.20 4.W 3.66 5.05 1.13 87.40 3.43 3.12 89. «5 1.99 2.94 4.48 .64 100.00 100. W 100.00 100.00 Irt.lO 14.80 12.60 10. Ou BUTTER BOOK. 47 The same author gives the following table, as showing the great difference in the composition of the milk ot dif- ferent animals : Cow. Human. Ass. Goat. Ewe. Dog. Dos. Water Butter 87.02 3.13 4.87 4.77 .60 88.94 2.67 3.92 4.33 .14 91.65 .11 1.82 e.08 .34 85.54 4.08 4.52 1 5.86 76.30 1.20 13.37 7.10 1.63 83.10 4.45 6.76 5.73 .96 67.20 13.30 14.60 3.42 1.48 Oaseine MiJk sugar Mineral matter (ash) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 No. 3, in the first table, represents the composition of milk of average good quality. Generally speaking, milk is richer in the fall and poorer in the spring. The quality of cow's milk is not only affected by the age of the animal, but by the dis- tance from the time of calving. Climate also affects the quality of milk in a remarkable degree. In moist and temperate seasons we obtain a larger quantity, though generally a poorer quality of milk than in dry, warm sea- sons. The race and breed and size of animals have also an important influence on the quality of milk. According to Voelckee, good milk of average quality contains from 10^ to 11 per cent, of dry matter and about 2^ per cent, of pure fat. It yields from 9 to 10 per cent, of cream. Milk which contains more than 90 per cent, of water and less than tw^o per cent, of pure fat, is natu- rally very poor or has been adulterated. When milk contains from 12 to 12^ per cent, of solid matters and from 3 to 3j per cent, of pure fatty sub- stances, it is considered rich. And if it contains more than 12^ per cent, of dry matter and 4 per cent, or more of pure fat, it is of extra rich quality. Such milk throws up from 11 to 12 per cent, of cream in bulk on standing for 24 hours at 62 degrees Fahr. COMPOSITION OF CREAM. Cream varies in composition according to the circum- stances under which it is produced, and as a consequence of these differences in the composition of cream variable quantities of butter are produced from a given bulk of cream. The value of milk, then, for butter-making can- not be determined simply from the percentage of cream thrown up. The butter value must be obtained by churn- ing the cream. 48 WILLAED'S PRACTICAL VoELCKER analyzed four different samples of cream, which gave the following results : Water Butter (pure fatty mutter). ♦Caseine jVliik su^ar Mineral matters (ash) * Containing nitrogen. 1. 2. 3. 74.46 64.80 5f5.50 18.18 25.40 31.57 2.69 4.08 j,.6li |,.us 059 2.19 3.49 100.00 100.00 100.00 .43 4. 61.67 3^.43 2.6-3 1.56 0.72 100.00 .42 Dr. Sturtevant gives the following authorities on the analyses of cream : Mixed cream (1) — Country cream (2). Jersey cream (3).... No.l (4) No. No. No. 4 Cream (5), Water. Solids. Butter. Caseine. Sugar. Ash. 59 25 49.00 36.40 1 74.46 40.75 51.00 63.60 25.51 35.00 42.00 56.80 18.18 2.20 4.20 3.80 2.69 3.05 3.80 2.80 4.08 .50 .60 .20 .59 1 64.80 56.50 61.67 6S.28 35.20 43.50 38.33 36.72 25.40 8157 33.43 29.40 7.61 8.44 2.19 3.49 .72 .40 2.63 4.22 1.56 2.08 (1) Prof. Mueler as quoted, Trans. Vt. Dairymen's Ass'n, 1872. p. 150, (2 and 3) Dr. Percy-Trans. Med. Soe. State of N. Y., 1860, p. 47. (4) Dr. Voelcker-Journal R. A. S., XXIV. p. 298. (5) Dr. Hannenburg quoted— Ag. of 0. 1858, p. 282. And he says, " We find from these analyses that some creams may yield three times as much butter as other creams. In other words, that milk yielding 10 per cent, of cream may furnish more butter than another milk in- dicating 30 per cent, of cream," and he concludes further, " that there is not necessarily any connection between the cream percentages and the butter yield." The modest cow with a small percentage, may make more butter than the vaunted cow which is supposed to average 25 to 30 per cent, of cream." European authorities all say that cream is slightly denser than pure water, and that consequently it sinks in distilled water. Voelcker found the specific gravity of cream at a temperature of 62 degrees Fahr. to range from 1,0194 to 1,0129, the milk having been skimmed after standing fifteen to forty-eight hours, respectively. Dr. Sturtevant, in a recent paper before the American Dairymen's Association, says, in his own experiment using cream from the top of a cream jar, he had obtained a specific gravity of 983 by weight, and, on the other hand, he has found cream that would sink in water. He gives also different authorities, in regard to the specific gravity BUTTER BOOK. 4g of cream, thus Letherby finds it to be 1024,4 ; Dr. Han- NEBERG of Stockholm, 1004,9, and 1005,05. These differ- ences may, perhaps, be explained, in part, at least, from the fact that the first portions of milk which rise, are al- ways thin but rich in fat. During milking and the sub- sequent agitation to which milk is exposed, a portion of the milk globules get broken, in consequence of which their tatty contents, liberated from the denser caseine- shells, rise to the surface with greater facility, and then occupy less room than the unbroken milk globules, which on account of their greater sf)ecific gravity, are more slug- gish in rising. Hence it must be observed that care must be taken that the cream be properly mingled together, before attempting to get the specific gravity. And when this is done, we shall, I think, generally find that cream is slightly denser than pure water, and this agrees with my own observations. CREAM OF FIRST DRAW^N MILK OF POORER QUALITY THAJf LAST DRAAVX. Of the. milk drawn from any cow at one time, that l^art which comes off first is always thinner, and of a much worse quality for making butter, than that obtained during the latter half of the milking. From an analysis of sj^ecimens of milk, from eight dif- ferent cows, as given in the London Lancet, the percent- age of cream in the first drawn and second drawn milk, was as follows : ^— FIRST-D R A W Jf MILk , , — SECOXD-PI Specific Specific Cows. gravity. Cream. gravity. 1 1027 9 1023 2 1036 13 ia33 3 1027 8 1025 4.... 1029 7 1024 5 10.30 U 1024 6 1030 8 1022 7 1029 3)^ 1026 8 1031 2 61M 1030 Cream. 25 22 10 15 32 25 5 Thus, while the cream of the whole eight samples of the first drawn milk, amounted to 61^, that of the last drawn amounted to 141-|^, or more than double the quantity of cream. The specific gravity of the last drawn milk, it will be observed, is also lower than of that first drawn. o 50 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL When milk is set aside for cream, the portion of cream which lirst rises to the surface is richer in quality, and equal in quantity to that which rises in a second equal space of time, and the cream which rises in a second in- terval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality, that which rises in a third equal space of time. That of the third is greater than that of the fourth, and so of the rest ; the cream that rises continuing progressively to de- crease in quantity and quality so long as any rises to the surface. The cream then rises in layers, each of which must make a different quality of butter. Thick milk throws up a much smaller proportion of the cream which it actually contains, than milk that is thinner, but the cream is of richer quality. Hence, if water be added to the thick milk it is found in practice to afford a consider- ably greater quantity of cream, and consequently more butter than it would have done if allowed to remain pure, but its quality at the same time is deteriorated. Some of the fat globules of milk are so minute, that they do not rise to the surface in cream, the amount of fat remaining being greater or less, according to the character of the milk. VoELCKER analyzed two samples of skimmed milk, and found the butter left in it to be about f of 1 per cent. The following is the Composition : COMPOSITION OF SKIMMED MILK, No. 1. No. 2. Water 89.65 .79 3.01 5.72 .83 89 40 Butter, (pure fat) 76 *C!i seine 2 94 Milk Sugar 6 05 Mineral Matter (ash) 85 ♦Containing Nitrogen 100.00 .48 100.00 .47 The following table presents a view of the composition of milk, cream, butter and American cheese. "Milk. Cream. Butter. Am, Cheese. Fat 4.00 3.25 4.50 .75 87.50 100 00 . 35.0:) 2.20 3.05 .50 59.25 100.00 85.00 .51 :52 13.67 100.00 34.41 Caseine 25.87 Sugar ■ . Ash v.... Water 5.01 5.90 .30.81 102.00 MORE BUTTER OBTAINED BY MIXING MILK OF DIFFERENT COWS. The question has been started recently in regard to the BUTTER BOOK. 51 variation in the size of the fat globules in the milk of cows of different breeds, and it has been asserted that by mingling a large globuled milk with a small globuled milk a loss would result in butter making. The Practi- cal Farmer, (Philadelphia), makes record of an experi- ment touching the question. It says the experimental farm, (Penn.) made an experiment to test the gain or loss from keeping the milk of each cow separate, or mixino", as is usually done. The experiment began January 13, and continued one Aveek. The milk of each cow Avas ac- curately w^eighcd, and one-half of it put in a common milk pan and skimmed in thirty-six hours. The other half thoroughly mixed with half the milk from the other cows, and all treated alike as near as possible. The tem- perature of the milk room was kept at 58 degrees as near as possible. ISTo souring used in the milk. The cows were fed each morning with 10 pounds of corn fodder, 8 pounds of sugar beets, and 4^ quarts of corn meal and wheat bran, equal parts. At noon, with one-third sheaf of corn fodder ; in the evening, with the same quantity of meal to each, 3 pounds of cut hay and V pounds of uncut hay, all fed dry. The temperature of the atmosphere was noted night and morning. Result of experiment as follows : ^s :^ ^ -2 . 6*^ fc s . OM a . ^^8 goo h So -3 1 2 O n i^ lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Julia jrave in seven days '227 1 8 12 4 1 Beauty " " ... 203 2 6 3 2 10 Flora ** •' : 164 14 8 9 3 8 Bloss " •; 153 15 7 3 3 8 Mixed Milk 374 31 1 16 6 lbs. oz. 27 9 33 7 23 5 21 22 Whole yield of butter from the four cows, when the ra separate Ilk was kept lbs. 13 Ifi 2 erll, 16 15, berlS. oz. If Whole yieldfrom mixed milk a Loss by keeping separate 11 The cows came in fresh Julia ; as follows : Beauty ' ' Flora i. ,t Bloss ...Novem •' The cream from the separated lots took more churning to break and gather. The superintendent added the following comments: 52 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL Although the experiment did not have much practical bearing — for no dairyman would want to keep his milk separated in this way — yet it is a satisfaction to feel the most convenient way in this case is also the best. I am sorry we cannot give any satisfactory explanation for the above results. We guess, however, that there are two reasons why the mixture of poor and rich milk contains more caseine, is heavier, and offers more resistance to the passage of the butter globules to the surface. The globules in the poor milk are also smaller, and from this cause are thrown up with more difficulty. The addition of richer milk helps in both these respects. Again, after the " breaking " of the butter, as it is called, the smaller globules in the poor milk "gather" with difficulty; but in the "mixed" milk, the larger globules aid in forming proper milk for the " gathering " process. At any rate the evident difficulty in gathering the butter from poor milk, indicates this as a plausible solution. If these conclusions are correct, there would be an ad- vantage in adding the milk of the Jersey cow to that from the common cow or other breeds, because the milk globules of the Jersey are considerably larger than those in the milk of other breeds. UNIFORMITY IN THE COMPOSITION OF MILK. Prof. S. W. Johnson of Yale College, in referring to the researches of Prof. Alexander Muller and others, in Sweden, says : Analyses were made of the mixed milk of fifteen cows (five Ayrshire, five Pembrokeshire, and five Swedish coAvs), which were highly fed and milked at 6-J — 7^ A. M., and 4| — 6| o'clock, P. M. These extending throughout a whole year, gave the following average result : — One hundred parts of milk gave Dry matter - 12 .81 Water 87.19 'lOO.OO The above dry matter consisted of Fat (butter) 405 Albuminoids (caseine, etc.) 3.^ Sugar of milk 4-^1 Various Salts 0-^3 12.81 BUTTER BOOK. 53 The fluctuations during the entire period were remark- ably small. The lowest percentage of water observed was 85.92, and the highest 88.35. In but four instances did the water fall below 86.6, and in but four did it rise above 88. The composition of the milk of uniformly well-fed cows is therefore very uniform, and scarcely va- ries throughout the year whatever may be the change in temperature, weather, &g. Morninor and eveninor milk exhibit a constant, thouo^h slight difference in composition, which consists simply in containing half of one per cent, more fat at night than in the morning. In the morning milk this fat is replaced by almost precisely the same quantity of water. THE LESS SPACE OF TIME IXTERYENING BETWEEN MILK- ING THE MORE FAT. Further investigation showed that the proportion of fat is less in proportion as the time is longer between the milkings. Thus, milk taken after an interval of 10 hours, contained 4.36 percent, of fat. 11 " " ; 4.31 " 12 " •' 3.97 " 13 ' " 3.97 14 " " 3.51 " Taking into account the greater quantity of milk ob- tained in the morning, the actual amount of fat yielded by the cow is rather more at morning than at night. PERCENTAGR OF CREAM AND BUTTER IN MILK. In making butter, 100 parts of milk yield, on the aver- age, in round numbers, the following proportions of cream, butter, etc., provided the cream rises in a cool apartment, so that no sensible evaporation of water takes place : Cream 10 Skimmed milk 90 100 milk. The ten parts of cream consist of Buttermilk 6.0 Butter 3.9? Calculated Water removed from butter by salting 0.1) witiiout salt. 10.0 cream. 54 WILLAKD'S PRAOTIOAL The average percentage composition of these products is given in the subjoined table : New milk. Skimmed milk. Cream. Butter- milk. Buttert Brine* Fat (butter) 4.00 3.25 4.50 0.75 87.50 0.55 3.37 463 0.78 90.64 35.00 2.20 3.05 0.50 59.25 1.67 3.^3 4.61 0.77 89.62 85.00 0.51 0.70 0.12 13.67 0.00 Alburninolds* ... 