UMASS/AMHERST 31EDtfe0D53D0mD ,^ARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL '"^^' jE Source C20 'M o BUSH-FRUITS •»^2^^^ BUSH -FRUITS A Horticultural Monograph of Raspberries, Blackberries, Dewberries, Currants Gooseberries, and Other Shrub -Like Fruits BY FEED W. CARD Professor of Horticulture in the Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and Horticulturist to the Experiment Station formerly Pi-ofessor of Horticulture in the Univjersity of Nebraska THE MACMILLAX COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 1898 All rights reserved cn Copyright, 1898, By FRED W. CARD J. Horace McFarland Company Harrisburg, Pa. PREFACE BY THE EDITOR In a proposed series of monographs on the various types of American fruits, this book is the first. Its purpose is to present both the practical and technical phases of all the important questions concerned in the cultivation and domestication of the fruits under discussion. It has been the effort to separate these two classes of matter, so that the grower may go direct to his subject without being distracted by details of history, botany or ento- mology ; and the student and investigator may be equally at ease in rapid reference to the subjects in which he is primarily- interested. A historical sketch is of the greatest value as information and in giving the reader a perspective of the subject, but it is of no direct importance to the cultiva- tion of a crop, and, therefore, should not fonn an introduction to the practical matter, nor be incor- porated with it, notwithstanding the fact that such amalgamation is the custom. The practical matters in this book aim to begin where the cultivator must begin, — with the land and the plant. In this, as in other volumes of the series of (v) Vi PREFACE BY THE EDITOR which it is a part, the aim has been to treat gen- eral truths and principles, rather than mere details of practice. A book cannot instruct in all the de- tails of any rural business, because these details vary with the environment and the personality of the operator. The book should attempt, therefore, to give such instruction as to enable the reader to think out and to solve the local problems for him- self. When practices are described in detail, it is rather more for the purpose of illustrating a prin- ciple than for the giving of direct advice. In this book an effort has been made to dis- cuss all those small - fruits which have many or most points in common. Therefore, the strawberry and cranberry have been omitted, and the term bush -fruits, long in use in England, is employed to designate the group. The use of this term will go far towards elucidating the principles involved in the cultivation of the fruits here described, by eliminating unrelated topics ; for the principles which underlie the management of the strawberry are no more like the principles underlying the management of the blackberry than they are like those concerned in the growing of the apple. The domestication of the bush -fruits is one of the most recent developments of American horticul- ture, and the subject is all the more interesting PREFACE BY THE EDITOR VU because all the important types, excepting the cur- rant, are evolutions from the species of our own woods. Since the enterprise is so new, the reader must not expect the advice which is given for the management of the bush -fruit plantation to be as permanent and final as that which might be given for apples or pears. It only remains to say that this book is an extension of a thesis presented to the Cornell Uni- versity for the degree of Master of Science in Agri- culture, and. to add. that the author was a bush- fruit grower before he was a university student and a teacher. L. H. BAILEY. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Sept. 30. 1898, CONTENTS Part I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER I „^^^^ PAGES Introductory Discussion 1-42 The location, 3— The laud, 5— Fertilizers, 6— Suggestions on planting, 7— Management of the land, 12 — Tillage tools, 14— Pruning, 16— Winter killing, 19 — Propagation, 25— Thinning the fruit, 27— Effect of spraying on pollination, 27— Forcing raspberries and blackberries, 28— Suggestions on picking, 29— Packages and marketing, 32— Remarks on crossing berries, 36. Part II THE BRAMBLES CHAPTER II The Red Raspberries 43-60 Soil, 43— Location, 44— Fertilizers, 45— Propagation, 45— Planting, 46— Pollination, 48 -Tillage, 49— Pruning, 49— Autumn fruiting, 52— Harvesting and marketing, 53— Uses, 54— Duration of plantations, 55 — Hardiness, 57— Yields 58— Normal profits, 58— Note on the hybrid reds, 59. CHAPTER III Black Raspberries 61-105 Soil for black-caps, 61— Location, 62 — Fertilizers, 63— Propa- gation, 65 — Planting, 67— Tillage, 69— Pruning, 70— Har- vesting, 74— Methods of drying, 77 (drying out of doors, drying under glass, drying with evaporators)— Marketing, 82— The evaporated raspberry industry, 83— Duration of plantations, 99— Clearing the ground, 99— Hardiness of black-caps, 100-Yields, 101-Usual profits, 103. Ox) X CONTENTS CHAPTER IV PAGES The Blackberries 106-131 Soil, 106— Fertilizers, 107— Propagation of the blackberry, 108— Planting, 112— Tillage and mulching, 115— Pruning, 117— Harvesting and marketing, 119— Uses, 120— Duration of plantations, 123— Killing the plants, 124— Hardiness, 125- Yield, 125- Profits, 127. CHAPTER V The Dewberries 132-145 Soil for dewberries, 135— Location, 137— Fertilizers, 138— Propagation, 138-Planting, 139-Tillage, 141-Pruning and training, 141 — Harvesting and marketing, 143— Dur- ation of plantations, 143 — Killing out the patch, 144— Hardiness, 144— Yield of dewberries, 145— Probable profits, 145. CHAPTER VI Miscellaneous Brambles 146-156 The oriental raspberries, 146 (the mayberry, the strawberry- raspberry, the wineberry, the Chinese raspberry) — Or- namental species, 150 (Huhiis odoratiis, R. parviflorus, B. cratcegifolius, B. arcticus, B. phcenicolasius, B. spec- tabilis, B. laciniatus, double white and pink brambles). CHAPTER VII Varieties of Raspberries 157-218 (I) Black raspberries, 158— Recommended varieties of black- caps, 176— (II) The purple-cane raspberi'ies, 177— Recom- mended varieties, 184— (HI) The American red raspberries, 184— History and future of the red raspberries, 186— Varie- ties, 192— Recommended varieties, 199- (IV) The European red raspberries, 199— Recommended varieties, 212— (V) Unclassified varieties, 212 — Recommended varieties, 218. CHAPTER VIII Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 219-250 A. The blackberries: History and future of the blackberry, 221- (I) The long-cluster blackberries, 226- (11) The short-cluster blackberries, 232- (HI) The leafy-cluster CONTENTS Xi blackberries, 235— (IV) The white blackberries, 237— (V) pages Tlie loose-cluster blackberries, 238— (VI) The sand black- berry, 240— Recommended varieties of blackberries, 240. B. The dewberries: (VII) The northern dewberries, 244— (VIII) The southern dewberries, 24G-(IX) The west- ern dewberries, 247— Recommended varieties of dewber- ries, 250. CHAPTER IX Insects affecting the Brambles 251-283 The more important insects, 252 — The less prominent in- sects, 274. CHAPTER X Diseases of the Brambles 284-302 The important fungous diseases, 285— Other important dis- eases, 292— Less prominent diseases, 296. CHAPTER XI The Botany of the Brambles . ^ 303-336 Part III THE GROSELLES CHAPTER XII Currants 337-356 Soil and location, 339— Fertilizers, 340— Propagation, 341— Planting, 344— Subsequent tillage, 346— Pruning, 347— Gathering and marketing, 349— Uses, 351 — Duration of plantations, 352— Hardiness, 353— Yield, 353— Profits, 354— Black currants, 355. CHAPTER XIII Gooseberries 357-374 Soil and location, 358— Fertilizers, 359— Propagation, 359— Planting, 363-After-treatment, 364-Pruning, 364-Gath- ering and marketing, 367— Uses, 368— Duration of planta- tions, 370- Hardiness, 371-Yield, 371-Proflts, 372- English gooseberries, 372. XI 1 CONTENTS CHAPTER XIV PAGES Varieties of Currants 375-393 History, 376— Red and white currants, 379— European black currants, 388— The golden or buffalo currant, 390— The American black currant, 390— Recommended varieties, 391. CHAPTER XV Varieties of Gooseberries 394-414 History and future, 396— American gooseberries, 399— Hy- brids or unclassed varieties, 402— English gooseberries, 403 — Recommended varieties, 412 — Ornamental currants and gooseberries, 413. CHAPTER XVI Insects Injurious to the Groselles 415-432 The leading pests, 415— The less important enemies, 427. CHAPTER XVII Diseases of the Groselles 433-442 The most important diseases, 433— Other injurious fungi, 439. CHAPTER XVIII . The Botany of the Groselles 443-484 Part IV MISCELLANEOUS TYPES CHAPTER XIX Other Species of Bush-Fruits 485-512 Buffalo berry, 485— The goumi, 488— Huckleberries, 491 — Juneberries, 501 — The tree cranberry, 506— The barberry, 508- The sand cherry, 510. APPENDIX American Books on Bush -Fruits 513-515 INDEX (page 517) BUSH-FRUITS Part I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER I INTBOD UCTOB Y DISC USSION It is but reasonable to suppose that most of those into whose hands this book may fall are al- ready interested in the cultivation of bush -fruits, and need no urging to a further consideration of their merits. Yet, should there be a reader who argues that it is cheaper and easier to buy than to grow fruit for the family, he ought, here and now, to be convinced of the error of his ways. If he is a farmer, he cannot afford to do without an abundance of fresh fruit the season through, for the ease and cheapness with which it can be grown, and its inestimable value as an aid to the health and attractiveness of the home, make it one of the first necessities of the household. Moreover, the day is past in most sections of the country when any farmer can respect himself and allow his wife 2 BUSH-FELITS or other members of the family to forage the fences, tramp through the woods and over the fields and hills, for a few poor berries which, by any method of reckoning, have cost many times their value at highest retail prices. If, on the other hand, the disinterested reader is a professional or business man, confined in a store, office, class-room or study, how better can he secure the recreation and exercise which he so much needs than in the care of a little home -garden, in which our friends, the bush -fruits, occupy a share of attention? Indeed, he may count himself most fortunate if he can possess a garden of his own, for then every plant becomes in a cer- tain sense a companion and a friend. Fruit which has been watched and tended from the opening bud to its ripening glow, acquires a flavor and piquancy all its own, which the product of the grocer's stand can never equal. The question of whether it is wise to grow bush- fruits for home use is easily answered in the affirma- tive. The question as to whether it will pay to plant them for market depends upon many things, chief of which are the facilities for gathering and marketing. Whoever attempts to grow even a small patch of berries for market, if located at some dis- tance from a village or town of some size, soon realizes that his chief difficulty is not in growing the fruit but in getting it picked. Plenty of help may seem to be available, and many persons may be offering their services, but few people who have not had experience know what it means to pick berries THE PICKING PROBLEM 3 all day under a scorching July sun. Not many have sufficient perseverance to do this unless practically compelled to do so. This is especially true when the chief dependence must be placed on women, w^ho are unaccustomed to outdoor work, so that between the real and the feigned cases of illness the grower finds his force growing smaller and smaller, with berries wasting on the bushes. It is the custom with most growers to protect themselves by paying the full price for picking only to those who remain throughout the season, "but even this precaution can- not wholly' obviate the difficulty. Near towns of considerable size, this trouble largely disappears, and new hands can be had to replace those who drop out. The expense and trouble of marketing small fruits at a considerable distance from home is also a serious objection in manj' regions, adding materially to the cost of the product, and rendering it less attractive in market. One line of berry growing, however, is open to the farmer, independent of the proximity to pickers and markets ; that is the grow- ing of raspberries for evaporating, which will be more fully treated under the chapter on raspberries. THE LOCATION * The immediate location or slope of the land may affect in great measure the success of a crop. Most *In the following discussions of the care and treatment of the bnsh-fruit plantation, only general and summary statements can be made. For more thorough consideration of some of these subjects, the reader is referred to Bailey's "Principles of Fruit-Growing." 4 BUSR-FRUITS bush -fruits naturally thrive best in cool mountainous or hilly localities, hence a cool northern exposure is to be preferred. Throughout a large i^art of the interior country more injury to the plants comes from the heat of the sun in summer than from excessive cold in the Avinter. Instances have oc- curred where plants in a protected basin have es- caped injury during the winter only to have the fruit scald and dry up in summer. The difficulty of overcoming the summer heat is especially great in the Southern states and drj- portions of the West. Indeed in very many of these localities these fruits cannot be profitably grown at all in field culture. Blackberries succeed much better in the far South than raspberries, while red raspber- ries endure better than blacks. On the Plains, black -caps thrive better than either reds or black- berries. It is found much more difficult to propa- gate the black -caps in the Gulf states than at the North, and it can be successfully done only in par- tially shaded locations. The fruit is also said to diy up on the bushes worse than that of the reds. Red raspberries, blackberries and currants can be made to succeed fairly well in proximity to trees, where thej- get the benefit of partial shade. In this connection a word concern ing wind-breaks may not be out of place, for in mau}^ localities they possess a decided value in protecting fruit planta- tions. Their usefulness is not confined to protection from cold. In many regions their most important service consists in lessening the evaporation of LAND FOB BUSH-FBUITS 5 moisture from soil and plants. This is particularly true in those portions of the West which are sub- ject to drj'ing winds in both summer and winter. THE LAND Land which will yield profitable returns in bush- fruits can be found almost everywhere, since these fruits are not fastidious in their demands. The one thing which they insist on is that the land shall not be wet and heav}-. It should be deep and porous, however, so that it may withstand drought. Strong clay loam and sandy loam undoubtedly give the most universal sat- isfaction, although experience has shown that bush- fruits can be suecessfullj- grown on almost any soil which is not wet and sour. In general, the stronger soils are better adapted to varieties of only moderately vigorous growth, while the thinner and lighter soils are better suited to more rampant growers. Red rasp- berries and blackberries succeed well on comparatively light soil, provided they retain moisture, while dew- berries thrive on very light sand, and currants and gooseberries are at home even in heavj' clay. Sod land should generally be avoided, if possible. It is inconvenient to furrow and plant, and more or less trouble will arise from the growth of grass. It is more difficult for the plants to become firmly rooted, and they are much more liable to suffer from drought than if planted in well subdued soil. Thorough preparation of the land previous to plant- ing is a matter of the utmost importance. No amount 6 BUSH-FBUITS of after care can atone for neglect in this particular. Land which has been thoroughly worked for one or two seasons previous to planting is always to be pre- ferred. Subsoiling will prove advantageous in many cases, if the substratum is hard and impervious. This is particularly^ to be recommended in regions subject to drought. It should be done the fall before plant- ing, or even sooner, in order that the loosened sub- soil may become saturated and somewhat compact. Plantings immediately following spring subsoiling may suffer more from drought than those on land not sub- soiled, because of the more rapid drying out of the recently loosened soil. For the same reason, fall plowing is to be preferred to spring plowing in dry sections of the country. The essential thing is that the soil at the time of planting shall be moist, friable and thoroughly pulverized as deep as possible, so that the roots shall find firm, moist, well -fined feeding ground. Soil which is uniformlj' fertile by previous high culture and manuring, is always to be preferred to a neglected soil with heavy fertilizing immediately at the time of planting. FERTILIZERS Probabl}' no other fertilizer is so often used and recommended as stable manure, and, in most cases, it gives very satisfactory- results. The only caution needed is to avoid its use on very strong, moist soils, where it might cause excessive growth. The best time to apply it is during the fall or early winter, FEBTILIZERS 7 for the reason that if applied in spring a large proportion of it becomes available only toward the latter part of the season, thus indncing a late fall growth, which is liable to snffer during the follow- ing winter. Since all fruits require liberal amounts of potash to insure their best development, wood ashes, cotton -seed hull ashes or muriate of potash form a useful supplement to stable manure. If com- mercial fertilizers are to be depended on altogether, ground bone and muriate of potash form a verj- sat- isfactory combination. Dried blood, if used in amounts not to exceed 400 pounds per acre, has given good re- sults in some parts of the country. This, being a nitrogenous fertilizer, should be used only in limited quantities to supplement other materials containing little or no nitrogen. For a slow- acting fertilizer furnishing phosphoric acid, Thomas slag is being more or less recommended. It should be remembered, how- ever, that of the three great fertilizing elements, it contains only phosphoric acid, and this in a form only slowly available, so that it should be used only in connection with other materials. It is likely to prove better adapted to the needs of the more permanent orchard fruits than to the small fruits. SUGGESTIONS OX PLANTING There are good arguments in favor of either spring or fall planting. The chief advantages of fall plant- ing are that it can be done with less haste, and when the ground is in good condition. If a mulch of coarse 8 BUSH-FBUITS manure or of earth is placed over the crown, the plant will usually pass the winter safely, and be in a position to begin growth at once in the spring, without loss of time. Unless spring planting is done early, before growth begins, the check received is likely to seriously impede the season's growth. Moreover, a plant set in early fall is able to repair the damage to its root sys- tem, in a measure, before the season of growth the following spring, for root growth may go on to some extent in cool weather, when the upper part of the plant is dormant. On the other hand, early spring planting does away with the extra expense of covering and un- covering the plants, and leaves the soil in good, mellow condition for work during the summer. It is the best method for black- caps and dewberries propagated by tips, and will usually be found most satisfactory for all kinds, if the work is done properly and in season. For increasing a stock on one's own grounds, young shoots of the present year's growth, of red raspberries or blackberries, may be used with excellent results, transplanting them like cabbage plants, any time after they are four inches high. Cut off the tops if they are much higher than this, and by fall they will be strongly established and well on their way toward a profitable bearing plant. All plants, particularly of red raspberries and blackberries, should be carefully lifted, to secure as much of the root system as possible. If merely pulled up, the plant will usually break at the connection with the root from which it sprung, leaving only a straight stub, poorly equipped for growth. The common practice is to plant bush -fruits in PLANTING 9 rows six to eight feet apart, with plants two to three feet apart iu the row, j'et it is hy no means certain that this is the most profitable mode. Many of the best growers prefer to set in cheek rows, with plants five to seven feet apart each way, thus keeping them entirely in hills, and doing nearh- all of the work of cultivation with a horse. This not only reduces the cost of cultivation, but secures a finer grade of fruit, ren- dering it a particularly satisfactory- plan for discrimi- nating markets. In regions of deficient rainfall, more space must be allotted to each plant, in order to in- sure it a sufficient supply of moisture. The hill method of planting would seem, therefore, to be well adapted to those regions, while high-priced lands in moist climates, or under irrigation, may yield a greater return bj- the closer hedge-row planting. The suckers, which spring up in such great profusion in old plantations of red raspberries or blackberries, are generally more easily controlled by planting in check rows. The methods of planting are simple. The previous soil preparation has already- been discussed, and if this has received attention, it will be easy to put the soil in proper condition to receive the plants. In this connection a b'it of the author's experience may be interesting, if not profitable. As a j'oung country- school teacher, he decided to make his fortune by em- barking in the business of evaporating fruit. As an aid to that end, an acre of black raspberries was to be planted. The order was placed, and very early in spring, while the ground was still cold and wet, there appeared at the express office a huge box, of which 10 BUSH-FRUITS he stood considerably in awe, as well as of the charges demanded thereon. What to do with these plants was then the question, for heeling -in was jQt to him an unlearned mystery. A man was hired to plow the ground, which was covered with at least a partial sod. Without waiting for the harrowing to begin, others were set at work with hoes, making little holes and setting the plants in this most uncongenial home. It is needless to say that this field yielded little profit, except in high-priced experience. The care of young plants when received from the nurserj^man is an important matter, for if ordered from a distance it will seldom be convenient to plant them at once. The bundle should be unpacked as soon as possible, the bunches loosened enough so that all the roots may come in contact with earth, and heeled -in on the north side of a building or in a cool cellar, in moist earth. This is done by simply throw- ing out a shallow trench, with one side slanting, lay- ing the plants against this side and covering the roots with earth, pressing it closely about them. Tier after tier may be packed in this way. Plants so treated will remain, in a cool place, with perfect safety for some time, and may even be benefited by it. If at all dry when received, dousing the roots in water or thin mud before heeling -in is advisable. After the land is well fitted, if the plants are to be set in check rows the field should be marked one waj^ and then furrows the desired distance apart plowed in the other direction, thus enabling the workmen to quickly place the plants at the intersection of the DEEP AXD SHALLOW PLANTING H mark and the furrow. It may aid in plowing a straight furrow to first mark both ways with a marker and follow one set of these with the plow, but by using stakes and ranging with objects in the fields bej'ond, a good driver can plow them very straight without marks. Man}' successful growers of long experience recom- mend deep planting of all bush -fruits, urging that plants set deep are better able to withstand drought, and to stand up better. In that case the furrows are made rather deep, but the plants are onh* moderately covered when set, allowing the balance to be filled in by subsequent cultivation, after the shoots are well started. A word of caution is needed in regard to deep planting, especially with ^'tips." Undoubtedly in some soils and locations it gives better results, but if the subsoil is heavy and hard, the plants will lose far more than they gain. Experiments at the Ne- braska Experiment Station have uniformly' given bet- ter results from shallow planting of black raspberries, notwithstanding that in this section drought is the worst enemy. The stand of plants has been almost a failure and the after -growth poor with deep plant- ing, while adjoining rows planted shallow have given fair results. This is in rich, mellow soil, but under- laid with a rather heavy subsoil. In mellow ground the plants are quickly set by drawing the earth about them with the hands and firming it with the hands or feet, leaving the balance of the furrow to be filled in with a hoe or by subse- quent cultivation. When two or three are planting 12 B USR-FR V ITS together, one should carry the plants in water and drop them just in advance of those who are setting. He should never be allowed to get ahead of the planters, for every exposure to sun and wind, no matter how brief, lessens the vitality of the plant. MANAGEMENT OF THE LAND Some return from the land may be obtained the first 3'ear by planting a hoed crop between the rows, although it is an open question whether in the end anything is gained I)}' the practice. Low -growing crops, like potatoes or cabbage, are commonly recom- mended, though it is quite possible that in the West corn would be preferable, owing to the protection which it affords against drying winds. Cultivation during the first year does not differ from that of any other hoed crop. Frequent stirring of the soil, to keep down weeds and to preserve a loose mulch on the surface, thereby reserving all the moisture and food supply which the land affords for the exclusive use of the plants, is the kej-note of it all. Here, as in everything else, the better the cul- tivation the better the growth. Each succeeding spring, tillage should begin early, with any good implement which will loosen the soil thoroughly and leave the ground level. Hoe about the plants and get the whole surface of the ground in good, mellow tilth. If this is done early it is not a serious task, but if neglected until the ground is hard and the weeds well started, it is difficult and expen- MULCHING 13 sive. A shovel or spade can sometimes be used to good advantage in hedge -row phmting to turn the soil and help to put it in good condition. Some growers use a plow, but this has the objection that it leaves the land in ridges. Most writers recommend that till- age should cease by the middle or last of August, in order to give the plants opportunity' to ripen their wood before winter, yet there are men of wide expe- rience, whose opinions must carry much weight, who believe that tillage should continue through the entire season, or at least up to the time of the first frost. It is a point still open to discussion, and one upon which careful experiments are needed. The locality and season doubtless have much to do in determining which is the wiser course to pursue. Continuous cul- tivation seems to be good in Nebraska. The practicability of mulching to replace tillage is a perennial question. In the home garden, where tillage is often difficult, it is sometimes the most satisfactory method of treating a small plat, if mulch- ing material can be readily obtained. It is generallj^ conceded, however, that no other mulch is so prac- ticable as that formed by a layer of mellow and frequently stirred soil at the surface of the ground. The chief objections to mulching are so concisely summed up by E. A. Hallett, of Galena, 111., that I take the liberty to quote them here as reported in the transactions of the Iowa Horticultural Society for 1883: 1. "It is a tremendous job to apply a heavy mulch to six acres." 2. '4t is very expensive to ob- 14 BUSH-FRUITS tain material for the mulch." 3. "Mulching necessarily causes the roots to run near the surface. In times of drought the top is the first to suffer." On rich soils, where moisture is abundant, con- tinued cultivation may induce a too rampant growth of wood. In such cases cultivation is sometimes abandoned after the second year. The ground maj- be then seeded to clover, which is cut about the time the fruit begins to ripen, and left on the ground for a mulch. Another practice is to grow the clover on a separate piece of land, then cut it and scatter it along the row, but to continue to till the spaces between the rows. TILLAGE TOOLS Very few special tools are needed for the success- ful care of the bush-fruits. The first and most im- portant implement is a cultivator, and for this, any kind w^hich will thoroughly loosen the soil and leave it comparatively level will serve the purpose. It is important that it shall be capable of doing good work when widely spread, for with full grown bushes it is impossible to work close to the roots, except with a wide tool, the wings of which can run under the branches. For suckering varieties, it is a decided advantage to have teeth which are square on the end, instead of pointed, as usually made. Square* pointed teeth will cut off the suckers below the- surface of the ground, while ordinary kinds dodge them to a great extent. They are equally useful in cutting off Canada thistles or other deep-rooting weeds, which often escape. TILLAGE TOOLS 15 A cultivator constructed on this principle has been in almost constant use on the farm of J. H. Hale, South Glastonbury, Conn., for a number of j-ears, and has given complete satisfaction. That particular make is practicalh' the same as the old-fashioned corn cultivator with diamond -shaped, reversible teeth, except that on one end the teeth are square instead of pointed. In soil which is free from stones, knives or cutting blades of steel can be made by a blacksmith and at- tached to an ordinary cultivator in such a waj' that they will follow and either cut or pull out everything left by the teeth. Such a device is used by E. T. Hartley, of Lincoln, Nebraska, for cutting off plum sprouts. Mr. Hartley' also uses a larger and longer knife attached behind a disk harrow for use in or- chard cultivation, which has given excellent satisfac- tion. For use on our grounds at the Nebraska Ex- periment Station, we have a knife attached to the Iron Age harrow -tooth cultivator. This we find to be very useful. In mellow soil a scuffle hoe is a most useful imple- ment for working among plants which have become large and spreading, particularly if grown in hedge rows, so that considerable hoeing needs to be done. The Crescent scuffle hoe answers this purpose admira- bly, or, if the materials are at hand, one can be made by riveting the outer tines of an old fork to a piece of an old bush -scythe, as shown in Fig. 1.* In this connection, two devices for the horse which *Other patterns of useful hand tools are illustrated in "Garden-Making." 16 BUSH-FRUITS does the cultivating should be mentioned, one of which he will appreciate and one of which he will not. This latter is a wire muzzle, in the shape of a basket, which slips over his nose and buckles into the bit rings. This maj- look like taking an unfair advantage of our faithful co- worker, but it will prevent his being scolded and jerked when he admires an exceptionall}' fine cluster of fruit. He Avill also keep his position in the row and do his work better if relieved of the extra task of picking berries and nipping shoots at the same time. The other device is a leather apron to be worn on his breast. This will save him many an ugly scratch and, in a measure, offset the loss of fruit which the muzzle occasions him. It is gen- erally necessary to keep the horse close to one row in order to make the cultivator reach well under the bushes, and this apron will materially aid in doing it. Fig. 1. Home- made searifer or scraper. PRUNING It is better to remove the old canes of raspberries and blackberries soon after they are through fruiting. Any insects which may be harboring in them at the time are thus destroyed. The canes can then be more easily cut, for they are still succulent and soft, while by spring they become very dry and woody. It also PRUNING TOOLS 17 offers a good opportunity to clean up the plantation, and to cultivate close as soon as the old canes are re- moved. The chief advantage to be gained by leaving them until spring is the slight protection from cold and winds which they afford to the younger canes, yet the more canes in the hill the greater the danger from rubbing by the swaying of the winds. Some implement is needed for cutting out the old and superfluous canes during fall or winter. The work can be done with long -handled pruning shears, a corn -cutter, or with an ordinary bush -scythe, but some form of hooked knife, small enough to work in among the canes easily, and cut one at a time, is most convenient. A good tool of this kind can be made from a flat file, bent and sharpened prop- erly, then firmly driven into a shovel or manure -fork handle, as shown, in Fig. 2. A spud (Fig. 3) is often useful in cutting out the canes, and especially in cutting off soft young suckers. Wm. A. Brown, of Michigan, reports* that after trying many de- vices he prefers a tool some- thing like this hook made from a piece of bush -scythe riveted to a flattened shank and driven into a handle. He also recommends a Fig. 2. Pnining-hook. Fig. 3. Pruning-spud. *Report Michigan Hortienltural Society, 1886, 406. B 18 BUSH-FRUITS special rake for use in gathering up the okl canes when through pruning. It consists of a head -piece of four -by -four scantling, five feet long. Into this are fastened seven teeth of three -fourths inch round iron, eighteen inches long. Poles at right angles to the teeth serve for shafts, and a bow is at- tached to the head -piece for handling it. By means of such a tool, the canes can be quickly gathered into piles in the rows, and can then be loaded on a hay rack and drawn away. For the spring pruning, which consists chiefly in shortening -in the laterals, some light, quick and easy- working shears are needed. If the canes are not too large and woody, a strong pair of sheep -shears is most convenient. Light -handled shears with blades ten or twelve inches long, are sometimes recommended. These require both hands to work them, and the chief advantage is in being able to cut several laterals at one stroke. For pinching the new growth in summer, a long- bladed knife or sickle with a keen edge will be found to be convenient if the shoots are so exposed as to allow them to be clipped readily, as on young bushes ; otherwise nothing equals a pair of sheep -shears. In fact, with these shears in one hand and a knife or sickle in the other, the pinching becomes a light task.* *For full discussions of the principles and practice of pruning, consult " The Pnining-Book." WINTER INJURIES 19 WINTER KILLING The hardiness of the varieties which he cultivates is a point of great importance to the grower. The question of what constitutes hardiness has puzzled growers much, and is still unsettled. That the con- ditions of the season and of growth affect in great measure the ability to endure the following winter is certain, although if a variety is constitutionally tender in a given locality, there is little hope that any kind of treatment will make it hardy. Disease or the intense heat of summer may so weaken plants that they are unable to withstand the most favorable winters, while strong, healthy plants will often endure the most trying ones unhurt. Raspberry plants taken up and removed to the forcing house in the fall of 1892 showed all the ordinary sjTQptoms of winter killing when starting into growth under glass, yet they had been subjected to onlj- enough cold to admit of a ball of earth being taken up with them when transferred to the house. It is generally believed that after a comparatively dry fall, favoring a slow, well ripened growth, plants endure the winter best, but even this theory of well ripened wood is still open to doubt. It is certain that slender canes pro- duced during the latter part of the season often winter -kill less than those of the whole season's growth. It is unsafe to assert from this, however, that immature wood is hardier, for canes produced late are smaller, and may make firmer, better ripened wood than those of earlier and more vigorous growtli. 