39 Milk sugar Various salts "W ater 3.84 0.86 94.91 Total 100.00 100.00 100.0 100.00 700.00 100.00 * Caseine and albumen. + Unsalted. * Brine that separates on working after salting, salt not included. Butter is produced by the coalescence of the small par- ticles of oil which are suspended in milk, and partially separated in the cream. Chemically considered, it is a mixture of oleine and . palmitin, with a trace of phos- phate and other salts, and certain odoriferous fats or oils, from which it derives its flavor, THEORY OF SOURING. He remarks further, that stirring of the cream — as for instance, in the cream pot — does not promote souring but rather hinders it, by increasing access of air. The cir- cumstances that influence the rapidity of souring are chiefly temperature and access of air. When milk sours it is because of the formation of lactic acid from the milk sugar. This chemical change is the result of the growth of a microscopic vegetable organism which, according to Hallier's last investigations, is of the same origin as common yeast. Like common yeast, this plant requires oxygen for its development. This it gathers from the air, if the latter have access ; but in comparative absence of air — as when growing in milk — it decomposes, the lat- ter (its sugar) and the lactic acid is a chief result of this metamorphosis. If milk which, by exposure to the air, has had the microscopic germs of the ferment plant sown in it be then excluded from the air as much as possible, the fer- ment in its growth is necessitated to decompose the milk sugar, and hence the milk rapidly sours. On the other hand, exposure to the air supplies the ferment partially with free oxygen and the milk remains sweet for a longer period. Such is the theory of the change. And this is in accordance with the experience of dairymen, and ex- plains why milk is often found loppered at the bottom of BUTTER BOOK. 55 a. pan, while at the top there is no appearance of coagu- lation. BUTTER. We may now pass on to the consideration of butter and note some of the characteristic differences which this substance has in its relation with other animal fats. If we consider how extensively butter is consumed ; how highly it is relished by all classes in the civilized world ; how nearly it meets the taste of mankind, even from childhood onward to old age — we might naturally infer that there is something in the constitution of butter which particularly adapts it as an important element of our food ; that it is, so to speak, more highly organized, more delicately flavored, and thus in better form to meet the requirements of digestion and assimilation than any other fat which has been separated from the relative con- dition it originally occupied in the animal economy. By churning, as is well known, tlie caseine shells are broken and the contents of the milk globules are made into butter. Butter, according to Voelcker, consist mainly of a mixture of several fats, amongst wliich pal- mit in, asolid,crystillizable substance is the most important. Palmitin, with a little stearine, constitutes about 68 per cent, of pure butter. Mixed with these solid fats are about 30 per cent, of oleine (a liquid, fatty matter) and about two per cent, of odoriferous oils. The peculiar flavor and odor of butter are owing to the presence of this small proportion of these peculiar oils, namely — buty- rine, caproine and capryline. In butter as it comes to the table we find, besides these fatty matters, about 16 to 18 per cent, of water, one to two per cent, of salt and small, variable quantities of caseine shells. The more perfectly butter is washed and freed of its buttermilk, the better the butter keeps ; for caseine, on exposure to air in a moist state (especially in warm weather) becomes rapidly changed into a ferment, which, acting on the volatile, fatty matters of butter, re- solves them into glycerine and butyric acid, caproic acid and caprylic acid. The occurrence of these volatile, un Combined, fatty acids in rancid butter, not only spoils the flavor, but ren- ders it more or less unwholesome. gg Wn.T.ABD'S PRACnCAIi COMPOSITION OF BUTTEB. Cows' butter, according to Beomeis, has the following composition BatTroleate of glycerine [OleiBe] ^■.. 30 ButVrdte [Butyrine], Caproate. [Caproine]and Caprate of glyce- rine. [Caprine]. 2 Batter 100 The same authority gives the following as the formula for the fatty acids of butter : COMPOSmOX OF THE FATTT ACTDS OF BLITKK. Margaric acid C34, H3o. 03. Butyrolic acid ^ H30, 04. Butvric acid CS, H6, OS, CapKvicacid ^'S^' C;3. Capric acid Cls, HU, OS. The marrow of large bones, says Beezelius, is abso- lutely of the same nature as the other fat of the same animal. The drifereuce of flavor which exists between the marrow of boiled bones and ordinary melted fit de- pends on foreign matters deiived from the liquids in the cellular tissue by which the fat is surrounded, and espe- cially by the extractiform substance, which is insoluble in alcohol. COMPOSITION OP LIQUID FAT IN MAEROTT. The proportion of liquid fats contained in marrow, ac- cording to Beacoxxot, is as follows : Soi.rD Yat. LiQum Fat. (Scearine.) (oleine.) Beef-marrow 76 24 Muiion-marrow 28 74 Mutton fat, as is well known, is softer than fat from beef, and the larger proportion cf oleine in its composi- tion readily explains the reason. By subjecting animal fats to pressure, Beacoxxot procured the following proportions of stearine and ole- ine from the fats named below : In lOO parts, SoT.u> Fat. Ltqutd Fat. (Sceiirine.) (Oleixe) Hog5' lard 38 © Goosefat 32 TO Dnckfat 28 72 Turkeyfat 36 74 Hogs' lard contains, besides stearine and oleine, some margarine. Mutton suet consists of stearine, margarine, oleine, hircine and hireic acids. Like butter, the pecu- liar flavor of their fats is due to the volatile oils. Butter BCrrTEH BOOK. - 5"^ varies in its proportion of margarine and oleine according to the nature of the food and the period of the year. It will be noticed that stearine is a leading constituent in the animal fats which have been named. Tliis ingi-e- dient is in verv small proportion in butter, the palmitine, or, according to some authors, margarine, taking its place. Thus, in beet's marrow we have 76 per cent, of stearine, and in butter Q^ per cent, of palmitine, with a little stear- ine. The oleine in butter is 30 per cent.; in beef fat. 24 per cent. The same remarkable difference will be noticed in the other fats when compared with butter. In the so-called " oleomargarine," or beef suet butter, the stearine is expelled under great pressure, while, in order to get flavor from the volatile oils, the "oleomar- garine " is mingled with milk or buttermilk and churned in the ordinary way. I have referred to the proportion of water and other substances not fat found in ordinary butter and which are not expelled in the process of washing and working out the buttermilk. These ingredients, the water, the cheese or caseine, and the sugar of milk, altogether amount to from 10 to 16 per cent, in ordinary butter. It is very difficult to get rid of all the cheesy matter, as it is now in an insoluble state ; but it may be removed to a very great extent by washing the butter in repeated potions of water or in saturated brine, thus decanting off the parti- cles of caseine. In the best kinds of butter the cheesy matter rarely amounts to more than one per cent. In the inferior varieties it not unfrequently averages from six to seven per cent. EXPLAXATION" OF EAXCIDITY IX BUTTER. Xow, as a general rule, we know that the more caseine that is left in^butter the more apt it is to become rancid. " To render this intelligible," says a writer in Morton's Cyclopedia, " attention must be given to the normal in- gredients of pure butter. Margarine and oleine consists of margaric and oleic acids united to an organic base called oxide of lipyle. Margaric acid consists of 34 equivalents of carbon; 33 equivalents of hydrogen, and 3^ equivalents of oxygen, while oleic acid is constituted of 36 equivalents of* carbon : 33 equivalents of hydrogen, and 3 equivalents of oxygen." 58 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL It is known that the latter acid absorbs oxygen from the air with great avidity, producing peculiar compounds, among which, however, margaricacid has not been recog- nized ; still the abstraction of two equivalents of carbon, in the form of carbonic acid, w^ould be sufficient for its conversion, and this formation is so simple and common an occurrence in the organism of animals that oleic acid may be transferred into margaric acid during the forma- tion of milk, thus producing more of the solid fat at one time than at another, and causing the variations in the firmness of the latter made from it. It is, however, quite gratuitous to suppose, Avith some authors, that this trans- formation takes place during the process of churning. When oleic acid absorbs oxygen from the air it acquires a very rancid smell, which is one of the causes of rancidity in butter. But the main cause is the production of butyric, capric, caproic and caprylic acids. These acids are prob- ably not present in any quantity in perfectly fresh butter, but they are quickly formed by the cheese left in it acting on the sugar of milk. Butyric acid has an odor of human excrement ; caproic acid of sweat; capric acid has a rank smell, resembling a goat, while caprylic ac-id is the only one which is not ob- noxious to the senses. These acids are volatile and soluble in water, and as rancidity Of butter depends in a great degree upon their being present in appreciable quantity, a knowledge of this fact may be employed in depriving butter of its rancidity. HOW RANCID BUTTER MAY BE PURIFIED. For this purpose it should be melted in twice its weight of boiling water and well shaken with it. By this means the acids are dissolved and partly volatilized, the rancidity being thus removed. At all times butter may be purified by repeated melting, with fresh portions of water, the pure oil rising to the surface, leaving the impurities in the water. The butter loses its consistence by this operation, but that may be restored to it, at least to a great extent, by pouring it, when melted, into a large quantity of ice- cold water. A process for purifying rancid butter was invented a few years ago, which consisted in cutting the butter into email lumj^s and spreading them out in a large vat. Then BUTTER BOOK. 59 hot water is thrown dowu in a, shower from a considerable distance upon the mass. The melted butter rises to the surface and the impurities are drawn off with the water. Then the butter is subjected to a shower of cold water, and in this way, by repeated washings, according to the rancidity of the butter, it is freed from the objectionable taste and odor, and finally it is again worked and salted. As the formation of the badly-smelling volatile acids depends upon the presence of caseine, tliis mode of purifi- cation removes the injurious ingredient. It must be remarked, however, that the butter becomes less pleasant to the taste, the water having taken up the small quantity of foreign substances which give to fresh butter its fra- grance and agreeable taste. Some of the compounds of caprylic acid have a fragrant odor like that of the pine- apple, but the smell of capryline itself is little known. PBOF. Caldwell's views ox the coiiPOsiTioN of butter. Prof Caldwell, in an address at Utica, N. Y., says : Cow butter, in the pure state, is a yellowish, slightly acid fat, which melts at about 70 degrees Fahr. It is com- posed, for the main part, of the three glycerides — oleine, palmatine and stearine — but further than that its compo- sition is more complicated than that of any other animal fat ; and in fact the exact composition of the small residue that remains after taking out the three glycerides named seems to be hardly settled. According to most authori- ties it is a mixture of butyrine, caproine and caprine, and further, Chevreul, who is one of the best authorities on the subject of the composition of fats, maintains that there is in the butter a peculiar combination between a part of the butyrine and the stearine, forming what he calls butyroleine. supposed composition of margarine. On the other hand Haitz, who has worked up the com- position of the fats almost as extensively as Chevreul, and who was the first to maintain that the so-called mar- garine is only a mixture of stearine and palmitine, has found in butter still two other substances — butyrine and myrstrine. VACCINIC ACID. Another chemist has found in certain instances, m the gQ WILLABD'S PRACTIOAI. place of butyric and caproic acids, the acids of butyrine and caproine, another acid which he called vaccinic acid. CAUSE OF KANCIDITT. The rancidity of butter is due, as in the case of the rancidity of other fats, to the decomposition of the gly- cerides, setting the acid of the glyceride free; in butter it is the butyrine and perhaps the odoriferons glycerides which suffer this change most readily. THE GLYCEEIDES. Again he says : — " From what I have given as the re- sults of the examination of butter by various chemists, it would appear that it is distinguished from all the other animal fats by the great number of glycerides of which it is composed. The complete separation of these glycer- ides from one another is about impossible, so that we can form at the most only an approximate estimate of their relative proportions in the various fats. VoELCKER estimates that palmatine, together with a little stearine, makes up 68 per cent, of the fats of butter, 30 per cent, is oleine and two per cent, is composed of the odoriferous fats, butyrine and its companions. MOKE OLEINE IN SUMMER BUTTER. As every one knows, the proportion of liquid and solid fat varies, according to the season. Boussingault found that summer butter contained about 60 per cent, of oleine, while winter butter contained only about 35 per cent. The oils and fats are composed essentially and mainly of the three glycerides — oleine, palmatine and stearine; or of four — if there is such a glyceride as margarine — and when all these are taken out there is a small residue remaining, concerning the composition of which we are yet to some extent uncertain and to which the character- istic flavor and odor of each fat is due. The oils and fats contain when first extracted, several impurities, such as albuminous matters, coloring matters, mucus, &c. ARTIFICIAL BUTTER. ^ I have now j^resented the more recent views of scien- tists in regard to the fat found in milk, as compared with other animal fats, and a brief allusion may be made to the question of converting these latter into a form which may resemble butter so as to be substituted for it. BUTTER BOOK. g-. We have our oleomargarine factories, in which oleo- margarine, or artificial butter, is manufactured in larjre quantities : but as the product is devoid of that peculiar aroma and delicate flavor which belongs to genuine but- ter, I doubt whether it ever can be made a complete and successful substitute. In other words, genuine dairy but- ter of fine quality must always be in demand and find a ready sale. Prof. Caldavell says : " To any one who understands the true nature of the fats, the prejudice against oleomargarine butter, or a cheese containing fat from the caul of an ox, instead of the bag of the cow, because it is supposed not to be so clean and wholesome, appears somewhat nonsensical." Oleo-margarine however, should go into the market under its own name, and if it is to obtain favor, it should be on its own merits and not under the name of genuine butter. FARM DAIRIES. The great bulk of poor butter comes from the farm dairies. The causes are various ; the most important of which are lack of cleanliness, the want of proper dairy utensils, the need of a good dairy room, or place for setting the milk, neglect in manipulating the cream at the right time, unskilful working, packing and storing the butter, and finally lack of knowledge in a part or the whole of the process required for making a prime article. Farm dairies have this advantage over the cream- eries, there is no hauling of the milk required and its condition can be watched and kept under the immediate control of the manufacturer from the time it is drawn from the cow until the butter is obtained. With this advantage we might naturally expect, with all needful appliances, and skill in mauuficturing, the best butter could be made at the farm dairies. And such indeed, is 62 WILLAED'S PRAOTICAI, FIG. often the fact, and when poor butter is the rule we must look for the cause in some defect connected with the dairy and its management. We have alluded to a number of the leading requisites for the production of good milk, the importance of clean- liness in the stable and in the drawing of the milk from the udder, and a word may now be added in regard to dairying utensils. PAILS. Wooden pails are largely in use, and they are a nuisance in a well regulated dairy on account of the dif- ficulty of keeping them sweet and clean. Milk pails should always be of tin, and in cleansing dairy utensils after thorough washing, boiling hot loater should be used or what is better, if it can be had, a jet of hot steam thrown into all the parts which have come in contact with milk, for in this way the germs of ferment are destroyed. Fig. 6 illustrates a pail of the Iron Clad Company of "N'ew York City. These pails are made of iron and tinned after they are put together. Very heavy mate- rial is used in them and they are substantial and strong. THE CREAM STEAINER. The cream strainer is often found useful in farm dairies. When milk is set in shallow pans in the old way, portions of the cream get thick and are mingled with hard dry particles, or " cream skins " and the butter in consequence is liable to contain " white caps" or be flecked. The cream strainer in such cases is of advantage, as it reduces the cream to a uniform consistency in all its parts, breaking down the skins and preparing the cream, so that in .churning the butter will come evenly. In Fig. 7 is an illustration of Baker's Excelsior Cream Strainer, the best we have seen for the purpose. Fig. 7. BUTTER BOOK. 63 CHURXS. There is no implement of the dairy which has occupied tlie attention of inventors so much as the churn. The number of patents issued on this article may be well ex- ])ressed under the name of legion, and yet it is the almost universal expression among the but- ter makers that nothing has been in- v-ented that will make any better but- ter thanthe old-fasliioned dash churn. The objection to the dash churn is that it requires a considerable amount of power to keep it in motion, and various plans have been devised to lessen the labor of its operation when Avorked by hand. In Fig. 8 is an illustration of a churn used for small quantities of cream, a gearhig being attached by which th(i labor of working by hand is lessened. In using the dash churn the dasher should fill about three-fourths of the section of the churn, as the cream ^ will be subjected to a yielding pres- sure at each stroke, the butter glob- ules being thus divested of the mem- brane that surrounds them,by pressure rather than by wear- ing or friction. Among the churns that have acquired noto- riety for their excellence and which may be recommended in farm dairies not only on account of their making good butter, but for the ease Avith Avhich they may be worked and kept clean, the most prominent perhaps is the Blan- CHARD Churn-, manufiictured by P. Blaxchard's Sons, Concord, N. H. It has been long before the public and is universally esteemed. It is arranged so as to work the butter free from buttermilk without change of dasher. The manufacturers furnish a pully for power, which can be applied to any sized churn, in the same place and manner as the crank. Whipple's Rectangular Churn, manufactured by Cornish & Curtis, Fort Atkinson, Wis., of which we give an illustration in Fig. 9, is of recent invention and Fig. 8. 64 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL well adapted to farm dairies. It is simply a cubical box, and haugs suspended on gudgeons from the two diagonal corners of the cube. As the box is revolved the cream constantly falls from corner to corner, thus giving a more diversified agitation than when in the box churn as ordi- narily arranged. It is more easily operated than the ordinary re- volving box churn, and the butter forms in coarse grains, its opera- tions in this respect being superior for a first-class product. CHUEN POWERS. In small dairies a dog or sheep power is often found very ser- viceable for doing the churning. There are a number of dififerent de- vices for the purpose, but one of the best is a machine constructed on the railway principle. It is very much liked by many, and is a cheap and efficient power. Where large quantities of cream are required to be churned, horsepower will be employed and the most economical perhaps is the sweep, through the railway principle is often used. BUTTER WORKERS. Quite a number of butter workers have been intro- duced from time to time, some of them useful and others liable to injure the grain of the butter from their pecu- liar construction. The Eureka Butter "Worker in- vented a few years since by J. P. Corbij^- of Whitney's Point, N. Y., will be found, on many accounts, conven- ient for farm dairies. The illustration, Fig. 10, shows its construction. Rubber mops for cleansing floors of dairy rooms, to- gether with soap, brushes, and " sal-soda," for keeping dairy utensils sweet und clean will be found exceedingly BUTTER BOOK. 65 useful and I might say almost indispensable for good dairy management. FIG, 10. PAEM DAIRY MILK-HOUSE. Immense quantities of poor butter result from the milk being set in improper places. The kitchen pantry, the living room and the cellar used to store vegetables and other family supplies, will impart peculiar taints to the milk and cream, in such a degree as to be destructive to flavor, even though the butter, in other respects be skil- fully handled. Dairy rooms so situated as to catch the odor from the pig-sty, the cess-pool, or other decomposing filth, cannot be used for making good butter. There should be a freedom from filth and impurities of every description about the milk-house, and the milk should be delivered by the milkers in an ante-room or some point outside the milk room, and from thence conveyed to the place where it is to be set for cream, and in this way the fumes and the litter from the stable may be kept frorn the milk room. When milkers are allowed to come di- rectly from the stable to the milk room it will be impos- sible to keep the latter place sweet and clean for the times being. There are hundreds of butter makers, we are aware, to whom the importance of this single point cannot be too strongly urged, since they often con- 66 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL sider many little things of this kind, in regard to dairy management too insignificant to merit attention. But in butter making the observance of little things is often the great secret of success. ^RATION^. Milk is undoubtedly improved by aeration, the animal odors in this way passing off as the warm milk is exposed to the air. But it should be observed that when deration is applied, the surrounding atmosphere should be sweet, and free from offensive odors. Milk aerated in an atmos- phere loaded with the emanations of putrid matter — vegetable or animal — would be likely to absorb odors, and hence caution should be taken that the aeration be not made in the stable or other places where the air is tainted with disagreeable odors. There had been a num- ber of devices for aerating milk, but perhaps the simplest and most easily applied, is Bussey's "Deodorising Strainer and Cooler." It is simply a strainer pail, raised about two feet above the can and arranged so that the milk falls in a spray into the can. FORCING AIR INTO THE MILK. eToNES & Faulkner of Utica, N. Y., have brought out a handy device for aerating milk by forcing air into it. We give an illustra- tion showing the manner in which this is effected in Fig. 11. Either of the sera- tors here described, will be found ex- ceedingly useful at farm dairies and they are of very great ad- vantage in preparing milk at the farm in order that it may be delivered sound and FIG. 11. in good condition at the factory. BtrrTER BOOK. Qfj CONTROLLING TEMPERATURE IN DAIRY ROOMS. But, however well we may have guarded all the con- ditions for getting milk in good order to the dairy room, there must be some means of controlling its temperature or the highest success cannot be obtained in butter making. Among American butter makers the best temperature for holding the milk while the cream is rising is found to be from 56 degrees to 60 degrees, Fahr. The range of temperature should go no higher than 65 degrees. In a climate so variable as ours, it is evident some attention must be given to the construction of the milk room or the manner of setting the milk, in order to maintain a uniform temperature, as above named; otherwise, we shall be liable to have a constant change going on in the milk, the temperature rising or falling, often many degrees from day to day. The old method of setting milk in pans and in an ordinary room, has always been found objectionable during hot weather and to be the source of serious trouble and loss, simply on account of the difficulty of maintaining a suitable temperature. The employment of the house-cellar was perhaps the earliest improvement on the old plan of setting milk. THE SPRING HOUSE. The first introduction of the water system for control- ing the temperature of milk, dates a long away back in the spring house. These I have found existing in the older States, many of them built by the early settlers of the country, Av^ho often located their dwellings near a good, flowing spring, and not unfrequently erecting a sub- stantial and elaborate stone or brick structure over the spring. In some of the older settled parts of Virginia the spring house is a distinguished feature. It is a well- built structure, (usually of stone,) immediately over or in close proximity to, a large spring of living water. The spring houses are for the most part well arranged, and some of them quite elaborate. The earth is excavated at the bottom and a wall built up on the inside, so as to form a vat between it and the outer wall or side of the building. Not unfrequently these vats are on two sides of the structure, or there may be a partition wall, so as to form two or three vats for the reception of water, and the arrangement is such that by closing the outlet in part, 68 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL the water may be raised in the vats a foot or more, as desired. The floor of the spring house is usually of stone flagging, either cemented or laid in mortar so as to be dry and easily kept clean. Sometimes the entrance is on a level with the ground, and sometimes there is a flight of steps, according to the nature of the location. The spring house is generally surrounded with trees which protect the structure from the sun's rays, thus serv- ing to maintain a tolerably uniform and much lower tem- perature in the milk room during hot weather than that of the surrounding atmosphere. The milk is set in pans holding from eight to twelve quarts, the pans usually being" deeper and not so broad as the old-fashioned pans, and they are provided with a bail so as to be more conven- iently handled in lowering the milk to the water pool or raising it therefrom. With a good, cool spring, and a properly constructed spring house, fine butter can be pro- duced. PENNSYLVANIA SPRING HOUSE AND PHILADELPHIA BUTTER. The celebrated Philadelphia butter comes mainly from Chester, Lancaster and Delaware Counties, Pennsylvania. The milk is set on the same principle as that above des- scribed, but the dairy structures are neater and more carefully built. The spring-house is about 18 feet by 24 feet, built of stone, with its foundation set deeply in the hill-side, the floor being about four feet below the level of the ground at the down hill-side. The floor is of oak, laid on sand or gravel ; this is flowed with spring water to the depth of three inches, and at this hight the flowing water passes out into a tank at the lower side of the spring-house. The milk, when drawn from the cow, is strained into deep pans which are set in the water upon the oaken floor. Raised platforms or walks are provided in the room for con- venience in handling the milk. The walls of the spring- house are about ten feet high, and at the top on each side are windows covered with Avire-cloth for ventilation. The depth of the milk in the pans is about three inches, and the flowing water which surrounds the pans maintains a temperature of about 58 degrees Fahrenheit. The milk is skimmed after standing 24 hours, and the BUTTER BOOK. gg cream is pat into deep vessels having a capacity of about 12 gallons. It is kept at a temperature of 58 degrees to 59 degrees, until it acquires a slightly acid taste, when it goes to the churn. The churn is a barrel revolving on a journal in each head, and driven by horse-power. The churning occupies about an hour, and after the butter- milk is drawn off cold water is added and a few turns given the churn, and the water then drawm off. This is repeated until the water as it is drawn off is nearly free from milkiness. The butter is worked with butter-work- ers, a dampened cloth meanwhile being pressed upon it to absorb the moisture and free it of buttermilk. The cloth is frequently dipped in cold water and wrung dry during the process of " wiping the butter." It is next salted at the rate of an ounce of salt to three pounds of butter, thoroughly and evenly incorporated by means of the butter- worker. It is then removed to a table, w^here it is weighed out and put into pound prints. After this it goes into large, tin trays and is set in the w^ater to harden, remaining until next morning, when it is wrapped in damp cloths and placed upon shelves, one above another, in the tin-lined cedar tubs, with ice in the com- partments at the ends, and then goes immediately to market. Matting is draAvn over the tub, and it is sur- rounded again by oilcloth so as to keep out the hot air and dust, and the butter arrives in prime condition, com- manding from seventy-five cents to one dollar per pound. Mr. Isaac A. Calvert, who markets his butter at these high prices at> Philadelphia, attributes his success to three points : — 1. The food of his cows ; 2. Temperature ; 3. Neatness and dainty refinement at every step, from the moment the milk flows from the udder till the dollar in currency is paid for the pound of butter. He says : — " I have found that I make my best butter when I feed on white clover and early-mown meadow hay. I cut fine, moisten, and mix in both corn meal and wheaten shorts. Next to meal I regard shorts, and preffer to mix them together. I feed often, and not much at a time. I do not use roots, unless it be carrots. My pastures and meadows are quite free from weeds. I cannot make this grade of butter from foul pastures or low-grade hay. " Temperature. — -This I regard as a matter of prime importance in making butter that commands a high price. 