20 BUSE-FBUITS There are some yqyj successful berrj- -growers whose practice is directly opposite to this theory, for they believe in thorough and frequent cultivation up to the time of frost. This tends to favor a late fall growth, producing at least some wood which cannot be well ripened when winter sets in. In many localities winter protection is an essential feature of berry growing, and many growers find it profitable even where it is not absolutely necessarj-. The increased yield, even in mild climates, often more than pays the cost of protection, and a crop of fruit is thereby insured, even though the winter should be an unusually trying one. Different methods are employed for laying -down the canes. Some di4ve over the rows with a wagon, and the axle bends the plants all in one direction. If mulch of any kind is used for covering, like sorghum, bagasse or coarse manure, it can be thrown from the wagon on to the plants at the same time. A fence rail is sometimes used to bend down a section of row at once, leaving the rail there to hold them down. A simple and practical way is to remove a little earth from the side of the hill with a spading or manure fork, bending the plant down in that direction and throwing enough earth over the tips to hold it there. The plants are usually all laid in one direction along the row, the tips of one lapping over the roots of the preceding. In verj' severe climates it is best to en- tirely cover the plants with earth. This is some- times done by running a plow along the row, and throwing the furrow over them after they have been LAYiyO-DOWN THE PLANTS 21 laid down. The objectiou to this plan is that it injures the roots, and with suckering varieties, causes more suckers to sprin^^ up, so that the time saved is lost again in lighting the suckers the following season. Some plow a furrow along the row the first thing, and turn the plants to the side, but that plan is open to the same objection. This lading -down can be done at any time after growth stops in the fall, but before the ground freezes. In some instances no injury has followed covering while yet in full leaf, with several weeks of mild weather following. The time of taking them up in the spring, however, is of greater importance, for if lifted early, with severe weather following, they are much more apt to be injured than plants which have not been covered would be bj^ the same tempera- ture. If left too late, growth may begin while they are still covered, rendering them verj- sensitive to even light frosts when exposed. It is always bet- ter, if the work can be so timed, that a few days of mild weather shall follow the date of lifting. The cost of protecting in this way is variously estimated. T. T. Lyon reports a large plantation of Wilson Early blackberries bearing a bountiful crop, which had been laid down at a cost not exceeding $1.75 per acre. In Wisconsin, where much of it is done, the cost of laying -down blackberries and lifting them again in spring is estimated at about $5 per acre. The verdict of all growers who have practiced lay- ing- down is so unanimously in its favor that there can 22 BCSH-FBUITS be little doubt that in all regions where the winters are especially severe or trying, it will certainly' pay to lay down both raspberries and blackberries. A writer in American Garden in 1890 makes the state- ment that he can insure a quart of blackberries a minute, for the time spent in laying them down. Some growers advise less vigorous summer pruning, or none at all, where plants are to be laid down. Others who practice laying -down verj- extensively also prune severely. Bailey writes* as follows on this subject: "Black- berries and raspberries are extensively laid down in cold climates, and it maj' be well to relate the method here for the benefit of those who occupy bleak loca- tions. Late in fall, the bushes are tipped over and covered. Three men are generalh' emploj'ed to per- form this labor. One man goes ahead with a long- handled, round- pointed shovel and digs the earth away six inches deep from under the roots. The second man has a six-tined or four-tined fork which he thrusts against the plant a foot or so above the ground, and by pushing upon the fork and stamping against the roots with the foot, the plant is laid over in the direction from which the earth was removed. The third man now covers the plant with earth or marsh hay. Earth is generally used, and if the va- riety is a tender one the whole bush is covered two or three inches deep. Hardy varieties may be simply held down by throwing a few shovelfulls of earth *' Principles of Fruit-Growing, " 98 . LAYiyG-DOWy TUfJ PL A XT S 23 on the tops of the canes, thus allowiug the snow to fill in amongst the tops. If the grower lives in a locality where he does not fear late spring frosts, the bushes should be raised earlj^ in the spring ; but if frosts are feared, thej' may be left under cover until corn -planting time. If the buds become large and are bleached white under cover, they will suffer when exposed to the atmosphere ; and one must watch the bushes in spring, and raise them before the buds be- come soft and white. This method of laying -down blackberry plants costs less than $10 per acre, and the slight breaking of the roots is no disadvantage. Some growers dig the eartli away on both sides of the row, and still others bend over the canes without an\' digging. Whatever method is emploj'ed, the operator must be careful not to crack or split the canes. The method can be varied with different va- rieties, for some bear stiff er canes than others." The same author writes* again as follows: "The tops of plants may be laid down for the winter. Fig. 4 shows a method of laying down blackberries, as practiced in the Hudson River Valley. The plants were tied to a trellis, as the method is in that country, two wires fy means of suckers, is a very simple operation. In fact, the plants attend to that matter themselves, and all that the cultivator need do is to take care of the product. Indeed, it is owing to the profusion of PRODUCING YOUNG PLANTS 109 suckers thrown up by these plants that many failures occur among* those who lack the courage or energy to vigorously' destroy them. Unless wanted for planting or for sale, these shoots are weeds in the full sense of the word, and detract as much from the vigor and pro- ductiveness of the parent plant as any other class of weeds. The effect on the parent is the same, to be sure, whether the young plants are wanted or not, and no plantation can yield as heavy crops of fruit if called upon to produce plants also. It merely becomes, then, a question as to w^hich are the more profitable and desirable, the plants or the berries. In general, if the plants are needed for planting, or if there is a market for them at fair prices, they are likely to prove more profitable than fruit. If it is desired to produce many plants of a new and high-priced variety, the number of suckers may be increased by cultivation which tends to disturb the roots. Thrusting a spade into the ground in circles several inches apart about the parent plant wdll sever many of the roots, practically making root -cuttings of them, thereby causing a large number of plants to spring up. Some careful observers assert that close pruning also tends to increase the number of suckers thrown up, wherefore this might also be used as an aid to rapid propagation. Plants in large numbers can be cheaply produced from an old plantation which is to be discarded, by cutting awaj^ the bushes, plowing and cultivating the ground in spring, and then letting everything grow. If the land is poor, manuring will increase 110 BUSH-FBUITS the vigor of the plants. Roots have also been found to throw up more suckers when in contact with coarse manure. Although propagation bj' suckers is by far the most common method, and answers equally well for practical purposes, yet root -cuttings are often used, and give excellent results. This is especially true where a speedy increase of choice varieties is desired. The blackberry is particularly well adapted to this method of propaga- tion, and all the work can be done out of doors. The cuttings maj' l^e made either in fall or spring. All roots three -sixteenths of an inch or more in diameter may be used, being cut into pieces two or three inches long. If taken in the fall, these should be stored in boxes of moist sand, which should be kept in a cellar during the winter, or be buried outside on dry ground, where no water will collect about them. It is well to have holes or cracks in the bottom of the boxes, to allow the escape of surplus moisture. The cuttings should be stratified in the boxes in the same way that seeds and nuts are, with a layer of sand or soil, then a layer of cuttings, another of sand, etc. If the conditions are favorable during the winter, the whitish granular -looking excrescence from the cut surfaces, known as the callus, will have formed before spring, so that the pieces will be in good condition for planting. For this reason cuttings taken in the fall and properly treated during the winter, usually give better success and a more vigorous growth than those taken in spring. In spring the cuttings are planted out in loose, mellow soil, in trenches two to three inches BOOT CUTTINGS 111 deep, depending: upon the comparative heaviness or lightness of the soil, and about three inches apart in the furrow. They are covered and the soil firmed over them, the same as in planting peas, potatoes, or any- other garden vegetable. Mulching the ground with a light laj'er of straw, sawdust, or similar material, to prevent it from drj'ing out, aids in promoting their growth and insuring a good stand. For those who have greenhouse facilities, a very satisfactory way is to take up the roots and make the cuttings as early in spring as the ground will permit, stratifying them in boxes of sand as already described, and placing them under the greenhouse benches. Later, as other plants go outside and space permits, these boxes are placed on the benches. By this treat- ment the cuttings become callused, and are in good con- dition to go into trenches outside by the last of May. If a variety is particularly scarce and it is desirable to increase the stock of it with the greatest possible speed, the cuttings may be made smaller, one -half to one inch long, and the whole operation be carried on under glass. In this case the cuttings had better be placed just beneath the surface in beds of sand, and furnished with a gentle bottom heat. The plants are potted off as soon as buds have been developed and are well under way, or when leaf -growth has begun. Sometimes they are sown in shallow boxes of soil after the callus and buds have developed, and allowed to remain till several inches high, then potted, or even set from here directly into the open field, if the weather and soil are in suitable condition. 112 B USH-FB CITS PLANTING Before considering how to plant, the question of when to plant should be decided. As already noted in Chapter I., there are arguments in favor of both spring and fall planting. In fact, if planted in late fall or earl}' spring, there is likely to be very little failure in either case, provided the fall -set plants are protected with a covering of soil or coarse manure during the winter. For the great region of the Plains, which is subject to winter as well as summer drought, fall plant- ing is less likely to prove satisfactory' than in moister climates. There is much reason to believe that many plants of all kinds perish in these regions from lack of moisture during the winter months. In general, how- ever, it may be safe to assume that fall planting is preferable to late spring planting, and if circumstances are known to be such that the work cannot be done in proper season in the spring, it had better be done in the fall ; if the Avork can be done at the right time, plant in spring. It goes without saying that the first essential in the operation of planting is to insure a proper and thorough preparation of the soil, a matter which has alread}' been discussed. That done, the question must be settled as to the manner of placing the plants on the field, whether in closeh' set rows to culti- vate only one way, or in check rows to cultivate both ways. This will, of course, be decided by circum- stances and the individual preferences of the grower. Like many other questions, it is one on which there PLANTING THE BLACKBERRY 113 are no records of accurate experiments, comparing the two methods and giving the resulting yield and profits. One of the most enterprising fruit growers in the countr}', J. H. Hale, of Connecticut, says: "I have seen the largest yield in quarts, the finest fruit and the most satisfactory results, from planting blackberries in hills seven to eight feet apart each way." Nor does he stand alone in recommending this practice, for there are many other progressive and enterprising growers who are adopting the same method. The advantages of the plan are larger and finer fruit, obtained with less expenditure of hand labor. With the cultivator run- ning both w^ays, little hand -hoeing is required. It is of especial advantage in growing fruit for a critical market, and where wages are high, and help hard to get. The general impression prevails that the yield is less. If so, it is not so well adapted to high-priced land, where the greatest possible return per acre must be had. If, as its advocates assert, however, the yield is as great, or even greater than by hedge -row planting, there seems to be no good reason why the plan should not replace the hedge -row method entirely. Having decided upon the method to be employed, mark out the land to correspond, plowing good, deep furrows in one direction to receive the plants. In set- ting, time will be saved if three or four men can work together. Let one carry the plants in a pail of water, and drop them at the intersection of the mark and furrow, while the others set. The roots should be well spread along the furrow, the soil drawn in over them, H 114 BUSH-FBUITS and firmed with the hands or feet. Ordinarily this is most conveniently done by working on hands and knees on the opposite side of the furrow from which the soil is thrown out, so that it can be quickly drawn in with the hands. In fine, mellow soil, free from stones, the planter may walk along the furrow, take the plant in one hand, and do the covering and firming with the feet, or at least enough of it to fix the plant in posi- tion and protect it from drying out, leaving the balance to be done with hoes. The furrows should be deep enough to admit of setting the plants a little lower than they previously grew, and of doing it easily. Filling in the furrow, beyond what is required to insure satis- factory conditions of growth for the young plants, can be left to follow as a matter of course in the future cultivation. For row planting, rows eight feet apart, with plants three feet apart in the row, will be found satisfactory; this gives 1,815 plants per acre. Occasionally a grower prefers planting as close as two feet, and others as far apart as four feet In general, the question of pollination does not need to be considered in planting blackberries, for nearly all varieties fertilize themselves without difficulty, though an occasional sort needs to be planted near other kinds. Brunton's Early belongs to this class, but it has so little merit that there is little reason for planting it anywhere. Strawberries frequently do well planted among blackberries. They are sometimes set in the rows and left till the blackberries smother them out. It is TILLAGE AND MOISTURE 115 doubtful whether this practice is advisable, though they may occupy the space between the rows with profit for one or two years. TILLAGE AND MULCHING Little need be said on the subject of cultivation in addition to what has already been said on the sub- ject in general (Chapter I.). Some writers have ad- vised no cultivation for the blackberry, at least after the second year, on the ground that cultivation pro- duces a too rampant growth and consequent lack of hardiness. While this may be true in part, the prac- tice of letting them go without cultivating is open to an equally serious if not more grave objection. The most dangerous enemy to blackberry growing in most sections of the country is diy weather, especially if occurring about the time of ripening. Tillage is the most available means at command, in most cases, for overcoming this difficulty. A crop ma}^ easily be re- duced one -half by diying up on the bushes and, while cultivation cannot entirely prevent this loss, it will do much toward it. Thorough cultivation every ten days throughout the season is the best known substitute for irrigation, and should be vigorously maintained up to the time the fruit ripens, at least. A cultivator which will cut the suckers below the surface of the ground is a great aid, unless plants are to be grown for sale or for further planting. Two such implements are described in the introductory chapter. A spring -tooth cultivator, drawn by either 116 BUSE-FRUITS one or two horses (Fig. 24), is a most useful tool for blackberry plantations. Mulching proves very satisfactory where the con- ditions are favorable. It is especially adapted to the home garden, where patches are likely to be small and inconveniently cultivated. There is sometimes a tendency to induce too late fall growth, and in this respect it is inferior to cultivation, for a cessation of Fig. 24. Tilling blackberries with spring-tooth cultivator. tillage practically removes the soil -mulch, at least if rains follow soon to pack tlie surface. Mention should again be made of the good results obtained by the system of mulching adopted by M. A. Thayer, of Sparta, Wis. This consists in growing clover, in a field by itself, which is cut when in bloom and applied along the rows, the central space being kept thoroughly cultivated. Of course this is but one of the factors which have contributed to the success attained on the farm mentioned, but the method as a whole has led to some phenomenal yields. SUMMER PRUNING 117 PRUNING Pruning the blackberry is a very simple operation, if done at the proper time; but if neglected at the time when it should be done the results can never be sat isf actor}-. The ouh* summer pruning required is to pinch the growing cane once, at from eighteen inches to two feet from the ground. There need be Fig. 25. Low training of blackberries. no fear of pinching too low, for the cane elongates considerably after being clipped, if still young, and the result is a much better formed bush than if al- lowed to get three or four feet high before being cut. I wish to reiterate the caution to pinch back the canes when they get to the desired height. It makes a vast difference to the future growth of a bush whether the tip is clipped off when it gets two feet high or whether it is allowed to grow to four feet and then cut back to two feet. Fig. 25 shows a model planta- tion of Early Harvest blackberries, pinched back to 118 BUSH-FBUITS less than three feet and supported by a wire. At the spring pruning the laterals are usually cut back to from twelve to twenty -four inches in length, owing to the vigor and size of the plant. This is rather a blind method of procedure, since the number of fruit buds thus left will varj- with the habit of the variety. The Early Harvest is said to sometimes produce its fruit -buds near the tips and sometimes near the main canes, while the Erie is said to bear more unproduc- tive buds at the base of the branches than other va- rieties, so much so that sometimes it needs no pruning at all in spring. In order to obviate this uncer- taintj^, some growers defer the spring pruning until the bush is far enough advanced to enable them to recognize the blossom -buds, though with most va- rieties this is unnecessary. The Early Cluster is one which seems to give uniformly good results with close pruning. Some growers prefer to allow the young canes to grow without anj^ summer clipping, merely cutting them back to a height of three to four feet the follow- ing spring. This may be advisable in the West, where the moisture supply- is deficient, and with varieties like the Snyder, which are inclined to set more fruit than the}' can carry through to maturity without its becom- ing small and inferior. As with the other brambles, the old canes are best removed as soon as through fruiting, while they are more easily cut, thereby disposing of whatever fungus spores and insects may be harboring about them. GATHEBIJSG THE FRUIT 119 HARVESTING AND 3IARKETING Despite the thorny character of the bushes, black- berries are among the easiest gathered of any of the small -fruits. The fruit when well grown is large, easily picked, fills up fast, and hence is pleasing to the pickers. A word of caution in regard to two things may be needed. The first is never to leave the fruit in the sun after being picked, as a few minutes' exposure to hot sunshine will turn it red and render it more or less bitter and unpalatable. The next point is not to pick it until ripe. The cultivated blackberry has been called upon to bear much undeserved slander and dis- repute, simply because it has a habit of turning black before it is ripe. The result is, that oftener than other- wise the berries are picked green, and consumers, sup- posing them to be ripe because they are black, growl because they are sour or sometimes bitter. For distant markets this cannot be wholly avoided, as the fruit must be picked while still fii'm, even at the expense of quality. For home use, however, if left till the bees begin to eat them, there will be no cause for complaint at the quality of the cultivated blackberry. The fruit is marketed either in pint or in quart baskets, as best suits the fancy of the selected market. The blackberry is a fruit which usuallj' meets with a ready sale at good prices, and one which handles well. Many small inland towns and villages consume very considerable quantities of this fruit at prices which are eminently satisfactory to the grower. 120 BCfSH-FBCriTS USES Dried blackberries are nearly always quoted in mar- ket, yet, so far as I have been able to learn,* none are grown for that purpose, the supply coming almost wholly from the South, where the wild berries are gathered and are dried in the sun. Thej' are usually poor in quality, and quoted at a price which would render it unprofitable to dvy them if there were a market for fresh fruit. In order to learn something of their adaptability for this purpose, eight well -filled quart baskets just as we were selling them fresh, were taken for experiment. They were made to correspond in weight, so that each quart, with the basket, weighed one and one -half pounds. Deducting the weight of the baskets left three pounds ten and one -half ounces of fruit in each of two lots of four quarts. Granulated sugar was freely sprinkled over one lot. Four ounces of sugar was thus used, one ounce to each quart, making the weight of this lot plus the sugar five pounds fourteen and one -half ounces. Both lots were put in the greenhouse to diy August 3, on wire screens, and covered with mosquito netting to keep away the flies. After one or two days of sunshine, there came several cloudy ones, and the berries be- gan to mold, so that the netting had to be removed. Those treated with sugar molded less than the others, and stuck to the screens less in drying. August 12 both lots were taken up and weighed. They appeared *Fred W. Card, Bull. 57, CorneU Exp. Sta. DRYING BLACKBERRIES 121 to be as dry as raspberries usually are when put into the curing room, but quickly began to mold again when put in a pile together. The four quarts di'ied without sugar weighed at this date one pound ten and one -half ounces. The four quarts di'ied with sugar weighed one pound fifteen and one -half ounces. From these Aveights, it appears that not over twelve to fourteen pounds of di'ied fruit to the bushel can be expected. The weight of sugar applied seems to be retained, and possibly increases the weight slightly in addition, by retaining more of the juices of the fruit. Those treated with sugar seemed to remain in a softer and better condition for cooking. Judging from this attempt, the blackberry dries very slowly, and under iDresent condi- tions, at least, there seems to be little promise that it can be profitably grown for evaporating purposes. The quality of dried blackberries is low. They seem to be lacking in sugar and pronounced qualities. Yet the addition of sugar in drying and the perfection of methods of evaporating may enable the grower to utilize the surplus crop to advantage. The chief hin- drance to such an industry at present is the cheap and inferior southern product. Although it seems necessary that the fruit should reach the consumer while fresh, its value in household uses is not so fully appreciated as it should be. Ancient writers were inclined to lay great stress on the medicinal qualities of all plants and fruits, and while we are wont to smile at many of the supposed virtues there recorded, we might well profit by studying more closelv the uses and virtues of the blackberrv. 122 BUSH-FBUITS The value of blackberry wiue or brandy in bowel troubles is well known. It is reported that blackber- ries preserved in one of these forms were found by army surgeons to be the only sure and sovereign remedy against chronic diarrhoea, proving effectual whenever taken in time, even after all other medicines had failed. If the previously' prepared wine or brandy is not available, the water from blackberry roots freshly dug and steeped, will usually serve the pur- pose equally well. This, though an old-time household remedy, has lost none of its effectiveness with the passage of time. Various recipes are given for the manufacture of wine, one of which I copy from an early edition of "The Gardener's Monthlj'." "Express the juice through a thick cloth, to prevent any pulp mixing with it. To one quart of juice add two quarts of soft water (cold) and three pounds of sugar. Let it then stand in a wide -mouthed vessel, until fermentation ceases, which will be sometimes after two months. Be careful while fermentation is going on to keep the film skimmed clear from the top of the liquid daily, and to keep the vessel full to the top. A small vessel of the liquid should be kept for filling up the large vessels as the skimmings are removed. When fermentation ceases, strain the wine into bottles. The wine keeps better in large quantities, and to that end put it into large stone jugs, corking and sealing them." Another recipe adds a quart of boiling water to every gallon of the crushed fruit, before expressing the juice, instead of adding cold water afterwards. It also BLAGKBEBBY WINE 123 adds the white of eggs beaten to a froth and stirred into the juice; spices are also enclosed in a cloth bag, and dropped into it. Formerly there was a market for good blackberry' wine at $2 to $3 per gallon for medicinal uses, and if a glut of fresh fruit occurred, it could be turned into wine to good advantage, but in recent years it seems to have been largely replaced in practice by other medicines and stimulants, and there is little demand for it. Probabh' the greatest value of the blackberry, however, is not so much as a medicine to cure dis- ease, as in its healthfulness when used as a food. Perhaps nothing is more conducive to health and good spuits than fresh, well ripenfed fruit, and among all fruits there is none better adapted to ac- complish this much wished -for end than the bright, shining, and luscious blackberry. Xot a home in all our land should be without it in abundance. DURATION OF PLANTATIONS The profitable duration of a blackberry plantation, as with all other small fruits, depends much on the care and management. They generallj' last longer than black raspberries, perhaps from five to ten years on the average, longer in special cases. Attempts to lengthen the lifetime of a fruit plantation of any kind are rarelj' profitable. It is better to force the plants to do their best, get what can be gotten from them before they begin to decline, then let them go, to be 124 BUSH-FBUITS replaced by others. If by one system of managemeut a plant can be indnced to produce as much in three years as it ordinarily would in five, take the three- year return q\qvy time, no matter if at the end of that time the plant is exhausted and no longer prof- itable. Others are read}' to take its place, on other ground, and to continue the high -pressure production. The greater the yield, within limits, the greater the profit and the more fun there is in the business. KILLING THE PLANTS When a plantation has passed its usefulness it may become a difficult task to get rid of it. The capacity of the plants for throwing up shoots from broken roots is then brought into full play, and they make a vigorous fight for life. If the cultivator hesitates or wavers he will surely lose the daj'. In general, the most practicable method of exterminating them is to mow off and burn the bushes, and plow deep, di- rectly' after fruiting. Thorough harrowing with a spring -tooth harrow will then tear out many of the stumps. From that time, all shoots should be kept down by some system of cultivation which will cut them off below the surface of the ground. ReploAV- ing some two months later will often be found a help. While some shoots may appear the following year, with this sj'stem of treatment they will cause no serious trouble in the cultivation of any ordinary crop. If the land is to be used for fine or delicate crops, the stumps will need to be removed. BESISTANCU TO CLIMATE 125 HARDINESS Since the difference between a full crop, with good profits, and no crop, with utter loss, may depend on hardiness alone, it is a matter of no little importance. In the climate of central Ncav York varieties like Brunton's Earl}^, Topsy, and usually Wilson's Early and Wilson Junior, are almost sure to kill to the ground every winter, while Taylor, Agawam, Stone's Hard}', Snyder, etc., are slightly or not at all injured. In manj' sections of the West and Northwest, as Colorado, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, etc., none of the varieties prove hardy without winter protection and, curiously enough, the matter of selection for hardiness becomes of less import there than in milder climates. The ability to endure summer heat is there the im- portant consideration. If plants are to remain un- protected during the winter, the selection of varieties should be largely influenced by the question of hardi- ness. The method of protection is described in the introductory chapter. YIELD The blackberries are undoubtedly the best yielders among members of the bramble family. Not onlj' do they yield well when growing wild among the rocks and woods, and even under worse conditions which may sometimes pass under the name of cultivation, but the}' respond promptly and generously to liberal care and attention. In answer to a request for an estimate of 126 BUSH-FBUITS what each considered an average yield per acre of blackberries, fifty growers in different parts of the country gave replies varj'ing from 1,280 to 10,000 quarts, the average being 3,158 quarts, or over ninety- eight bushels per acre. These figures, obtained as they were from the practical growers themselves, who had no incentive to misrepresent their estimates, are worthy of credence. To be sure, some of the estimates are very high, but others are extremely low, and the average is considerably below the yield which many good growers are securing. It is safe to say, therefore, that any grower whose yields fall much below this average is not living up to his possibilities, and unless some uncon- trollable disease or insect is preying upon his planta- tion, there is something ^^^'ong with his system of man- agement, or his location is unfavorable. A point which those engaged in all lines of agri- cultural production need to appreciate more and more, is that the bulk of any crop is required to defray the actual cost of production, and that it is only beyond this limit that any profit lies. As an illustration, sup- pose that by ordinary methods of cultivation an acre of blackberries produces seventy bushels, and that sixty bushels are required to repay the cost of production. Now, if by judiciousl}^ increasing the cost of production to seventj^ bushels by more liberal fertilizing or better cultivation, we can increase the yield to ninety bushels, the profit is doubled. Nor does this fully express the difference, for with an additional expense equivalent to ten bushels, we have secured an additional profit of ten bushels, and the additional outlay has paid a return of THE MARGIN OF PROFIT 127 one hundred per cent on the investment, while the first ten bushels only pay sixteen and two -thirds per cent on the investment. In other words, one acre under the second management is much better than two acres under the first, for it is equivalent to growing the second acre with an outlay equal to only ten bushels, instead of an outlay equal to sixty bushels. This reasoning may sound theoretical and visionary, but it is just the kind of operations which are being carried on all the time. It is just this sort of differences, too, which dis- tinguishes the man who is making a success of farming or fruit-growing from the man who only keeps even or j^ runs behind. We should realize that only in the ^^frJtMAA^ bushels of the crop the profit lies. PROFITS Reliable figures as to the cost and profits of farm crops are very difficult to obtain, for the reason that so few growers keep any records, or know what their crops cost them. Of the few who do keep accurate accounts, not manj- put the results in print, where they may be accessible to others. Anjlhing said on this subject, therefore, must be very largely in the nature of esti- mates. For ordinary farm conditions the cost of pro- duction per acre may be roughly estimated somewhat as follows: First Year Rent of land $5 00 Plants 15 00 Fertilizers 20 00 $40 00 128 BUSH-FBUITS The other expenses of the first year, including set ting and care of the plants, should be offset by the! return from the crop which may be planted between the! rows to utilize the ground not yet occupied by the! berry plants. We may at least expect the plantation] to bear four profitable crops of fruit, so that dividing the first year's expense by four, the cost for subsequent years, exclusive of picking and marketing, may be estimated somewhat as follows: Proportion of first year's expense $10 00 Rent of land 5 00 Fertilizers 20 00 Cultivation and hoeing 10 00 Pruning 5 00 Removing old canes 5 00 Add to cover deficiencies 10 00 $65 00 The second year, the crop, which is but a partial one, should about meet expenses. After that, let us place the yield at the average obtained from the replies already referred to, which is 3,158 quarts. If these can be made to net five cents a quart after deducting the cost of picking and marketing, the net return will be $157.90, leaving a net profit of a little more than $90 per acre. If they can be made to net only four cents, the net return will be but $126.32, leaving a profit of but little more than $60 per acre. In connection with this, for the purpose of seeing what can be done by a thorough -going, energetic man, let us compare the following close estimate made by M. A. Thayer, of Sparta, Wisconsin: HOW THATEB DOES IT 129 One Acre— First Year Plowing ground $1 50 Harrowing five times 2 50 Kolling and marking 1 00 2,000 Ancient Briton plants 40 00 Setting plants 7 50 Cultivating ten times 3 75 Hoeing six times 6 00 Laying down for winter 2 50 First year's expense $64 75 Second Year Taking up plants in spring $1 25 400 new plants to replace dead ones 8 00 Setting 400 plants 2 00 60 posts at six cents 3 60 270 stakes at two cents 5 40 380 rods No. 12 wire 12 60 Setting posts and stakes 5 00 Stringing wire 2 50 Cultivating ten times 3 75 Hoeing four times 4 00 Two loads clover mulching 8 00 Placing clover mulching 3 15 Pinching-back 2 50 Laying down for winter 7 50 Use of tools, etc 6 00 Total for two years $140 00 After the second year the annual expense is esti- mated as follows: 130 BUSH-FBUITS Taking up plants in the spring $2 50 Cultivating and hoeing 8 00 Mulching 12 00 Nipping-back and trimming 5 00 Laying down for winter 7 50 Tools, etc , . . . . 5 00 $40 00 The estimates for labor are made on the basis of paying $].25 per day for men and $2.50 per day for a man and team. The sj'stem of mulching, as elsewhere explained, consists in growing clover on separate pieces of ground, cutting and spreading it green along the rows, and cultivating the center. The expenses of gathering and marketing, Mr. Thayer places as fol- lows : Picking per quart $0 OlX Boxes and cases 01 Packing and selling 01 Total expense per quart $0 03% Mr. Thayer admits that these figures show a high cost of production, but feels confident that any reduc- tion means diminished profits, therefore is not to be permitted. This method of treatment gave over 2,000 bushels from ten acres of the Ancient Briton variety in one year. This is, of course, a remarkable yield, but the average on those farms is unquestionably far above that of most growers. Mr. Thaj^er concludes that under their conditions at that time, a yield of 200 bushels per acre gave a net profit of nearly $250 per acre, while 100 bushels per acre would give about PROBABLE PROFITS 131 $80 profit, and fifty bushels per acre little or no profit at all. Instances are common of admirable yields during a single season. One grower in a small town in central New York sold $500 worth of fruit from half an acre in a recent year. It should be firmly fixed in mind that all such results are exceptional, and no one should use them as a basis for average profits. I think it may safely be said, however, that with a good market, good management, intelligence and skill, both in growing and marketing the fruit, a profit of $100 per acre can be expected with a fau' degree of certainty. CHAPTER V THE DEWBERRIES The dewberry as a cultivated fruit has oeen such a recent introduction to American horticulture that as yet it can scarcely be said to have a history. At the summer meeting of the Fruit -Growers' Society of Western New York, held June 24, 1863, James Vick described the dewberries grown by Dr. Miner, of Honeoj'e Falls, N. Y., and his method of training them. This was the same as the present method of tying the fruiting canes to stakes about five feet high, and allowing the new growth to run at will, most of which will root at the tips. He was growing two varieties, one of which was some ten days earlier than the other. Mention is made of the fact that the berries of the earlier variety were some- times imperfect, "a common fault with the dewberry." The other variety appeared to bear uniformly perfect berries.