4 (JQ WILLARD'S PRACTICAL Summer and winter I do not permit my milk-room to vary much from 58 degrees. In summer I secure the requisite coolness by spring-water of the temperature of 55 degrees Fahrenheit, flowing over stone or gravel floor in the milk- house. This can be accomplished without water in a shaded cellar ten feet deep. As good butter can be made without water as with, but the milk and cream must be kept at all times a little below 60 degrees. " We skim very clean, stir the cream-pot whenever a skimming is jjoured in, and churn but once a week, sum- mer and winter. Just before the butter gathers we throw into the churn a bucket of ice-cold water. This hardens the butter in small particles and makes a finer grain. In the hot months this practice is unvarying. " In working we get out all the buttermilk, but do not apply the hand. A better way is to absorb the drops with a linen cloth wrung from cold water. The first working takes out all the milk ; at the second we handle delicately, with fingers as cool as may be. The salt is less than an ounce to a pound, but not generally much .less. The balls each weigh one pound, and receive a uni- form stamp. On packing for market, each ball is wrapped in a linen cloth, with the name and stall of the marketman written upon it. Our tubs are made of cedar-plank l|-to 2 inches thick and lined Avith tin. On the inner face are little projections, on which the shelves rest. The balls are not bruised or i^ressed at all, and pass into the hands of the consumer as firm, as perfect in outline, and as spotless as when they left the spring-house. " We find uniformity to be a prime virtue in the but- ter-maker. We produce the same article whether the cows stand knee-deep in white clover-blooms or sun them- selves on the lee side of the barn in February. "There is a small ice-chamber at the end of the oblong butter tub (see Fig. 13) which we use in summer, so that in dog-days the heat within the tub does not get higher than 60 degrees Fahrenheit. I need not add that we ob- serve a scrupulous, a religious neatness in every act and in every utensil of the dairy. Milk which upon leaving the udder passes through an atmosphere loaded with stable fumes will never make 'butter for which we can get a dollar per pound. No milk sours upon the floor of the milk-room ; none is permitted to decompose in the BUTTER BOOK. h-^ crevices of the milk-pans ; the churn is scoured and scalded till no smell can be detected but the smell of white cedar. " Our customers take the napkins with the prints, wash, iron, and return them when they come to the stand on market days. These are generally Wednesdays and Sat- urdays. With these prices we have no difficulty in making a cow pay for herself twice a year ; if she cost $60, we sell $120 worth of butter from her in twelve months." It may be remarked that the sour milk is employed by the Philanelphia butter-makers as a feed for swine. It is estimated that such milk will make 100 lbs. of 2)ork per cow. The cows in the district where the Philadelphia butter is made are well sprinkled with the Jersey or Alderney blood, and about a pound per day from each cow is con- sidered a fair average for the best dairies. PHILADELPHIA BUTTER PAIL. The following cuts will illustrate the butter pail and manner of packing for market : Fig. 13. Fig. 13. Fig. 12 shows the general form of the tub, the top or cover opening in halves. Fig. 13 is a perpendicular sec- tion, showing the ice-chamber and ice at the sides and the shelves of butter one above the other in the center. THE DRY VAULT SYSTEM. That good butter can be made on the " dry vault sys- tem" there can be no doubt. Indeed, I have tested butter made on this system in numerous instances and found it excellent. What we seek in a good method for setting the milk for cream is an arrangement whereby a low, even temperature of milk may be maintained. There must be good ventilation in order that the animal odor '72 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL or other odors in milk prejudicial to its flavor, may be free to pass off and be wafted away from the milk room. These can be secured in a properly constructed vault ; and although the pool and water vat have in our opinion important advantages over the dry vault, they must not be considered as wholly indispensable to the manufacture of first-class butter. Upon farms therefore, where water cannot conveniently be had for pools or for the supply of water vats and large pans, the dry vault may be substi- tuted with reasonable prospect that good butter may result from this plan of setting the milk. And in many parts of the West where running water is scarce, or upon farms that cannot have the proper supply of water near the farm buildings w^here it is desirable to locate the dairy house, the dry vault may be commended and will be found serviceable for butter manufacture. ITS LOCATION, ETC. The best location for the dry vault is upon a rolling or slightly elevated surface, or where there is sufiicient des- cent to insure good drainage. Some soils are gravelly and afford a good, natural drainage, and in such we have seen good, dry vaults erected upon a level surface, a dry well being made outside and a drain carried from the vault to the well. The churn-room maybe wholly on the surface, as w^ell as the ice-house, which, when convenient, should be in connection with or a part of the establish- ment. The size of the vault when the churn-room is on the surface will depend of course upon the size of the dairy. In my tour through Maryland I saw a number of dry vaults in successful operation, and the following de- scription of one where the churn-room is partly below the surface of the ground is given. It was deemed amply sufficient for a small number of cows, say from fifteen to twenty. There was a well of good water near the vault, and pipes were arranged for conducting water into the vault or churn-room, as desired, though no water was employed about the the pans in setting the milk. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VAULT. The milk vault is 11x13 feet and 1 feet high to the top of the arch. The ground is excavated 11 feet, and by rounding up the earth 4 feet more the arch is 8 feet un- der ground. This gives a low temperature, and with the BUTTER BOOK. (73 use of an air tube comiuiinicating with the ice house, an even temperature of 60 degrees may be maintained. There is a chimney 18 inclies square running from the back end of the arch, and this, with an opening at the bot- tom leading out through a drain, gives ventilation, so that the atraosi3here is kept sweet and pure. The drain also serves for the escape of water. There is a pipe also to let in water communicating with the well outside. On the sides of the milk vault there is a raised platform with trough, all of solid masonry, for the purpose of holding the pans of milk which are set for cream. The pans used are about a foot in diameter, and the space in the trough is w^ide enough for two pans. The pans hold about six quarts each, and the milk is set six inclies deep. The churn-room is several feet higher than the milk-room, a w^ide stairway leading from one room to the other. It is 9x12 feet, and has windows which are protected with wire gauze to keep out flies and vermin. The whole struc- ture is built of stone and every part of the room plastered with cement, so as to be impervious to w^ater and to ver- min. The subjoined rough draft (Fig. 14) will illustrated the ground plan of the structure. The cream is churned in summer at a temperature of about 60 desri'ees Fahr. MILK CELLAR WITH ICE HOUSE ATTACHMENT. Another milk cellar well adapted to fjirm dairies is that MILK VAULT AND CHURN ROOM. arranged on the plan of Mr. AYiLLiAM Crozier of Korth- port, N". Y. In a report by a commit- tee from the Ameri- can Institute, the following descrip- tion is given of this structure : The w^alls are thirty six by eighteen feet, and it is divided into ice house, milk- room and butter kitchen, as in this plan. Two tubes or conductors go down from the upper part of the 4 oo oo oo oo 'OGOO oooo Fig. U. a,a.a. Pans in trough, B, Chimney. C, Stairway leading from churn room down to milk vault. D, Stairway to the churn room. u WILLARDS PRACTICAL ice house. Tliey are made of boards eight inches wide and an inch thick, with holes bored in them. The holes allow the cold air to enter from the ice, and it pours in a stream from the mouth of the tube into the milk-room. The temperature of the air as it comes out at the mouth of the tubes is about 35 degrees. As the milk- room has thick walls and the windows are high, this flood of air at 35 degrees is able to lower the mercury to 62 degrees, and even lower, in July. Sometimes he closes one tube to keep the room from growing too cold. The draft is the stronorest in the hottest weather. In spi and fall there is little current, and in winter, when the fire in the stove is constantly burning, the draft would be the other way. But then the mouths of the ice tubes are closed. By this arrangement the desired tempera- ture is secured the season through, and there is no differ- ence between the June butter and his January butter. Mk. Ckozier, in a letter to the Country Gentleman, in refening to the tubes in connection with his milk-room, says : " I had tubes made of four boards nailed together like a box, tilled with holes and placed in FIG- ^^- the ice exactly op- posite the two tiles leading from the dairy into the ice house. As soon as the ice was used down to these tubes, they were taken out and laid aside until the ice went in again the next time, as they would be much in the way of getting in ice or taking *it out after we had reached this part of the ice." He adds :— "This is a good thing, any farmer can make one in a few minutes with four boards, an auger, and a few nails without purchasing a patent." The above cut Fig. 15, will illustrate a milk cellar with the ice house connection arranged very nearly upon the Ckoztee plan. BUTTER BOOK. ^5 PLAN OF MILK-CELLAR WITH ICE-HOUSE CONNECTION. A,A, are tubes made of boards eight inches wide, ex- tending from the ice-house to the milk-room, for conduct- ing the cold air from the ice. These tubes are perforated with holes. The churn-room is higher than the milk- room and is connected by a stairway leading from one to the other; R, is a closet and W,W, are windows. The churn-room is provided with sink and pump for water, and the milk-room may have a stove for regulating tem- perature in cold weather. The cold air from the ice- liouse may be regulated by opening or closing the tubes so as to maintain a temperature in the room of 60 to 62 degree Fahr. during the hottest weather. The tubes open near the floor and the ice-house is higher than the milk-room. It may be wholly above ground. HEATING THE MILK-ROOM. Some means should be employed for heating the dairy as needed, either by stove or piping for hot water or hot air. There are seasons when the weather is too cold or too damp and the milk will be aflected unfavorably unless heat can in some way be applied to counteract these in- fluences. A record should be kept of atmospheric changes, Mr. S. E. Lewis of Oxford, N. Y., says: " When the weather is clear and the wind northwest, there will be good cream, but in unfavorable weather the butter globules do not readily rise. Milk knows south wind sooner than the dairyman knows it, so sensitive is it to atmospheric influences. Start a fire in damp days, so as to keep the atmosphere dry in the milk-room." ARTIFICIAL HEAT IN THE MILK-ROOM COUNTERACTS THE INFLUENCE OF THUNDER STORMS. From experiments made in Sweden, it appears that a fire started in the dairy when a thunder storm is seen approaching, will counteract, in a great degree, if not wholly, the well known influence which such storms ordinarily have upon the milk in hastening its acidity. Even in the hottest weather, on the approach of a thunder storm, a fire is recommended to be started in the dairy. The reason for this is, that the damp, moist, heavy air resting on the milk, proves injurious. Remove this air by any means, and the milk will keep. Dry air tjQ WILLARD'S PRACTICAL is important in the dairy. An excess of dry air is not injurious, hence dairy rooms should always be well ven- tilated. SCALDING THE MILK. The plan of scalding the milk soon after drawing from the cow, in order to faciilitate the rising of the cream, has been known and practiced from time immemorial, in the treatment of late fall and winter milk. The usual method was to set the pans containing the milk in a ves- sel of hot water on the kitchen stove and when it is heated to a temperature of 130 to 140 degrees Fahr. it is removed to the milk cellar or the dairy-room and set aside for the cream to rise. Under this treatment the cream comes up speedily and is more easily churned than when the milk is set in the ordinary way. Somewhat recently the plan of heating milk, soon after it is drawn from the cows, to a temperature of from 130 to 140 degrees Fahr., during fall, spring and winter, has been gaining favor with certain fancy butter makers, who speak highly of the practice, and say that the butter from this process meets with ready sales as a fancy product. The heating expels animal odor, to some extent, and in connection with aeration, will, without doubt, improve imperfect milk, or that which is tainted with odors. In 1870 Prof George C. Caldwell, of Cornell Uni- versity, brought prominently before the dairy public, the " germ theory" of Pasteue, Hallier, and other scientists, as to the cause of fermentation, and upon this theory we can see how heat would have a tendency to destroy the spaces or seeds of certain minute organisms found in imperfect milk, thus arresting decomposition. The heating of milk of this description, therefore, has been urged as improving its condition. The milk after scald- ing is set aside in the dairy, and kept at a temperature of about 60 degrees Fahr. To enable farmers and factory- men to carry out this process of li eating, whenever thought desirable, Messrs. Bunnell & Brown of Guil- ford, N. Y., have adapted a heater and connecting pipes to their " Iron Clad Milk Pan." By this arrangement, as well as by the usual cold water pipes attached to the pans at the same time, the dairyman is prepared to adopt either the scalding of the milk and cooling to 60 degrees, or the usual practice employed for setting the milk when BUTTER BOOK. large pans are used. The cut, Fig. tion of the Iron Clad Pan. This is one of the best pans