* From a later mention of these varieties t it seems that they were sent out by Dr. Miner to some extent, but there is no evidence that they ever received varietal names, and therefore they were probably soon lost to cultivation. It appears that the Bartel was the first named va- *Hovey's Mag. of Hort. 1863, p. 319. tUjid, 1868, p. 286. (132) DEWBEBBT HISTORY 133 riety introduced. The originator's account of this, together with directions for its management, were given in Purdy's Fruit Recorder for 1875, p. 182. It does not appear to have become very generally known at that time, for in 1879 the editor of "The Gardener's Monthly" wi'ites,"^ "Of true dewberries, no improved kinds are known under culture." In a pre- vious number of the same volume, however, N. H. Lindsay, of Bridgeport, Conn., is reported as having cultivated two kinds of wild dewberries in a small way for home use, taking plants from the woods. It seems that even he did not know how to propa- gate them, although a nurseryman and presumably an experienced propagator. Even as late as 1884 the editor of " The Country Gen- tleman" says ( page 329 ) : " We are not aware that the dewberry (or running brier) is cultivated for sale by any nurseryman, ^-i^ ^ ^ The wild dewberry is often found along neglected fence -rows or in rocky or sterile fields, from which, if desired, it may be transplanted to gardens, and treated like garden raspberries." These statements serve to show how recent is the cultivation of the dewberry in anything like a commercial extent. It was not until the introduction of the Lucretia, which was brought into general notice about 1886, that the dewberry began to occupy any prominent place in American horticulture. So much for the history of the dewberry. But what of its future? Is there a place for it among our garden ♦Gardener's Monthly, Vol. 21, p. 150. See Bailey, Bui. 34, Cornell Exp. Sta., for a sketch of dewberry history. 134 BUSE-FBUITS fruits; and if so, will it prove equal to the occasion and able to fill it properly? Coming, as it does, so early in the season, before the first blackberries are ripe, the first question may be faii4y answered in the affirmative. It is to be feared, however, that as we find it, the dew- berry is unqualified to fill properly the place which its CO -laborers in the garden are ready to accede to it, and unless it can be induced to correct some of its bad habits and overcome its failings, the place is even yet likely to be taken by some young, vigorous and early- ripening blackberry. One serious though excusable fault of the dewberry is its rough exterior and uncul- tured behavior. It will wound a friend upon the slightest provocation, with no thought of an apology. Yet, bad as its thorns are, this is not its most serious failing. Like many other young people, it is not given to steady, industrious habits. It makes large and glowing promises, but too often fails to fulfil them. It must be said in palliation of its shortcomings, however, that the dewberrj' has not had fair treatment. The energetic, industrious and aspiring ones have been compelled to associate with the idle and thriftless. While lack of fertilization and consequent production of imperfect fruit can hardly be denied as a family trait, it is no doubt true that the more productive mem- bers have suffered unjustly, owing to the behavior of the rogues of the household. There is no disputing the fact that stock of the Lucretia dewberry, as sold about the countrj^ has been badly mixed. As received and grown at the Cornell gardens, it comprises two distinct sorts, one with small blossoms, more delicate growth, IMPROVEMENT NEEDED 135 and small, imperfect and worthless fruit; the other with large blossoms, vigorous growth, large, plump and glossy fruit. The cuts (Figs. 26 and 27) well illustrate the difference between these two types, which is in itself a ready explanation of many of the conflicting opinions regarding the Lucretia. By taking the best of what we already have as a basis for future improvement, there seems to be no reason why the dewberry may not be brought to such a state of perfection as shall render its place as- sured. In the Wilson's Early and Wilson Junior blackberries we have a type intermediate between the dewberry and the blackberry. This form may sug- gest lines of breeding which in time shall produce off- spring far superior to anything which we now have, either in the blackberry or the dewberry. We need more careful and skillful breeders, who shall breed plants as understandingiy as animals are bred, and who shall give us in the results of their toil the fruit treasures which ought ere this to have been ours. SOIL FOR DEWBERRIES The dewberry is very largely found on poor or sandy soils the country over. This in itself, is a decided indication that comparatively light, sandy soils will prove best adapted to its cultivation, and the general experience of growers throughout the country seems to substantiate the supposition. It is true that instances are reported of success from nearly all kinds of soils, but the best results nearlj' always Fig. 20. Liieretia from a good plant. Tlie separate fruit is full size. SOIL AND LOCATION 137 Fig. 27. Lueretia from a poor plant. Oue-half natural size. come from planting on comparatively light, sandy ground. LOCATION The location will probably prove to be fully as im- portant as with any other fruit, when the culture of 138 B USHFB UITS dewberries comes to be better understood. In parts of the West, the Windom has been found to give better results in shad}^ locations, the finest berries being found even in dense shade. Because of its habit of growing on diy, sandy ground, location to avoid drought may not be so important as with the blackberry, but any location, like a cool northern ex- posure, which will tend to mitigate the hot, scorching sun, will undoubtedly prove beneficial. FERTILIZERS Thus far the necessity for fertilizers has hardly been made apparent, and it is doubtful whether at the time of planting they are ever advisable. Still, if plants are as productive as they should be, a judicious application of fertilizers, after they have borne two or three crops of fruit, can hardly fail to be of advan- tage. This will be especiallj^ true, of course, if thej' are growing on light, poor soil. Probably the same materials will be found satisfactory for them as for other members of the genus. The kind used, and the proportion of the different fertilizing elements needed, as in all cases, can best be determined by individual experiment. Suffice it to saj- that a large amount of nitrogen is not likely to be required. PROPAGATION As before stated, the dewberry propagates naturally from tips, like the black raspberry. If it is desirable to propagate them to any extent, attention must be PROPAGATION AND PLANTING 139 given to burying these tips in the ground at the proper time, which is when they have about completed their growth. I am not aware that it is ever recom- mended to cover the whole cane, to induce it to throw out roots along the entire length, but this could un- doubtedly be done, and the cane cut into pieces to form plants, if desirable to propapate as speedily as possible. The prostrate habit of the plant would favor such a method; but it is hardly to be recom- mended in ordinary cases. Dewberries can also be propagated by root cuttings, the same as blackberries. The method for doing this is explained in the chapter on blackberries. Since it is a general rule, however, that those plants which naturally propagate by suckers also propagate most easily by root -cuttings, a little more care may be de- manded, and a larger percentage of failure may be expected than with blackberries. PLANTING The same general rules given for the planting of the blackberry will also apply to the dewberry, except that the furrow to receive the plants need not be quite so deep. The question of the distance apart at which they are to be placed will be largely detcMnined by the method of training to be employed. If to be trained to single stakes, four feet apart each way will be found satisfactory; if to wire trellises, six feet by perhaps three feet in the row will be more convenient. If to be trained on low, flat, slat or wire trellises, even 140 B USH- FB UITS a greater distance between the rows will be needed. One of the objections to this method is that more space is demanded for training the plants than is needed for their maintenance. The great tendency of the dewberries to fail to set frnit altogether, or to produce small and imperfect fruit, is a point which should always be taken into consider- ation when planting. There is reason to believe that this is often due to a lack of proper fertilization. Whether this lack of fertilization comes from insuf- ficient pollination, or from lack of potency of the pollen which reaches the stigma, is uncertain. What- ever the cause, the lack is apparent, and the most feasible way of overcoming it is by planting different kinds together in close proximity. It has been con- clusively shown that the pollen of many varieties of our larger fruit, notably pears and apples, has not the power to properlj- fertilize the pistils of the same variety. The same may be true of the dewberries. At any rate, better results seem to have come from planting more than one kind together. Even black- berries planted alongside have seemed to produce a favorable effect in some cases. One instance is re- ported* where dewberries blossomed full for several years, but produced only a few imperfect berries. Later a block of blackberries was planted beside them, and when these came into bearing, the dew- berries began fruiting, and continued to do so regu- larly. This is an indication, though not proof, that blackberry pollen may fertilize dewberries. *Trans. Dl. Hort. Soc, 1886: 382. TILLAGE AND TBAINING 141 TILLAGE Nothing special need be said concerning the tillage of the dewberry. Some growers even advise letting them grow entirely without cultivation or care. This method can hardly recommend itself for any systematic culture for profit, unless it be on some rough, unculti- vable and otherwise unutilized piece of ground. As the season advances, the young canes spread out over the ground and tend to interfere with cultivation. It is only necessary to direct them along the row, like strawberry runners, however, and continue the cultiva- tion but one way, if the plants are so set as to admit of cultivation both ways earlier. PRUNING AND TRAINING Very little pruning is required. Simply to shorten the canes when they are tied up in spring, if too long, is all that is necessary", unless there is a tendency to produce too many canes, when all but four or five should be removed. With any careful system of culti- vation some method of training is essential. Various plans have been recommended from time to time, only part of which it will be necessary to mention here. One plan consists of a low, flat trellis, of greater or less width, eight or ten inches from the ground, on which the plants are allowed to run. This may be a narrow one of wire, made by driving stakes into the ground, ten or twelve feet apart, and nailing strips of boards a foot or more long, across the top. On these 142 BUSH-FBUITS cross -strips wires are drawn tightly, one at each end and usually two between. Another way of reaching the same end is to fasten pieces of boards to stakes, running the boards lengthwise of the row, one on either side, and nailing slats across between them. Such a low, flat trellis raises the fruit off the ground and keeps it clean, but picking is inconvenient and cultivation is more difficult. A second plan consists in training to an upright wii'C trellis, after the manner of grapes. The young canes are allowed to run on the ground, and are tied up to the wires the following spring. This is a very satis- factory method, although it admits of cultivation only one way. A most simple and satisfactory plan is the one which was recommended by A. J. Cay wood as early as 1888.^ Let his own words explain it: "I plant them as I do red raspberries, four feet apart each way, cultivating both ways until the fore part of June, when the renewals get too long to do so. We then direct the renewals of each row along the bottoms of the hills, and cultivate the other w^ay as long as required, and one man has done the directing of our patch in a day. The old canes are taken from the stakes any time after the fruit is off, before tying up in the spring. The renewals are left on the ground all winter, which is sufficient protection here, but if it is necessary to protect them in colder regions, their pros- trate position facilitates the work. "In the spring, one draws the entire hill from under *Popiilar Gardening, vol. iv., p. 33. GATHERING THE FBUIT 143 the other hills in the row, and holds them to a stake, while a boy ties them tightly. This can be done as rapidly as tying red raspberries. I think my patch was the first managed on this plan. We have tried the windrow system, but like staking the plants better." If the old canes are cut away as soon as through fruiting, the young ones can then be tied to the stake until winter, and cultivation go on unimpeded. This may favor a better development and maturity of the canes than when they are allowed to run on the ground. HARVESTING AND MARKETING Whatever applies to the harvesting and marketing of blackberries will apply equally well to dewberries, except that, coming in earlier, the}' have the market more nearly to themselves. The vines are viciously thorny, and the fruit apt to be so concealed within them as to render the picking difficult and painful. Training the plants to a stake or trellis will in part obviate this difficulty. The fruit carries well, and can be put into market in good condition. Like many of the blackberries, though perhaps in a more marked degree, it has the habit of turning black before it is ripe. If picked then it is sour and undesirable, so that for home market it should be allowed to get thoroughly ripe before being gathered. DURATION OF PLANTATIONS Dewberries persist well in the soil, — in fact, too well, for after they have served their purpose, and it 144 BUSH-FBUITS is desirable to get rid of them, thej^ still persist with a tenacity worthy of a better purpose. They seem often to be unproductive for the first two or three years, afterward coming into more uniform and pro- lific bearing, and continuing in many cases for a number of years. KILLING OUT THE PATCH When it becomes necessary to rid a plot of ground of them, vigorous measures must be adopted. While they do not propagate naturally by suckers, yet when the roots are torn and broken, pieces which are left in the ground have a remarkable ability for bursting forth into plants. The method advised for destroying the blackberry is the best that can be recommended for killing off dewberries ; namely, mowing and plowing directly after fruiting, frequent cultivation afterwards, and replowing before winter. HARDINESS The inherent hardiness of the dewberry may not be equal to that of many varieties of the blackberry, yet its habit of growth tends to afford it protection which enables it to withstand the cold of winter, in most cases, as well as the blackberries. If not en- tirely hardy in some localities, the ease with which it can be protected in winter is certainly a point in its favor. The older canes will naturally be cut away before winter, and in any event the protection of them is of no benefit. The young canes, which lie POSSIBLE BETUBNS 145 directly on the ground, and which have been trained along the row in cultivating, are in the most con- venient position possible for being covered with soil or mulch. In parts of the country where all kinds must be protected to give profitable results, this is really a point in favor of the dewberry which is well worth considering. YIELD OF DEWBERRIES The yield to be expected is one of the moot points in dew^berry culture. There is the greatest possible diversity in reports, some growers finding it highly satisfactory in this respect, w^hile others are disgusted with it. Of thirty -eight growers who have grown dewberries, and who replied to the question, ''Have j'ou grown dewberries, and, if so, with what success?" twenty -three report good or fair success and fifteen poor success. Much of this diversity of opinion, and much of the failure to secure good results is, without doubt, due to the mixed and inferior character of many of the plants which have been sold. Even where they succeed, however, they have not been grown very ex- tensively, as a rule, and any reliable estimate of an average yield can hardly be formed. PROBABLE PROFITS With the question of yield so much in doubt, the question of profit must also be unsettled. It may be said, however, that those who succeed in obtaining a good yield nearly alwaj^s find them profitable, owing to their season of ripening and consequent high price. CHAPTER VI MISCELLANEOUS BRAMBLES While raspberries, blackberries and dewberries of the types which we have described in the foregoing chapters are the only brambles of much commercial importance in this country, there are nevertheless a few outlying types to which we may profitably give attention. THE ORIENTAL RASPBERRIES ' At least four species of oriental or Japanese rasp- berries have found their way into the United States, the best known probably being the one reintroduced a few years ago under the name of Japanese Wineberry. Unfortunately they have not proved so valuable as many other Japanese fruits, and have comparatively little to recommend them, so that they are never likely to become very popular nor to be grown to any great extent, though two of them have some value as orna- mental plants. The Mayherri/ (Japan Golden Mayberry) .— This was raised by Luther Burbank, of California, and is said to have been produced from seeds of Rulus micro- phijlliis, a Japanese species, crossed with the Cuthbert raspberry. It is claimed to produce a bush six to eight feet high, bearing numerous large white blos- (U6) THE STEAWBEBET-BASPBEBBY 147 soms, which are followed hy "large, sweet, glossy, golden, semi-transparent berries," which ripen in ad- vance of strawberries. It appears to have developed little value as yet. Thus far we have not succeeded in making it live in Nebraska. The Stmicbemj - Easpheyyy . — This peculiar fruit be- longs to a species found wild in Japan, China and the East Indies, and known to botanists as Eiibus rosc^fo- lius. It has been commonly referred to in horticultural literature under the name R. sorhifolius, but this ap- pears to be only a synonym of the older name ros^fo- lius. The double form of this same species has been long known as a greenhouse plant, cultivated for its flowers, though apparently but little grown. As re- cently introduced from Japan under the name straw- berry-raspberry, it is of interest chiefly as a curiosity, and ma}^ be worth growing for that purpose or as an ornamental plant. It is herbaceous in our climate, dying down to the ground each winter and springing up from the roots in spring. It throws up innumerable suckers, making a perfect mat of bright colored foliage. The leaves have a central stalk with five to seven oppo- site narrow leaflets, and are really very pretty. The mat of plants is so dense that it will keep down nearly all weeds, and the plants continue to bloom and fruit throughout the greater portion of the season. The blossoms are white, pretty and sweet-scented, and the berries bright and showy, a clump of the plants making an attractive bed. It is unproductive, and the fruit in its fresh state is rather unpalatable, varying from sour and insipid to somewhat bitter. When cooked, 148 BUSH-FBUITS however, it is said to develop a pleasant flavor midway between the strawberry and the raspberry, and to give a brilliant, rich garnet color to the syrup. The illustra- tion (Fig. 28), life size, is adaped from "The Rural New-Yorker," 1897, page 257. The Wineherry (Japanese Wineberry) . — This is a raspberry which is found wild in the mountains of central and northern Japan. Its botanical name, now well known, is Buhus pJioenicolasius . It forms a bush three to seven feet high, with somewhat spreading and rambling canes, which are thickly covered with bright red hairs and weak prickles, standing out at right angles to the stem. The leaves are light green and whitish below. The flowers are very small, white, with large, hairy, viscous sepals, which close over the fruit again after blooming and keep it entirely covered until about ripening time, when they again open. The berry is then white, but turns bright red within two or three days, becoming sweet and agreeable ; said to be somewhat intermediate in flavor between the red and the black raspberry. Seeds were sent from Japan to J. T. Lovett, in the summer of 1887, by Prof. C. C. Georgeson, now of Kansas. In 1889 the stock raised from this seed was sold to John Lewis Childs, who introduced it under the name of Japanese Wine- berry.* The berry is of good size, firm and hand- some, and owing to its peculiar covering is exempt from insect attacks. It has not proved to be of any real commercial value in the United States, being generally tender and unproductive. It is a *Ainer. Gar. 1891, 204. Fig. 28. The strawberry-raspberry. 150 BUSH-FRUITS peculiar aud attractive plant, aud well worth grow- ing as an ornamental. It had been known in this country and sold under its true botanical name b}' Ellwanger & Barry, and perhaps by other nursery- men, long before its dissemination by Mr. Childs. It was described in "The Gardener's Monthly" for January, 1880, and received soon after by the edi- tor, Thomas Meehan, under the name Ruhus Soff- meisteriana. The Chinese Raspberry {Ruhus craUegifollus) .— This raspberry possesses very little value as a fruit- producing plant, but makes a handsome ornamental shrub, and is well worth growing for that purfjose. Its flowers are inconspicuous, but its foliage and habit are attractive, and its autumn coloring is often su- perb. It is more fully described among the orna- mental species (page 152) and in the botanical section (Chap. XI.). ORNAMENTAL SPECIES We are accustomed to think of the members of this family onlj' as fruit -producing plants, yet many of them possess considerable attractiveness as ornamentals, and are w^ell worthy a place in any grounds. Some of them are beautiful in themselves, especiall}' if grown in free and natural clumps, but more especially are they valuable for grouping with other trees and shrubs. Many of the most desirable species are natives of America, and possibly because of this are better appre- ciated in Europe than here. It is a well-known fact that we are wont to pass by beautiful things growing OBNAMENTAL EASPBEEEIES 151 at our doors for something less desirable which comes from a tropical or foreign country. The ornamental qualities of most of these species have been mentioned in connection with the description of each under the botanical section (Chap. XI.), so that, in most cases, a brief mention of them is all that need be made here. Eiihus odoratus, the Purple -flowering Raspberry, or Thimbleberry, is so common throughout the greater portion of the eastern part of the United States that we scarcely think of it as being ornamental. Yet it is a very pretty and attractive shrub. It is beautiful both in flower and fruit, and doubly desirable because it continues its blossoming and fruiting period over so long a time. The foliage alone is attractive, regardless of the blossoms. This species is frequently mentioned among ornamentals in European journals. Buhus parviflorus, the Rocky Mountain Thimble- berry, erroneously called Salmon -beny, is closeh' re- lated. It is better known as R. N'utkanus, but since the former name has been found to be the older it must now take the preference. This species and its varieties are found in the region of the great lakes and westward to the Pacific coast. Its fruit seems to have been rather more important in the wild state than that of B. odoratus, but, in general the species is much the same, except that the flowers are white. Few attemj)ts seem to have been made to cultivate it. If it could be made to succeed well, it would un- doubtedly be a most desirable plant to group with the eastern species. 152 BUSH-FRUITS By far the most desirable and attractive member of this section of the genus is undoubtedly Ruhus deli- ciosiis, of the Rocky Mountains. This, like the two species alread}^ mentioned, has simple leaves, three to five-lobed, serrate, but more rounded than in those species. The flowers are large, pure white and attrac- tive. So far as reported, it has generallj^ proved suc- cessful, though it does not flourish under the hot sun and drying winds in Nebraska. It is unquestionably well worthy of more general cultivation than it has yet received. It is somewhat difficult to propagate, which will naturally render it more expensive and harder to get than it otherwise would be. There are nurserymen in the West, however, who make a specialty of collect- ing these mountain plants, growing them until accus- tomed to cultivation before offering them for sale, or even propagating them wholly in the nursery. Plants from such sources can readilj" be obtained, and will generally prove satisfactor5^ Buhus cratoegifoUus is an oriental species of some ornamental value which has been grown somewhat in this countr3\ Its chief merit lies in its foliage. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, and the fruit small, though bright red when ripe. The foliage is dense and bright green, coloring well in autumn, and the bush is pleasing in its habit of growth, so that it possesses considerable value as an ornamental plant, although there is nothing striking about it. It is generall}' hardy, and will mass well with other plants and shrubs. In Nebraska it has proved disappointing in regard to hardiness, being injured by the winters thus far, even ORNAMEXTAL SPECIES 153 when protected. The rich autumn color developed by the foliage on the young shoots thrown up from the root in spring has offset the loss of the older canes, however. Eiihns (O'cticus, though a very pretty little spe- cies, can hardly be expected to succeed in cultivation, for it is a native of the far north, and only extends southward upon the high mountain ranges. It is the most delicate and one of the prettiest members of the family, and would be very desirable if it could only be made to succeed. Euhus phoenicolasiiis, the "Japanese Wineberry," has been brought more prominentlj' before the public than most other ornamental species (page 148). Its chief attraction lies in the peculiar reddish hairy char- acter of the plant. Except in favorable localities, this is all there is to recommend it, for the canes are killed to the ground every winter, and there are consequently no flowers or fruit. The oddity of the fruit is one of its attractive features, whenever ruy is produced. It is not at all adapted to planting in clumps and masses, like most of the species previously mentioned. Rnhus [s2)ectahiUs, the Salmon -berry, is a showy member of the family, found native from California northward along the Pacific coast. It is a vigorous- growing shrub, with leaves made up of three sharp- pointed, sharply toothed leaflets, or occasionallj- deeply three-lobed only. The flowers are red or purple, large and showy, and the fruit large and good, though prob- ably not abundant enough to render it worthy of cul- tivation on that account. It seems to succeed well 154 BUSH-FBUITS in England, and there seems to be no reason why it should not do equally well in many parts of our own country. It propagates rapidly from suckers, so that means are sometimes needed to keep it in check. It ought at least to be given a thorough trial, for it is realh' a very attractive plant. Biihus laciniatns, the Cut -leaved Blackberry, has been brought to notice from time to time as a desir- able ornamental, and heralded as a wonderful fruit- bearing plant. Its names have been numerous, in- cluding Parsley -leaved, Oregon Evergreen, Oregon Climbing and Sandwich Island. Sometimes it has been styled a dewberry, and sometimes a blackberry. It is interesting from the peculiar subdivision of its leaves, and an occasional plant will prove useful in certain places, but aside from this feature it possesses no ornamental qualities worthy of special note. In this case the order of things is reversed, for this is a European species, and Americans have given it more attention than is given to it across the water. In some sections there, however, it seems to be prized for its fruit production. As a general rule, at least, it produces little or nothing in this country, though it is reported productive in the North Pacific states. The plant is so desperately' thorny that it would be well-nigh hazardous to attempt to pick its fruit, if there were any. The form commonlj' offered for sale may be de- scribed as follows: Stems nearly round, more or less trailing, fertile ones erect, prickles small at the base, but recurved and strong above, ver}' numerous; leaves OR y A MENTAL SPECIES 155 much dissected and sharply serrate ; fruit roundish, black, grains large, sweet, with a peculiar musky flavor, borne in loose panicles. The Double White and Double Pink Brambles are referred to at some length in the botanical section. (Chap. XI.) These are also European species, but thej' have been long known in this countr}*. The flowers are said to resemble miniature roses more than they do those of the other members of the family. They are reported to be admirably adapted to being grown as single specimens, and it is only when thus planted, giving them a chance for full and symmet- rical development, that their beauty is to be fully appreciated. These pretty forms have never become so popular and common as they deserve to be, and apparently they ought to be better known. There are several other species, not so well know^n as the above, w^hich may in time prove themselves worthy of being planted for ornamental purposes. One of these is Rnbus trifidiis, or Fire Raspberry, the name applying to the bright red color of the foliage in autumn. This has been tried at the Arnold arboretum and recommended for wider planting. Another very interesting species, which might per- haps be made to succeed here, is Rub us Henry I, from China. It belongs to the simple -leaved section of the genus, and is described as "a tall, climbing shrub, with deeply three -lobed, thick leaves, glabrous above and clothed wdth a white tomentum below ; flowers small, red, in terminal racemes." It may be that this would prove more interesting to botanists, owing to its dis- 156 BUSH-FRUITS tinct character, than it would to plant -lovers in general from any strictly ornamental qualities. From the above list it will be seen that the genus, though not considered an ornamental one, is far from being destitute of ornamental qualities. In addition to these more strictly so-called ornamental features, the fruit -producing members of the family possess charms to the true lover of fruits which are by no means to be despised. A well grown row of red raspberries, with the scarlet fruit peeping out from among the green foliage, or a row of blackberry bushes covered with clusters of shining black berries, is a sight so attractive that it will be appreciated by many a person on whom the charms of a strictly ornamental plant would fall unheeded, and is not beneath the attention of the most fastidious. CHAPTER VII VABIETIES OF EASPBEERIES Varieties of most of the bush -fruits have long since become so numerous that to attempt to describe them in such a manner as would enable the grower to there- by determine them is utterly impracticable, even if it were possible for any one person to have access to all the varieties. The reader may well ask, therefore. Why attempt to describe them at all ? There are several reasons why a complete list of all varieties which are or have been grown in this country, in so far as it can be obtained, with brief descriptive notes concerning them, is needed and likely to be of use. Perhaps the most important of these is the need of some means to prevent duplication of names and con- sequent confusion, which must inevitably happen when varieties become so numerous as they are now and will continue to be. Then, too, it is of interest and profit to know something of the history of varieties, how thej' have originated, and the sources from which they have sprung, in order that we may thereby trace the evolu- tion of our fruit-growing and the progress which has been made. Furthermore, a brief description, with a note concerning its origin and parentage, when these are known, may at times enable the grower to decide (157) 158 BUSH-FBUITS whether a certain variety which may give excellent results in some other region of the countrj^ is likely to do the same under his conditions. While the succeeding lists are as full as it has been possible to make them by a careful search through the litera- ture available, there are doubtless many omissions. Any additions or corrections which others can make will be gladly welcomed by the author. The varieties in this historical record are arranged alphabetically under five heads: I. Black raspberries. 11. Purple -cane raspberries. III. American - tj'pe red raspberries. IV. European -type red raspberries. V. Unclassified varieties. I. BLACK RASPBERRIES Buhus occidentalis Although the youngest group of raspberries in cul- tivation, this has come to be the most important one. Immense strides have been made since Nicholas Long- worth first transferred the Ohio Everbearing to his door- yard in 1832. The species adapts itself so readily to cultivation, and is so uniformly hardy and productive, ripening its fruit in a comparatively short space of time, and Avithal is so good to eat, that the wonder is not so much that it has gained in popularity so rapidly, but that it did not come into cultivation sooner. Its adaptability to being grown as a farm crop for evap- BOTANY OF THE BLACK-CAPS 159 orating purposes has also given a great stimulus to its cultivation in recent years. The future of the black raspberry is assuredly a promising one. Very little need be said concerning the botanical characters of the black -cap, since the species to which it belongs, Bui) us occidentalism is so distinct from the other cultivated species of raspberries. The color of the fruit and method of propagation are alone sufiicient to distinguish it from all the others. There is a western wild type, however, very closely related to this one, which has long stood as a species, though apparently more properlj' ranked as onlj' a variety of Euhus oc- cidentalis. This is the form known as Ruhus leuco- dermis, found in the mountains of California and adjoining states. It is distinguished from Buhus occi- dentalis chiefly by the color of the fruit, which is yel- lowish red or wine -colored, by the coarser toothed leaflets and the stouter and more hooked prickles. The Ohio Everbearing appears to have been the fii'st named variety of black -cap introduced into cultivation. It was found in the state of Ohio, and introduced to public notice by Nicholas Longworth, of Cincinnati, who began its culture in 1832. Next came the Amer- ican Black, also named Joslyn's Black-cap, Josh'n's Improved, Joslyn's Improved Black-cap, American Improved, etc., which finally came to be known the country over as Doolittle. This was found growing wild by Leander Joslyn, of Phelps, Ontario countj^ N. Y., and introduced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners, about 1850. It is said to have owed its especial prominence and value to the method by 160 BCSH-FRUITS which it was propagated, only the tips from one- 3'ear-old plants being used. This variety did much to spread the cultivation of the species throughout the country, and the impetus then gained has steadilj^ in- creased, until the fruit has become one of the most important. Until its immense increase led to a still more rapid increase and consequent destructiveness on the part of injurious insects and fungi, it was one of the easiest grown and most uniformly successful fruits in cultivation. The development of the evaporating industry has done much to add to its importance, and increase the extent of its cultivation. Recently the industry has been seriously threatened by the spread of fungous diseases, notably the anthrac- nose. Further experience, however, seems to promise a feasible plan for keeping it in check, so that the in- dustry need not be crippled. As this is the youngest member of the raspberry family, there is good reason to hope for much improve- ment in it. There is a very marked improvement in the best varieties of the present da}- over the wild plants of the woods, or those first introduced. This improve- ment seems to be going on rapidly, and there is no rea- son why it should not continue. We want not only better size and better quality than we now have, but we want equall}' reliable varieties which will come in both early and late. Varieties of Black Raspberries Ada. — A chance seedling which originated with Henry Young, of Ada, Ohio, about 1882 or 1883. Thought by him to be a cross between Doolittle and Mammoth Cluster. Reported as vigorous, BLACK-CAP V'ABIETIES 161 very hardy, productive, and comparatively free from thorns. Fruit large, jet black, and of good quality. Said to bloom later than other varieties, thus being more liable to escape frosts. Season as late as or later than Gregg. Ak-Sar-Ben. — A seedling accidentally discovered by Ex-Gov. Robert W. Furnas, of Brownville, Nebraska. From the original plant three years old Gov. Furnas picked 113 clusters in 1897, averaging thirteen berries to a cluster. Hardy. Fruit large, of good color and fair quality. Not yet introduced. AMen — A name proposed for the Ohio, to better distinguish it from the Ohio Everbearing, but never adopted. — Mich. Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 256. American Black (Common Black-cap, Black Raspberry, Thimble- berry, Bnhus occidentalis) . — This is the common black raspberry of the eastern United States. It was described by Downing as fol- lows : " This raspberry, common in almost every field, witli large rambling purple shoots, and flattened, small, black berries, is everywhere known. It is frequently cultivated in gardens, where, if kept well pruned, its berry is much larger and finer. Its rich, acid flavor renders it perhaps the finest sort for kitchen use, tarts, puddings, etc. It ripens a little earlier than most of the European sorts." American Everbearing . — An everbearing black- cap sent out in 1890, by the Cleveland Nursery Company, of Rio Vista, Ya. It was named and brought to notice by Mr, Hatfield, of Indiana. Said to be fairly vigorous and hardy, but inferior to some others in pro- ductiveness, quality and firmness. American White (Yellow Cap, Golden Cap, White Thimble- berry). — Similar in all respects to the black-cap, but with yellow- ish fruit and canes. It is found wild from time to time, and has often appeared in cultivation, though never very popular. Arctic. — A variety growing at the New York State Experiment Station. Described as vigorous, early, not very large, moderately firm, juicy, and sweet. August Black. — Produced by Thomas Rivers, England, Down- ing speaks of the fruit as dark red, which would indicate that it might be a Purple-cane variety, but Mr. Rivers himself, in the Gardener's Chronicle for 1897, p. 516, calls it black. Apparently never cultivated to any extent. Autumn Black. Another variety produced by Mr. Rivers, and said by him to propagate only from seed, he evidently not under- standing the tip -rooting habit of the species. Bahhit. — Originated about 1883 as a chance seedling, near Col- lege Springs, Iowa. Sent to the United States Department of 162 BUSH-FRUITS Agriculture, in 1892, by W. R. Laughlin. Said to be very hardy, vigorous, and productive. Fruit medium size, roundish oblate, drupes small and rather numerous ; dull black, without bloom, moderately firm, juicy, and good. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 259. Babcock Nos. 3, 5 and 9. — Mentioned as on trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station.— Bull. 91: 201. Barnes. — Mentioned as having nothing peculiar to recommend it.— 111. Hort. Soe. Kept., 1880: 78. Bechier. — A chance seedling, which originated in Tippecanoe county, Indiana, about 1855. Beehe (Beebe's Golden, Beebe's Golden Prolific). — Originated in New York about 1886, with James Beebe, of Cassadaga. Said to be productive, but not different from the common yellow-cap. Belle. — Sent to The Eural New-Yorker by L. C. Carlow, of Batavia, 111. Reported to be hardy, vigorous, and productive ; very early. As large as Gregg, but lacking in flavor. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 260. Belmont. — Originated by John Scobs, of Barnesville, Ohio, and introduced in 1879. Bluff ton. — A seedling raised at Bluffton, Mo. — Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1886: 48. Bonanza. — Originated on the grounds of W. C. Freeman, North Springfield, Mo., about 1888. Said to be large, with a long season. —Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 260. Bronze Queen. — A variety cultivated and named by Mr. Holman, of Missouri. Said to be a strong grower, hardy, productive. Fruit sweet, of good qualitv, of a peculiar bronze color. — Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1886: 182. Burns. — A seedling produced by A. M. Burns of Manhattan, Kans. Fairly productive ; medium size, and of good flavor. Claimed to have great ability to withstand drought and heat, Canada. — Mentioned by William Parry, in 1869, as no longer popular.* A variety sold under this name by Prince & Mills, of Flushing, Long Island, in 1822, and also known as Purple Rose- flowering, indicates that it may have been Euhus odoratus. Carman. — Originated by A. H. Sherwood, Southport, Conn., and named in honor of E. S. Carman, Editor of The Rural New- Yorker. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale. An early variety, ripening about with Tyler, rather more dwarf in habit, but rea- sonably productive. Fruit of good size, fine quality, and high flavor. A good extra early variety. *Gar. Month. 11:237. BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 163 Carpenter Seedling. — A seedling originated by Charles Carpen- ter, of Kelley's Island, Ohio. It closely resembles Beebe's Golden. Vigorous. Fruit small to medium, ripening early. — Sixth Ann. Kept. Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. St a., p. 336. Centennial. — Samuel Miller speaks of two varieties under this name: one found by George Husman, near Hermann, Mo., about 1860, and one found by Mr. Grayhill, near Carthage. Both early, productive, of good quality, and firm. — Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1884: 296. Champion. — An early sort, found growing wild in Clark county, Ohio. Sent out bv Frank Murphv, of Donnelsville. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 263. Chapman. — A chance seedling found on the grounds of Mr. Chapman, near Cincinnati, aud carried to Ross countv, Ohio, by F. R. McLean, about 1864. Thought by Matthew Crawford, Prof. W. J. Green and others, to be the same as Ohio. Chesterfield. — Discovered in successful cultivation in -1884, on a farm in Tidewater, Va. It originated from a wild plant found in Chesterfield county, that state. — The Rural New-Yorker, 1884: 18. Conrath. — Discovered in 1886 as a chance seedling near a patch of Gregg, near Ann Arbor, Mich., by C. H. Woodruff, who sold the stock to Conrath Bros., for whom it was named. Early, vigorous, productive, large, moderately firm, coal black, ripening early, with a long season. A promising new variety. Corinth .—'Mentioned in Bulletin 22 of the Mass. Hatch Ex- periment Station, as fairly hardy and productive, late, of medium quality and size. Cottier Everbearing. — A variety originating with M. T. Thomp- son, of Rio Yista, Ya. Recommended as especially valuable on account of its autumn-fruiting qualities. Crawford. — Mentioned as moderately productive and hardy at the Mass. Hatch Experiment Station. — Bull. 21: 11. Cream. — A vellow-eap mentioned by William Parry in 1870. Mich. Exp. Bull. Ill: 265. Cromwell (Butler). — Originated by G. S. Butler, of Cromwell, Conn. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale. Closely resembles Tyler. A berry of fair size and good color, but rather acid. Cumberland. — A new black-cap recommended from Pennsyl- vania. Of verv large size. Originated bv David Miller, Camp Hill, Penn.— The Rural New-Yorker, 1896": 624. Daily Bearing. — Originated with Mr. Griggs, of Perry county, Ohio, from seed of the Ohio Everbearing, and claimed to be an improvement on that variety. Canes almost without thorns. 164 BUSH-FRUITS Davis. — A yellow -cap, said to be a few days earlier than Golden Queen. Found on the banks of the New River, North Carolina, some years a^o, by an old lady named Davis. It was brought to notice by L. P. Hodges, of Sands, that state. — Mich. Exp. Bull. Ill: 268. Davison (Davison's Thornless). — Said to have originated in the garden of Mrs. Mercy Davison, of Gowanda, N. Y. Sent out by Joseph Clinton some time prior to 1866. Probably the earliest variety grown. This, together with the sweetness of its fruit and its freedom from thorns, gave it popularity for the home gar- den. Not a vigorous grower, and deficient in productiveness. Doolittle (Joslyn, Joslyn's Improved, Joslyn's Black-cap, American Improved, etc.). — This was the first variety which really gave prominence to the black raspberry as a commercial fruit. It was introduced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners, N. Y. Said to have been found wild by Leander Joslyn, of Phelps, Ontario county, N. Y. Mr. Doolittle seems to have taken great interest in selecting and improving this fruit. The start- ing point may have been from this plant, found by Mr. Joslyn, or it may have been from wild plants in general. What gave the American black-cap especial value under this name was, perhaps, not so much the variety itself, as the improved method of propagation adopted by Mr. Doolittle, in which only the tips from one-year-old plants were used. Whether his stock was de- rived from one original plant, or from various selected sources, it is certain that the Doolittle raspberry acquired a fixity of type which made it long the standard cultivated black raspberry. It is even yet not far behind many more popular varieties. Doomore. — A seedling found between two rows of Doolittle, by Gustus Swabley, of Tiffin, Ohio, in 1884. Described by him as tall, erect, with deep blue canes. Fruit without bloom, about the size of the Ohio, ripening somewhat earlier; very productive.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 270. Dorchester. — Mentioned in Bulletin 27 of the Guelph, Ontario, Exp. Sta. Duncan (Kentucky Prolific, Kentucky Mammoth, Kentucky). — Said to have been a chance seedling found on the farm of Jack Smith, in Jefferson county, Kentucky, by a man named Duncan. Apparently a popular variety in Kentucky. Said to be as large as Mammoth Cluster; better in color, firmer, and a better shipper, succeeding on all soils. — Country Gentleman, 1876: 175. Earhart. — A variety of Illinois origin, introduced by Hale Brothers about 1886. Described as vigorous, hardy, and quite productive. Glossy black, rather small, ripening very eariy. Produces a small second crop in September. BLA CK-CA P \ A B IE TIES 165 Early Cluster. — Mentioned in the Report of the Michigan Pomological Society for 1875, p. 197, as a new and promising seedling. Early Prolific. — Mentioned by Dr. Stayman as "the best early black-cap that we have seen. It is a very strong grower, nearly thornless, very hardy, healthy, enormously productive, and of the best quality. It is as large as Souhegan, and has proved three to four days earlier." — Missouri Hort. Soe. Rept. 1883: 79. Ehon Beauty. — Found by F. L. Piers in a piece of woodland in Indiana, in 1887. Reported inferior to Gregg in every respect, except hardiness, at the Indiana Experiment Station. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 272. Ebony (Farnsworth) . — Originated as a chance seedling, about 1885, on the farm of W. W. Farnsworth, of Waterville, Ohio. Said to be vigorous and productive. Medium to large, firm, seedy, of good quality. Elsie. — A seedling raised by Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., who described it as very large and excellent. Said to be nearly identical with Surprise. Emperor,— Mentioned in the Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill, p. 273. Eureka. — Said to have been discovered wild on the farm of Jacob Smith, in Miami county, Ohio, by J. C. Kester, of New Carlisle. Brought to notice by W. N. Scarff, of the same place. Said to be equal to Gregg in size. Nearly as early as Palmer. Ererlasting. — Described in The Rural New-Yorker for 1882, p. 6G9, as an autumn -fruiting variety, from Lawrence Co., Pa. Every Day. — Commonly thought to be identical with the Ohio Everbearing, but considered by Dr. Warder to be a much more continuous bearer, fruiting almost continuously until frost. Fadely. — Received at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station from Joshua Fadely, of Sassafras, Va. Claimed to be everbear- ing. A single year's test showed no great tendency in that direc- tion.— Pa. Exp' Sta. Bull. 32: 11. Fay (Fay's Thornless).— A variety similar to Davison, bearing few thorns. Fruit of good size, firm, black, with little bloom. Ferndale. — A chance seedling found by W. B. K. Johnson, Allentown, Pa., along the Delaware River. Described as vigorous, with large but not numerous thorns. Productive. Fruit large, black, with heavy bloom. Drupes large ; berry rather close, but firm, moderately juicy, of good quality and a good shipper, ripen- ing a little earlier than Gregg. Florence. — A yellow variety, originating in New Jersey. Intro- duced about 1881. Said to be hardy and vigorous, with greenish 166 BrSH-FBUITS or yellowish white canes and strong white spines. Of medium size, orange yellow, moderately firm, juicy and sprightly. Thought at the time to have been one of the best yellow varieties. Gault. —Youndi by W. C. Gault, of Ruggles, Ashland county, Ohio, growing by the roadside near his place, in 1887, and intro- duced by him in 1893. Described as medium to large, dull black, with a slight bloom, moderately juicy, and a good shipper. Sea- son very late. Tends to produce a second crop in autumn. General Negleij. — Mentioned by Mr. Arnold, before the Ontario Fruit Growers' Society, as a perpetual bearing black-cap.* Un- der this name Crozier quotest from Dr. J. A. Warder as follows: "A seedling, probably from one of the large foreign varieties, Pilot, Hornet or Franconia, originated by General Negley, of Pittsburg. It is vigorous, of foreign aspect and foliage. Stood the past winter well; is productive, rather early. Fruit large, roundish oblong, juicy, high flavor, and very good." Golden-cap. — A seedling of the American White -cap, originat- ing in Cedar county, Iowa ; seems to have received some special notice under this name. Golden Thornless. — Introduced from Minnesota, by Purdy & Johnston, of Palmyra, N. Y., previous to 1869. Described as moderately vigorous and productive, with few spines. Fruit large, dull orange color, rather darker than American White. Moderately firm, juicy, sweet, pleasant. Gray. — Mentioned in the Report of the Worcester Horticultural Society for 1881, p. 24. Green. — Discovered on the grounds of Green's Nursery Com- pany, of Rochester, N. Y., about 1890, and described by them as large, productive and early. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 278. Gregg (Great Western, Hoosier Mammoth, Western Tri- umph). — Found growing wild in a ravine on the Gregg farm, in Ohio county, Indiana, in the latter part of June, 1866. It was most thoroughly tested and widely exhibited before being intro- duced, and- has borne out in a remarkable way the early promises it gave. It was largely introduced by N. Ohmer, of Dayton, Ohio, who first saw the fruit on exhibition in 1875. He bought two hun- dred plants the following spring, propagated them for three years, then introduced it to the public. Canes large, upright, very vig- orous, possessing an abundance of bloom and a peculiar clean, smooth appearance which always makes them noticeable. More diflScult to propagate than many other sorts, owing to its upright, *Gar. Month. 12: 278. tMich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 277 BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 167 vigorous habit. Fruit large, roundish oblate, with a very decided gray bloom. Flesh very firm, only moderately juicy and sweet. Season late. This is by far the best known and most popular late variety at the present time. It is uniformly healthy and produc- tive, though slightly lacking in hardiness, especially on heavy soils. The plant is slower to attain its full productiveness than most other varieties, but is also slower to decline, so a plantation will remain longer in profitable condition. Though not of the highest quality, it is still a good berry, and its excellent shipping qualities render it especially adapted to market. It is also an excellent variety for evaporating, especially where fruit is picked by hand. It clings so tightly to the receptacle that it is not easily gathered with the berry harvester. Hale Early.— Sent out for trial by G. H. & J. H. Hale, of South Glastonbury, Conn., but not proving valuable, was never intro- duced. Hamilton. — Mentioned by Downing as from Shelby Co., Tenn. Hannibal (Extra Late) . — Described in the Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1892 as a large, fine berry of excellent quality. Apparently vigorous and productive, being several days later than Gregg. Originated with W. J. Bradt, of North Hannibal, N. Y. Harrison. — Named in honor of President Harrison by Henry S. Harris, of White Lane, Salem county, N. J., who found it in a neighbor's garden many years ago. Described as medium to large, rather dry, firm, black, with less bloom than Gregg ; good, promising for market. A variety which apparently has never been in the nursery trade to any extent. Haskell Yellow. — Taken from Massachusetts to Illinois bv Dr. Haskell, about 1836.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 281. Hawkeye. — A berry found in Iowa, which is thought to have come originally from Indiana. Said to be better than Doolittle, as firm as Gregg, and as large, but earlier. — Iowa Hort. Soc. Kept. 1884: 535. Hayne Seedling. — A new variety brought to notice by H. Hayne, of Delphi, Indiana. Hilhorn. — An accidental seedling found in an old raspberry plantation, and introduced by W. W. Hilborn, of Leamington, Ont., in 1886. Described as a sturdy grower, very hardy, pro- ductive. Fruit nearly as large as Gregg, clear, glossy black, rich and juicy. A favorite variety in many parts of Ohio and Ontario. Hixon (Hixon's Everbearer) . — Mentioned in the Report of the Kansas Horticultural Society for 1886, p. 290, and appears to have attained some prominence in that state. 168 BUSH-FRLUTS Hoag (Harkness). — According to A. W. Sias, formerly of Minnesota, this originated with Charles R. Hoag, at Kasson, Dodge county, Minnesota. Later it was disseminated by J. W. Harkness. Wyman Elliot, one of the earliest presidents of the Minnesota Horticultural Society, says that at one time it was named Harkness by their society, but the name of the originator was preferred. Said to resemble Gregg, but to have been more hardy in Minnesota. Hoplxins. — Found wild in the woods, within the present limits of Kansas City, Mo., in the year 1872. Later brought to notice by G. W. Hopkins, of Springfield, Mo., and introduced by Frank Holsinger, of Eosedale, Kans. Described as similar to Tyler, and ripening with it. Fruit medium to large, round, black, with little bloom ; texture soft, flavor mild. A good shipper. Considered a valuable variety in the region where it originated. Idalio. — Mentioned by Crozier,* as possibly a variety of Eubus leucodermis, though he says nothing regarding its color. Said to have come from the mountains near Lewiston, Idaho. It was sent out for trial by F. R. Palmer, of Mansfield, Ohio, but did not prove valuable. Ideal. — A seedling found near the Gregg plantation, in 1890, by C. P. Augur, of Connecticut, who described it as nearly as good as the Sougehan, and larger and better in every way than the Gregg. — The Rural New-Yorker, 1893: 430. Indiana. — A black-cap from Indiana, introduced in 1884. De- scribed as vigorous, hardy, and productive. Fruit of good size and quality, very firm. Ironclad (Smith's Ironclad). — A note taken without mention- ing the reference says that this originated with Mr. Wilson, of Forest, Ohio, about 1885. Said to be very vigorous, productive, and healthy. Earlier than Tyler, of good quality. Under the name "Smith's Ironclad," Crozier records a variety, t brought to notice in Kansas by a man named Smith, some years ago, he hav- ing found a single raspberry plant among a bill of trees ordered from an agent. This was probably some old variety, but still seems to be known in Kansas under the names mentioned. Kagy Ererhearing . — Mentioned in the Ohio Experiment Sta- tion Report for 1886, p. 190, as apparently of no value. Kansas. — Originated as a chance seedling on the farm of A. H. Griesa, Lawrence, Kans., in 1884. Although he had grow- ing, at the same time, several hundred other seedlings from selected stock, this proved more valuable than any of the others. *Micli, Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 284. tMich. Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 309. BLA CK- CAP I' A BIE TIES 1 69 Described as a vigorous grower, very hardy, and exceedingly thorny, rooting at the tips with unusual ease. Fruit similar to Gregg, fully as large, ripening a week earlier, with less bloom; juicy, of excellent flavor, and firm enough to ship well. One of the promising newer varieties. Kellogg. — A chance seedling, originally found by George J. Kellogg, of Wisconsin, about 1875. Claimed to be hardy, vigor- ous and productive. Similar to Doolittle. Kerr Wliite. — Reported as on trial in Michigan, where it proved to be large, of moderate vigor and productiveness, with light yellow, pubescent fruit. Key Prolific {Johnston^ s Sweet J.— A black-cap found in the Ozark Mountains, Ark. Grown in Iowa since about 1881. De- scribed as vigorous, very hard}-, productive ; not nearly as large as Gregg ; jet black, without bloom, medium to late ; of good flavor, very sweet, and excellent for drying. Reintroduced by Robert Johnston, of Shortsville, N. Y., in 1886, as Johnston's Sweet.— la. Hort. Soe. 1887: 98. KimbaJl. — Reported from Rhode Island in 1885 by Joseph H. Bourne, of Providence, as a promising new variety, earlier than Souhegan. Found by him growing wild on the farm of James Kimball, near Providence. Never introduced. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 287. Lindseij. — A variety said to have originated in Michigan. Fruit of medium size, between Doolittle and Gregg, and said to be better and firmer.— la. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1882: 478. Little (Little's Black-Cap). Originated with John Little, of Ontario. Sent to T. T. Lyon, of Michigan, in 1881. Described as hardy, moderately vigorous, with rather slender, reddish brown canes, almost without spines, which are purplish white. Fruit small, roundish, glossv black, firm, seedv, juicv, acid, rich. Much like Davison's Thornless.— Mich. Hort'. Soc. Rept. 1882:169. Lotta (Brackett's No. 101). Originated on the farm of G. C. Brackett, of Lawrence, Kans. A vigorous, hardy and pro- ductive variety. Fruit large, round, black, with slight bloom ; quality good; as large as Gregg and somewhat earlier. This is one of the really promising varieties of recent introduction. As on trial at the Cornell University Experiment Station, it appeared to lead all others in productiveness. Lorett. — Found among a lot of wild seedlings on the grounds of Ezra Wood, of Ohio. Introduced by J. T. Lovett Co., of New Jersey. Said to be vigorous, productive, and to ripen early. Fruit firm, of good size, black, with only slight bloom; apparently thornless. Resembles Tyler in general characteristics. 170 BUSH-FBUITS Lum Everhearing (Autumn Black Raspberry, Lum's Fall Bearing). — Raised by H. B. Lum, of Sandusky. Ohio. Much like the Ohio Everbearing, of which it is a seedling. Lum Yclloiv Canada. — An everbearing variety, mentioned in Michigan Experiment Station Bulletin 111: 289. Macomher. — This name, with numbers or letters appended, has been applied to various seedlings sent out on trial by J. T. Maeomber and L. M. Macomber, of Vermont, though apparently not retained as a permanent name of any variety. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 289. Maiiwaring No. 1. — Sent out by C. H. Manwaring, of Kansas. Found by the Geneva (N. Y.) Experimental Station to be small to medium, black, firm, mildly subacid, of good quality, hardy. May King. — A variety similar to and ripening about with Sou- hegan, although recommended especially for its earliness. McCracken. — Originated by "SYilliam McCracken, of Sunnydale; Kans., and distributed under the name Kansas, though not the same as the better -known variety of that name. McCormick (Mammoth Cluster, Miami Black-cap, Collins - ville Miami, etc.). — For many years the leading black-cap in cultivation. It appears to have originated in Indiana, from the Old or Small Miami. A thoroughly hardy and very productive variety ; a vigorous grower, bearing fruit of medium size, but of a slightly reddish black color. Quality good; season medium. Miami (Miami Black, Old Miami, Small Miami). — A common black -cap, originally found growing along the Miami River, in Ohio. A vigorous, productive variety; of less value than the McCormick, more brownish red, not quite as sweet nor quite as late in ripening. — Downing. Miller Daily (Miller's Daily Bearing). — Apparently a local variety near Dunreith, Ind. A large, everbearing black-cap; vigorous, hardy, productive. Fruit large, juicy, excellent. Mills (Mills No. 15) .—Introduced by Charles Mills, of Fair- mount, N. Y. Raised from seed of the Gregg said to have been fertilized by Tyler. A strong, healthy, upright grower, moder- ately productive. Fruit of medium size and excellent flavor. Mills No. 1. — Of the same parentage as the preceding. De- scribed as vigorous, fairly hardy. Fruit large, firm, seedy, moderately juicy, good quality. Minnesota (Minnesotian). — A western yellow-cap, mentioned in various places. Mohler. — Originated by D. H. Mohler, New Paris, Ohio, from the seed of the Eureka. Canes large, vigorous, very productive. BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 171 Fruit very large, €rm, good, black, early. The name "Mohler" seems to have been applied to the Eureka at one time, before the introduction of this variety, which occasioned no little eon- fusion. Discussed in Bulletin 63 of the Ohio Exp. Station. Moody. — A white variety mentioned by Samuel Miller, in the Missouri Horticultural Society Report for 1884, p. 295, as very productive, of good flavor, good size, and worth having. Moore Seedling. — Mentioned in the Report of the Ohio Hor- ticultural Society for 1870, p. 62. Munger. — Originated with Timothy Munger in western Ohio, about 1890. Introduced by W. N. Scarff, of New Carlisle, Ohio. Described as a good shipper, black, of good flavor, large size and very productive. Mystery. — A variety sent out from Kentucky as an everbearing sort. Reported as of little value, bearing no autumn crop in Minnesota. — Bull. 25. Nemaha. — Found growing wild by Ex-Gov. Furnas, of Brown- ville, Neb., along the blufts of the Missouri River in Nemaha county, of that state. Transferred by him to his garden, and later sent out to be tested by prominent small -fruit growers. Introduced by Green's Nursery Company, about 1883. Very similar to the Gregg, but claimed to be hardier. Vigorous and productive. Fruit large, of good quality, and firm. T. T. Lyon says that it has most of the qualities of the Gregg, with im- proved flavor and hardiness. Popular in southeastern Nebraska. Neiv Haven. — A chance seedling which came up on the grounds of E. E. Clark, of New Haven, Conn., proving better than any seedlings he had raised. Described by him as large and vigorous. Fruit juicy, five -eighths to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with small seeds. — Report of the Connecticut Board of Agricul- ture 1866: 184. Xorfolk. — Mentioned as unsatisfactory in Michigan. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 122. NorthfieJd. — Sent out for trial by M. T. Thompson, of Rio Vista, Va., but found to be of little value and never introduced. —Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 294. Ohio (Alden) . — The great evaporating raspberry of the pres- ent day, being far more largely planted for that purpose than all others together. The full history of this variety is recorded by Bailey in Bulletin 117 Cornell University Exp. Station, p. 362. Somewhere in the sixties, Hiram Van Dusen, of Palmyra, N. Y., bought a lot of Doolittle plants of A. M. Purdy, of that place. When the- plantation begrai to fail, he found one plant apparently as good as new, which, from previous observation, he 172 B USH-FB UITS knew to be firmer, more productive, and to» ripen later. This plant became the progenitor of the vast multitudes which now people the raspberry fields of western New York and other states. The Doolittle j^lant mentioned, it was found, came from Ohio, and Mr. Van Dusen called it the "Ohio" to distinguish it from the Doolittle. It was introduced by a son and grandson of Mr. Van Dusen. A. M. Purdy was of the opinion that this was precisely identical with what he grew at that time as the Miami, obtained from Ohio, and states that it was so decided by John J. Thomas and Patrick Barry, who saw them growing on his grounds. This, like many market fruits, though hardy and productive, is not of good quality. It is one of the most seedy varieties grown, and it is partially for this reason, no doubt, that it yields more pounds of evaporated fruit per bushel than other sorts. Ohio Everbearing (Monthly Black-cap). — A full account of the history of this variety is also given by Bailey in Bulletin 117 of the Cornell University Experiment Station. (See also page 159.) The taking up of this variety by Nicholas Longworth appears to have been the beginning of the cultivation of the black raspberry in America. It is of especial interest on this account, although it has never proved a variety of great value. Its chief distinguishing feature seems to have been its autumn bearing habit. Older. — A chance seedling found in the garden of Mr. Older, of Independence, la., in 1872. It was named in honor of Mr. Older, after his death, by Mr. Burser, of Warren, 111., and intro- duced by L. K. Ballard, of the same place. Hardy, strong, vig- orous, enduring drought well. Fruit large, nearly destitute of bloom, black and firm, of good quality. Popular in the West. Onondaga (Mills No. 7). — A seedling raised in 1884 by Charles Mills, of Fairmount, N. Y., from seed of the Gregg growing near Tyler. Vigorous, productive, very large, firm, jet black, ripening with Gregg or a little earlier. Professor Beach, of the Geneva (N. Y^.) Experiment Station, says that as far as tested there, it appears to be a desirable acquisition on account of its large size, fine appearance, good quality, and productiveness. Ontario. — Found on the grounds of E. E. Lord, of Fairport, N. Y., in 1886, and introduced by him in 1872. Claimed to be vigorous, perfectly hardy, and very productive, ripening a week earlier than Doolittle. Fruit large, firm, sweet and rich. Oregon. — Said to be a native variety of especial value in the state for which it is named. Not as dry as other black-caps, and larger than Gregg. Referred to Euhus Jeucodermis. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 297. Ozark. — A seedling brought to notice by Mr. Holman, of Mis- BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 173 souri. Said to be a strongf grower, and somewhat like Gregg, almost as large, ripening after Hopkins. — Mo. Hort. Soc. Kept. 1886: 182. Palmer (Palmer's No. 1, Acme). — Originated by F. R. Palmer, of Mansfield, Ohio. Introduced in the fall of 1888. Similar to Tyler, and ripening with it. Claimed to be unusually hardy, early, large, of good quality and wonderfully productive. It has been favorably reported upon from many sections, and is now quite largely grown, especially in the West. Pioneer (Progress). — Originated on the farm of Jacob Muhl, of Hammonton, N. J. Apparently grown by him for some time be- fore being introduced by the J. T. Lovett Co., who offered it under the name "Progress." Much like Souhegan, but claimed to be later, more vigorous and productive. Poscharsk)/ Xos. 3, 9, 15. — On test at the Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Station.— Bull. 91: 202. Pride of the Market. — The name appeared in L. L. May & Co's. catalogue. Pride of the West. — Said to be fairly productive and vigorous, large, grayish black, of fair quality, ripening with Gregg. Queen of the West. — A Kansas seedling, ripening a few days earlier than Souhegan, but larger and more productive. — Mich. Exp. Sta.Bull. Ill: 302. Bansoni Everbearing. — Sent out by Stark Bros., of Louisiana, Mo., in 1890.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 303. Be.v. — A seedling of the Gregg raised by John W. Perry, of Covington, Ohio, in 1884 or 1885. Grown largely by his son, with whom it proves valuable, but has not developed suflicient qualities at the Ohio Experiment Station to warrant its introduction. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull 111: 305. Eeyes. — "The sweetest black-cap I have ever tasted." — P. C. Reynolds, Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1886: 63. Rocky Mountain Cluster. — Mentioned in the Missouri Horticul- tural Society Report for 1897, p. 27. Rundell. — A yellow-cap closely resembling Beebe's Golden. Found by Charles Rundell, of New Buffalo, Mich.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 11: 306. Saunders No. 60. — A seedling of Gregg, produced by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Fruit very large, purplish black, ripening late, but of rather inferior quality. Canes pro- ductive, fairly hardy.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 307. Savanna. — A variety obtained from the woods in Indian Terri- toiy, near Savanna, and so named by T. V. Munson, of Denison, 174 BUiSH-FRUITS Texas, who claimed it to be as large as Tyler, a week earlier, very- prolific, and the sweetest black-cap known by him. Said to en- dure extremes of climate well. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 307. Seneca. — Raised by Mr. Dell, of Seneca county, N. Y., and brought to notice by Doolittle & Wright, of Waterloo, N. Y., in 1867. A large late variety, very vigorous and productive. Spines reddish, strong, and numerous. Fruit large, but not a deep black, and somewhat reddish, with a light bloom. Sinton TJiornless. — Recorded by Fuller, in 1867, as similar to Doolittle, but a week earlier.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 309. Smith Criavt. — Apparently a seedling of the Gregg, produced by A. M. Smith, of St. Catharines, Ont., who reported it hardier than Gregg, and fullv equal in qualitv and productiveness. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 309. Smith No. 2. — Sent to the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, by B. F. Smith, of Lawrence, Kans., who found it growing under an apple tree. Reported medium size, firm, juicy, sweet, good. Smith Prolific. — A chance seedling found in a strawberry patch on the grounds of N. G. Smith, of Manchester, N. Y. De- scribed as unusually vigorous, very productive ; fruit very firm, extra large, bright black, borne in large clusters, sweet. It ap- pears not to have maintained its earlier promises. Souliegan (Skowhegan) . — Originated in the valley of the Souhe- gan River, New Hampshire, about 1870, from the seed of the Doo- little, by J. A. Carlton. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale in 1881. One of the standard early varieties, widely known and generally prized. Canes hardy, vigorous, and productive. Berries medium to large, jet black, without bloom, of good quality. Spanish Black. — Grown and sold by Henry Geisler, of Water- vliet, Mich., who reports it popular in his vicinity. It is reported to be the Gregg re-named.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 311. Spray Early. — A chance seedling brought into cultivation at Fort Atkinson, Wis., about 1884. Described as vigorous, with fruit of medium size, good color, firm, of good flavor and quality. Springfield. — A chance seedling, found about 1880 on the grounds of J. W. Adams, of Springfield, Mass. Described as a thornless variety, very early, prolific, of good quality and perfectly hardy. Somewhat resembles Davison. Success (Waters' Success).— Sent out for trial in 1893, by James N. Waters, Fernhill, Ont. Very promising on the grounds of The Rural New-Yorker.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 318. Summit. — A yellow variety from Summit township, Crawford county, Pa. It was thought to have originated from seed found in soil excavated at a depth of ten feet. The original plant was BLACK-CAP VARIETIES 175 found and transplanted by Daniel Supher, but was brought to notice by A. T. Hobbs, of Randolph, Pa. Canes strong, vigorous, pale orange-yellow; spines short, slightly hooked, rather nu- merous. Fruit of medium size, orange color, with pink at the base of most of the grains. Firm, rather dry, but sweet and rich. Surprise. — Found wild, and introduced to notice by Charles Husmann, of Bluffton, Mo., about 1865. Said to be large, more conical and darker in color than the common black-cap, with fewer seeds, and a deep bloom. — Downing. Surrey. — Introduced by the Cleveland Nursery Co. of Rio Vista, Va. Seemed to promise well in Virginia, but not in Michigan. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 313. Sweet Home. — A seedling of Lum's Everbearing, from Illinois. Introduced about 1880. Spoken of as superior to McCormick, be- ing very stocky, with a large and firmer fruit, though so similar to that variety as to be thought by some to be the same. Thomas (Thomas' Seedling). — Originated by Mr. Thomas, of Marion, Ind. Thompson Sweet. — Mentioned in Bulletins of the Mass. Hatch Experiment Station, as early, unproductive, lacking in hardiness, vigor and firmness; small, of good quality. Townsend No. 2. — On test at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. Said to be medium to large, firm, somewhat seedy, sweet, of good quality, hardy. Tyler. — An accidental seedling, found growing among McCor- mick and Seneca plants on the grounds of Nathan Tyler, of Auburn, N. Y. Five hundred plants were sold to Robert John- ston, of Shortsville, N. Y., who introduced it under the name Tyler. An excellent early variety, of good size and quality, jet black, hardy and productive. It resembles Souhegan so closely that the two are practically indistinguishable, although they originated in different parts of the country. It has been thought to withstand spring frosts better than Souhegan. After the Doolittle passed the zenith of its popularity, these two varieties long stood as the representative berries. Virginia. — A variety controlled by the Cleveland Nursery Co., of Rio Vista, Va. Said to be large, jet black, round, coni- cal, moderately firm, of excellent quality, holding out well at the end of the season. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 317. Wade. — Found by John Wade, of Veedersburg, Ind., in the spring of 1884, under a grape trellis where the birds had dropped the seed the summer before. Described by him as an ironclad variety, wonderfully productive. Fruit showy black, firm, of superior quality, ripening about with Souhegan. 176 BUSH-FBUITS Westchester. — A chance seedling, found in 1861 in the gar- den of Levi J. Mabie, of Tarryto\Yn, Westchester county, N. Y. Advertised quite extensively some years later, but apparently received little attention.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 318. Winona. — An. Ohio variety, introduced in 1890. Claimed to be perfectly hardy, vigorous, standing drought well. Fruit large, early, glossy black, of excellent quality, and a good shipper. Wonder. — An everbearing variety, originating with J. H. Bobbins, of Arcadia, Ind. Fruit soft, of good quality, but plants lacking in vigor and productiveness. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 319. Woodside. — Originated in New York, from seed sown in a garden. Canes light crimson or a dark scarlet. Spines few. Fruit large, black, with little bloom, sweet and juicy. Produces a second crop in autumn. — Fuller. Wragg. — An Ohio variety on trial in Michigan. Telloiv Pearl. — A yellow-cap variety, vigorous, productive, often producing a fall crop. Fruit dark, with a slight bloom, sprightly. — Downing. Yosemite. — Mentioned by William Parry* as too unapproach- able on account of its wild nature, covered as it is with thorns. It is a rampant grower, and the berries are large and of poor quality.— Cal. Hort. Kept. 1885: 233. This statement would suggest the question of Eubus leucodermis parentage. Recommended Varieties of Black-caps. Among varieties widely known and most generally planted, Tyler and Souliegan are donbtless the best known early varieties, thongli now being replaced by others, especially the Palmer. Gregg is still the standard late berry, though the Nemaha is preferred in places, Avhile Ohio is the great berry for evapor- ating purposes. Other varieties well and favorably known are Lotta, Older and Kansas. Many of the newer sorts are promising, and may supersede the present leaders when better known. * Rural Affairs 7 : 81. PURPLE-CANE FAMILY 17 J II. THE PURPLE -CANE RASPBERRIES Bubus neglectus In this group I have endeavored to include all those varieties which are intermediate in character between the red and the black raspberry. Not all of these be- long to the true Purple -cane type. The Philadelphia and its numerous seedlings are much nearer to Ruhus strigosus than to Biihus occidental is. They propagate by suckers, though somewhat sparingly, and are, to all intents and purposes, red raspberries of a slightly darker hue, while the true Purple -cane type propagates by tips, being like black raspberries in habit. No point in the history of the raspberry is more interesting than to note the number of varieties of the Ruhus neglectus type, or Purple -cane family, as it was formerh' called, which have come into public notice. There are some forty varieties which can be definitely placed in this class. Of a large number which have received so little notice in print that it is impossible to classify them, a fair proportion undoubtedly also belong here. Aside from these there have, no doubt, been many local varieties which never came into public notice. I well remember hearing, when a boy, that black raspberries would turn into reds, and that the purple forms occasionally found growing wild were undergoing that change. I remember a bush of this character growing in the exact spot, as it now seems, where a black -cap had been growing, and in spite of all later training *knd observation, it is hard to get away from the idea that that bush had changed its politics! 178 B USH-FB UITS If all the introduced varieties of this type and all the forms growing wild are hybrids, a remarkable tend- ency to hybridization in this genus is certainly shown. The comparative abundance and productiveness of the type leads rather to the opinion that it is a distinct species, but the variation in the habit of propagation of the different varieties, some being almost entirely reproduced by suckers, while others propagate princi- cipally from tips, favors the idea of hybrid origin. Hybrids are commonly thought to be unproductive, but the Shaffer is one of the most productive varieties known. No one can say positively, however, what the origin has been, and for practical purposes it matters little. The type has long been in cultivation, and is certainly valuable. Hybrids are evidently more com- mon, at least in this genus, than has been supposed. I am now of the opinion that this type, like the intermediate type between the blackberry and dew- berrv, is primarilv of hybrid origin. Varieties of Purple -cane R^pberries Addison. — An apparent hybrid between the red and black rasp- berry. Originated on the grounds of L. M. Macomber, of North Ferrisburgh, Vt. Described as vigorous, hardy, and moderately productive. Canes purplish red, resembling the black- caps in habit, and rooting at the tips, though rather like the reds in color. Fruit medium to large, firm, juicy, and very good, with the flavor of the red raspberry. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 256. Bahcock. — Sent to the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station in 1892, by Daniel W. Babcock. Reported to be productive and vig- orous, with canes of a peculiar purplish color, thickly beset with weak prickles. Fruit crumbling. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull, 111: 259. Beckwitli. — An unnamed chance seedling, which originated with Professor M. H. Beckwith, Newark, Del. Described by him as a red berry, and not purple like Shaffer; reproducing by tips. Fruit PUBPLE-CANE VARIETIES 179 resembling the black-caps in shape, aromatic, of excellent quality, and productive as far as tested. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 260. Cardinal (Griesa). — Originated on the grounds of A. H. Griesa, Lawrence, Kans., in 1888, apparently from the seed of the Shaffer. A vigorous grower, propagating by tips when young, but throwing up some suckers as it grows older. Fruits large, soft, juicy, dark; flavor somewhat musky. Like the Shaffer, it appears to be par- ticularly susceptible to anthracnose. For this reason the origi- nator cuts out the old canes in winter or spring, and depends upon a new growth to produce fruit. Caroline. — Originated with S. P. Carpenter, New Rochelle, N. Y., and supposed to be a seedling of Brinckle's Orange, crossed by Golden-cap. Canes hardy and prolific, but not very vigorous. Spines numerous. Fruit medium, roundish -oblate, pale salmon, soft, juicy, subacid, and quality fair. Too soft for market, and dull and unattractive in appearance when over-ripe. The variety suckers freely, and may also be propagated by tips, with care. Cataicissa. — This variety was found growing in a Quaker grave- yard, in the village of Catawissa, Columbia county. Pa. It was brought to notice by Joshua Pierce, of Washington, D. C. Canes strong, branching, with dark brown bark and few hooked spines. Fruit medium, dark reddish purple, subacid, juicy, and moder- ately good. Vigorous and productive, but tender at the North. Produced fruit in autumn to some extent. Prof. C. G. Page, of Washington, D. C, mentions* having one seedling from this variety which is a facsimile of the black raspberry, two vigorous, orange colored seedlings of delicious flavor and one real scarlet, simi- lar in flavor to the wild scarlet raspberry of New England. Citizen. — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by Professor William Saunders, London, Ont. On trial at the experi- mental farms of Canada. Promising at first, but less so later. Remarkably productive. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 264. Colossal. — Sent by I. F. Street, of West Middleton, Ind., to the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1892. A seedling of Shaffer, which it closely resembles. Columhian. — Said to be a seedling of the Cuthbert grown near the Gregg, on the grounds of J. T. Thompson, Oneida, N. Y. A variety of the Shaffer type, which it very much resembles. A strong, vigorous grower, and very productive. Fruit large, moder- ately juicy, fairly firm, nearly sweet, somewhat darker in color than the Shaffer, ripening a little later. Dictator. — Said to be a cross between Shaffer and Gregg, pro- duced by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, Cal. Canes much like *Hov. Mag., 1857: 396. 180 BUSn-FBUITS Shaffer, mnoh shorter, propagatiug by suckers. Fruit larger than Shaffer, bright red.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 269. Duncan, — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by Professor William Saunders, of Ontario. Described as having large, purple fruit, of better quality than the Shaffer, ripening later, and very productive. Canes strong, vigorous, propagating both by suckers and by tips. Early Prolific — A. seedling raised from the Philadelphia by Oscar Felton, of Camden county, N. J. Crozier states* that it is several generations removed from the Philadelphia. Hardy, productive, free from thorns. Fruit firm, of good size, with a harsh and acid flavor. ElUsdaJe. — A variety of the Purple -cane type, found growing wild on the Ellisdale farm, in Iowa, in 1856, by J. E. Johnson. Introduced by H. A. Terry, of Crescent, Iowa. Canes strong, light red, smooth, with a few straight spines near the base and an occasional hooked one on the upper portion; propagating by tips. Fruit large, roundish oval, light purple, with a whitish bloom; rather firm, and of good quality. Elsdale, from Nebraska, mentioned in Hovey's Magazine 1865: 122, is probably this. Eurclrt. — A seedling of the third generation from Shaffer, being larger and brighter red ; also said to be more compact in habit, and more productive. Originated with Luther Burbank. Ganargna. — Found growing wild by Stephen Katkamier, of Farmington, Ontario county, N. Y., about 1867. Described as a vigorous gro'wer, hardy, early, and productive, possessing the everbearing habit; spines numerous. Fruit large, delicate, and juicy, reasonably firm, dark red, approaching purplish brown. Propagates from tips. Garden (Doolittle's Ked Flavored Black-Cap). A variety in- troduced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners, N. Y. The Purple- cane raspberry was also known under this name. Whether this is the same, or whether, indeed, it might have been a true black- cap, it is difficult to say. Gardiner. — Mentioned as a new variety of unknown origin, intermediate between the Purple-cane and the black-cap. Garnet. — A seedling of the Philadelphia, produced in 1885 by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Described as hardy, vigorous, and productive. Fruit of medium size, pur- plish red, slightly conical, of good qualitv, rather soft, ripening late.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 276. Gladstone (Carpenter's No. 2, Erie). A chance seedling, orig- *Mich. Exp. Sta. Bnll. 111:271. PURPLE-CANE VABTETIES 181 mating with Charles Carpenter, of Kelley's Island, Ohio, who sent it out about 1888, first as Carpenter's No. 2, and then as Erie. Later it was introduced by Green's Nursery Co., of Rochester, N. Y., as Gladstone. Described as vigorous and hardy, producing considerable fruit in autumn. Fruit medium size, dark red, of excellent quality. Hildreth. — ''Introduced by Isaac Hildreth, of Big Stream Point, N. Y., as a native sort found near that place. It does not grow readily from the tips, and produces few suckers. Canes rather strong, spines purplish, stiff, numerous. Fruit medium, roundish oblate, dull reel or maroon, thick bloom. Half firm, juicy, sweet, subacid, and similar to Purple Cane in flavor." — Downing. Hybrid Crimson Mammoth. — Found wild at Adams, N. Y., by Dr. E. R. Maxson, who brought it into cultivation and described it in the Horticulturist, but apparently never introduced it. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 284. Merkel. — Described as perfectly hardy and productive, not throwing up suckers. Fruit firm, of excellent quality, with somewhat of a currant flavor. Darker than Cuthbert, resembling Gregg in shape and size. — John F. Rupp, in American Garden, 1891: 369. Montclair. — Originated on the grounds of E. and J. C. Wil- liams, Montclair, N. J., and supposed to be a seedling of the Philadelphia. Canes strong, vigorous, light red, often branch- ing. Spines quite numerous at the base, rather slender, pur- plish. Propagates moderately by suckers. Fruit medium to large, roundish oblate, dark red or crimson. Flesh quite firm, juicy, sweet, sprightly, and of good quality. — Downing. Very near to Biibiis strigosus; perhaps it ought to be included there. Mote Everbearing. — Raised by L. S. Mote, of West Milton, Ohio. An everbearing variety resembling Catawissa. — Downing. Mrs. Wood. — Originated with Mrs. Reuben Wood, near Cleve- land, Ohio. Described as vigorous and productive. Fruit of medium size, roundish, obtuse, purplish, with a red bloom; moderately firm, juicy, sprightly, subacid, ripening late. Muskingum (Shaffer's Sister, Melott's Favorite). — Originated in the orchard of Mrs. Simeon Ellis, Coshocton county, Ohio, near the Muskingum River. Named and introduced by James Madison, of Chili, Ohio. Similar to Shaffer, but not as tall, vigorous; fruit of about the same color, equally soft. Season medium to late. Neiv RocheUe. — Supposed to be a seedling of the Catawissa. Raised by S. P. Carpenter, New Rochelle, N. Y., and apparently introduced by E. W. Carpenter, of Rye, N. Y., though the 182 BUSH-FBUITS Country Gentleman for 1881 speaks of it as having originated with W. S. Carpenter. Said to be less vigorous, earlier, and smaller than the Shaffer, propagating only by tips. Fruit round- ish, obtuse conical, red or dark maroon, with a slight bloom. Flesh quite firm, juicy and rich. Norwood (Norwood's Prolific). — A variety originated in Massa- chusetts. A vigorous grower, propagating by tips. Fruit of good size, similar to Philadelphia. — Gar. Month. 17: 333. Percy. — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Said to be of l^rge size and best quality, sweeter than Shaffer, but otherwise much like it.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 298. Pliiladelphia. — A chance seedling, found wild near Philadel- phia, Pa., about 1835, which proved itself to be hardy, pro- ductive, and well suited to light soils in the southern portions of the Middle states. Described as vigorous, tall, branching, almost free from spines. Fruit medium, roundish, dark crimson or pur- plish red; flesh rather soft, moderately juicy, mild subacid. — Downing. This variety resembles Euhns sfrigosus much more closely than do the Catawissa, Shaffer, and others of the true Purple -cane type; yet it is evidently intermediate between the red and black raspberries, and not a true red raspberry. Al- though propagating by suckers, these are produced but sparingly, and the fruit is darker in color than the true red raspberries. Dr. Morse, in the Missouri Agricul. Report for 1886, p. 362, says: "A year ago I found a Philadelphia rooted at the tip in my grounds. This year I watched them, and find that there is quite a tendency to root at the tips. If put in too deeply they damp off. I think it is a different variety." Purple Cane (Purple Prolific, English Purple, Red Prolific, American Red Cane, Garden Raspberry, Huntsville, English Red, Allen and English Brown erroneously). — This is probably the oldest cultivated variety of this type. It was grown about New York at least seventy-five years ago. It is supposed to have been a native variety. Described as having strong, tall, recurved canes, often branching, reddish purple. Spines rather long, stiff", and moderately numerous. Berries small, purple, good, but too soft for market. Purple Dulcet. — Mentioned in the Illinois Horticultural Society Report, 1875: 268. Bed Cane. — Probably a synonym of Purple Cane. — Hov. Mag. 1858: 420. Bedfield. — Sent out for trial in 1894 by J. Wragg & Sons, of Waukee, la. First offered for sale by the Iowa Seed Company, of PURPLE-CANE VARIETIES 183 Des Moines, in the fall of 1895. Discovered on the farm of D. W. Humphrew, near Eedfield, Iowa. Resembles Shaffer in color and size, but said to be of better qualitv. Propagates by tips. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 304. Beliance. — A descendant of Philadelphia, raised by O. L. Fel- ten, of N. J. Described as hardy, vigorous and very productive. Canes strong, branching, with greenish spines. Fruit large, nearly globular or roundish oblate, dark red or crimson, firm, juicy, sweet and sprightly, but not of high flavor. Figured in Gardener's Monthly 1877: 302. Practically a strigosus variety. SaJzer Everbearing Bed. — Origin Illinois. Introduced by the John A. Salzer Seed Co., Lacrosse, Wis., as a cross between the Shaffer and the Marlboro.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 306. Sarah. — Originated by Professor William Saunders, London, Ont., from the seed of the Shaffer. Described as a moderate grower, suckering freely, and propagating only that way. Fruit large, round, deep garnet, firm, very juicy, pleasantly acid, and exceptionally rich, ripening after Cuthbert. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 306. Saunders Rylrid (No. 53?). — A hybrid between Philadelphia and Mammoth Cluster, produced by William Saunders, of London, Ont. Said to be productive, large, dark red, propagating from tips only.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 303. Shaffer (Shaffer's Colossal). — This is, at the present time, doubtless, the best known variety of this type. It originated in the garden of George Shaffer, near Scotsville, Monroe county, N. Y., about 1871. Introduced by Charles A. Green, of Roches- ter. It is a vigorous, upright grower, and one of the most pro- ductive raspberries known. Fruit large, dark red or purple, mod- erately firm, sprightly, subacid. Its color is too dark to be attractive, but if picked before fully ripe, while yet red, it looks fairly well in market. An excellent canning variety. It also dries well, being of more attractive color when dried than true red raspberries, and producing more pounds of dried fruit per bushel. In quality it is not far behind the red raspberries, with a richness not possessed by them. Shaff'er Seedling No. 5. — A seedling of Shaffer, mentioned as on trial at the Rhode Island Experiment Station. Smith Purple. — Originated with B. F. Smith, of Lawrence, Kans. Possesses all the characteristics of the black-cap except in color of fruit, which is of medium size, good qualitv, and has the black-cap flavor.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 310. Stayman Xo. 1. — A seedling of Shaffer originated with Dr. J. S.tayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., in 1884. Said to be large, re- 184 BUSn-FBUITS sembling the Marlboro, but later. Firm, of good quality, and propagating from tips. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 311. Superb (Churchman's Superb). Originated by John Church- man, of Burlington, N. J., and supposed by him to be a seedling of Philadelphia. Plant hardy, moderately vigorous, with large, stout canes, which bear abundantly and propagate by suckers, which increase slowly. Fruit large, rich, tart and juicy, dark scarlet and rather crumbly. Thought by some to be a cross be- tween the Philadelphia and some European sort. Surprise. — Introduced by H. G. Breese, Hoosick, N. Y. De- scribed as a dark red variety, having the flavor of red raspberries and firmness of berry and growth of cane of the black-caps; has a tendency to fruit in autumn. Apparently of little value. Wetherhee. — Spoken of as a red variety from New York.* Described as hardy, vigorous, with few spines, and a moderate bearer. Fruit small, round, purple, with slight whitish pubes- cence, moderately firm, of sprightly flavor, ripening late. Recommended Varieties Shaffer aud Columbian are the two best known and most desh'able varieties of the Purple -cane Group. III. THE AMERICAN RED RASPBERRIES Buhus strigosus The native red raspberry of the United States has been much longer in cultivation than the black rasp- berry or the blackberry, but is much 3'ounger than the European beny. In spite of its youthfulness, it has long since outrun its European cousin and gained con- trol of the commercial red raspbeny- growing of the countr}' . While it may be slightly behind the European berry in quality of fruit, it is so thoroughly at home, and adapts itself so readily to cultivation, that it has become a far more desirable market berry. One great ""Gardener's Monthly 22: 81. BOTANICAL CEABACTEBS 185 objection to the red raspberry as a market fruit is its long bearing season, necessitating so many pickings to secure the crop. The American sorts have the advan- tage in this regard, although even they ripen too unevenly. They are hardier, and usually have some- what more slender canes. Two species are included in the true red raspberries of cultivation, — the European red raspberry, Rudus Idceus, and the American red, Eubus strlgosus. Though similar in general appearance and in their botanical characters, there are essential points of difference. For the "strictly botanical differences, the reader is referred to the description of the two species. It may be said, however, that, in general, the European plant is rather stouter and less free in its habit of growth, the leaves are a little whiter beneath, thicker, and generally somewhat wrinkled, and the canes are light colored, bearing purple prickles in some varieties. The prickles on the finer parts are firmer, recurved and less numerous. The horticultural differences are more marked than the botanical differences, the chief one being the habit of the European raspberry to continue bearing more or less throughout the gi^eater portion of the season after ripening begins. This is a feature which, while it may be desirable in a home berry, is a disadvantage in a market berry. Another important point of difference between the two species is in hardiness. Few, if any of the European varieties can be depended upon to endure our winters, except in the most favorable locali- ties, without protection, and even then they are un- 186 BUSn-FBUITS reliable. It is also probable that our hot, dry summers ai'e as important a factor iu working their injury as the cold of winter. No better evidence of their lack of adaptability to our climate is needed than the fact that while there have been something like one hundred varieties belonging to this species introduced in the United States, probably not over five or six are grown at all at the present time, and these only in a very small way. The fruit is generally conceded to be of better quality than our American reds, and if the plants had proved satisfactory, this species would natur- ally have been in the ascendency. The following ac- count of the history of the red raspberries was con- tributed to The American Garden by the writer. History and Future of the Red Raspberries The history of the European raspberry, Buhus Idceits, runs far back into the ages. It it mentioned by Cato, who lived before the beginning of the Christian era, and it appeal^ to have been a natural product of Roman territory. Pliny the Elder, supposed to have written about A. D. 45, mentions it as one of the wild brambles which the Greeks called "Idea," having derived its name from Mount Ida, in Asia Minor, at the foot of which lay the renowned city of Troy. In this mountain were said to dwell fabulous be- ings, who were credited with being the first to work iron and copper, and with having introduced music and rhji:hm into Greece. Perhaps we may infer that in the exercise of the marvelous powers which they were alleged to possess, they produced this glorious fruit to appease some angry god, or gladden the eye and delight the taste of a gracious princess. Although deriving its name from this locality, where it was particularly abundant, the raspberry is indigenous over the greater part of Europe and northern Asia. It is impossible to tell whether the plants were cultivated at this early ♦^ The Defer lotion, ^€ f rambope igafeinDeof o^cmble,uujofelcaiics? anU baancljes: arc not muc^c bn* ^l^'fect^cot^crffijamlUcbut nuc io t-oug^ anD pncUlep juoz itx u)itt) fo man? l^arpe pzicfeles, auD fomtnnes? luir^out piicfelcs^,cfpeciaUp ttjenetue fi)ute0ana teuU erfp?inge0 t^atbenot aboiier^eageofapeere^^l^efrmteoj beme i& reSDe.bat otljeriPife it is^ Ipbe totl)eotijei\Ct)etootei^tongci;epmg iitti^cst:ounti;an&puttetl) fooztlj euerp pereuevD %\\ii% o:rpzmge2^,ti)eU)l}ic^ tlje ncpt peere Doo iimq^ fobjtl^ t^eic fiotucr;2anS5fnute, , 7 /^^ Places. ^CC^e f rambopci0 fouuDe m fome places of laoucijianH mDarfeetoooDg: ant) in tl)is^ Countnetl^epplanteitm garljen?? ^ anD it louetlj (baOoujpe placed ; iD^erc a^tlje ^onne II;incijt not often. ^JheTjme. 'Che jframbope flotDietl) in 3l^ap anD 3!une;t^efruiteis(tipein3ulp. Fig. 29. Description of the raspberry by Dodoens, 1578. 188 BUSH-FBUITS date, and it is not unlikely that the gods, like many mortals of the present day, were obliged to be content with the precarious supply to be found growing at will in grove and glade. Palladeus, how- ever, a Roman writer of the fourth century, mentions the rasp- berry as one of the cultivated fruits of that time. From a work written by Conrad Heresbach, entitled ^'Rei Rusticse," published in 1570, and afterward translated by Barnaby Googe, it appears that raspberries were little- attended to during that period. John Parkinson, in his "Paradisus," published in 1629, speaks of red, white and thornless raspberries as suitable for the English climate. Stephen Switzer, in 1724, only mentions three kinds. George W. Johnson, in his "History of English Gardening," published in 1829, gives the number of cultivated varieties as twenty-three. From these detached notes it appears that although cultivated at least as far back as the fourth century, it nevertheless did not come to be considered a fruit of any importance and demand at- tention until the close of the sixteenth century, or later. The raspberry never seems to have been held in such high esteem for its medicinal properties as the blackberry. Gerard Dewes, in his translation of "Dodoen's Niewe Herball," or "His- torie of Plantes," published in 1578, enumerates the following "vertues:" " The leaves, tender springes, fruit and roote of this Bramble are not much unlyke, in vertue and working, to the leaves, shutes, fruite and rootes of the other Bramble, as Dioscorides writeth. " The flowers of Raspis are good to be bruysed with hony, and layde to the inflammations and hoate humours gathered togither in the eyes, and Erysipelas or wilde fire, for it quencheth such hoate burninges. " They be also good to be dronken with water of them that have weake stomackes." The illustration (Fig. 29) shows a specimen of the text of this work, giving the description, habitat and time of flowering of the Framboye, Raspis or Hyndberie, as the raspberry was then called in French, English and German, respectively. The figure of the plant (Fig. 30J is reproduced from John Gerarde's "Historic of Plantes," published in 1597. Fig. 30. Gerarde's picture of the raspberrj-, 1597. 190 BUSn-FBUITS After the settlement of this country the first attempts at culti- vation, as with other fruits, were with varieties which had been familiar in England. In the second edition of William R. Prince's " Pomological Manual," published in 1832, fourteen varieties are described and six others mentioned as meriting culture. All but four of these are probably varieties of B. Idoeiis, although in some cases it is impossible to decide with certainty. Of these four, at least three appear to be forms of B. strigostis from different lo- calities, while the fourth may belong to the Bubus neglectus, or Purple -cane type. One of the varieties which appears to be European may also belong here. The American Pomological Society, at its second session in 1853, recommended four varieties for general cultivation, and commended one more as promising, all of which were foreign sorts. In the catalogue, as recommended by the last session in 1891, there appear fourteen varieties of Bulnis Idoeus, one of which is placed there doubtfully, and six of which are seedlings of American origin. There are also twenty - nine native varieties, six of which are classed under B. neglectus, fourteen under B. occidentalism and nine under B. strigosus. This, however, is far from representing the true state of comparative cultivation of the foreign and native species and varieties at the present time, for of the fourteen foreign varieties and their seed- lings still retained, not over five or six are now cultivated to any extent, and these only in very limited areas. While the Buhus Idoeus type is everywhere acknowledged to be much superior in the quality of its fruit, it is not able to maintain itself against summer suns and winter winds, and has had to give place to hardier sorts, better able to fight their own battles and emerge from them bearing abundant trophies of fruit, not so ex- quisite, perhaps, yet more substantial and sure. Moreover, with the gradual improvement which has gone on, there is at present little need for foreign varieties. The best of our natives yield fruit which is doubtless far superior to that which gratified the gods on Mount Ida in those days of war and wonder. Among the first varieties of B. strigosus to become prominent were the Stoever and Brandywine. The former is a form of the American red, found wild near Lake Dunmore, in Vermont, by Jefferson F. EVOLUTION OF THE RASPBERRY 191 Stoever, and removed to his garden at Tacony, near Philadelphia, where it first fruited in 1859. The Brandywine, or Susqueco, as it was at one time called (Susqueco being the Indian name for Brandywine), is of unknown origin. It first attracted attention in the Wilmington market, and was for a time called Wilmington. We are accustomed to boast of the marvelous progress in all lines of American development. WTiat advance can we show in the improvement of the raspberi-y? Some, to be sure, but most of it has been mere accident. In looking up the history of varieties it is the same story over and over again — " a chance seedling found growing wild, etc." Nearly all of our prominent varieties have originated in this way. A few men have gone to work system- atically to breed and develop varieties. The first and most prominent of these was Dr. William D. Brinckle, of Philadelphia — a busy physician, who, having a taste for pomology, pursued it as a means of recreation from other duties. He experimented with strawberries and pears, as well as with raspberries. So important was his work in these lines that he seems to be much better re- membered for that than for his medical reputation, although he was successful and prominent in this field also. He was president of the American Pomological Society at its second session, and for many years vice-president of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, repeatedly refusing its presidency. Unfortunately his work on raspberries was with the Buhiis Idceus species, and most of the varieties which he produced have suffered the fate of the class to which they belonged; yet he obtained in Brinckle's Orange the variety which has stood as the desideratum to be sought in quality to the present day. Another who achieved good results in this line was David W. Herstine, of Branchtown, near Philadelphia, the originator of the Herstine, Saunders, Ruby and Elizabeth rasp- berries ; yet these were simply seedlings of the Allen, grown in alternate rows with the Philadelphia. William Saunders, of Ontario, has also produced a number of varieties, some of which are said to be hybrids. Good as the varieties are which we have, we want further im- provements. Nothing is good enough to satisfy human demands. We want back all we have lost in giving up the raspberry of our 192 BUSH-FBUITtS forefathers beyond the sea ; but coupled with that, we want all we have gained from the hardier species of our own country. We want a red raspberry as good as Brinckle's Orange in quality, as large and productive as Cuthbert and of brighter color, as hardy as the Turner, and we want it on a black- cap bush without the thorns. Will we get it? The Shaffer is our nearest approach at present. What the possibilities of careful, systematic and pro- gressive breeding are, only the future can show. Varieties of American Red Easpberries American Bed (Common Red, English Red). — Prince states in the Pomological Manual published in 1832, that although this is a native of New York, growing naturally in the Catskill moun- tains, it is frequently termed English Red. He says the shoots are of a dark red hue and grow very long. The spines on the present year's shoots are purplish in color near the base, but greenish, with brown or purplish barbs or points on the upper part. The fruit is one of the earliest to mature, of medium size, fine flavor and greatly esteemed. He comments on the fact that this is the only variety grown to any e: tent for the New York market, and that there were nearly one lundred acres on Long Island devoted to its culture at that tine. Evidently this is a foreininner of American Red raspberry ulture, but undoubtedly plants from various sources passed under this name. In fact, from the vague use of the term in early writings, it seems even possible that the name may have been also applied to plants of the Bubus ncglectus or Buhus Idanis types. Andrews. — Thought by J. T. Lovett to be identical with High- land Hardy, while James Smith, of Iowa, is positive that this and the Highland Hardy are only the Kirtland renamed. BagJey Perpetual (Bagley's Everbearing). — Originated about 1854, at New Haven, Conn. Introduced in 1858 by A. Bridgeman, a florist of New Y'ork. Said to be hardy, and comparatively spineless. Fruit medium, nearly round, dark crimson, rather soft, acid, of poor quality. Bears a second crop in autumn. Brandyicine (Susqueco, Wilmington). — Said to have been found near Brandywine Creek at Wilmington, Del. It first attracted attention in the Wilmington market, and was for a time called the Wilmington. Mr. Edward Tatnell, of that city, undertook to in- troduce it under the name Susqueco, the Indian name for the Brandywine. Described as stocky, hardy, with large, reddish AMEBIC AN EED VARIETIES 193 colored canes, suekering freely. Fruit medium to large, bright scarlet, firm, juicy, of inferior quality. Bristol. — According to William Parry, this is a strong, hardy, vigorous grower, suekering immoderately. Fruit resembling the Brandywine, but not so large nor firm. Canada Bed. — Mentioned by Prince in 1832, as a variety first noticed by him growing along the roadside a few miles from Mon- treal, where the plants were to be met with in great abundance. He describes it as of medium size, resembling the common red in quality, with a high and rather peculiar flavor. Carpenter Xo. 1. — A vigorous grower, early, fairly productive. Fruit small to medium, bright red. Coleman No. 1. — Not a very vigorous grower, but fairly pro- ductive. Fruit small, soft, fine-flavored. — Ninth Annual Report Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Cole Prolific. — Exhibited at the Chicago Exposition in 1893 by the Fruit Growers' Association of Ontario. Found growing wild on the farm of R. D. Cole, of Port Dalhousie, Ontario. Crimson Beauty. — Found by Dr. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., in 1875, growing in a patch of Imperial. Introduced by A. M. Purdy, of PalmvLa, N. Y. Described as large, bright, glossy, scarlet, round to oblong, with a pleasant sprightly flavor, early, hardy and produc ive. Deficient in pollen production, and must be planted near some free pollen-producing sort to bear well. It has never provf^d valuable in the eastern states. Cuthhert (Conover, Queen of the Market, Quinby's Favorite). — Probably the best known of all red raspberries, and the most desirable single market sort. It was a chance seedling found by Thomas Cuthbert in his garden at Riverdale, now in New York city, about 1865. It is a strong, vigorous, upright grower, some- times branching; spines short, stout, purplish, rather numerous toward the base, but often wanting toward the tips. Fruit large, dark crimson, obtuse conical, grains rather small and compact. Flesh quite firm, juicy, sprightly, and of fair quality. Its chief defect as a market berry is its color, which is rather too dark. Mr. Conover, the asparagus man, seeing its value, spread it in his neighborhood, giving it undesignedly the name Conover. In New Jersey it was disseminated by William Parry as Queen of the Market. As yet, no other variety has displaced it. Eastern King. — Found by O. A. King, of Deering, Maine, in a garden in the town of Westbrook, about 1864 or 1865. A dull red sort, said to be larger, earlier and more productive than the Cuth- bert, though this claim has not been substantiated in Michi- gan.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 111:270. M 194 BL^SH-FBriTS Golden Queen. — This was found on the grounds of Ezra Stokes, of Camden, N. J., about J 883, in a twelve-acre patch of Cuthbert. In fact, to all intents and purposes, it is a Cuthbert with yellow fruit. Sports in color from this variety are not uncommon. In- stances are recorded where part of the berries on a shoot have been yellow and part red, and even the individual fruits have been variegated. The variety is one of the most satisfactory yellow-fruited sorts, possessing much the same qualities as its parent, the Cuthbert. While light colored varieties are not in de- mand for market, a few plants for home use are always desirable. Hansel! . — A chance seedling found on the farm of Hansell Bros., near Beverly, N. J., about 1875. Introduced by J. T. Lovett in 1882. Moderately vigorous, suckering freely, with dark, reddish green, hairy shoots. Leaves finely wrinkled. Fruit of medium size, dark red, with slight bloom, rather soft, subacid, pleasant, not rich. Obtained considerable prominence at one time as an early variety. Said to be difficult to transplant and to propagate from root cuttings. Harris. — Sent out by Z. H. Harris, of Rochester, N. Y., in 1889. Plant fairly vigorous, but of dwarf habit, standing well without pinching. Fruit large, bright, firm, and of good flavor. Not quite hardy. Highland Hardy (Highland Antwerp). — A sport or chance seed- ling which originated near Highland village, on the Hudson, about 1870. Very early, but fruit medium to small, red, of poor flavor. Said to be very susceptible to injury from summer heat. Hudson River Red. — A native red variety. Exhibited before the Cincinnati Horticultural Society in 1860 by F. W. Slack, of Kentuckv, who was at that time growing it for the Cincinnati market.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 284. Imperial Red (Red Imperial). — A variety grown in New Jer- sey, where it proved hardy. Fruit medium, roundish, scarlet, half firm, juicy, pleasant. Found to succeed better in the South than most varieties. I. X. L. — A chance seedling discovered by Charles Schlessler, of Naperville, 111., in 1887. Said to be vigorous; canes purplish. Fruit light, dull red, of medium size, crumbling, nearly sweet, of good flavor. Kenyon. — Introduced by O. A, Kenyon, of McGregor, la., who found it growing among black raspberries about 1885. Bush of medium size, quite vigorous and fairly productive. Fruit quite large, firm, but crumbling a little, deep dark red, with fair flavor. Clings tightly to the receptacle. Loudon — Originated by Frank W. Loudon, of Janesville, Wis., ameeicajS' red varieties 195 who states that it is a seedling of the Turner crossed with the Cuthbert. Canes vigorous, hardy and productive. Berry as large as or larger than Cuthbert, somewhat conical. Grains large, with a suture, firm and of a good red color, but not equal to Cuthbert in quality. One of the promising newer varieties. Introduced by Charles A. Green, of Rochester. Marlboro. — A popular variety originated by A. J. Caywood, of Marlboro, N. Y., who described it as follows:* "A cross of the Highland Hardy, and a seedling started from English Globe and the Hudson River Antwerp thirty years ago. It is a larger grower, with stronger canes than any known variety ; hardy in the fullest sense; berries averaging three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and when not retarded by long, severe drought, many of them will average one inch. It will remain four days on the bushes after ripe, and is then marketable. It is bright crimson in color, and does not lose its brilliancy when over-ripe." Its pa- rentage would indicate a mixture of Euhus Idceus blood, but this is not apparent in the plant itself. Charles Downing considered it an improved seedling of the Bubus strigosus type. He says:t " The growth and habit of throwing up numerous suckers, the strong, vigorous, upright canes, branching a little toward the top, nearly smooth, with a few short, scattering spines, and peculiar reddish color of the new leaves at the end of the new shoot, the color and flavor of the fruit, all indicate strongly its native origin." This is one of the best known and most generally prized early market sorts. Hardy, vigorous, productive, and a thoroughly good, all-round berry. Mary. — Raised from seed by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Fruit light red, as large as Cuthbert, with large drupes, moderately firm, quality fair to good. Plant productive, hardy and fairly vigorous. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 290. Meredith Queen. — Discovered growing wild in the town of Meredith, Delaware county, N. Y. , in 1880, by E. J. Brownell, who sent out plants for trial in 1883. A late variety of moderate growth. Fairly hardy, and only moderately productive, much of the fruit being imperfect. Bearing canes dark brown; new growth purplish green, tips red; suckers freely. Fruit medium size, of pale orange or reddish salmon color. It is a strictly native red raspberry except in color, and is of interest from being a yellow representative of this species. Michigan (Michigan Early). — Introduced about 1883 by William Parry, of New Jersey. It was generally supposed to have orig- *Country Gentleman, 1883: 338. tMich. Hort. Soc. 1884: 252. 196 BCSH-FRUITS inated in Michigan, though William Parry, Jr., is under the im- pression that the first plants came from Tennessee. Plant lack- ing in vigor and productiveness. Fruit roundish conical, rather small, of inferior quality. Moderately firm, dark red. Appar- ently of no real value. MiUer (Miller's Woodland). — A very popular variety in the Delaware peninsula. Origin same as the Brandj^rvune. De- scribed as strong, vigorous, not too high, adapted to bear very large crops without drooping, hardy and productive. Fruit very large, bright crimson, which it holds well in market; firm, sprightly, subacid, of excellent quality. Resembles Brandywine under favorable circumstances, but ripens earlier. Said to give its largest pickings very early, but its largest berries very late. It has not succeeded so well in other sections. Miller Favorite. — Mentioned as on trial at the Michigan Ex- periment Station in 1887.— Bull. Ill: 291. Niagara. — A Canada variety which apparently has some good qualities. Flavor and texture good; color dark. Apparently vigorous and productive. Olatlie (Stayman's No. 5). — Originated by J. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., from seed of Reliance. Canes rather slender, vigorous, upright, dark red. Fruit large, firm, juicy, of good quality and color, ripening among the last; productive. Osceola. — Originated in Osceola county, in northwestern Iowa. Said to be extremelv hardv, but soft in fruit. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 297. Parr}fs Nos. 1 and 2. — Originated with William Parry, of New Jersey, but not considered by him worth naming and in- troducing. No. 1 is an early variety, of rank growth, dark foli- age, fairly productive, soft, of good flavor. No. 2 later, more productive, not so rank a grower, large, firm, of distinct flavor. Pearl (Red Pearl). — Origin unknown. Cultivated consider- ably about Philadelphia at one time. The plant is a very short, stocky grower, seldom over three feet high. Spines numerous, long, slender, light colored, slightly tinged with purple. Suckers very numerous. Moderately productive and hardy. Fruit me- dium, nearly round, bright scarlet, sweet, juicy, moderately firm, with an agreeable flavor. Pennsylvanian. — A variety mentioned by Prince, in the Pomo- logical Manual, as obtained from a London nursery under the name Buhus Pennsijlranicus, but which he had later found to be identical with plants received from the forests of Maine. Perfection. — A variety originated by F. W^. Loudon, of Janes- ville, Wisconsin, and said to he a cross between the Cuthbert and AMERICAN BED VARIETIES 197 the Turner. Described as productive ; fruit large, handsome, of good color and flavor, juicy, not so firm as the Cuthbert. Pomona. — Introduced hy William Parry about 1887. One of the most uniformly productive varieties grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. Of vigorous growth and fine ap- pearance. Fruit a pleasing red, large and firm. Season very long. Queen of the Market. — See Cuthbert. Rancocas. — Introduced by William H. Moon, of Morrisville, Pa., in 1884. Originated as a seedling on the farm of J. S. Hansen, taking its name from the place of its origin, on the Rancocas Creek. An early variety of weak or only moderate growth, hardy, and fairly productive. Fruit of medium size, firm, of good color, but rather poor quality. Yields the bulk of its crop early in the season. Re(e)dc)'. — A seedling found near Stevensville, Mich., about 1875. Described as somewhat lacking in vigor. Canes slender, quite tender. Fruit round, only moderately firm, of good quality. Apparently never proved valuable. Bed Queen. — Mentioned by William Parry, in 1869, as no longer popular. — Gar. Month. 11: 237. Royal Church. — Originated on the farm of Royal Church, of Harrisonville, Ohio, near where a lot of Herstine and Philadel- phia varieties had been grown. Plants vigorous, productive, and hardy. Fruit very large, dark crimson, moderately firm, of ex- cellent quality. Rather too dark in color. This may belong with the Ruhus neglect us group. Scarlet. — Under this name was disseminated a sort found mixed with the Allen as sent out. It was distributed by John Crane, of Union county, N. Y.. who simply stated the facts, not claiming it to be a new variety. Fuller thinks it probable, from the description, that it was Allen's Prolific. Scarlet Gem. — A seedling of the Crimson Beauty, originated by Dr. J. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., in 1876. Described as early, moderately vigorous, comparatively hardy, of medium productivenes. Fruit bright red, of medium size, but deficient in quality and firmness. Like its parent, it needs to be near other varieties to insure pollination. Stayman Xo. 2. — Red, hardy, equal to Crimson Beauty. — Samuel Miller, Missouri Hort. Soc. Rep. 1883: 203. Stoever. — A form of the American Red, found wild near Lake Dunmore, Vermont, by Jefferson F. Stoever, who removed and fruited it near Philadelphia, in 1859. Described as large, roundish conical, rich crimson color, and of good flavor, with a tendency to autumn fruiting. — Hov. Mag. 1860: 124. 198 BCSR-FBi'ITS Ttilcott. — Sent out for trial by G. H. & J. H. Hale of Connecticut, in 1883. Much like Turner except in form. Plant lacking in vigor; fruit small and very early. Thompson Early Pride. — Sent out in 1888 by the Cleveland Nursery Co. Described as upright, vigorous, hardy and fairly productive. Fruit of medium size, firm, juicy and good. Thompson Early Prolific. — Also sent out by the Cleveland Nursery Co. A moderate grower, fairly productive. Fruit of me- dium size, bright crimson, quite firm, ripening early. Thicacl-. — Introduced by T. W. Foster, of Louisiana, Mo., as obtained from T. S. Wilson, of New York, who claimed it to be a cross between Herstine and Brandywine. Hardy, vigorous, produc- tive; canes stout, brownish green, with few spines. Fruit large, ovate-conical, bright red, with slight whitish pubescence. Flesh pale red, rather firm, moderately juicy, mild, not rich. Attained prominence as a market berry, notwithstanding its poor quality. Trusty. — A variety of unknown origin, on trial in Canada. Said to be of medium size, round, dark red, slightly downy, of good quality, firm, very productive, and late. Canes resembling Cuthbert, but more hardy. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 315. Turner (Southern Thornless, Red Thornless, Southern Red, Baldwin's Choice, Balding's Choice). — Originated by Prof. J. B. Turner, of Jacksonville, 111. A full account of its origin is given in E. P. Roe's ''Success with Small Fruits." It was for a long time one of the most popular varieties, and is still much grown. Very hardy, vigorous; canes of a golden reddish brown color, overspread with a purple bloom. Almost free from spines. Fruit large, bright crimson, roundish conical, soft, sweet, and of excel- lent flavor. The distribution of plants by a man named Baldwin undoubtedly caused it to receive the name Baldwin's Choice, evi- dently corrupted to Balding's Choice. Virginia Bed. — A variety mentioned by Prince in the Pomo- logieal Manual, published in 1832. Welsh. — A seedling raised by Isaac Welsh, of Camden county, N. J. Described as early, of medium size, bright red, firm, not of high quality. Vigorous, productive, and unusually hardy. White-fruited. — A white-fruited form of Bubus strigosus was sent to the Cornell University Experiment Station, by A. S. Fuller. The plant possesses all the characters of Buhus strigosus, and has nothing of importance to distinguish it from that species. Winant. — A seedling raised in New Jersey. Introduced by Frank Ford & Son, of Ravenna, Ohio. Said to resemble Thwack. A strong, vigorous, upright grower, perfectly hardy, productive. Fruit large, clear bright red, firm. EUBOPE AX-TYPE V ABIE TIES 199 Recommended Varieties A vote for the most thoroughly tried and generally satisfactorj' American red raspberries would probably result in the election of Marlboro for early and Cuth- bert for late. To this should be added Golden Queen, if a yellow variety is wanted. Loudon is younger, but is pushing rapidly into the field, while Miller seems to please on the Delaware peninsula. IV. THE EUROPEAN RED RASPBERRIES Eubus Idceus At the beginning of raspberry culture in the United States the European red raspberry had all the advan- tage of age and breeding on its side, but with the climate against it, it has lost the race. This has hap- pened, too, notwithstanding the fact that there has been no serious difficulty in growing it here. More than one hundred varieties have been introduced, many of them having been seedlings produced in America, but in spite of that, few are now known or grown to any extent. Their quality and appearance recommends them to the amateur's garden, and it is chieflj- there that they are found. The varieties of this class are usu^lly less hardy, slightly more stocky in growth of cane, and continue to ripen their fruit through a longer season. See Section III. for a history of this type. Varieties of the European Red Type All Summer. — Introduced by John Lewis Childs, of Floral Park, N. Y., as having been purchased from Mrs. A. A. Stowe, 200 BUSH-FBUITS of Hailey, Idaho, who obtained it from California, though the plants came originally from Mexico. Said to be strong, stocky, vigorous and prolifie, with large rank foliage, hardy in winter and summer. Fruit large, dark red, and of excellent quality. Recommended for its ability to endure extreme heat. Alpine. — Imported from the Mediterranean with Cretan Red and Flesh-colored by William R. Prince, who believed them to be closely related. Amazon. — Sent out from Edesville, Md., as a new variety, but thought by those who received it to be the Fontenay. Arnold Orange (Orange King). — Originated with Charles Arnold, Paris, Out. Canes strong, branching, yellowish brown, almost smooth, and producing but few suckers. Fruit large, somewhat shorter than Brinckle's Orange, of a darker orange color, unsurpassed for flavor. Said to be a yellow-cap crossed with Euhiis Ida'us. Arnold Red. — Origin same as the previous; the best known of Mr. Arnold's seedlings. Hardy, vigorous, canes dark purple, somewhat drooping. Spines slightly purple, stout, quite nu- merous. Fruit large, red, about the size and shape of Phila- delphia, but of superior flavor. Said to bear a good crop both in July and in September. Also said to be a cross between the yellow-cap, Ruhus occidentalis, and Ruhus Idceus. Arnold TeUoiv (Yellow Canada). — Of the same origin and pa- rentage as the two preceding. Fruit nearly white, large, and fine flavored but not equal to Brinckle's Orange. Plant of a peculiar albino appearance, quite vigorous, productive and hardy. Suckers freelv. Bears early and again sparingly in autumn. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 258. Baker. — A seedling of Merveille des Quatre Saisons. Raised by Mr. Parnell, of Cincinnati. Barnet (Cornwall's Prolifie, Cornwall's Seedling, Lord Ex- mouth, Large Red, Barnet Antwerp, Barnet Cane). — An old Eng- lish variety, said by Prince to bear considerable resemblance to the Red Antwerp, but distinguished from it by its branching canes and long, slender, reddish prickles. Said to have been raised from seed by a person named Cornwall, at Barnet, Herefordshire. Baumforih (Baumforth's Seedling).- Originated in England from seed of the Northumberland Fillbasket. Said to be stronger, more productive, larger, and a richer crimson than its parent. Biggar Seedling. — Raised by C. A. Biggar, of Drummond- ville, Ont., from an unknown European variety. Largely used as a parent variety by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont., in producing his hybrid varieties. EL^EOPEAX-TrPE VARIETIES 201 BlacJi (English Black). — Mentioned by Downing as a hybrid from England. An old variety. Brentford Cane. — Mentioned by Prince and spoken of by Fuller as an old English variety of little or no value. Placed among the inferior varieties in the nurserymen's catalogues about 1825. Brentford Bed. — Spoken of by Prince in the Pomological Manual as a variety of excellent quality and high flavor; produc- tive, and continuing a long time in bearing, often producing a second crop in August. Brentford White.— OKeveii by Prince & Mills, Flushing, N. Y., in 1822. Doubtless an English variety, judging from its name. Bromley Hill. — "An old red, English variety of fair quality, but not productive." — Fuller. Burlington (Prosser). — Originated by Benjamin Prosser, of Burlington, N. J. Downing states that there was some confusion over this variety, two or three having been sent out under the name. The one they had he describes as "moderately vigorous and productive. Spines greenish white with a brown tinge, slen- der and more numerous than any kind we have ever seen. Fruit large, roundish conical. Grains rather small, compact, scarlet. Flesh quite firm, juicy, sweet, good." Carter Prolific. — An English variety, with strong canes and purplish spines. Fruit large, roundish obtuse conical, deep scarlet, with slight bloom. Firm, moderately juicy, sweet and pleasant. — Downing. Champlain. — A chance seedling found in the garden of Mr. Macomber, of Grand Isle county, Yt. Believed to be from seed of White Antwerp, which it much resembles in the character of its canes. Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry in 1892. Described as vigorous and productive, with a tendency for the bark to split and curl. Thorns numerous and small. Foliage rich green, much wrinkled. Fruit large, lighter in color and more abun- dant than the \Yhite Antwerp, with seeds smaller, while the drupes are fully as large. Juicy, melting, and of high flavor. Too soft for market, but a good family variety. Charles the Bold. — Mentioned as one of Arnold's hybrids. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 2G3. Christine. — A very late red variety of indifferent flavor, sent out by E. P. Roe. Clarke. — Raised by E, E. Clarke, New Haven, Conn. De- scribed as strong, vigorous and upright. Spines purplish, rather long and stiff. Fruit large, conical, regular. Grains large, quite hairy, bright crimson. Flesh rather soft, juicy, sweet and ex- cellent. Apparently one of the best adapted to our climate of 202 BL^SE-FRUITS the foreign varieties. Said to be capable of enduring more heat and cold than most varieties. Found to be productive at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station-. Cline. — A chance seedling sent out for trial by G. "W. Cline, Winona, Ont., in 1893. Fruit of medium size, red, firm, sweet, of poor quality; inferior to Turner, but very early. Colonel JVilder. — A seedling raised by Dr. W. D. Brinckle, of Philadelphia, Pa., from seed of the Fastolf, and named in honor of Marshall P. Wilder. Foliage much crumpled, spines white. Fruit large, roundish, very delicate yellowish white or cream color, semi-transparent. One of the finest flavored raspberries, and very productive. Flesh soft. Cojje (V'ice-President Cope). — Originated with Dr. Brinckle, and named in honor of Caleb Cope, vice-president of the American Pomological Society for Pennsylvania in 1852. Thomas calls it a late sub -variety of the Bed Antwerp. Cornish. — An English variety which Fuller speaks of as old and discarded at the time his book was written. Cox Honey. — An old English white variety. Cretan Bed. — Imported from the Mediterranean by Prince, who says it resembles the Antwerp class in foliage, but with fewer spines. Thomas describes it as rather late, productive; canes upright, gray, nearly smooth ; leaves light colored ; fruit medium, roundish conical, purplish red, subacid, good. Crystal White. — A seedling originated by A. J. Caywood, of Marlboro, N. Y. Canes vigorous; foliage deep green. Fruit light lemon color, which easily stains, and becomes worthless for market; moderately firm, of good quality and flavor. Possibly belongs to the Buhus neglectus class. dishing. — Raised by Dr. Brinckle, of Philadelphia, and named in honor of J. P. Cushing, of Watertown, Mass. Described as large, roundish conical, light crimson, regular in form, juicy, sprightly, good. Grains small and compact. Spines brownish purple, stiff and rather numerous. Dr. Brinckle said that in favorable seasons it would produce an autumn crop of fine berries, Delaware. — Said to be an American seedling of the Hoi'net. A hardy, red variety, reasonably vigorous and productive. Fruit of medium size, rather soft, but sweet and delicate. Diadem — Produced by Charles Arnold, of Ontario, by crossing the American White-cap with Franconia, a seedling of this cross with White Four- seasons, and the offspring of this by Hornet, Imperial, and Fontenay, the Diadem being one of the resulting seedlings. Described as fairly vigorous, hardy, large, red or pinkish, of good quality. Seems to have been little grown. ECBOPEAX TrP±] VARIETIES 203 Double- Bearing Red (Perpetual-Bearing', Twice-Bearing, Late Liberian, Late Cane, etc.). — Mentioned by Prince and by Bridge- man. Downing sa^'s, it was formerly esteemed for its autumn bearing habit, but was then superseded by better kinds. Downing. — A seedling of the Orange, by Charles Downing. DHhri)ig. — A seedling of Hornet originated by Henry Duhring, of Belmont, near Philadelphia. Little known outside of that vicinity. Dyack Seedling. — Imported by Robert Buist, of Philadelphia, about 1840, and known onlv as a parent of Brinckle's Orange. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 271. Early Prolific. — An old English variety of poor flavor. — Fuller. Emily. — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings which proved unworthy of attention. Empire — A seedling of Biggar raised by Prof. William Saunders, of London, Ont. Described as early, productive, fairly vigorous. Fruit medium to large, conical, bright red, firm and of good quality. English Cane (Twice-Bearing). — For sale by Prince & Mills, of Flushing, L. I., in 1822. Perhaps the same as Double -bearing or some of the other English varieties. English Giant. — Imported from Denmark, by W. D. Barnes & Son, Middlehope, N. Y. On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Ex- periment Station in 1894. English Globe. — A variety mentioned by Downing. English fVhife (Old English Yellow[f]). — For sale by Prince & Mills, of Flushing, L. I., in 1822 at 8 cents each. The White Antwerp sold at 25 cents each, and the American White at 12X cents each, so this could hardly have been either of those. Everbearing Red. — Mentioned by William Parry in 1869 as no longer popular. Also recorded as a failure in Canada. Fastolf (Filby). — One of the best English varieties, which de- rived its name from having originated near the ruins of an old castle of that name in Great Yarmouth. First advertised by Yuell & Co., in the Gardeners' Chronicle in 1843. Ripens about ten days earlier than Franconia. Figured in Hovey's Magazine 1846: 299. Crozier* cites a reference which seems to indicate a much earlier origin. Flesh- Colored (Frambosier Couleur de Chair). — Said to have been obtained by William R. Prince from the Mediterranean with the Cretan Red, which it closely resembles. Fontenay (Belle de Fontenay, Belle d'Orleans, Amazon). — A *Mieh. Exp. Sta. Bull 111: 274. 204 B USH-FR UITS French variety with stocky, vigorous, find somewhat branching canes, suekering abundantly, especially when young. Fruit large, roundish conical, purplish red, moderately firm, with a rich, sprightly flavor. One of the hardiest and most reliable European varieties. Crozier spells this name Fontenoy ^ ";* Four- Seasons Bed (Merveille de Quatre Saisons, October Red), — A French variety having the autumn -bearing habit espe- cially developed. Thought by many American cultivators to be the same as Fontenay. Four-Seasons Yellow (White Four-Seasons, October Yellow) . — Imported from France in 1863 by Charles Arnold, of Paris, Ont. Said to be a seedling of the preceding, and similar to it in all re- spects except color. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 275. Franconia CAbel, Naomi [?]). — Received from Messrs. Vil- morin, of Paris, many years ago by Samuel G. Perkins. Said to have been little known in European catalogues except as returned from this country. It was one of the comparatively well known foreign varieties on this side of the water. French (Vice-President French). — Raised by Dr. Brinckle, from Fastolf crossed with Yellow Antwerp, and named in honor of B, U. French, vice-president of the Massachusetts Horti- cultural Society. Described by the originator* as follows: "A very late variety, which throws up very few suckers, and never fruits on these until the succeeding year. It is the latest and most hardy of all my seedling raspberries. It was the result of a cross between F'astolf and Yellow Antwerp. The seed pro- duced from this cross was planted, and some twenty or more of them vegetated. Being desirous of creating new varieties with a constitution sufficiently hardy to adapt them to the exigencies of our climate, I subjected them to such severe treatment as to kill all of them but one. This one bore the hard usage well. The berry of the French is large, round, and of a deep crimson color." French Everhearing . — Said to have been recently imported from France by California nurserymen, where it is becoming popular. Fulfon. — A seedling of the French raised by Dr. Brinckle. Named in honor of James D. Fulton, of Pennsylvania. General Patterson. — A seedling of the Colonel Wilder raised by Dr. Brinckle, and named in honor of General Patterson, of Penn- sylvania. Genesee. — A red variety sent out by Z. H. Harris, of Rochester, N. Y. Described as a moderate grower. Foliage distinct, large *Gar. Month. 2: 133. EUROPEAN-TYPE VARIETIES 205 and wrinkled. Fruit of large size, good color and pleasant flavor, but soft, and dropping from the plant as soon as fully ripe. Golden Prague. — Imported from Denmark by W. D. Barnes & Son, of Middlehope, N. Y. On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Ex- periment Station in 1894.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 277. Grajie (Mason's Seedling Grape). — Eaised from seed by Mr. Mason, a gardener, at Charleston, Mass. Said to have been pro- duced by crossing the Scarlet Rockingham aud Red Antwerp, and to resemble the Scarlet Antwerp in fruit and plant, but to be a better bearer, with racemes or bunches of fruits like grapes, whence its name. This name seems to have appeared in various places. Quite likely it may have been applied to different plants at different times. Heelmer.— Described by John Craig, of Ottawa, Canada, as a large red berry of the Clarke and Hornet type. Of good quality, but not a good shipper. Not hardy in Ottawa without winter protection. Henrietta. — A seedling which sprung up in Connecticut. It was introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale, who described it as per- fectly hardy, remaining green to the tips with a temperature of twenty -four degrees below zero. Also enduring the heat of sum- mer well. A vigorous grower, suckering freely. Fruit large, of high color and firm. Said to be very similar to Fontenay. Hornet.— A French variety raised by M. Souchet, of Bagnolet, near Paris. Introduced here by Aubrey & Souchet, of Carpen- ter's Landing, N. J., about 1859. Figured in the Gardeners' Monthly 1 : 122. Hudson Biver Anttverp (New Red Antwerp, North River Ant- werp). — Said to have been obtained from England by Mr. Bridge, of Poughkeepsie, N. Y. E. P. Roe, in "Success with Small Fruits," gives a most interesting account of the rise and fall of this variety and the extent which its cultivation reached along the Hudson in its most successful days. Huntsman Giant. — A seedling of the Franconia raised by F. W. Huntsman, of Flushing, N, Y., who grew many seedlings, hoping to gain a hardy variety equal to the more tender kinds. This was not claimed to be perfectly hardy, but to be an advance in this direction, while retaining the good quality of its parent. Imperial. — A large French variety introduced by Aubrey & Souchet, of Carpenter's Landing, N. J. Imperial White. — A varietv catalogued bv Ellwanger & Barry, in I860.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 385. GiUard^s Seedling. — An English sort of good quality. — Fuller. 206 BL'Sn-FEUTTS Jouet.—A French variety introduced here by Aubrey & Souchet, of Carpenter's Landing, N. J. King (Thompson's Kingj. — Sent out bv the Cleveland Nursery Co., of Rio Vista, Ya., in 1892. Described by H. E. Van De- man as medium in size, round, light crimson, drupes large, few, suture plainly marked, moderately firm, juicy, subacid and good. Professor Beach says* that it shows evidence of Idaeus parentage. Kncvett Griant. — Imported from England by Marshall P. Wilder in 1843, having been received as a present from Messrs. Chandler & Co., of Vauxhall, who stated that the ones they gave to Mr. Wilder were all they had ever had. They were under the impression that these were brought in by some person in that vicinity. The variety became quite popular in this country. Lady Ann. — A seedling of Biggar Seedling, produced by Pro- fessor William Saunders, of London, Ont., and now on trial in Canada. Said to be moderately vigorous, large, firm, and of good quality.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 287. Large -fruited ATonthly (Rivers's Large-fruited Monthly, Rivers's New Monthly) . — Said to have been imported from the continent to England by Thomas Rivers, in 1847, and brought to this country later. Apparently it never proved valuable here. Longworth. — One of Dr. Brinckle's Seedlings, which Fuller describes as large, round, deep crimson. Lord Beaconsfield. — Mentioned as an English variety on trial at the Experimental Farm at Agassiz, B. C. Lost BiiMes. — A variety said to have been found growing in a bed of Naomi by A. M. Purdj^, and sent to Charles A. Green, of Rochester, N. Y., who introduced it. Regarded by many as identical with Naomi. Whether this be true or not, the name "Lost Rubies" was very appropriate, for its fruit proved to be conspicuously absent, most of it being imperfect. Magnum Bonuni. — Introduced from England about 1840. Said to be similar to, if not the same as, Yellow Antwerp. Mrs. IngersoU. — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. Large, yel- low, and of fair quality. Mrs. Wilder. — A seedling of the Colonel Wilder, similar in color. Named by Dr. Brinckle. Muriel. — A seedling raised from Biggar Seedling by Professor Saunders. Said to be moderately vigorous, large, dark red, pointed, rather soft, of best quality, and ripening early. ♦Geneva N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bull. 91. EUEOPEAN'TTPE VARIETIEIS 207 Xaoini. — Said to have been produced from seed sown by Mrs. Governor "Wood, of Roekport, Ohio, about 1850. Introduced by F. R. Elliott. The question of the identity of this variety with the Franeonia was investigated by a committee of the Ohio State Horticultural Society in 18G8. The fact was developed that the stock sent out from Mrs. Wood's place was very badly mixed. She grew seedlings from the Red Antwerp and Franeonia, and from the mixture distributed plants. The sort which proved the best, and thus came to survive as the true Naomi, was doubtless the Franeonia itself, or a seedling of it, which, as may happen with the offspring of well established varieties, was so nearly like the parent as to be indistinguishable from it. Xarragansett. — A seedling of Brinckle's Orange raised by John F. Jolls, of Providence, R. I., and reported to be large and productive. Fruit conical, scarlet, of fine flavor. New Everbearing. — Noticed in the proceedings of the Cincin- nati Horticultural Society for 1861. Northumberland Fillbasket. — An English variety introduced about 1855. Noricalk. — Introduced in 1879, by Mallory & Downs, of South Norwalk, Conn. Said to be bright red, fine flavored, and not crumbly. A superior variety for market and canning. Thought by Lovett to be the same as Naomi and Franeonia. Nottingham Scarlet. — An old English variety, introduced be- fore 1850 by Marshall P. Wilder. Orange (Brinckle's Orange). — This noted variety originated with Dr. W. D. Brinckle, of Philadelphia, in 1845. It has long stood as representing the ideal quality to be sought for in the raspberry. Roe speaks of it as a hybrid between Bubus Idceus and our native species. It was raised from the seed of Dyack Seedling, an English variety of deep crimson color, but what the staminate parent was does not now appear. According to Dr. Brinckle, it reproduces itself generally from seed. It is described by Roe"^ as follows : " It is essentially an Antwerp in character, and yet it is more vigorous, and adapted to a wider range of country than the Antwerp. The berry is of a beautiful buff color, and its delicious flavor is the accepted standard of excellence. At the same time it is known that it will not thrive under hot suns or upon light land. It can be raised south of New York onh- in cool, moist soils and in shady locations, but in the north, where the conditions of growth are favorable, it produces strong, branching canes, covered with white spines, and is exceedingly ♦Success with Small Fruits. 208 BCSn-FEUITS productive of large, light colored berries that melt on the tongue. It always requires winter protection." Palluau. — A French variety. Described by Downing as strong, vigorous and upright, bearing large, conical fruit, a little obtuse; bright, light crimson. Papier. — An old French variety. Known also as Le Noire or Tue-Homme. First introduced about 1820 at Bagnolet, near Paris, the chief seat of raspberry culture for the Paris market, whence many of the foreign sorts have been obtained. It is said to have been soon superseded by other sorts because of its short fruit stalk, raspberries there being gathered with the stems attached. Introduced into the United States by Aubrey & Souchet. Parnell. — Said to be a seedling of Merveille des Quatre Saisons, raised by Mr. Parnell, of Cincinnati.* Reported to stand the winter well, but to be easily injured by summer sun. Vig- orous, productive, medium to large sized, dull red, with slight bloom, of fair quality. Patrician. — Said to have been applied by E. P. Roe as a tem- porary name to a variety imported from France by Mr. Downing, the name of which had been lost. It was said to be vigorous and productive, with fruit larger than Cuthbert, and of fine llavor. Pilate. — A French variety, introduced into the United States by Aubrey & Souchet, of New Jersey. Pride of ^e»^.— Originated by Mr. Fallstaff, of Kent, England. Imported about 1887 by Henry King, of Jefferson, Colo., and introduced to public notice in 1892 by R. S. Edwards, of High- land, Colo. A typical Idfeus variety. Fruit of fair size, color and flavor, but showing little evidence of productiveness. Pride of the Hudson.