in use the water circulating freely and evenly under and around 11 16, gives an illustra- the pan, while the pans can be easily taken out of the vat and put back again. The pipes to |' the pans are easily detached, and | can be taken off to be cleaned if n necessary, while the milk remains | in the pans. THE DEVONSHIRE PLAN OF SCALDING MILK. In Devonshire the dairy house is either of stone or brick, and is usually in connection with the dwelling ; stone floors and stone benches for the milk to set upon and all well ventilated and kept scrupulously neat and clean. The milk as it comes from the cow is strained into large, deep pans and put in the dairy, where it stands from eight to twelve Lours and sometimes longer, when the pans are taken out, care being taken not to agitate the cream that has risen, and the milk scalded by placing the pans holding it in an iron skillet filled with water and set upon the range. At the bottom of the skillet there is a grate on which the pan of milk rests, so as to keep it from the bottom and prevent burning. The milk is slowly heated to near the boiling point, or until it begins or is about to boil. When the cream begins to show a a distinctly-marked circle (or crinkle) about the outer edge and the first bubble rises on the surface of the cream, it must be immediately removed from the fire. Some Fig. r Y3 WILl^ABDS PKACnCAL experience is necessary in applying the heat to have it iust risrht, otherwise the cream is injured. When prop- erly scalded, the milk is removed to the dairy, where it stands from 12 to 24 hours, according to the condition of the weather, when the cream is removed and is in a thick, compact mass, being an inch or more in thickness. It is more solid than cream obtained in the usual way, and has a peculiarly sweet and pleasant taste. In skim- mintr, the cream is divided with a knife into squares of convenient size and removed with a skimmer. This is the lamous clotted (or clouted) cream, considered in En- gland as a great delicacy, and is largely used with sugar upon pastry, puddings or fresh fruits and especially upon gooseberry pie. It makes an extensive article of com- merce and is really a delicious kind of food. The milk thus treated yields about a fourth more ci*eam than is produced in the common way, but it is mainly at the ex- pense of the remaining milk, which has parted with more of its caseine than milk treated for cream in the ordinary way. It is more readily churned than common cream, and I have often seen the Devonshire dairymaids do the churning by placing the clouted cream in a large earthen vessel, and by simply stirring the cream with a wooden paddle for a few minutes. The butter has some- thing of the taste peculiar to the clouted cream and is highly esteemed by those who are accustomed to its use. THLKIXSOrS GULF STREAM REFRIGERATED DAIRY-ROOM. The most recent invention for regulating the tempera- ture of the dairy is that of Prof. John Wilkinson, the well-known architect of Baltimore, Md., and the descrip- tion of the plan and its operation will be of interest. The plan for a perfect control of temperature and at the same time securing ample ventilation, meets a want which has long been unsupplied". Mr. W. has been granted letters patent on this invention. BUTTEK BOOK. ng This system of dairy-room construction has two dis- tinctive characteristics, both operated by the same natu- ral lau', Gravitation. One consists in the displacement and circulation of air, and the other of water ; the former for both cooling and ventilating the apartment ; the latter for cooling only. The device for conjunctive cooling and ventilating is very peculiar, unique and strictly automatic in its action. It consists in constructing the building with hollow walls, or witli close air chambers, between the inner and outer walls ; the windows are to have inner and outer sash, with confined air between them ; and there are to be no places for the ingress or egress of air, except those herein described. All the air supplied to the apartment is admitted by natural movement through ducts, or pipes, laid in the ground at a depth to be secure from the eifects of both sun and frost. One of said ducts requires to have a fall or slope toward the building, and the other from it ; or- dinarily, each duct requires to be about 100 feet in length and to be laid five feet below the surface of the ground. THE A Burrell, Little Falls, N. Y. BUTTER BOOK. CHAMPIOX BUrXER-WORKEE. 105 After the butter has been washed, a batch weighing 22 lbs. is laid upon tlie inclined slab, or butter-worker, "first described, and then spread out with the ladle. Pure Ashton or Onondaga salt, made fine by rolling, is now sprinkled over the mass and the lever applied, first be- FlG. 25. srinninsr at one side until the whole is sjone ove;-. Ouiy a few manipulations of this kind are required to work in the salt and complete this part of the process. As it is important that the buttermilk should be com- pletely removed, this is facilitated during the working process by applying a slightly-dampened napkin to the surface, or by the use of a damp sponge covered with a napkin for the purj30se. ADDITIOXAL SUGGESTIOXS IX WASHIXG, WOEKIXG AXD SALTIXG BUTTER. Mr. S. E. Lewis of Oxford, N. Y., has some very good •esrard to treating: the butter after chum- 106 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL " When the Dutter comes," he says, " and as soon as the dash churns clean, take oiF the churn ; do not gather the butter with the dasher in the churn (as is usually done) ; do not gather it at all, but have a hair sieve, which first wet in hot and then in cold water, so that the butter will not stick to it. Then have a piece of a board that will fit inside of the churn to hold the butter back ; turn the buttermilk from the churn through the sieve. When the buttermilk is drained out, let the butter remain in the churn ; then take your water, holding it up high as your head, and pour it upon the butter in a stream sufficiently large so that it will force its way through the butter ; keep the stream moving about upon the butter. This will separate the little balls of butter; fill up the churn with water until what little buttermilk there was in the butter is diluted to that extent that there will be no ne- cessity of changing the water, and the result will be that your butter is washed or the buttermilk all rinsed out of the butter without breaking, marring or injuring a single grain of the butter. WORKING IN THE SALT. " When it sufficiently hardens in the water, take it out for salting, using the ladle to get out most of it, then the sieve. Now comes the salting and working. For a but- ter-w^orker an inclined plane in the shape of the letter A, w^ith a round lever, is preferred. S23read the butter upon the worker, then put on half the quantity of salt you desire to use, roll it in, then with a small, flat, wooden shovel, turn one-half of it over on to the top of the other half; put on half of the remaining salt, roll it back ; do the other half in the same way, and then put on the bal- ance of the salt ; then work the salt in somewhat, taking particular care not to let the lever slip on the butter w^hile w^orking it. Always let the lever go on the butter in a rolling motion. If jou allow the lever to slip on the butter, it will destroy the grain and make it look shiny. Set the butter away in a cool place at night ; put it on the worker ; work it a little, then let it stand until morn- ing, and work again just enough to be sure the streaks are out (the white streaks are parts that have not taken salt), then pack. The butter- worker should stand face to BUTTER BOOK. jq^ the light. The best butter bowls to use are the white oak butter tubs." Mr. Lewis is tlie manager of a creamery, and he ex- presses the opinion that as much butter can be made on the plan of setting the milk deep as by shallow settings. He recommends that the cream of each milking should be churned by itself, or if the cream of different milkings is to be churned, the cream of such milkings should be mixed at least eight to ten hours before churning. Enough milk should always be skimmed in with the cream to give the butter when it comes a clean, bright color. PACKING. The butter is packed in firkins, in half-firkins, and in Orange County pails. The pails are " return pails " — that is, they are not sold with the butter, but are to be returned to the factory after the purchaser has taken out the butter. They hold about sixty pounds of butter, are of white oak, nicely made, and strongly hooped with heavy band-iron. They have movable covers that fit closely, and are fastened with wooden bolts or metallic clasps. The firkins are made of white oak, heavily hooped, and the sides neatly turned. The greatest attention is paid to have the packages perfectly tight, so as not to permit the least leakage. White oak is regarded as the best material for packages, and the butter factories use no other. The firkins hold about 100 pounds each. The half-firkin is simply the firkin sawed in two and provided with an oak head, which is nailed on the top of the package after it is filled. The firkin is prepared for use by soaking in cold water, after that in scalding water, and then again in cold water. It is then either filled with brine and soaked 24 hours or the inside is thoroughly rubbed with dry salt and left to stand for a short time, w^hen it is considered ready for use. In packing the butter it is pressed together as solidly as may be, and when the firkin is filled it is immediately headed up and a strong brine poured through a hole m the top head, to fill tlie intervening spaces. The orifice is then closed, and the firkin is set in a cool cellar until it is ready to be sent to market. When the half-firkin is filled, a' dry cloth, cut so as to entirely cover the butter, 108 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL is spread over it and covered with a thin layer of salt. The cover is then fastened on and the package is set away in a dry, cool place until it is taken to market. The best wooden package I have ever seen is the Wes- cott Return Butter Pail, manufactured by Silsby Beos., Belmont, N. Y. It is made of the best kiln-dried white oak, matched and turned perfectly inside and outside. I give in Fig. 26 an illustration of this pail, and add the fol- lowing sensible hints which the manufacturers send out with their packages : " To neutralize the odor and sap of the wood, and to drive from the cells of the wood the air which taints the butter, the pails ought to be thoroughly soaked with hot brine made from the same kind of salt with which the butter is cured, and not used over and over again, until the bitter taste of the Avood has destroyed the use of the brine, but thrown away after each pail is scalded. After the pail is thus prepared, pack the butter solidly, putting on the top of it a clean, white cloth, and cover the cloth with a layer of the same kind of salt, half an inch in thickness. Each time your pails are returned from the city, scald and cleanse them thoroughly." Small return but- ter pails similar in construction to " Wescott's Re- turn Pail" and each holding five pounds have been used in sending "fancy but- ter " to market. These little pack- ages, or tubs, are provided with a cover which fastens with a clasp. They are very neatly made of oak and hooped with brass or galvanized iron, which gives them a handsome appearance. They are, when filled, packed in cases, twelve packages in a case, in two tiers, one above another. A board is placed between the upper and lower tiers and is secured in the following manner : BUTTER BOOK. 109 There is a cleat running round the box on the inside about the hight of the packages, so that wlien the first six packages are arranged in place tlie division -board goes down upon the cleat covering the lower packages, and upon this board the upper tier of packages is placed. The lid of the case is then brought down and fastened with a clasp, and the packages go safely to market with- out shaking or moving. The butter in each package is stamped with a mold, so as to leave the imprint of the maker's name under a rose. Recently, Mr. Chaeles H. White of White Station, Michigan, has invented a method for keeping butter sweet for long periods, w^hich proves to be excellent and worthy of general adoption. His plan is to have tight and strongly hooped tubs of oak, with heads at both ends. The tubs are 14 inches in diameter at top and 9 inches at bottom, and about 16 inches high. Fig. 27 will illustrate their gen- eral form. A sack of white cotton is made to fit the tub for the reception of the butter. It is placed in the tub as it stands on the small end (Fig. 27), the sides of the sack being long enough to extend over the top of the tub. The butter is packed firmly in this sack until wdthin an inch and three-eighths of the top of the tub, when a cir- cular piece of cloth is laid on the top of the butter, and the sides of the sack are brought over and nicely plaited down over the circular cover. A layer of fine salt is now laid on the top, the head is put in, and the hoops are driven so as to make a perfectly tight fit that will admit of no leakage. The tub is then turned upon the large head and the butter in the sack drops down upon the larger end, leaving a space between it and the sides and top of the tub, as will be seen by Fig. 28, representing a section of the tub filled with butter and standing on the large end. Strong brine is then poured into the tub at =:] L. ^:^ 1 I - U i =1 ^ ^ H 1 Co — ^ S3 ? ^ 1 L rn t, E! o 1 1 ~ ^. ^ 1 1 _ ^: 1 1 ~ 5 — 5 y -^ - ^ :t J^ 1 fc 3< r -1 1 i S 1 1 n 1 § 1 *^ is r-i 1 J i •!• ^ 1 fi ^ 1 ■ -1 -'-■+ -"1 I* r^^-'^^i J ^ . , . , ^ es4.<-^>- A. .,_► •* a^ Fig. 38. 