— A chance seedling, which originated in the garden of T. H. Roe, of Newburg, N. Y., about 1872, and gave most unusual promise. It was propagated and introduced by E. P. Roe, but in spite of the glowing indications of its youth, it proved a failure when grown under ordinary conditions. Though apparently resisting cold without injury, it suffered under the summer sun, and soon passed out of favor. The account of its origin and subsequent downfall, as given by Roe in "Success with Small Fruits," well illustrates the fickleness which these children of the garden may sometimes show. It was described as strong, vigorous, with large corrugated leaves, very productive, of excellent quality, scarlet- crimson, but too soft for market. Prince of Wales (Cutbush's Prince of Wales).— An English variety, mentioned by Downing as a strong, upright bush, with purple spines and large, conical crimson fruit. *OMo Hort. Soc. Rept. 1869: 32. EUBOPEAN-TTPE VARIETIES 209 Princess ^??ce.— Fuller speaks of this as a new English variety, raised by Cutbush & Son, of Highgate, England. Prince Globose. — Raised by William R, Prince, of Flushing, L. I. Described as strong, upright, with long, stout and numer- ous spines, and large, dull red fruit, with a deep bloom. Flesh coarse, rather dry, and crumbling. Prolific Bed. — Described by Prince in 1832 as more dwarf than most others. Canes slender, with small, numerous spines. Fruit large, of good quality, and an autumn bearer. Bed Antwerp (Old Red Antwerp, Knevett's Antwerp, True Red Antwerp, Howland's Red Antwerp, Frambosier a Gros Fruit, Bur- ley). — One of the oldest European varieties, probably having been in cultivation more than a century. It is supposed to have de- rived its name from the city of Antwerp, in Belgium, though the plant itself is said to have come from the Island of Malta. It is one of the best of the European sorts, and is still grown, even for market, in the United States. Described as having strong, long, yellowish green canes, slightly glaucous, tinged with purple, cov- ered with dark brown bristles. Bearing wood vigorous and nearly smooth. Leaves large, slightly rugose, dark green. Fruit large, conical, dark red, rich and sweet. Many other varieties have re- ceived this name at times. It is figured in the Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1866. Bed Cane. — A favorite market variety at one time in the vicinity of Hartford, Conn. Introduced there without name, and was probably some well-known variety like the Hudson River Antwerp, or true Red Antwerp.— Mich. Ex. Sta. Bull. HI: 303. Bed Siveet. — Imported from Denmark by TV. D. Barnes & Son, of Middlehope, N. Y. On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Ex. Sta. in 1881:.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 304. Bivers Orange (Large Orange, Rivers's Yellow). — Raised by Thomas Rivers, of England. Described as strong, branching, with stout, greenish spines, not numerous. Fruit large, deep or pale reddish orange. BusseU i?ef/.— Raised by Dr. G. W. Russell, of Hartford, Conn., from seed of the White Antwerp, grown near Red Cane. Bees were kept in the garden, and hence it was thought to be a cross between these two varieties. It was first exhibited before the Hartford County Horticultural Society, July 14, 1854. The account of this, given in Hovey's Magazine, 1858, p. 420, speaks of this Red Cane as "doubtless the American Red of the books." Semper Fidelis. — An English variety, mentioned in Hovey's Magazine as new in 1863. Sharpe. — A seedling of unknown parentage, produced by Prof. N 210 BUSn-FBUITS William Saunders, of London, Ont. Described as vigorous, fairly- hardy. Fruit large, bright red, soft, good quality, ripening early; similar to Heebner.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 308. Silver Queen. — A yellow variety, sent out for trial in 1885 by Robert Johnston, of Shortsville, N. Y., who obtained it from L. M. Macomber, of Vermont, under the name "Silver Skin." It proved of so little value that it never came into cultivation. Si)' John. — A seedling of Biggar's Seedling, produced by Pro- fessor William Saunders, of Ontario. On trial in Canada. De- scribed as large, roundish conical, of good qualitv, but soft, ripen- ing early.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 309. Soudietti (White Transparent). — Eaised by Messrs. Souchet near Paris, and introduced in the United States by Aubrey & Souchet, Mr. Souchet of this firm being a son of the originator in France. Described as long, conical, medium to large. Fruit of a rich cream color, overspread with white bloom. Spring Grove. — Mentioned by Fuller as an old foreign variety, very prolific, but of poor flavor. Sucre de Metz. — A white, foreign variety introduced by L. Ritz, of Ohio, in 1869. Said to be productive and to bear autumn crops, the fruit being of fine quality.— Ohio Hort. Soc. Rept. 1869: 32. Superb. — Mentioned by Fuller as a poor-flavored, old, foreign sort. Color red. See also Superb under Purple-cane Raspberries. Superb cV Angleterre. — Also mentioned by Fuller. Perhaps the same as the preceding. Superlative. — Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry, of Roches- ter, N. Y., in 1892. Described as hardy, with stout canes. Fruit large, conical, handsome dull red, of very fine flavor. Promis- ing to be an improvement over other foreign varieties, and pre- eminently a dessert variety. Apparently like all others, however, suffering from its foreign parentage. Surpasse Merveille. — A French variety raised by Simon Louis. A seedling of the Merveille de Quatre Saisons. Announced in French catalogues in 1862. Surprise. — A chance seedling of tlie Franconia, which origi- nated in Montgomery county, N. Y. Said to resemble Franconia in flavor, and to be firm enough to carry well. — Country Gentle- man 1881: 473. See also Surprise, under Purple-cane raspberries. Surprise d'Automme. — A white variety of Eubtis Idceus, intro- duced by L. Ritz, of Ohio, about 1869. Claimed to be productive, of very delicate flavor, and to bear autumn crops. — Ohio Hort. Soc. Rept. 1869: 32. Sweet. Yellow Antwerp. — Mentioned by Downing as an old Eng- lish variety, sweet, but unprofitable. EUBOPEAN-TYPE VABIETIES 211 Talhot. — Originated about 1885 on the farm of J. W. Talbot, of Norwood, Mass., who had been growing Herstine and Fou- tenay. Described as of medium size, with large grains, soft, juicy, mildly acid. Canes strong and vigorous. Taylor Paragon. — Mentioned by Fuller as an old, discarded European variety of poor flavor. Thunderer. — Mentioned by Thomas as an English variety re- sembling Franeonia. Turlish Turban. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1842: 368. Vermont. — A seedling of the Champlain. Originated by L. M. Maeomber, of North Ferrisburgh, Vermont. Said to be vigorous, hardy and productive. Fruit of beautiful pale yellow color, dusted with a white dowu; large, soft, juicy, of best quality. Victoria (Rogers' Victoria). — Imported by William E. Prince. Described as a variety of rather dwarf habit, bearing very large and dark red fruit. Fuller gives this name as a synonym of Fon- tenay. According to Crozier,* this is referred to by Maynard, of Massachusetts, under the name Victor. He also speaks of Cornell's Victoria and Steel's Victoria as two other English varieties not known in the United States. Walker. — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. Described as large, round, deep crimson, soft, juicy, of sprightly flavor, and good. Canes strong, with a few stiff, purple spines. Very productive. Probably named in honor of Samuel Walker, of Boston. Williams Preserving. — "An old English variety quoted from Johnson, in Gardener's 'Farmer's Dictionary,' N. Y., in 1846.'" — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 318. Wilmot Early Bed. — Mentioned by Fuller as an old English variety of small size and poor quality. Woodward. — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. Small, round, crimson. Very early, with red spines. Woodward Red Globe. — Fuller speaks of this as an old Eng- lish variety cultivated in England about forty years previous. It is also mentioned in Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture 1843, p. 332. Yellow Antwerj) (White Antwerp, Double -bearing Yellow.) — Described as nearly as large as the Red Antwerp, of the same shape. Flesh yellow, very tender, rich, and very sweet. Canes yellow, productive. A variety long known. Yellow Chili (Chili Monthly). — A French variety mentioned by Fuller as having little value, being inferior to several others of the same color. *Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill; 317. 212 BUSH-FBUITS RECOMMENDED VARIETIES None of the English varieties can be recommended, except to the amateur who may wish to try them for the home garden, and he may as well be left to make his own selections. V. UNCLASSIFIED RASPBERRIES I have not been able to refer to their respective classes with any degree of certainty the varieties men- tioned in the following list. Most of them are little known, many have passed out of cultivation, others may be only synonyms for better -known names, and a few are new. Allen. — See False Red Antwerp. Allen Bed Prolific. — Same origin as the Allen, Perhaps also included under the False Red Antwerp. Barter. — Reported from California, by Professor E.J. Wiekson, as a large sized, vigorous, productive variety, first grown by Wil- liam Barter, of Penryn, Placer county, Cal., to whom it was given as a "foundling." Largely grown in the foot-hill regions of that state.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 259. Beehive. — A variety introduced by Messrs. Winter & Co., of the Linngean Botanic Garden, Flushing, N. Y. Fruit large, round, red, ripe in July. — Amer. Gards. Asst. p. 194. Bron::e Queen. — Mentioned as unproductive and only moderately vigorous.— Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 13 (1891). Carleton. — Mentioned as on trial at the Experiment Station at Agassiz, B. C. Chester — Mentioned by C. S. Malbone, of South Haven, Mich., with Brandywine, as the best raspberries. — Fruit Grower's Journal, April 1, 1893. Cincinnati Red Antwerp. — Mentioned as grown in W^iseonsin about 1874.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 263. Perhaps the same as False Red Antwerp. UNCLASSIFIED VABIETIES. 213 Coolers Seedling. — Reported by Dewain Cook, of Windom, Minn., as exceedingly hardy and very productive. Plant tall and thrifty. Fruit dark red, quite juicy, small, of inferior quality. — Minn! Exp. Sta. Bull. 9: 327. Craig. — A seedling of unknown parentage. Originated by Professor Saunders, of Ontario, and named in honor of Professor John Craig. Described as large, rather conical, dark red, of the season of Marlboro; fairly firm, and of good quality; a good grower and prolific— Mich. Exp' Sta. Bull. Ill: 265. Crimson Cluster. — Described as fairly vigorous, producing suck- ers close to the old canes. Not very productive, but large, of fine appearance, and quite firm. — Ninth Annual Rept. Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Possibly a misnomer for Crimson Beauty. Crimson Queen. — A variety offered by L. L. May & Co. Early liidimond. — Mentioned in Garden and Forest, 1892, p. 458, as grown in Cayuga county, N. Y. Early JVJiite. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture for 1837, p. 23, as a valuable variety. Elizabeth. — One of D. W. Herstine's seedlings, which was ex- amined and described by a committee of the Pennsylvania Horti- cultural Society of 1870 as follows : " Plant a very strong grower, great bearer and suckering moderately. Canes light pea-green. Foliage dark green, deeply crimped, pearl gray on the under side. Fruit very large, round, crimson-scarlet. Grains large and strongly marked. Firm, of delicious flavor, late." Elm City. — '^A hardy sort. Size and flavor much like Philadel- phia. Eight to ten days later than other varieties."' — Downing. "A thornless variety, vigorous in growth, hardy and productive. Fruit large, good color, firm and sweet." — Ohio Hort. Soe. Rept. 1807 : 114 English Fed Cane (English Purple, False Red Cane, Allen). — Mentioned under this name and synonomy by F. R. Elliott as a va- riety much grown by market -gardeners in 1865. Described as hav- ing tall, bluish red canes, with a whitish grr^y bloom. Hardy and productive. Fruit medium to large, globular or slightly conical, dull red, with large grains, moderately firm, juicy, and pleasant, but not of high flavor.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 273. Possibly this may have been the same as False Red Antwerp. Erwood Everhearing .—On trial on the grounds of The Rural New-Yorker in 1879, and reported as one of the hardiest red varie- ties.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 273. Excelsior. — Said to have originated in Wisconsin. A variety of this name, perhaps the same, is reported as worthless in Ohio. False Red Antwerp (Allen, Allen's Antwerp, English Red Cane, Kirtland). — The history of this variety, as gathered from a writer 214 BUSH-FRUITS in the Gardener's Monthly, 1862, p. 38, and one or two other sources, is in substance as follows: In 1828, or thereabouts, an English gardener brought to Cleve- land, Ohio, a variety without name. It proved perfectly hardy and productive, with fruit of good size and flavor. The Red Antwerp was then the standard variety, and the valuable qualities of this unnamed sort led to its being called by that name. Later, when the true Red Antwerp came to be known, this one took the prefix "False," and came to be one of the most valuable and popular market sorts, under the name of False Red Antwerp. Still later, there came to be three varieties distributed as this, two of them probably having originated as seedlings in the original plantation. They are described in the following words : "Of these two seedlings, one closely resembles the parent in fruit, but the canes are slightly more downy and the tendency to sucker is about double, while, at the same time, its bearing quality is reduced about one-half. Another has canes more downy; ten- dency to sucker is increased, while its productive powers are in- different. In fact, a great proportion of its blossoms are imper- fect, and without close proximity to some other sort, it sets but little fruit, or, if it sets, the berry is imperfect. "In 1850 I think it was," the writer continues, "a gentleman of Cleveland (F. R. Elliot) sent to W. H. Sotham, then an occu- pant of lands of Lewis F. Allen, one thousand plants gathered indiscriminately from a plantation of the False Red Antwerp rasp- berry. And now, having obtained and three years tested plants received by others from Mr. Allen's grounds, that person is pre- pared to say that the Allen raspberry embraces all the varieties enumerated under the name False Red Antwerp." This history seems to explain very satisfactorily the cause of so much confusion over the so-called Allen raspberry. The same writer continues : "And now for a little history of the so-called Kirtland rasp- berry. Some years since, before nurseries were very abundant hereabouts, and people found it difficult to procure new and val- uable fruit. Professor LP. Kirtland was in the habit of distributing to his friends and the public, with a free hand, all his surplus plants of any sort. To Mrs. Follet, of Sandusky, the Professor some years since gave of the False Red Antwerp, Fastolf, and Franeonia raspberries, a few plants each, the former being hardy and the latter tender. After a time the tender sorts died out, while the hardy one attracted the attention of H. B. Lum, of Sandusky, who, without knowledge of its character, but knowing that it came from the garden of Professor Kirtland, named and sent it out as a seedling of the Professor's, and under his name." The botanical relationship of the Allen raspberry is a matter of dispute. Lender date of January 1, 1893, Thomas Meehan UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES 215 wrote, " I am still of the opinion that the Allen raspberry belongs to the type of Ruhus Idccus. It certainly has no relationship with Buhus strigosus.^^ On April 25 of the same year A. S. Fuller wrote, "As for the Allen raspberry there can be no ques- tion about its being a true E. strigosus, for it came from the woods, as Mr. Allen himself informed me, thirty years ago." It is quite evident that more than one variety must have been known under this name. If the above history showing its iden- tity with the False Red Antwerp is authentic, we might expect it to have been an English variety, appearing as it did in the hands of an English gardener as early as 1828. On the other hand, if Mr. Fuller's information was correct, that it was taken from the woods, it must have been E. strigosus. It is a matter of interest in connection with its seedlings, Elizabeth, Herstine, Euby and Saunders, and these have very generally been thought to contain some admixture of Euhus Idceus. French (R. M. Conklin's). — Mentioned by William Parry, in 1869, as declining in favor. — Gar. Month. 11: 337. Golden Alaslri. — Introduced by John A. Salzer, of La Crosse, Wis., in 1891, and reported to have been found in one of the valleys of Alaska.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 277. Grant. — Mentioned in the Gardener's Monthly 1869, p. 123, as a new variety from Auburn, X. Y. Color red; size large; shape conical, ripening with Red Antwerp. Grape Vine. - Sent out in 1878 by William Holland, Plymouth, Ind., who obtained his original plants from John German, of Indiana. So named on account of the appearance of the canes and the large leaves. Ornamental, but of no value for fruit. Hawlins Orange. — A poor fruit of no value. — William Parry in Country Gentleman 1878: 151. Herstine. — This originated with Mr. D. W. Herstine, of Branch- town, Pa., according to whose statement it was raised from seed of the Allen raspberry, which had been planted in alternate rows with the Philadelphia. Plant a good grower, bearing early and abundantly, suckering moderately. Canes strong, of a pea green color, covered with white bloom. Spines green and not abundant. Foliage healthy, of medium size, often lobed. Fruit large, oblong, with small grains and crimson color. Flavor sub- acid and very good. Described by William Parry in the follow- ing words: "As large as Hornet, bright as Pearl, hardy and pro- ductive as Philadelphia, and delicious as Allen." The origin of the Allen being obscure, the classification of this variety is left in doubt. On the grounds of its originator it was a remarkable berry, but has seldom proved so successful elsewhere. It appears to be slightly deficient in pollen, which sometimes diminishes its pro- 216 BUSH-FEUITS duetiveness and causes imperfect berries. A colored plate show- ing fruit appeared in the Gardener's Monthly for October, 1870. Hiram. — Sent out by W. J. Bradt, of Hannibal, N. Y. De- scribed by H. E. Van Deman as very large, sharp, conical. Core large and rough. Not so firm as Cuthbert, but a fair shipper. Rather sharp acid, showing traces of Antwerp parentage. Said to be hardy and productive. Thought to be a cross between Euhus strigosus and Biihus Idceus. Howell. — Mentioned by F. R. Elliott in the Transactions of the Ohio Pomological Society for 1865 as being then in cultivation. Johnson. — Received from Cincinnati by E. Y. Teas, of Indiana, in 1875, and reported by him, after a brief trial, to be much like the Philadelphia.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 285. Keystone. — Originated with A. L. Felten, of Philadelphia, Pa. Fuller speaks of it as an excellent variety, although the canes are tender. Fruit very large, crimson. Kirtland. — See False Red Antwerp. Kreigli. — Brought to notice about 1880. Claimed to be of fair size, productive, hardy, of excellent quality, and firm. — Gar. Month. 22: 276. Large White. — Mentioned as a desirable variety in Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture 1837: 23. LindJey. — Raised by Joseph B. Lindley, of Newark, N. J., early in the sixties. Said to be a hybrid between the Fastolf and the Native Red. Described as strong, upright, much branched, tall. Spines greenish, stout, and numerous. Fruit medium to large, conical, a little obtuse, crimson. Grains medium to large, compact. Flesh rather soft, juicy, sweet, good. Linton (Red). — Mentioned in ''Rural Affairs," vol. 7, p. 81. Also by William Parry, of New Jersey, in 1870, as unsuccessful. Little Prolific. — A red variety originated with John Little, of Ontario. Sent out in 1883. Plant hardy, slender and branching, bearing heavily. Shoots green, without spines. Fruit medium, roundish, slightly conical, purplish red, firm, juicy, acid and sprightly. No longer cultivated. Probably Ruhus neglectus. May Orange.— OSered for sale by L. L. May & Co. Mendocino. — A Pacific coast variety. Said to have originated in Mendocino county, Cal., and used by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, Cal., in the production of some of his seedlings and hybrids.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 290. Miller Favorite (Red). — On trial at the Michigan Agricul- tural College in 1887. Mohler No. 1. — Mentioned as a red variety on trial at the UNCLASSIFIED VABIETIES 217 Indiana Experiment Station. Described as moderately vigorous, hardy and productive. Of good quality, and firm. — Bull. 38: 13. My Seedling. — Mentioned by George J. Kellogg in the Report of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society for 1887, p. 241, as val- uable, having withstood the winter and drought, and paid better than other varieties. Xehmska. — Mentioned by William Parry in 1869, as no longer popular. — Gar. Month. 11: 237. Xeicark. — Mentioned as on trial in 1892, at the Oklahoma Ex- periment Station.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 294. New Prolific. — Mentioned in the Report of the Kansas State Horticultural Society for 1884, as satisfactory in that state. Xorthern Wonder. — Spoken of as an excellent variety found by one of the Feltens.— Gar. Month. 13: 246. Phoenix. — Mentioned in The Rural Xew-Yorker, 1897, p. 598, as a very early red variety. Pullman. — A variety mentioned as on trial at the New York Experiment Station about 1884.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1884: 251. Queen Marguerite. — ^A red variety on trial in Michigan about 1885. Reported as hardy, productive, of fine size and fair quality, but lacking brightness of color. Bed Cluster.— Deserihed by T. T. Lyon in 1893 as late, of medium size, red, roundish conical, of good quality, moderately productive. At the Michigan Agricultural College it is vigorous, moderately hardy.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 111:304. Richardson. — Mentioned as an inferior variety cultivated in the West.— Gar. Month. 1862: 339. Eider. — Spoken of by T. T. Lyon as not quite satisfactory in plant but beautiful and good. — Amer. Pom. Soc. Rept. 1891: 119. Rileifs Early. — Downing speaks of it as a variety from New Jersey. Of medium size, good flavor, and quite early. Euby. — Raised by D. W. Herstine. Described as a free grower and abundant bearer. Canes strong, of a light green shaded with purple, covered with white bloom, and with very few spines. Foliage healthy, light green, pearl gray on the under side. Fruit large, round, dark crimson, with large grains, somewhat hirsute. Flavor somewhat acid, excellent. Saunders. — Originated with D. W. Herstine, of Branehtown, Pa., who raised it from the seed of the Allen planted in alternate rows with the Philadelphia. It was named in honor of William Saunders, of W'ashington, D. C. Described as a good bearer, suckering freely. Canes green, shaded with purple. Spines numerous, small and light green. Foliage light gieen and abun- 218 B USH-FR UITS dant. Fruit very large, round, crimson, with large grains. Flavor of high character and delicious. Short-jointed Cane. — Described by Prince, in the Pomological Manual published in 1832, as almost spineless, with close, jointed canes Fruit pleasant, rather larger than the Common Red, but not quite equal to the Tall Red Cane, though superior to it in flavor; later in ripening than the Common Red, producing good crops. Crozier refers it to Rubus strigosus. St. Louis. — A popular variety in the vicinity of St. Louis, Mo., about 1867. Said to be hardy, large, bright red, sweet, and of excellent flavor. Tall Bed Cane. — Described by William Prince, about 1832, as productive. Fruit round, of good size and quality, but not of high flavor. Canes covered at the base and extremities with numerous fine spines or hairs. It is also mentioned by Bridge- man in the "American Gardener's Assistant." Victor (Red). — Tender and unproductive, fair to poor quality. Watson Seedling. — Inquired about in the Gardener's Monthly, vol. 1, p. 139, but unknown to the editor. Wauregan. — Mentioned in "Rural Affairs," vol. 8, p. 81. A failure with William Parry, of New Jersey. Waterloo. — Mentioned among the varieties planted for trial at the Mississippi Agricultural College in 1888. — Mich Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 318. Wltite Canada. — Raised by Charles Arnold, of Paris, Ontario. Canes vigorous, upright, brownish yellow. Spines white, quite stout, numerous. Fruit about the shape of Brinckle's Orange. Pale yellow, of decided Antwerp flavor. White Mountain (Red). — Tender, late, unproductive, rather soft, and of poor quality. — Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. Bull. 21 : 10. Recommended Varieties None of the varieties mentioned in this list are of sufficient prominence at the present time to deserve recommendation . CHAPTER VIII r ABIE TIES OF BLACEBEERIES AND DEWBEEEIES A. THE BLACKBERRIES The blackberry family is an exceedingly variable one, and within the limits of the species to which it belongs, and those species closely related to it, may be found an almost endless variety of forms. Many of these produce fruit of desirable size and cpiality, and it is by no means certain that we have as yet secured the most desirable ones for cultivation. All our common high blackberries belong to the species known as Eiihiis nUjrohaccus and R. argutns. In typical forms, the former is characterized by vigorous, upright, thorny bushes, bearing numerous glandular -tipped hairs on the peduncles, petioles and other young parts of the plant. Forms occur, however, which are almost des- titute of thorns, or of glands, or of both. Several botanical varieties belonging to this species have been named, and no one can say how many more might be recognized with equal propriety if the forms could be all collected for study. The typical form of the species bears long or oblong fruit, comparatively sweet and rather dull in color. Euhus argutus is much like this common blackberry, but lacks the pubescence. A closely related, and perhaps equally common species, at least on high land, is the Mountain Black- (219) 220 BUSH-FRUITS berry, Rudus Canadensis (B. MiUspaugliii, Britt). In this species the main canes are ahnost wholly destitute of thorns, the fruit is apt to be sour, sometimes even bitterish, and is much shorter and thicker, with larger, glossy black drupelets. Whether seedlings of this species can be acclimated to lower altitudes without acquiring to a degree the objectionable thorny dress of their lowland neighbors, has yet to be deter- mined. Indeed, it may be fairlj^ questioned whether it is worth while to make the attempt, since the fruit is generall}' considered inferior to that of the Long- Blackberry. Still, this inferiority is not great, and if, by crossing this species with our commoner garden varieties, the thorns can thereby be reduced, the object is well worth the seeking. The fruit ripens later, but this is doubtless chiefly due to elevation. This type reaches its greatest perfection in the high mountains of the Appalachian system. It is often found in dense forests, where the canes sometimes reach a height of fifteen or eighteen feet, and are as thornless and smooth as a willow twig. In such localities the fruit is said to be greatly appreciated by the mountain bears, which are enabled to draw down the smooth canes and fatten upon the berries for their long hibernating sleep during winter. Where is the philosopher who is ready to construct a theory on the disappearance of thorns as the result of the silken touch of Bruin's breast as he and his ancestors have yearly sought this autumn feast ! Still another species which produces fruit of excel- lent quality is the Sand Blackberr}', Riibus cuneifoUus, EVOLUTIOy OF TEE BLACKBERRY 221 of the southern states. The characters of this are in strong contrast to those of the one just mentioned, for it is a short, stubby plant, bristling all over with stout hooked thorns, and with a decidedly woolh' coat on the under surface of its small wedge-shaped leaflets. In spite of its rugged appearance, it does not endure our northern winters well, and may never become a serviceable member of the family except in the sunny clime of its choice. Were it not that the legend of the man of won- drous wisdom, who jumped into a bramble bush and scratched out both his eyes, doubtless had its origin in the dim historj' of the Old World, we might im- agine this to have been the species concerned, for no American bramble appears to be better able to ac- complish such a feat! The following sketch of blackberry history was once contributed by the writer to The American Garden: History and Future of the Blackberry The blackberry or bramble of Europe {Ruhiis fruticosus) does not appear to enjoy a very high reputation in its native country for the value and quality of its fruit. It is occasionally spoken of as being useful for tarts or similar culinary preparations, espe- cially if liberally supplemented with apples to give spice and flavor. It is also brought forward as deserving of notice because it offers a cheap source of food in the shape of jam, etc., for the poor, either to be obtained for themselves or for the more wealthy to provide in anticipation of distributing to them as necessity may demand. The plant, evidently, even to a greater degree than in our own country, partakes too much of the nature of a trouble- some weed to become popular with the more fastidious. In addi- 222 BUSH-FRUITS tion to this fact, the fruit is not equal in flavor and quality to that of our own species. Several passages in Shakespeare serve to give a good idea of the social rank of the English blackberry: Falstaff.—'^lt reasons were as plenty as Blackberries, I would give no man a reason on compulsion." —1st Henry JY., Act ii., Sc. 4. Falstaff.—^^ Shall the blessed sun of Heaven prove a micher and eat Blackberries?" —1st Henry IV., Act ii., Sc. 4. Thersiies. — "That same dog-fox Ulysses is not proved Avorth a Blackberry." —Troilus and Cressida, Act v., Sc. 4. In its early history, other qualities seem to have been con- sidered more important than its fruit. According to Pliny, the ancients were taught by means of the bramble bush how to prop- agate trees by layers. It was, no doubt, held in greatest esteem, however, for its supposed medicinal qualities. "The berries," says Pliny, "are the food of man, and have a dessicative and astringent virtue, and serve as a most appropriate remedy for the gums and inflammation of the tonsils." Both the flowers and berries were thought by the ancients to be remedies against even the most venomous serpents. Pliny further states that "the juice pressed out of young shoots, and reduced to the consistency of honey, by standing in the sun, is a singular medicine taken in- wardly, or applied outwardly, for all diseases of the mouth and eyes, as well as for the quinsy." The roots, boiled in wine, were esteemed one of the best astringents by Roman physicians, and used in all diseases of the mouth. The leaves, pounded and applied to ringworms and ulcers, were said to bring speedy relief. Boerhave, a renowned physician at the beginning of the last cen- tury, aflirms that the roots, dug in February or March and boiled with honey, are an excellent remedy against dropsy. In a work entitled "A Niewe Herball, or Historic of Plantes," first written by D. Rembert Dodoen, physician to the German emperor, and afterward translated into French, then from French into English by Gerard Dewes, in 1578, the "nature" of the blackberry is set forth as follows: "The tender springes and new leaves of the Bramble are colde and drie almost in the thirde degree, and A BLACKBSMBV LEGEND 223 astringent or binding, and so is the unripe fruite. The ripe fruite is somewhat warme and astringent, but not so much as the unrype fruite." Then are given a long list of " vertues," among which are the following: "They do also fasten the teeth, when the mouth is washed with the juyce or decoction thereof. The unripe fruite is good for the same purpose, to be used after the same manner," "The leaves be stamped & with good effect are applyed to the region or place of the stomacke against the trembling of the hart, the payne & looseness or ache of the stomacke." It is to be feared that Pliny and others of these old writers do not rank high as medical authorities at the present day, yet the plant and fruit of the blackberry are still employed in various ways, with very gratifying results, in the treatment of disease. According to legend, the origin of the disagreeably thorny character of the blackberry, as told by "VVaterton, was on this fashion: "The Cor- morant was once a wool merchant. He entered into partnership with the Bramble and the Bat, and they freighted a large ship with wool; she was wrecked and the firm became bankrupt. Since that disaster the Bat skulks about till midnight to avoid his creditors, the Cormorant is forever diving into the deep to dis- cover its foundered vessel, while the Bramble seizes hold of every passing sheep to make up its loss by stealing the wool." Perhaps it would Be casting discredit on the worthy ancestors who braved so many dangers in the settlement of our country, to charge them with undue conservatism, yet it can hardly be doubted that men who would brave the uncertainties, not to say terrors, of an ocean voyage on an almost unknown sea, and the settlement of a new country peopled with savages of unknown traits and tendencies, rather than surrender ideas which they cherished, would not be quick to form new ones. Hence we can readily •conclude that the blackberry of America was to them much what the blackberry of England had been — simply a wild bramble, to be destroyed when possible and replaced by some- thing better, and whose fruit was to be gathered at will. More- over, to cultivate a fruit which was so readily obtained in abun- dance for the gathering, would have been folly to them, when many otlier things conducive to their safety and comfort were so 224 BUSH-FBUITS mueli more needed. As time went on, however, this gratuitous feast of nature, provided for the fostering of ^' infant industries," began to diminish, and the demand of growing cities for increased quantities of fruit doubtless led to the idea of cultivating the blackberry among the rest. Just when this state of affairs was reached it is impossible to say, but evidently not until quite late in our national development, for the blackberry does not seem to have begun to receive much notice or to be talked about in the horticultural journals until about 1850. From Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture, it appears that Capt. Josiah Lovett, of Beverly, Mass., figured prominently in introducing it to cultivation. Even then, as with many other good and useful things, first impressions were unfavorable. Of course, the first effort would naturally be to bring plants, which bore the most promising fruit, from the woods and clearings and set them in the garden. This attempt to tame the wild protege of the forest did not often prove satisfac- tory. These plants evidently did not take kindly to the refine- ments of civilization, and longed for their free and easy life of the wood. Capt. Lovett reports repeated failures in trying to get good berries by this method. He persevered for five years, but at last gave up in despair about 1840, and surrender^l this wild gypsy of the fruits to its native haunts as untamable. In spite of these discouraging results he evidently did not abandon the dream of a cultivated blackberry, for Downing gives him the credit of having introduced the Dorchester, which in time proved so valuable, although according to Marshall P. Wilder, as re- ported in the ' ' Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society" for 1883, p. 129, it was brought to notice by Eliphalet Thayer, who first exhibited it before that society, August 7, 1841. But these first introductions to cultivation, the Dorchester and Lawton, were not calculated to bring swift and lasting pdl|)ularity to the blackberry as a garden fruit, for although large and attrac- tive, their habit of turning black before they are ripe nearly always led to their being gathered and eaten while green, and their consequent condemnation as sour and poor in quality. Moreover, their culture, being little understood, led to frequent failures and unsatisfactory results, while their propensity to per- ^^ TYPES IN C CULTIVATION 225 sist and spread, aided by their unmerciful thorns, conspired to render them a terror to many timid gardeners. In spite of all this, the blackberry has steadily pushed its way into prominence, until it is to-day one of our most satisfactory and profitable crops. Here, as with all other fruits, we are far from attaining perfec- tion. \Ve have no ideal variety. If we demand the best in point of hardiness, we must yield in size and quality; if delicacy of flavor is the desideratum, something else will be deficient. Yet to stand by a well -grown row of Early Cluster, for example, to see its glistening sprays of glossy black hanging in such graceful profusion, to gather its magnificent berries and to test their sweet and melting quality, just like those finest and ripest ones we used now and then to chance upon in some wooded nook which everybody else had missed, is to forget for the time being that anything further is to be desired in a blackberry. Still we have reason to hope that the achievements of this energetic and vig- orous pomological youth are but an omen of what is yet to come. There are several distinct types of blackberries in cnltivation, but to properly classify all varieties under these types is manifestly impossible, since the varieties themselves are not accessible for comparison, many of them having already disappeared from cultivation, while others are yet too new. Descriptions seldom furnish sufficient data upon which to determine such matters. Still it may be advisable to carry the classification as far as possible, as a matter of aid to future study by those who have opportunity to do it. This inventory aims to include descriptions of all varieties of blackberries and dewberries which have been mentioned as cultivated in North America up to the close of 1897. They are classified as follows: I. Long -cluster blackberries. II. Short -cluster blackberries. 