124 WIIiLARD'S PRACTICAL CREAMERY PRACTICE-LARGE ?A.m SYSTEM. For farm dairies where cold spring water is convenient and plentiful, where only cheap dairy structures can be aiforded, the large pan system presents many advantages. The pans, as is well known, are each made of a suitable size to take the entire mess of milk of the dairy at one milkino-, whether the number of cows be 5, or 100, and four pans complete the set or all that will be required to hold the milk until it is 36 hours old. It is claimed by some tliat if the temperature of the milk be kept at about 60 deg. Fahr. that the atmosphere of the milk- room may be allowed to go several degrees above that temperature without injury, and indeed, with advantage in the rising of the cream. Be this as it may, much better results are obtained in an ordinary milk-room by setting the milk in large pans surrounded with cold water than by the old plan in small pans standing in the open air. In Franklin County, IST. Y., where the large pan sys- tem has been largely introduced for factories, the aver- age quantity of milk required for a pound of butter, taking the season together, has been from 20f to 25^ pounds. Thus the Keeler fictory of Franklin County re- ported in 1871 a pound of butter from 20 TO-lOO of milk; the Union factory, a pound of butter from 24| pounds of milk; the Cold Spring, a pound of butter from 22.31 pounds milk; the Berry, 25.10 pounds; Moria, 23.12; and the Bailey Spring 22.55 pounds of milk for a pounds of butter. In 1872 a pound of butter was made at the Union, from 23.3 pounds milk; Barley Spring, 22.61 pounds ; Berry, 24.26 pounds ; Moria, 22.37 pound. In 1873 the quantity required for a pound of butter was at the Union, 23.9 pounds milk; Barley Spring, 24.28 ; Cold Spring, 22.47. These are generally better averages than are made under the process of the *' pail and pool," but it must be remarked that nnder the latter plan it is not desired to take all the butter from BUTTER BOOK. ^^25 the milk, as the skimmed milk is to be turned into skim- med cheese. But wliere the large pan system is prac- ticed the skimmed milk is usually employed for feeding do- mestic animals, and all tlie butter is taken out that can be. The first invention of the large pans was made by the late Dr. Jexnixgs, of Fredonia, X. Y., and consisted 'dimply of a shallow vat of tin placed in a wooden vat with space between the two for the reception of cold water. I tested this pan on its first introduction, and from experiments then made was highly pleased with the principle. Various improvements have been made in the construction of the pans so as to make them more efiicient and convenient, and I give illustrations of some of the most approved patterns now before the public. Usually, one surface foot of pan bottom will be sufiicient for two cows; so that any one may calculate pretty accurately what will be needed for his dairy. The sides of the pan are about five inches high. The way to use them is to put one milking of the entire dairy into one pan, adjusting the faucet in the supply pipe so as to use just water enough to extract the animal heat from the milk, and keep it at the desired temperature Avhile the cream is rising — say from 60 to 62 deg. At the time the fourth pan is wanted for use, the first will be ready to skim ; then stop the water from running into the pan that a sufiicient quantity of water may run out while the milk is skimmed, and run ofi" to enable the milk-maid to clean the pan. THE JEWETT PAX. As given in the engraving, Fig. 39, one of the series of pans, is represented as broken away to show^ the in- ternal arrangement. These pans are provided with a space, between their top and bottom walls. Within this space are a number of compartments communica- ting with each other at alternate ends, in such a man- ner as to form one continuous channel, zigzag in its course, having an inlet at through which warm or cold water, as needed, is received ; such water, after flowing through the tortuous channel formed by the partitions, being discharged at the outlet. A faucet is shown through which airthe water in the channel can be drawn off". 126 WILLARD'S PKACTIOAL When the cream lias raised and has been skimmed, the milk is then run oii through the pipe c?, which communi- cates witli the main discharge pipe, F, which may be placed under the floor or not, as circumstances will per- mit ; or 11" desired the milk can be conveyed in movable Fig. 39. horizontal pipes from the pans into an adjoining room on the same floor. The pipe seen attached to the side of the room and above the row of pans is the sonrce of supply from Avhich water is conducted to the base of the pans. For cooling, the water is received from a spring or re- servoir; but for Avarming, from boilers or other appro- priate apparatus. These ])ans are manufactured by L. R. Townsend, of Maloue, N. Y. THE ORANGE COUNTY MILK PAN. FIG. 40. This is manufictured by the Orange County Milk Pan Company, of Franklin, Delaware County, and is highly WILLARD-S PRACTICAL 127 approved by many. They are arranged m four single, or two double racks, whichever best suit tlie size of tlie dairy-room. I give a cut of the double rack arrange- ment in Fig. 40. When arranged in double racks, the upper pan is reached by means of a moveable platform, which is kept under the rack, and when wanted is drawn out. By use of the double rack a set for thirty cows can be used in a room 8x10. It lias an arrangement for cooling with ice, having space at each end of the Pan in the Tat, where ice may be stored, and, as it melts, the water passes olf down througli the Regulator Pipe. COWLES' MILK PAN. Is the invention of Seth F. Cowles of Coventry, Vt., and furnished by W. R. Colby, of Stan- stead, Canada. The distinguished fea- ture of this arrange- ment, see Fig. 41, is the manner in wdnch the milk is removed from the pan. It is the only pan that empties over the top and thereby avoids the use of corks, "which sometimes prove troublesome in getting sour and allo^vincr the milk to leak. Fig. 41. plan of butter factory on the large pan, or "shallow setting" system. The factories on the shallow setting system are usually less elaborate than those where pools and pails are in use. In Fig. 42 is an illustration of the general features found in these establishments. For the milk of 100 cows only four pans would be required. The pans occupy more space than on the pool system, but less water is needed to do the same work. The plan of the factory. Fig. 42 wall be readily under- 128 WILLABD'S PEACTICAI. stood. The raain building is 60x30 feet and the wing 10x14 feet. W is the work-room, 14x22 feet, and S the sink; R is the churn-room, 8x14 feet, and C the churn; E is the engine-room, 10x14 feet, and B the boiler and engine. There are 12 pans, set-opposite to each other, six on a side, which will accommodate the milk of 300 cows. The pans are 130x57 inches, and are set not quite tAvo feet apart and with one end nearly or quite against the wall, as represented in Fig. 1. T is a tank for sour D R p a 0. Q. Q. g Fig. 42. milk; D deliver}' window. There is a track for a hand car running through the center of the building between the pans. Underneath the structure is the butter cellar. In this arrangement there is no proTision for making " skim-cheese," though of course when it is desired the building may be extended in length, and thus room made for the manufacturing department. FACTOET BUTTER BOX. Mr. Lewis of Chenango Co., suggests that in case there is not a very good butter room in a factory, a long box, tight at the bottom, with a cover to it, should be made. Place a rack in the bottom, some three inches from the bottom of the box. Then in warm weather put your butter in the box, and have water running into one end of the box and out of the other, under the butter. BUTTER BOOK. jog This will keep it cool aud hard until it can be worked and packed. MAKIXG PREMIUM BUTTER OX THE SHALLOW SETTING SYSTEM. At the Central Xew York Fair, Utica, in 1874, the first preinium on creamery butter was awarded to the Cold Spring Creamery, East Hamilton, Madison County, X. Y. About the middle of September I visited the Cold Spring factory aud obtained from the manufacturer the process of manufacturing at this factory, where shallow setting is practiced and it may be of interest in this connection. The factory is a small one, 20x30 feet, taking the milk of only 90 cows. There arenhie patrons and milk is delivered raorniug and evening, the most dis- tant patron living about one-half mile from the factory. PLAN OF SETTING THE MILK. The Jewett pans are used at the Cold Spring Creamery. The size of the pans is 11x4 feet, six inches deep, aud four pans complete the set. Tlie pans are of the ordi- nary size for 150 cows, but the manager of the Cold Spring factory thinks they are none too large for 100 cows. The milk is set four inches deep in the pans. Tlie milk during summer is held in the pans until it is 24 to 36 hours old, and is generally allowed to sour. When the milk begins to lopper at the bottom and the cream is wrinkled it is skimmed. The pans stand with one end butted against the wall, and at this end are the pipes for admitting the flow of water under the milk. The tem- perature of the water in the spring is 56 degrees, and it is desired to keep the milk at about 60 degrees while the cream is rising. In the spring and fill, or during cool weather, a coal stove in the room regulates the tempera- ture so that the milk stands very uniformly at 60 degrees. CHURXIXG. The churning is done every morning, Sundays ex- cepted, the Saturday's cream being churned Saturday night. The dasli churn is used, barrel and a half size, and it is operated by horse power. Mr. Holmes think no churn equal to tlie dash for making a nice grained butter. During the hottest weather the cream in the churn is tempered to 5S deg., but at the time of our visit, the 130 WILLARD'S PRACTICAL 1 7th of September, the temperature of the cream when the churns are started is 60 deg. About an hour is oc- cupied in churning and when the butter begins to come the motion is deadened or made slower and four quarts of cold spring water are added to each churn. Enough water is added so as to raise the liquid mass to cover the dash to prevent it striking the cream. Then just so soon as the butter is formed the churns are detached from the power and the butter gathered by hand. The buttermilk is now drained off and the butter thrown into- a large tub with cold spring water, where it is washed by working it gently with the ladle. Washing in two waters thoroughly expels the buttermilk, when it is immediately salted at the rate of three-quarters of an ounce of salt to the pound of butter. THE SALT WEIGHER. Mr. Holmes has a very handy implement for butter makers, which may be denominated the "butter and salt scales." It is simply a pair of scales so arranged that by placing the butter in a bowl on a standard and by adding salt to the dish on the end of the scale yard until the scales are balanced, you get the exact quantity of salt required for the lump of butter. It is arranged so that the scales may be set for salting at the rate of from a quarter ounce to ]| ounces of salt to the pound of but- ter. It is a simple and cheap affair, and should be in the hands of every butter maker, as it saves time and trouble in weighing and calculating the amount of salt for a given weight of butter. The salt is worked through the butter while in the washing tub, the ladle being used for that purpose, when the butter is removed to the cooling vat or where the vessel holding it may be surrounded with cold spring water and it remains there until next morning, when it is thrown upon the butter worker and worked over and then goes to the packages. The butter is put up in Wescott return butter pails and goes to New York City, and the price received at the factory is two cents less per pound than the highest quotations for fancy butter in that city. BUTTER EROM A GIYElSr QUANTITY OF MILK. During the summer, under this system as above des- cribed, 100 pounds of milk yield four pounds of butter; BXJTTER BOOK. 131 but as the season advances a pound of butter is obtained from a less quantity of milk. At the time of our visit the ratio was one pound of butter from 23 of milk. CREAMERY REPORTS. The following reports from creameries where skim- cheese is made in connection with butter manufacture, and where only butter is made will be of interest in this connection. These reports show the advantages of the respective systems: Report of 1872 and 1873.— Buttkr and Skim-Cheese. Cream KRiES. 1872-E(iinest<)n,Otsego Cc.N.Y. 2 Crvstal. New Bremen. Jjewis Co-.N.Y W.W.&A. D.Vorce Denmark. Lewis Co.. JV. Y Copetihageii. Lewis Co,. N.Y. West MarLiusbnrur, *" E. G. Dodge, Martiusb'gh, " Lowville, Lowvillc, '* South Harrisbureh, *' 1873-One»nta, N.Y Aville of Conentingo, N. Y. Datun 69.583 ._.., 59.900 815 1 125 054; ,602 '-5.158 ,373 195, 7;« ,1631 fO-rai .4.53 K4,784 .129 lfi7,73H 530.004 ,5:«. 130,329 26,374 1,954 71,537 1,107 61,007 2.75' 127,7&')| 2.c63 77.521 ! 2,912 198,550 1.121 61.7421 20,4481 I g "-> S-l o DQ ?« ft .« u s . ^'° o .« u « MP. 2 II ^■ < $35,089 14 114 81 8,242 79 1165; 9.09158 12 71; 7,53.S 87 12 .^5 15.647 5« ! 12 24 9,910 76 1 12 78 24.337 87 12 25 7,916 13 12 83| 11 20i 9.8T 10.22 9.96 9.45 9. .7 9.43 Report of 1873.— Butter. ^ I 1 c-si Statement op six Butter I-'actories USING the large MILK PANS FOR THE, Season op 1873, and their L*ost Office ADDIIESS. i •^^ b-p Coo a;a ':r, ! 6S5 cpq w u -r 0 Parisian ^ 153 Philadelphia 68 Philosophy of making and keeping 133 J Butter Preservation of, Girard's pounds of milk required for at Factories 124 Preserving of, in France 141 Preserving, sugar and salt- peter 142 Preserving another rule Hi Preservation of 140 Preservation of, Belins' pro- cess 14 1 method 14(l Preservation of. Redwood's process 141 Price of, advancing abroad.. 7 Prof. Caldwell's views on the composition of 59 Kate of consumption 6 Restoring rancid 142 Salting and packing, Swedish system 1.52 Table, showing experiments 61 Saltpeter and sugar for pre- serving, in Orange Co 103 Washing the 133 What tlie appearance of, should be 137 Whey 154 Whey, process of making.... 155 White specks in 87 Working in. salt 106 Working the 104 Working and salting at Union Factory 113 Worker 104-64 Worker, Champion 105 Worker, Eureka 64-65 Cans, Carrying ventilated 116 — Wickoff's ventilating; 117 Churns and Chvuning 96 Churns 63 Churn, Barrel. ...% 101 Blanchard 6i — — Blanch ard's Factory 100-101 Dash and walking-beam 98 Diisher 97 Factory 101 Powers 64 Tornado 6;s Whipple's rectangular 64 Coecal Extremities or follicles 39 Colostrum or first drawn milk of the cow 37 Composition of 38 Composition of milk, cream and butter 54 Cows breathing foul air 17 — Brief summary of items in the ciire of milch 15 — Care of 14 — Citniiiig in milk 19 — Cleansing the blood of.. 19 170 Iiiclex. Cuvvs, docility of temper, bow Jtc- quired 17 — How brutal treatment of, af- fects the milk. 2-2 — Jerking out ot stanchions IT — Jersey 9 — Number required for the but- ter crop , 6 — Result of crowding too close — Should be full fed 31 — Small breed, richest milk 9 — The average butter product ..f II — The, for butter diiirying .. .. 8 — The milking habit educated.. 16 — View of udder of 41 — Water after sal tin-; 17 Ciii-e'se. Skim, cutting and scalding. 160 — Skim, coloring 156 — Skim deiJartnient of 356 — Skim, manufacture 159 — Skim, setting ItH) — Skim, sizeof 161 — Skim, rennet for 16U — Oleomargarine -^ I*^^ — Oleomargarine, amount of milk used 167 — Oleomarggarine, butter taken from milk 165 — Oleomar^iarine, milit not al- lowed to sour for 167 — Oleomargarine, milk set at higher tem|»erature 168 -- Oleomrgarinc mode of manu- facture ItJS — Olei 'margarine, setting the milk 169 — Oleomargarine, weight less than fullmilk 167 Oleomargarine, product niade 167 — Press, Frazer's Gang 158-160 Cream, Analyses of, different au- thorities 48 — Agitation of in Churning 137 — Clotted 78 — Composition of ... 47 — Composition of different sam- ples of 48 — Churning, the best tempera- ture for 137 — Churning at Cold Spring Creamery 129 — Gauge per cent 11 — Obtained from milk cooled by ice water. Swedish system... 151 — Of first drawn milk poorer than that of last drawn 49 — Percentage of, in milk 54 — More, the more the original heat is retained 150 — Strainer 6*2 — Sour, makes more and better butter 167 — Temperature of, when churns are started 130 — Time required to rise. Swedish system 151 — Treatment of, Swedish sys- tem 151 Cieamery, Cooling Vats for 164 — — For a small number of cows 111-112 — — Interior view of 165 Lariie pan system 124 — — Pail and pool system 92 Plan for a large 114 Ridge Mills 162 Ridge Mills, elevation 166 Ridge Mills, plan of 163 Reports 131 Dairymen Questions for ,.. M Dairying. Winter 32! — — Mr. Boies', practice., 33 Dairies, Farm 61 Dairy-room, Wilkinson's descrip- tion of 81-85 Dairy Wilkinson's Gulf Stream 7ft — Plan of Gulf Stream 82-83 — Wilkinson'sSuper cooling duct 81 — Wilkinson's, reversing the cir- culation 8b — Wilkinson's, action of the d nets 79 — Wilkinson's, Salubrity secured 80 Factories Organizing 89 bactory. Butter box Ill Plan for a butter and cheese combined 122-123 Plan of butter on the large or shallow setting system... 127 nie new departure in man- agement 9ft Fat, Composition of liquid in mar- — row 56 — More the less space of time in- tervening between milking... 53 Fats. Stearineand Oleine in 56 Feeding 26 Garget, Saltpeter for 19 Glycerides 60. Grass and grain feeding 20 Grasses are social 29 Grass, different order of seeds for pastures than meadows 30 — First turning to 19 — June, wire, meadow, fescue, and orchard 28 — Varieties esteemed for butter dairying 27 Ho-ven, Remedyfor 20 Ice-water, liightof, Swedish 150 — — Method. Swedish 149 Ice, Quantity required. Swedish — 150 Mammary Gland, mode of action of 43 Margarine, Supposed composition of 59 Milk, Amount of butter and cheese in, tables of 12-13 — Best from young animals 46 — Butterin 54 — Cellar with ice-house attach- ment 7'-7t — Churningthe 135 — Milk Cellar, Crozier's 74 — Coming in 19 — Composition of new 46 — Composition of Skimmed 50 — Concerning acidity in 86 — Considered in its physiological and chemical relations 35 — Death from using impure 22 — Diseased, from filthy stables and diseased vegetables 21 — Diseased, nature of the poison uncertain 22 I — Devonshire plan of scalding... 77 I — Difference in composition of in different animals 47 — Deep and shallow setting of... 88 — Fatty matter of 46 — Forcing air into ,.... 66 — Globules, largest in Jersey cows 45 — Globules, microscopical ap- pearance of 36 — How affected by brutal treat- ment of cows 20-25 — Influence of insufficient food. on 23 — Management of, carried to the creamery 116 Index. 171 Milk. House, Farm dsiiry 65 — Milliner of treating 94 — Means employed for detecting diluted 118 — Percentage of cream and but- ter in 54 — Poisoned by animalculae 24 — poisoned by violent emotions or shocks of the nervous sys- tem 24 — Room artiflcial heat in, coun- teracts the influence of thunderstorms 75 — Quicker cooled, the more cream 149 — Room, heating the 75 — Scalding the 76 — Secreting follicles and ducts arrangement of 40 — Skimmed, amount of oleomar- garine added 167 — Skim, improving for cheese... 161 — Vats, factory 156 — Swedisli treatment of 148 — Tables of 12-lS — Testins; of each animal 10 — Theory of souring 54 — Typhoid fever germs com- municated through 24 — Treatment of Il2 — Uniformity in the composition of 52 — Pan.Cowles 127 — — Jewett's 126 — — Orange Co 126 — Setting for cream at Cold Spring Creamery 129 Oleomargarine. Coat of 1«8 Overstocking 30 Package. Empire butter 146 — — Ice for butter prints Ill — — The metalic demanded by the trade .' 147 — — Metalic euameled butter... 145 — — Metalic with wooden cover 146 — — StoDe'a tin.... jlti Package. Roll butter in tin cases 144 — — Roll butter for market 143 — — Iloli butter In jars, prepar- ing the brine, etc 144 — — Butter 107 — — White's butter IIQ — — for butter prints llO-lll Pails 62 — Butter, Philadelphia 71 — Butter, Wescott's Return ,. 10a — Cleansing 62 — for setting milk, Swedish sys- tem 148 — and Cream Dipper 95 — Oval-shaped, Swedish system. 149 PiUis, Bunnell & Brown's Iron Clad 76-77 — Jewett 125 Results from the Union Creamery.. 114 Salt weigher 130 Salting after expelling butter-milk 102 — cows 17 — Philosophy of, for butter 138 Scales, Factory 117 Secretion 38 Spring House 67 — — Pennsylvania 68 Stock. Important considerations in the care of 26 Steamer and Caldron, Eagle 121 Tanks. Cooling, Swedish 148 Temperature of Cream for churn- ing at Cold Spring Factory 130 — — Controlling in dairy rooms 67 — — cooling room, Swedish... 150 Vaccinic Acid 59 Vat. Cream ... 115 — and Heater, Roe's 159 — Jones & Faulkner's 157 — Portable Heater, Millar's 158 — Self-heaters 157 Ven tilation 18 Vault, Construction of 72 Dry system , U Location 72 Milk, and churn room 73 Water for Cows 19 i< CET THE BEST. f9 THE BLANCHARD CHURN Combines more good qualities than any other now made. It has passed the experiaiental stage, and has b°!en proved, and im-proved, and ap-proved, during the past twenty-five years, until it is now ■rixo 09 o H < H M Ph o OF XHi: < OU.^TKY. O M M H > o B^" Over 75,0I>0 of these Churns are now in successful operation. B^~ They always do their own talking when they are once introduced. ^W No other Churn is made of as good materials, or as faithfully. We challenge comparison. tW It cannot get out of order because it is so simple. CP~ Because it is so simple and thoroughly made, it is very durable. II^~ It has no cog wheels or gearing. t=P~ It works the Butter free from buttermilk in the Churn, without any change of dasher, quicker and better thun it can be done by hand. It works in the salt in the same way. It is a PISariSCT AVTOIMEATXC BUTTXSR-ZMCASSB.. SEVEN SIZES MADE. No. 3. for about 2 gallons of cream $6.00 No. 4, " 4 •' " 7.00 " 8.00 10.00 ! No. 7. for about 18 gallons of cream.... $12.00 1 No. 8, for from .50 to 75 '* " ...40.09 No. 5, " 8 •' " 8.00 i No. 9. for from 75 to 150 " " ... 4.x00 No. 6, " 12 " " 10.00 Power pulley for any size Churn 2.fO The Nos. 8 ;ind 9 are Fiictory Churns, to be used with power, and are every way adapttrd for use in Factories or large Dairies. They are "the best" made. In offering this Churn to the public, we do so in perfect confidence that it is, without question or qualification, Tlie Very Best Cliiini Made. We miarantee it to be EXACTLY AS REPRESENTED. Should it prove to be other- wise or^ot to -Wo ENTIRE SATISFACTION, it may be returned to us at OUR EXPENSE. C^- (GIVE THEM A TRl Al....^ For Churns, Agencies, or full descriptive Circulars, address THE SOLE MANUFACTURERS, PORTER BLANCHARD'S SONS, Concord, IV. H. DAIRYMEN, ATTENTION! We call the Attention of Parties interested in Butter and Clieese Factories to tlie IRON GLAD MILE CAN The only recommend they need is to say that there ^are now in use in the U. S. about ^0,000, and experienee has shown that they are the only cans ever made that will stand the hard usage they are subjected to, in trans- porting the milk from the Dairy to the Factory. For Sale by all tlie Principal Hartl^w^are and Xiii I>ealei*s in llie conn try. THE IRON CLAD MILK PAIL. IMPROVED. We call particular attention to the above Pail, as it is superior to anything of the kind ever manufactured. Instead of making them of tin, in the usual way, they are put together of Iron, the cylinder being in one piece, and much heavier than the common stock used ; after which they are tinned, making them as one solid piece. By this process we are able to furnish the most durable Milk Pail ever manufactured, for the same price of the common tin one. Send for a sample. And all goods connected with the Butter and Cheese Interest. Circulars, etc., sent to any party addressiiig the ZB.03T CIiAS C/L-Bi CO., as Cliff m., Kew York. a ^EE BEST IS NONE TOO GOOD. " PATENTED JANUARY 21, 1868. MANUFACTURED ONLY BY CORNISH & CURTIS, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin. Commends itself to the attention of Jill thoughtful dairymen by reason i»f its conforming to all those SCIENTIFIC P^enCIPLES essential to the production of the greatest quantity jind lest quality cf butter with the least labor. Presents a rare combination of the GREATEST SIMPLICITY, with the maximum of effif'iency. for althouj^h it is onlv a cubical box, suspended at Its diagonal corners, yet the successiv;; operatiment for working the soil of which we have any knowledge. An intelligent neighbor, to whom r e lent it, says that he accomplislied more in two days with it, in subduing a piece of twitch grass, than he ever accomplished before in a week with the best implement at his command. Others of our neighbors endorse his commendation fully. Very truly yours. O. S. BTilSS. With the least expenditure of time, THE RANDALL HARROW secures bv the most perfect tillage, the earliest and most profitable results, in greatly increased yield of crops. It cuts, sifts, mashes, grinds, twists, rolls, and breaks all the soil over which it passes, thoroughly pulverising it. Send for Circular to the IfTARKIOR MOWER CO., Little Falls, N. Y. IRON GLAD MILE PAN iiiliiiiiiiiiiiiil*^^^^^^^ f£R&USOti,ALBAttyj/^ V. Has taken First Premium over all other Pans whenever shown in competition with them. Received First Premium at the Great Central N. Y. Fair, held at Utica, October 6th to 14th, 1874. The followiner from the Report of Committee on Milk Pans, at State Dairy- men's Convention, held at Binghamton, December 9th and lOtb, 1874: "Tbe Special Committee on Milk Pans, bave to report that tbere was on exhi- bition by Bunnell & Brown, of Guilford, Chenango Co., N. Y., the Iron Clad Mi k Pans, by the Orange County Milk Pan Co., of Franklin, Delaware Co., N. Y., a Par manufactured by them, also the Jewett Milk Pan sold by the agency at Delbi, N. Y. The committee are only able to report from appearance^, and froro these it would seem that the Iron Clad Milk Pdn is tuperii r in many particulars to the others on exhibition." The day is not far distant when A/ho keeps five cows orunwirds, will use some kind r f Large Milk Pans. The IPON CLAD PAN is conceded by every dairyman %iho has < xamined tLe different kinds « i pans, to be SUPERIOR TO ALL OTHERS. Tbev are the only pan in the market that can be used in cool weather to advantage, as they have a steam heating aDparatusattach« I to them when ?o desired, bymeai s of which the milk en be raided to anv deg-ee of temperature-, by injecting steam in' o water in the vats. Bv using the Iron Clad Pans more batter, and of a better quali' y can be made, with one-fourth the labor tiian when small pans are used. Send f i r descriptive circulars and price-li?t, to BUNNELL & BROWN, Patentees and Manufacturers, Guilford, Chenango Co., N. Y. TIE VICTDH imir IMFBDIl WAS AWARDED THE GOLD MEDAL AT THE GREAT NATIONAL FIELD TRIAL, Near Philadelphia, Pa., 1874. AMERICAN INSTITUTE MEDAL, Same Year. The Horse Eake and Mower are impoj-tant Implements on the Dairy Farm. When the Revolving Rake was first introduced, it seemed that perfection had been reached in the way of gathering? hay ; but soon the Sulky Steel Tooth Rake put in an appearance, crowding out the former, and now the ""WISNER" steps in and is bound to supersede all others. The Inventor, J. E. Wisnbb of Friendship, N. T. (owner of one of the finest Dairy Farms in Westeri N. T.), Is a practical farmer, and has invented a Rake that is self -operating— & slight pressure of the foot engaging both wheels for discharging the hay, and yet either wheel works independent of the other, so that it will operate equally well while turn- ing to the right or left, making it the most perfect Bake in the world, and its success is unparalleled in the history of Harvesting Implements. J. Me CHILDS & CO., UTiOA, isr. Y., Are General Agents for the *' WISHER" SELF-OPERATIMfl RAKE, B^^CK EYE MOWER., and Dealers in First-class Agricultural Implements and Farming Tools, keeping the largest and best assortment in New York State. ^^ Correspondence solicited. WESTCOTT'S PATENT RETURN BUTTER PAIL Tis now eight years since this Package was introduced to the public, and experience has proved it to be in all respects the best, and most profitable to use, as the testimony of many of our leading dairymen bears witness. Tlie object of those who devote their attention to the production of Butter i •, of course, to make money as in any other business, and any aid in increasing the profits of Butter making should be welcome to those directly interested. By reference to Produce Market Reports it will be ascertained that PAIL BUTTER BRIN&S FROM 3 TO 7 CENTS MORE per pound than any other in New York City market, or an average of 5 cents per pound. Now, as each pail holds 50 lbs., this makes a profit of $3.50 on a pail once filled ; $30 on a dozen, or $250 on a hundred, BESIDES SAVING THE PACKAGE FOR FUTURE USE, and time, otherwise necessary to procure new ones. The charge for returning pails being nominal (about 10 cents each) the profit of using becomes r. demonstrated fact. In addition to the "Westcott Pail, of which we are exclusive manufacturers, we al<=^o make While Onk Batter Firkins, Half Firkin Tubs, 25 pcund Butter Pails, and Oak Water Pails, +o which w9 respectfully invite t he attention of the trade, confident that our long experience, extensive facilities and favorable lo- cation, justifies us in promising complete satisfaction to all who may favor us with their commands. Address SILSBY BRO'S, Belmont, Aliegany Co., N. Y. THE BIETAI.I.IC Butter Package Company, I'-A.T^BlXrTDESI^ OOT7- 6, ±&'7'^m We offer this package to the produr;er as a substitute and Improvement, on ,11 styles of Butter Packages now in use. Its merits are ims, STBElTfi, ilRMITY II M, IIGIT fill nd it abolishes the los3 by Soakage. Owing to the demand for the special woods required to make the ordinary lackage, the dairy districts have been drained, thus forcing makers to use inferior •ackages, and as a result of this the flavor of the wood is imparted to the butter, rbich deteriorates its selling value. The Metallic Package, does away with this. )ur package does not absorb any moisture from the butter, thus preventing ane'ulity. No allowance for Soakage has to be made on our Package, the weight / the paehage being uniform before and after use. It does away with the vexed [uestion of Tares. Common wood packages weigh from 13 to 25 lbs., riie Metallic Package Aveig^hs only 5 lbs., wliich in n saTiiig of 25 per cent, on Froia:lit alone. Tlie Fa»trnins£S and Covers are Simple, Complete, and Durable. The Butter can be readily stripped, with no waste occasioi ed by discoloration f wood staves I The package is as strong as the ordinary wooden tub or Pail, :eeps the flavor of the butter longer, and is AS CHEAP AS THE COMMON KINDS. For full particulars, testimonials, etc. Address TBZS I^ETAIiIiXC BI7!?TER FACSAGE CO., 150 Chambers St., Hew ITork. CONSTRUCTED UPON CORRECT AND SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES IIMEFROVED IHT 1873-4-5. TJHESE P^NS ^ISTD Vi^TS ARE ARRANGED IN Fonr Single, or Two Donble Raeks, whichever best Soits the Size of the Dairy Room. ^SeCUSCA/' ALOm THE ORANCE COUNTY M!LK PAN (manufactured under douglas's patents.) The superiority of this Pan consists, 1st. In the eiise with which the tempenvture of the milk is controlled, the water coming in contact with the bottom and sides, unifornaly and quickly cooling the milk and raising the cream. 2d. The simple and perfect arrangement for controlling the quantity of water used by means of tlie " Patent Water Regulator " 3t]. Tlie convenient manner of letting off the milk without disturbing the water used ; an oval form of bottom ujakes it easv in washing. 4th. < an be readilv taken from the vat to clean the bottom <>f pan and inside of water vat, which is necessary to remove the slime and pediment deposited by the water, several times in each season. oth. 'riiey are most durable and comi)lete in themselves, needing no benclies or tables, it being impossible for a pan or vat to sag out of shane, or strain the joints. The success that the pan h:is met with, during the past season, in tlie States of Vermont. Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, is very flattering, giving entire satisfaction. To furnish the best, most complete and durable milk pan, to the dairying public, is the in- tention of the Orange County Milk Pan Co. The attention of those intere.-ted in creameries, and all butter makers are invited t(^ its merits. CORRESPONDENCE REQUI.STED AND QUESTIONS CHEERFULLY ANSWERED. Address ORANGIS COU^JTV MILK TAN CO., Franklin, Delaware Co., N. 7. ILLUSTRATliD C1RC!UI.AK SENT UPON AI»i»L.ICATION. MANUFACTURERS OF Appar VATS WITH HEATERS ATTACHED A SPECIALTY. Made in Eleven Sizes.-Guaranteed to Work Satisfactorily. •*• Vats with steam Pipes; Curd Drainers; Portable Boilers, adapted for Agricultural Steamers; Portable Efigines, can be used in any place requiring light power ; Factory and Dairy Churns; Curd Mills; Ifoops and Screws; Improyed Combination Beam Cheese Factory Scales; Curd Knives; Rennet Jars ; Factory Glass and Tin Ware ; Account Books, &c., &c., &c., KEPT CONSTANTLY IIST STOCK. MANUFACTURERS OF The Latest and Most Improved FACTORY MILK CAN TRIMMINGS The ^VHOLE^AIiE AIS D RETAIL. TRADE promptly supplied at the most favorable rates. These Trimmings possess many points of superiority over all others. Parties building Factories will do better by ordering the stock for their cans of us, with other Apparatus, or instructing their tinners to do so. Tin pJate bodies furnished when desired. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL DEALERS IN Gappings, Eennets, Annatto, ANS FACTORY SUPPLSES GENERALLY. We make the manufacture and sale of this class of goods our exclusive busi- ness, and give them our entire attention. Having the benefit of more than sixteen years' experience, we are able to produce the best and most complete goods in every respect. Address for Catalogue, Price Lists, &c., B. H. ROS & CO., inCadison, Lake Co., Oli'o. EAGLE STEAMER AND CALDRON. This is a New Steamer recently brougtit out by E. E. Sill, of Hochester, N. Y., and is particularly well adapted for Dairy purposes. It is most thoroughly made, and tested up to from 50 to 75 lbs. to the square inch under water, and from 35 to 35 lbs. under steam before sending out, it has very large fire surface, consequently makes steam easily and rapidly and with small amount of fuel, is perfectly safe, and most easily managed steamer yet offered to the public. The supply barrel is of Iron with water gauge, showing hight of water. Two (2) cut-off cocks to shut off steam and -water from steamer while re-fllling. This can be done without stopping or loss of steam, the steamer doing full duty while filling barrel. There is also an aut omatic feed or regulator upon steamer, (with gauge glass upon it,) which regu- lates the hight of water in boiler, always holding it at a given point ; the glass show- ing the exact state of water in boiler. The fire-pot has 1,000 inches of fire and water surface. Being made in this way it is very durable. The Eagle Steamer is now used in Dairies, Laundries, Bath-Houses, Tannerie?. For steaming lumber and food for stock ; in Hospitals and Hotels for cooking, and very many other uses. For Circulars, Prices, Sizes, etc. Address B. B. S2I.I., Rochester, W. *?. THE AMERICAN DAIRY SALT COMPANY. J. W. BARKER, THOMAS MOLLOY, Pres't and Scc'y. Treasurer. •♦• General Ofi&ce, - - No. 1 Clinton Block, SYRACUSE, N. Y. SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE CELEBRATED ONONDAGA FACTORY FILLED DAIRY AND TABLE SALT. Respectfully call tlie attention of I>airymen and others to tlie finality of Salt vlom/v being- man nfaettired. l>y tliem. Having for many years past been enjraged in perfecting the various processes for the manufacture of this salt, and by adop:ing the best modes and machinery for the purpose, they feel warranted m saying to the consumer, that the article now produced is superior to any other either of foreign or domestic production. The following is an analysis of our salt, and also of Ashtou's, and several other well-known brands of English F. F. Salt, made in j^pril, 1875, byMessis. Waltz and Stillman, Chemist^, of New York, under the direction of a committee of the Butter and Cheese Exchange of New York, the various samples being selected by the Committee from lots they found on sale in market. Onondaga Onotidipa Ashton. Marshall's. Ashton Wasli'ton. Higgins. Worth'ton. Deans. Eice's-i.r Mills Wills. 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 Water 0.7880 0.4940 0.6280 0.5620 8260 0.5120 1.0480 0.9140 Insoluble Matter 0.05r4 0.0500 0.0264 0.0616 0.08(Ki 0.0258 0.0i:« 0.0114 Siiluhate of Lime 1.2272 0.8888 0.7217 1.37J»8 1.20(Ni 1.2;«)9 1.H006 0.7070 SnlDliiite of Magnesi- 0.0769 0.0:;81 0.0817 0.1616 0'0431 1.1074 Chloride of Calcium 0.0473 .. 0.02i«' Chloride of Mignesium... 0.0591 0.0346 0-0124 1.0;ill 0.0774 0.0156 Snhihate of Soda 0.1135 0.1076 Chloride of Sodium 9T.7.5'.i8 98.4065 98.524J 9S.0229 97.6809 97.9;W.) 97.5185 98.3Sf4 99.9i)74 99.9809 99.9323 100.1204 99.03C5 99.8553 100.0357 100.0640 Circulars in regard to Tarious other tests made with this salt in comparison with the best foreign article, also certificates from a lars-e number cf the best dairies in the State as to i^s quaUly, may be had on application to J. W. Barker, Secretary, Syracuse, N. Y., to whom orders for salt mav also bp arlr!re?=;e(l. It is also for sale by the Agents of the Company in principnl "Western LJike Ports; by St. John & Averv, 101 pnd 103 Broad Street, New Y-rk ; Robert G^^pt, 109 Pier, Albany, N. Y.; E. W. Peck & Co., Burlington, Vermont, and by dealers generally throughout the State of New Y( rk. Inquire for Onondaga Factory Filled Salt. J. W BAHK^B., THOWSAS WIOLLOY, Treasurer. President and Secretary. Syracuse, May, 1875. "EXCELSiOR I "-"PROGRESS AND IMPROVEMENT." ■♦♦» RURAL NEW-YORKER. THE GREAT MTIOXAL ILLUSTKATED RURAL, LITERARY AND FAMILY WEEKLY, ••• D. D. T. MOOKE, Founder and Conducting Editor, WITH A CORPS OF ABLE ASSOCL\TES AND COXTEEBUTORS. DuKrNG the past Quarter of a Century this Popular Weekly has attained a circulation influence and position, wiiich place it in the van of all American contemporaries ' in its peculiar and important sphere of journalism. Adhering to its glorious Motto, '' Excelsujr,'' and laudable Objects, " Progress and Improvement,'' it has long been acknowledged as the leading and BEST WEEKLY OF ITS CLASS! Moore's Rural has long been the Standard Authority on all subjects pertaining to Agriculture. Horticulture, and Domestic Affairs. Its Dairy Department. Edited by X. A. WiLLARD, M. A., is alone worth many times the price of the paper to any one engaged in Dairy Husbandry. The Best Talent is employed upon the Rural New-Yorker, and its Practical Departments are not only able but especially adapted to the wants of TBE rARMER, THE DAIR'STMABT, THE STOCK GROOVER, THE HORTICt7I.TXrRZS7, THE HOXrSEl^IFE, die. But in addition to its attention to Practical Aff"airs, the Rural is not unmindful of the Family Circle, for it devotes several pages of eaeh number to Choice and High Toned Literarij and Miscellaneous Reading, adapted to both sexes and all ages. This feature has given it a high reputation, all over the land, AS A LITERARY AND FAMILY PAPER. The moral tone of Moore's Rural has always been pure and unexceptionable, while its value as an Educator is worth many times its cost to any family. THE RURAL'S ILLUSTRATIONS Will continue to be Appropriate, Varied and Beautiful. Ii.deed. our object is to render the paper exceptionallv Valuable and Acceptable in all its Departments. Its Reports of Markets, Crops, Etc.. are alone worth double the price of the Rural. Each Number of the Rural New-Yorker contains Sixteen Quarto Pages, handsomely Printed and Illustrated. A Title Page and Index given at the close of each \ olume, ending with June and December. TERITIS, In Advance, Postage Prepaid t-Only $2.65 per Year-less to Clubs, and great Inducements to Club Agents. Premium Lists. Specimens, Etc.. sent free. Address MOORE'S RURAL NEW-YORKER, No. 78 Duane St., New York. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. By X. A. WILLARD, M. A., Autlwr of Willai'd's Practical Butter Book, Editor Dairy Husbandry Department of Moore's Rural New-Yorker, Lecturer before various Associations, Presi' dent New York State Dairymen's Association, Etc., Etc. FULLY AND HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED, 546 L.ARQE: OCTAVO PAGES.— Price $3. This work comprises a complete treatise on Milk and its products, including DAIRY FARMS AND FARMING; aRASSES AS7D CATTZiIS FOODS; DAIRY STOCK, BREEDING, SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT; MIIiK, COMPOSITION, CHARACTER, &c. HISTORT OF CHEESE AND BUTTER FAOTORIES, AND MODE OF ORGANIZATION; MINUTE DIEECTIONS FOB THE MANUFACTURE AND CARE OF BUTTER AND CHEESE, BOTH AT FARM DAIRIES AND FACTORIES. This is the standard work on Dairy Husbandry, and has been highly commended by all the leading Agricultural and other journals in this country and Europe. The following are a few of the notices in brief : Practical Dairt Httsbaxbrt by Hon. X. A. Willard, the acknowledged authority on all subjects pertnining to the Dairy, is the only stiindard work of any account in this coun- iry, and must be regarded as a very valuable additiou to agricultural literature.— Fermoni Mecord and Farmer. It is a book which fills a long unsupplied want, there being nothing of the kind in print which unites general information on dairy farming, with an account of the coustruction of ciieese end butter factories, etc., etc.— Cotmtry Gentleman. This volume will be hailed everywhere with pleasure. " PRACTICAL DAlRYHtrSBANDRT " should be in the hands of every dairyman and farmer of Vermont.— iJut/arwi (Ft.) Herald. To a practical dairyman, whether engaged in the manufacture of butter and cheese or simply in the production of milk, this work is invaluable.— iVafional Live Stoch Journal. The volume is remarkable for its completeness and the clearness and accuracy <>f its de- tails. No important point connected with the subject appears to have been overlooked, and the style is a model of simplicity and compactness of statement. There are few volumes of the farmers' library that contain such a variety of practical information, and in which the method is so well adapted to the nature of the subject.— ^eiw York Tribune. Mr. X. A. Willard is equally well known on this side of the Atlantic as he is in America by all those who study the literature of the dairy, and is certainly the chief exponent in our ti jie of all that is sound in theory or practice in the production of milk and its conversion into other popular foods. It is the most popular work on Dairy Husbandry that has ever been published. It is the most complete and exhaustive.— JLondon {England) Milk Journal. Published by THE RURAL PUBLISHING CO., Rural New-Yorker Office, 78 Duane St., New York. PATENT MILK PAN. Patented in United States, Teb. 23, 1873. Patented in Canada, - - March, 187' This Pan was Awarded the Medal at the N. E. Fair, at Boston, 1873. A Diploma at the N. H. State Fair. The First ' Prize at Potsdam, N. ¥,, and other places. This Pan is the cheapest and most durable large Pan yet invented, and is the only one that empties over the top, thereby avoiding the use of corks, which have proved so troublesome in getting sour, and in allowing the milk to leak. It is simple and easily handled, a child can empty it. The Pan is made of heavy tm, the bottom Japanned or painted to avoid rust, and the vat lined with galvanized iron. It does not wear by using, as it rests on the rim, and the body of the pan touches nothing but water. It is separate from the vat, and can be readily re- moved if desired for drying or repairs. The water is so arranged that a uniform temperature is obtained, thereby producing more and better cream than by any other arrangement. Reference is made to the following gentlemen who have used the "Pan," and have testified to its merits, viz.: Hon. L. P. Tenny, Albany, Yt. ; O. L. & A. H. Kiddeb, Holland, Vt. ; "Wm. SrvBiGHT and A. P. Neles, Derby, Vt., and S. S. Clark, Potsdam, N. Y. Parties wishing to order Pans, or to purchase*" Territorial Bights" to mann- factnre, will address, C. C. & W. B. COLBY, Derby Line, Vt., or, Stanstead, Prov. Quebec. RANDALL'S PRACTICAL SHEPHERD: A Complete Treatise on the Breeding, Management and Diseases of Sheep. This Work, by the TTon. Henry 8, Randall, LL. D., (author of "Sheep Husbandry in the South," "Fine Wool Slicep Husbandry," &c.,) is the Standard Authority on the Subject. It is the most complete and reliable Treatise on American Sheep Husbandry ever published, and (as the New England Farmer says) "should be in the hand and head of every person owning slieep." The Practical Shepherd contains 452 pages, and is illustrated, printed and bound in superior style. Twenty-seventh Edition now ready. Sent by mail post-iiaid, on receipt of price— $2. Address . RrrRAL PUBLiISmiVG CO., •78 Duane St., New York. THE PEOPLE'S PRACTICAL POULTRY BOOK y y ^ A WOEK ON THE BEEEDING, EEAEINa, OAEE AND GENEEAL MAN- AGEMENT OF POULTEY. is one of the finest gotten-up works on the subject on ^„^'2w -md nro'fuselr illis^ >, of any publication of the kind in this country It is finely and profusely iiius- id printed and bound in extra style. Contains 224 large octavo p.iges. bent, by This and price trated, and printed mail, post-paid, for $1.50. Address RURAIi PUBL,lSHINCi CO., 78 Diiaiie St., l^iew York* CHARLES MILLAE & SON, MANTJFACTURERS OP Improved Apparatus OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS, FOR CHEESE FACTORIES, CREAMERIES, OR PRIVATE DAIRIES. ALSO, DEALERS IN BANDAG^E, RENNETS, SCAIiE BOARDS, AND Alili KINDS OP FURNISHING GOODS SOLE WHOLESALE AGENTS IN AMERICA FOR NICHOLLS* CELEBRATED Extract of Annatto, The Best Coloring Matter for Batter or Cheese. ||^° iSend for our full Illustrated Circnla^r. Address CHARLES MIIiliAR Sl SON, Utica, N. Y, N. B— Millar's New Portable Engine, " THE IRON SLAVE," is the latest and best Engine for small power purposes made. m-