226 BCSH-FRUITS III. Leafy -cluster blackberries. IV. White blackberries. V. Loose -cluster blackberries. VI. Sand blackberries. VII. Northern dewberries. VIII. Southern dewberries. IX. Western dewberries. I. The Long-cluster Blackberries Ruhus nigrobaccus The form which has somehow come to represent in our minds the type of the species to which most of our blackberries belong is designated by Professor Bailey (Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 99:428) as the "Long- cluster blackberry." This is the commonest form of the wild blackberry found in low lands throughout the eastern states. The berries are long and cylindrical or thimble -shaped, with dull black drupelets, rather small and closely packed on the receptacle. Each berry is borne on a long, slender stem, which stands out some- times almost at right angles to the main stem, and the clusters are long, open and leafless. The leaflets are rather long -stalked, evenly and finely serrate, and gen- erally with a very long tapering point. : Probably the best known representative of this class in cultivation is the Taylor, though the Ancient Briton and the Early Cluster also belong here. As a matter of convenience, all varieties which it is impossible to definitely classify at present are mentioned here, though many of them, doubtless, belong else- UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES 227 where, especially in the "short -cluster" group. Those which can be definitely referred to the "long -cluster" class are so marked. Allen. — Received at the United States Department of Agri- culture in 1894, from W. B. K. Johnson, Allentown, Pa., and described in the report of the Pomologist for that year. Said to be very productive, strono^er than Kittatinny, with less thorns. Fruit medium to large, irregular, oblong or oval, glossy, jet black, not fading; seeds small, very tender; flesh firm, compact, very juicy; shipping quality good; flavor mild, sweet, with hardly enough acidity; quality good, ripening about with Early Harvest. Ancient Briton. (Long-cluster type.) — This variety was ap- parently named by Robt, Hassell, of Alderly, Wisconsin, who received it from England. In a circular sent out by A. Clark Tuttle, of Baraboo, Wisconsin, he quotes from a letter written by Mr. Plassell's daughter, as follows: "The first roots of this blackberry brought to this country came from England about forty years ago. An old Englishman, a Mr. Guy, brought them with some plants of broom and hawthorn to Mr. Hassell, who named it the Ancient Briton blackberry." It has proved one of the most valuable sorts grown in Wisconsin, being the favorite at the famoii% Thayer Fruit Farm, at Sparta, Wisconsin. The bush is a sturdy grower, hardy and very productive. Fruit medium to large, long, melting, of fine flavor, and ripening about with Snyder. One of the best varieties, either for home use or market. Such conflicting reports are heard in regard to the variety, that doubtless much of the stock may not be true. Bangor. — A variety of Maine origin. It was first propagated from plants growing on the farm of Henry W. Brown, in Xew- burv. It is said to be hardv and a desirable variety. — Agr. of Maine, 1888:125. Banton (Seedling). — A variety, said to be from Vermont, which proves very hardy in Minnesota. Productive, stout and good. — Minn. Hort. Soc. Eept., 1874:57. Barnard (Long-cluster type). — Said to be a seedling of the wild blackberries of Belmont county, Ohio, taken to Allamakee county, Iowa, and disseminated by Mr. Barnard. A popular va- riety in northern Illinois and Iowa, where it has proved very hardy. Not a vigorous grower, throwing up few suckers ; leaves large resembling wild varieties. Fruit similar to Taylor in size and form, of fair quality, and ripening late. From the description it evidently belongs to this group. Bonanza. — Said to be hardier than the Kittatinny, about as 228 BUSH-FRUITS large, though scarcely as sweet, and about as productive ; ripen- ing a little earlier than Kittatinny. Not of great value. Brandenburg. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 286. Cape May. — "Fruit large, black, sweet, quite soft, loses color soon after gathering, not valuable." — Downing. , Carlo. — A variety growing at the Geneva ' N. Y.) Experiment Station, which appeared vigorous, but not productive, much of the fruit being imperfect. Also lacks hardiness. Cherry Valley. — A variety which originated near Cherry Valley, 111.— 111. Hort. Soc. Kept. 1882 : 284. Clarl. — Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker for 1897, p. 598, as received from Matthew Crawford the spring previous. The growth was vigorous and the few berries received were large, black, glossy, melting and juicy. Cumberland — A variety chiefly known about Bridgeton, N. J. Plant hardy and productive; fruit of medium size, black, sweet and good. Early, and matures the whole crop in a short time. — Fuller. Cutter Mulberry. — Introduced by G. B. Cutter, Newton, Mass., about 1859. Fruit long, slender, remarkably sweet, very produc- tive.— Hov. Mag. 1859: 397. Dallas. — A Texas variety, found hardy, vigorous, productive and reliable there, but of little value in the North. ^ Dekring. — An early variety, about equal to Brunton in hardiness and productiveness ; fruit small. Dodge Thornless. — Mentioned in the Secretary's report, Agr. of Mass., 1868-9, p. 72, as a variety almost free from thorns. Duncan Falls. — Introduced by J. C. Neff, Duncan's Falls, Ohio. An upright, very vigorous grower. Fruit large, black, moderately firm, juicy, sweet. — Downing. Early Cluster (Long-cluster group). — The original plant was discovered about 1872, among Missouri Mammoth, on the farm of Charles W. Starn, in Southern New Jersey, where it attracted attention from its early and profuse bearing, and was transplanted and propagated for market. It is a moderate, erect, healthy grower, hardy and extremely productive. The fruit is medium sized, short-oblong, shining black, sweet and of fine quality, without hard or bitter core. The entire crop ripens within a few days, making it a very desirable early market berry. This is a variety of ill repute in many sections, but on the gi'ounds of the Cornell University Experiment Station it is one of the finest blackberries grown and the most uniformh' productive. Either spurious stock has been sent out under this name, or the variety is extremely local in its adaptations, as reports from the Geneva UNCLASSIFIED BLACKBEBBY VABIETIES 229 (N. Y. ) Experiment Station, only forty miles away from Cornell, are unfavorable. For myself, I have never seen a more satisfac- tory blackberry, nor tasted one of finer quality, than the Early Cluster as grown at Cornell. Eldorado. — Originated as an accidental seedling in Preble Co., Ohio, near a village of that name, and first placed under cultivation about 1882. Medium to large fruit of excellent quality, oblong, conical, irregular, with very large drupes and small seeds and core. Claimed to be hardy and productive. Excelsior, — Productive, of fair quality, good size, season me- dium; lacks hardiness. — Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. Bull. 6:4. Farley. — Origin unknown. Fruit nearly as large as New Rochelle, sweet, and ripens two weeks earlier. — Horticulturist. Felton. — Introduced by Oscar Felton, Camden, N. J. Rather spreading in habit of growth ; fruit large, long, slightl}- conical, sweet and good. Ripens early and is moderately productive, but with berries often very defective. — Fuller. Freed. — A variety originated about 1871 by George Freed, of Columbiana Co., Ohio. A rank, upright grower, with few spines and very hardy. Berry small to medium, oblong, juicy, of good quality, ripening with Snyder. A shy bearer, and not to be recommended. Gainor. — Large and productive, but not sufficiently hardy at Ottawa, Canada.— Rept. Can. Exp. Farms, 1889: 95. Grape. — Mentioned in the discussion of the American Pomo- logical Society as a variety with strong canes and large fruit. — Am. Pom. Soc. Rept. 1860: 76. Haley. — A dwarf variety, found growing along the prairie ravines of Franklin Co., Kansas. It was first brought under cultivation by E. Halev, about 1880. Fruit medium size and excel- lent quality.— Kan. Hort. Soc. Repts. 1884: 50—1885: 81. Hoag. — I have the history of this variety from A. W. Sias, of Pueblo, Colorado, formerly of Minnesota, who says that it origi- nated many years ago with Charles R. Hoag, who was one of the original members of the Minnesota Horticultural Society, and who then lived at Kasson, Dodge Co., Minn. The variety was named for him by the society. Mr. Sias says that it was very productive on the grounds of the originator, but did next to nothing on his more open grounds. Holcomh. — First brought to public notice at one of the weekly exhibitions of the Hartford Co. (Conn.) Horticultural Society, in the summer of 1855, by E. A. Holeomb, of Granby, Conn. The fine appearance and flavor of some of the berries growing wild upon a hillside of his farm induced him to transplant some of 230 B USH'FB UITS the best of the bushes to his garden. The comparative merits of the fruit after three or four years' successive exhibition war- ranted the society in giving it a name. Canes dark brown, mod- erately stout, long and thrifty, but not rampant ; productive and hardy ; fruit of medium size, oblong, sweet and high flavored, early, and continuing to ripen for a long time. Jloosac Tliornless. — Found in the Hoosac Mountains of Massa- chusetts. Its chief recommendation is the absence of thorns. Fruit not large, but said to be productive and of good quality. It is quite possible that this variety belongs to the true thornless group, Ruhus Canadensis. Its thornless character and its original mountain habitat would point in this direction. Idaho Climbing. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 285. It may have been the cut -leaved blackberry or a western dewberry for all we know now. Jordan. — A variety recently introduced by J. W. Austin, Pilot Point, Texas, a native of that state. Described as a very strong grower, hardy, and remarkably productive. Fruit large, of fine flavor, ripening ten days later than Dallas and Early Harvest. Knox. — Vigorous, large, about as hardy as Kittatinny, of good quality but lacking in productiveness. Lincoln. — A wild plant found about two miles from President Lincoln's monument, near Springfield, 111. A vigorous, upright grower, with long spines, hardy, a little later than Sffyder. Fruit large, oblong, glossy, juicy, of good quality; grain and seed la,rge. Luther. — A new variety sent out by R. D. Luther, Fredonia, N. Y. Said to be vigorous, hardy and promising. Mason Mountain. — Introduced by R. O. Thompson, of Ne- braska, about 1865. Fruit large, conical, black, sweet, rich, resembling Lawton. — Hov. Mag. 1865: 122. Maxwell. — Introduced by A. C. Maxwell, Chanute, Kansas. Described as very large, sweet, rich, luscious, melting, and very productive, ripening with Early Harvest. Bush a low, strong, stocky grower. Not hardy in Pennsylvania. McCracken. — Found in an Illinois w^ood by Mr. MeCraeken. Hardy, early and of good quality, but small. Of little value. Missouri Mammoth. — Disseminated from Northern Missouri. A moderate, upright grower, not entirely hardy, and a shy bearer, not all blossoms setting fruit, and some imperfect. Berry large, oval, of fair quality; grain and seed large. A little later than Snyder. Of little value. Mountain Rose. — Mentioned in the report of the Kansas Horti- cultural Society for 1886, p. 297. UNCLASSIFIED BLACKBERRY VARIETIES 231 Nevada. — Said to be about equal to Minnewaski in hardiness, quite productive, of fair size and excellent quality. Has not proved valuable in Michigan. Ohmer. — A seedling found by N. Ohmer, of Ohio. Said to be hardy, healthy and productive. Fruit large, firm, no core, and sweet before it becomes soft. Ripens with Taylor. Omrk. — "Better than either Snvder or Taylor, and more pro- ductive."— Mo. Hort. Soc. Kept. 1883: 79. Parker Early. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 286. ParneU. — A variety originated by Mr, Normand, of Marshville, Louisiana. — La. Exp. Sta. Bull. 3, 2d series. Piasa. — Sent out by E. A. Riehl, Alton, 111. Red Hybrid. Mentioned in * * Experiments and Public Work of the Colorado Agr. College," 1884, p. 15. Reyner. — Plants rather large and vigorous, producing large, greenish canes with few prickles. Fruit above medium, roundish or oblong, with large grains, sweet, of good flavor and quality. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 81: 582. Role Earhf. — Mentioned in the report of the Kansas Hort. Soc. for 1887-8, p. 482. Sable Queen. — Introduced by J. W. Manning, Reading, Mass., and described by him as equal to Dorchester or New Rochelle in size, beauty and fruitfulness. — Downing. Sadie. — Sent out from Iowa under the claim that its cells were so arranged as to resist very low temperatures. Matthew Crawford reports that it made a verv poor growth, and produced no fruit.— Ohio Hort. Soc. Rept. 1888. Sinclair — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 285. Stay man Early. — Introduced by A. J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, who speaks of it as very early, of excellent quality and productive. It has not proved valuable in the eastern states. Taylor (Taylor's Prolific). (Long-cluster type.) — Introduced by Mr. Taylor, of Spieeland, Henry Co., Indiana, about 1867. It has peculiar greenish yellow, round canes, which are somewhat slender and trailing in young plants. It is very hardy, vigorous and productive. The fruit is large, roundish -oblong or thimble shaped, soft in texture, juicy, very mild and rich. It ripens late, about two weeks after Snyder. All in all this is one of the best varieties I have known. With Early Cluster to open, and Taylor to close the season, there is little left to be desired in regions where these varieties succeed. Tecumseh (Long-cluster group). — A variety of the Taylor type which originated in Western Ontario. It proved to be less 232 BUSH-FRUITS hardy than Taylor and not of sufficient value to insure its con- tinuance in cultivation. Texas Early (Crandall, CrandalPs Early). — Said to be large, fine flavored and firm, ripening two weeks earlier than Lawton, and less seedy. Has not proved valuable at the North. Truman TJiornless. — Received at the office of the United States Pomologist in 1892, from G. P. Pefifer, Pewaukee, Wis- consin, and mentioned in the report of that year, p. 264. Said to be nearly thornless, as hardy as Snyder, earlier and better. Fruit medium to large, oval, dull in color, firm, sweet, good. Waclmsett. — Found growing wild on Monadnock Mountain, in Massachusetts. A slow grower, upright at first but drooping later, spines few and small. Fruit clusters few and small ; berry small, round, moderately firm, of good quality. The plant is such a shy bearer that it has no practical value. This variety was figured in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, Vol. IV., p. 220, but the drawing is not sufficiently accurate to determine its parentage. The leaves are peculiarly wrinkled at the edge, a character quite distinct. It may possess an admixture of Biihus Canadensis blood. Wallace. — Introduced by Mr. Wallace, of Wayne Co., Indiana, about 1862. The plant is of stocky, upright growth, with broad round leaves resembling those of Snyder, ripening a week later, hardy and productive. Fruit as large as Lawton, of excellent flavor. Warren. — Fairly hardy and quite productive. Berry about like Snyder in quality and size. Ohio Exp. Sta., Vol. II., Bull. 4, p. 108. Wapsie. — An Iowa variety, mentioned as on trial and proving very hardy thus far.— Rept. Ohio Hort. Soc. 1888:192. Washington. — Raised by Prof. C. G. Page, Washington, D. C. Fruit large, black, sweet and good. — Downing. Mentioned as new in Hovey's Magazine, in 1859. Weston. — Originated with Adrian Durkes, of Weston, Mo., who considered it more productive than Newman or Lawton. — Gar. Month. 12:371. II. The Short-cluster Blackberries Bubus nigrobaccus, var. sativtis This class includes the commonest form of culti- vated blackbeny. It differs from the other class chiefly in the fact that the fruits are shorter and SHORT-CLUSTER VARIETIES 233 thicker, while the drupelets are larger, not so closely packed nor so evenly arranged, and are more glossy black in color. The clusters contain fewer fruits, these being more closely crowded toward the top, and borne on stems which are more oblique and stouter. The leaflets are broader, not so long-pointed, coarsely and unevenly serrate or even jagged. There is a ten- dency among varieties of this class to produce a few late fruits on young shoots thrown up from the root. The form is found wild in open, drj'ish places, mak- ing a low bush some two or three feet high. Agawam.—Yovindi growing wild in a pasture about 1865 or 1870, by John Perkins, of Ipswich, Mass. Plant hardy, vigorous, and productive. Fruit oblong, of medium size, large, black, sweet, and melting to the core, ripening early, or in mid -season. A popular variety, which is not only hardy, but resists drought. Black Chief. — On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. Received from J. H. Haynes, Delphi, Ind. Erie (Uncle Tom). — A seedling which came up in a small vineyard belonging to L. B. Pierce, of Tallmage, Ohio, in 1876. A patch of Lawton and Kittatinny grew near by, and it probably came from seeds of these, carried by birds. Its resemblance to the Lawton indicates that as its parentage. The variety was sold to Matthew Crawford, in 1884, he in turn selling it to J. T. Lovett, who offered it for sale in 1886. Mr. Lovett first announced it under the name of L^ncle Tom, but this name was so strongly ob- jected to by Marshall P. Wilder that it was dropped, and the name Erie substituted, which is the only one under which it was ever offered for sale. A strong, spreading grower, very thorny, productive, but lacking in hardiness in some sections. Season intermediate. Fruit large, roundish oval, of good quality. Ford No. 1. — On trial at the Geneva Experiment Station. FruiUand. — A new variety from Ohio. Canes strong, upright, grooved, with greenish red bark. Fruit medium, nearly round, with medium large grains, sweet, good. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 81. Kittatinny. — Found in the town of Hope, N. J., near the base of the Kittatinny Mountains, and introduced by E. Williams about 234 Busn-FBuiTS 1865. Plant fairly hardy and productive. Fruit large to very large, roundish conical, rich glossy black, moderately firm, juicy, sweet, and well flavored, ripening early and continu- ing long in bearing. Very susceptible to attacks of red rust. Lawton (New Rochelle, Seacor's Mammoth). — Found by Lewis A. Seacor, in New Rochelle, N. Y., and brought to public notice largely by William Lawton, of the same place, about 1848. Vig- orous, hardy and productive, with strong spines. Fruit very large, oval, and intensely black when fully ripe. It is then juicy, soft, and sweet, with an excellent flavor, but when gathered too early, very sour and insipid. This was the second blackberry introduced into cultivation, and it did much to popularize the fruit. Lovett. — Described as remarkably hardy, vigorous and produc- tive. Fruit large, mostly globular, drupes large, quite firm, though juicy, rather sweet than sour. Not very early. Mersereau. Originated with J. M. Mersereau, Cayuga, N. Y. It resembles the Snyder, but is larger, of better quality and less likely to turn red after being picked. Very promising. Minneicaski. — Originated and introduced by A. J. Caywood, of Marlboro, N. Y. A good grower, erect, branching, strong. Canes grooved, and thickly covered with long, straight spines. Hardy and productive. Fruit clusters large; fruit very large, long, dull in color, and somewhat hairy in appearance, of fair quality. This variety did well in its original home, but was often disappointing elsewhere. There has been much discussion over the name of this variety. The introducer insisted that it be spelled as above. Sanford. — A new variety received from New York. Not vet fruited.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 17. Snyder. — This is the best known of all blackberries. What the Baldwin is to the apple in the Eastern states and the Ben Davis in the West; what the Concord is to the grape; what the Lombard is to the plum, the Snyder is to the blackberry. It originated as a chance seedling, on or near the farm of Henry Snyder, near La Porte, Ind., about the year 1851. It is a vigorous, strong, upright grower; very hardy and productive. Fruit of poor quality, medium size, nearly globular, of good appearance and a good shipper. The berries have a strong tendency to turn red after picking, especially if exposed to sunlight. Stone Hardy. — An Illinois variety of spreading habit, with its fruit mostly hidden beneath the foliage. Hardy, maturing its wood early on suitable soils. Fruit rather small, roundish, black, soft, very juicy, mild, and very pleasant in flavor. Often over- bears, and needs vigorous pruning. Success. — Very productive, plants moderately vigorous, canes of LEA F r- CL US TEB VA RIE TIES 235 a greenish color, grooved, bearing abundant prickles. Berries medium to large, roundish, with medium to large grains, good in flavor and quality.— Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 81: 582. Western Triumph. — A chance seedling found upon the open prairie, in Lake county, Illinois, in 1858, by Mr. Biddle, of Muskegon, 111. Fruit medium to large, very abundant, roundish, elongated, obtuse in form, granules coarse, large, apparently firm, yet very rich and sweet, carrying well, and without any harshness of core, like Lawton. Leaf broad and thick, irregularly and eoarselv serrate; spines abundant, stiff and strong. — Tilton's Jour, of Hort. 4:44. (From F. R. Elliott, in The Rural New-Yorker.) Lacking in hardiness, and inclined to overbear. Woodland. — Plants thrifty, productive, with abundant small prickles. Fruit medium or above, roundish, with large to very large grains; flavor and quality good. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 81: 582. III. The Leafy-cluster Blackberries Eubus argutus This was the first type of blackberry to be brought into general cultivation, since it is to this class that the old Dorchester belongs. The type is characterized chiefly by the fact that the leaves extend up the stem into the cluster, there becoming small and narrow and consisting of a single leaflet. The plant is usually small and upright in habit of growth. The leaflets are rather small and firm, narrow, and coarsely toothed, often nearly smooth, and persisting late in the fall. The fruit is early, roundish, of medium or small size, with large grains. Although first in the race, this type has not been able to maintain the advantage thus secured. Xo variety of the class can be said to occupy a prominent position in the blackberry fields of to-dav. 236 BUSH-FRUITS Americus. — Received at the ofl&ee of the United States Pomolo- gist in 1894, from J. H. Langille, Kensington, Md., and de- scribed in the report for that year. Thought to be a seedling of the Early Harvest. A stout, strong grower, with flowers in rather short, erect, downy spikes. Fruit medium to large, irregular, oval or oblong-conic, jet black, moderately firm, melting, juicy and of good quality, ripening soon after Early Harvest. Boston High Bush. — Mentioned in the report of the California Horticultural Society of 1886, p. 234. From the connection it is probably Dorchester. Brimton Early. — An early variety which originated in Illinois. Similar to Early Harvest in habit of growth. It appears to be deficient in pollen production, or self -sterile, and unproductive when planted alone ; not very hardy. Of little value. Dorchester (Improved High Bush). — A seedling introduced by Eliphalet Thayer, of Dorchester, Mass. , who first exhibited it before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, August 7, 1841. It was largely brought to public notice by Capt. Josiah Lovett, of Beverly, Mass. Capt. Lovett had previously made unsuccessful attempts to transplant the best of the wild bushes to his garden, but after obtaining this variety, turned his best attention to it. Samuel Downer, of Dorchester, Mass., also seems to have been connected with its introduction. This variety is of special interest as being the advance guard of all the blackberries now in cultivation, since it was the first cultivated variety. It is a very upright grower, vigorous, and viciously thorny. Indeed, its strong recurved thorns remind one of the Sand Blackberry, (Euhus cuneifolius) . Fruit large, oblong, conic, deep, shining black, nearly as large as Lawton; longer, with rather smaller drupelets. It may be an admixture between the argutus and nigrobaceus types. Early Harvest. — An early variety, found growing wild in Illi- nois. A moderately vigorous, upright grower, fairly hardy, though often quite tender. Canes greenish, with comparatively few thorns. Fruit small, roundish to oblong, greenish black, soft in texture, juicy, mild and pleasant. Very early, prolific, and valuable where it succeeds, owing to its season. King (Early King). — Plant rather small, erect, stiff, with several small canes from each stool, making a thick clump; spines large. Berry of medium size, oval, irregular, of best quality; core soft, ripe as soon as black. A week earlier than Snyder, fairly productive, and of medium hardiness. Too soft for market. See Early. — So much like Brunton's Early that it may be the same.— 111. Hort. Soc. 1878:125. WHITE VARIETIES 237 IV. The White Blackberries Bubus nigrohaccus, var. albinus Although not an important class conimerciallj', many varieties of this type have been introduced. As the name indicates, the chief distinguishing character is the color of the fruit, which is pinkish cream or amber colored. The canes are round, yellowish green, and the leaflets are mostly three, even on the young canes. Otherwise it is like the Long -cluster type. Adair Claret. — Originated with D. S. Adair, Hawesville, Ky. Plant not quite hardy. Fruit medium size, claret color, soft, with a mild, pleasant flavor — Downing. Albio7i. — A wilding found and introduced by John B. Orange, of Albion, 111. Described as vigorous and productive. Fruit large, oblong, clear pink, sweet and good. Downing, however, reported it unproductive, of only fair size, imperfect, and with- out flavor. Alger. — Originated at Cleveland, Ohio. Of good size, oblong in form. Of a deep claret color ; sweet and rich. Colonel 7r/We>-.— Introduced by John B. Orange, and named in honor of Marshall P. Wilder. Described as very productive, of a bright cream color, large size, oblong, almost pointed, of superior flavor and qualit3^ Mr. Orange regarded this as the most valuable of his white varieties. — Hov. Mag. 1864:360. Crystal White (Orange's Crystal). — Originated and introduced by John B. Orange. A vigorous, upright grower, with strong, green spines, lacking in hardiness, and suckering freely. Fruit largo, roundish oval, a clear, rich white when fully ripe, sweet, of good flavor, ripening early, but, like the other white varieties, of no value except as a curiosity. It was claimed by the origi- nator to be very productive when grown near other varieties, but to be unproductive when grown alone. Doctor Warder. — Originated and introduced by John B. Orange. Fruit rather shorter and thicker than the Albion. Nearly as large, color dark ruddy red, quality good. Kentucky White — Introduced by D. S. Adair, Hawesville, Ky. Plant tender ; fruit medium size, oblong, oval, light dirty white, imperfect. — Downing. 238 BUSH-FRUITS Needham White. — Introduced to notice by J. Shed Needham, of Massachusetts, sometime about 1850. Described as of lilac color, similar to the black varieties in shape, though not quite so large. Of good flavor. Canes light green and thickly covered with short, stiff, green hairs. Though said to be immensely pro- ductive. Fuller later speaks of it as unproductive and not worth cultivating. Mentioned in the Transactions of the Ohio Hort. Soe. for 1869, p. 69, as of little value. Parish Pinh. — Another white variety of no more value than the rest. Texas Hybrid (Texas Pink Hybrid). — Described as vigorous and prolific, earlier than Snyder, of medium size, delicate pink color, sweet and nearly free from seed. Found to be of no value in Ohio. V. The Loose-cluster Blackberries Buhus 7iigrobaccus X villosus These are hybrids between the blackberry and the common dewberry of the eastern states. Their dis- tinguishing feature is to be found in the intermediate character between the two parents. The bushes are low and more or less reclining, the leaflets are broad and jagged, usually three, both on joung shoots and bearing canes. The fruit is short and roundish, borne in few- to many-flowered clusters, interspersed with numerous simple broad leaves. The type is com- mon in the wild state where the two species are found growing together. EureJca. — In 1876 William Parry selected the best and most perfect berries of Wilson's Early, grown by the side of the Dor- chester, planted them, grew the seedlings together for four years, then selected the best, which was named Eureka, the others being destroyed.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Eept. 1886: 407. Mammoth (Thompson's Early Mammoth). — Said to be like fhe Wilson in size and general habit of growth, a few days earlier, and of rather better quality, large and good. Others pronounce it no improvement over the Wilson. LOOSE-CLUSTEB VARIETIES 239 Maynard. — A variety found growing on the farm of C. C. May- nard, at Kineaid, Kans., between the Lueretia dewberry and the Early Harvest blackberry, and sent out for trial by him as the Maynard dewberry. Berry round, composed of a few very large, jet black drupelets, ripening with the blackberries; many berries in a cluster. Claimed to be large, sweet and productive, succeed- ing better on poor than on rich soil. At the Nebraska Experiment Station the fruit has so far been too small to be of value. Newninn TJiornJess. — Discovered by Joseph Newman, Ulster county, New York. Canes of moderate growth, and thornless. Fruit rather large, oval, of very good flavor. According to one grower, it produces few thorns and fewer berries. It is placed in this class on the statement of the Gardener's Monthly, Vol. II, p. 281, that it belongs to the dewberry section. Perhaps it is a true dewberry. Eafhhun.— Sent out by A. F. Rathbun, of Smith's Mills, N. Y. Said to be a good grower, hardy, of large size, fine flavor, juicy, and attractive. Sterling Thornless. — A chance seedling, found on the farm of John F. Sterling, Benton Harbor, Mich., in a field where Wilson and Lawton had been growing. The canes resemble those of Wilson in size, shape, and color, but are comparatively thornless. The fruit is borne in cymose clusters, with long pedicels, like the dewberries. Size medium to large, round, oblong; possessed of large, rather loosely set, round drupes. Moderately firm, juicy, and sweet, with a trace of dewberry flavor. Wilson (Wilson's Early). — This variety was discovered by John Wilson, of Burlington, N. J., about 1854. The bush partakes of the habit of both the low and the high blackberry, some of the shoots being erect and branching, like the Lawton, and others without branches, slender, and trailing on the ground like the low blackberry, and indicating a hybrid between that and the high bush species. The trailing shoots sometimes take root at the tips. Wood downy. The fruit is very large, good specimens measuring an inch and a quarter in length by about an inch in breadth, while the largest are an inch and a half long. Firm, somewhat irregular, tapering toward the apex ; grains mostly large, but with some small ones mixed in. Flavor quite acid until ripe, when it is rich and sprightly. — Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, 1869: 284. Has been a popular variety in New Jersey. It demands close pruning in order to prevent overbear- ing, and must be covered for winter protection in most sections. Wilson Junior. —William Parry, in 1870, selected plants of Dorchester and Wilson and planted them together, far away from any others to mix with, trusting that the pollen of one kind might, 240 BUSH-FRUITS perhaps, mix with the other. lu 1875 he selected some of the best Wilson varieties for seed. After watching the other seedlings for four years, the largest and best was selected, and this is Wilson Junior. — Gar. Month. 27: 208. The plant is so like its parent, the Wilson, as to be indistinguishable from it. VI. The Sand Blackberry Eubus cuneifolius This is the species which grows in sandy land in the southern Atlantic states. It is very little known in cultivation, and there is little to induce its introduction, for its formidable thorns brook no unwarranted fa- miliarity. It is a low, stocky plant, with somewhat wedge-shaped leaves, which are more or less downy beneath. The fruit is borne in loose, leafy clusters, being round, loose -grained, very black and of excellent quality. Topsy (Childs's Tree Blackberry). — Canes stout, upright and viciously thorny, but not hardy; fruit large, late, soft, of good, but not high quality. Of no real value in cultivation. Recommended Varieties of Blackberries Few varieties in the preceding lists are of particular interest to the commercial grower. Many have long since passed out of cultivation, while others are yet too new to be depended upon. Among the most im- portant are Agawara, Ancient Briton, Snyder and Taylor, with Earh^ Cluster and Early Harvest for early varieties, though both of these are to be received with caution unless known to succeed in the locality. Other varieties, to be sure, are valuable, especially in certain THE DEWBERRIES 241 regions, as the Dallas in Texas, 'the Wilson in New Jersey and the Minnewaski in limited areas of New York. B. THE DEWBERRIES Like their near relatives, the blackberries, the dew- berries are exceedingly variable in character, and many different forms are found, both wild and in cultivation. At least four different species of the genus Rubus are commonly known as dewberries, three of which, together with several botanical varieties, are found in cultivation. Most of the cultivated varieties be- long to the common eastern species, Rubus viUosus (Ruhus Canadensis of writers), or some of its bo- tanical varieties, though in the Pacific states varie- ties of the Coast dewberry, Ruhus vitifoUus, are more common. The dewberries are distinguished from the blackber- ries chiefly by their trailing habit of growth, their early ripening, the character of the flower cluster, and the method of propagation. The true dewberries bear but few flowers in each cluster, the clusters are cj'mose, the center flower opening first, and the flowers are few and scattered, generally borne on long and ascending pedicels, or stems, which tend to raise both flowers and fruit well toward the end of the shoot. In the blackberries the opposite of these characters is found. The clusters are corymbose or racemose, the outer flow- ers generally opening first, and the flowers are borne in rather dense clusters, the pedicels being shorter, as a rule, and standing more nearly at right angles to the p 242 BUSH-FBUITS main stem of the cluster. The dewberries propagate by means of tips, while the blackberries propagate by suckers, a point of much practical importance, in cul- tivation, at least. Despite these characters, there are forms found, both wild and in cultivation, which are so intermediate in character as to make it a matter of considerable doubt as to whether they should be called blackberries, dewberries or hybrids. These intermedi- ate forms are of special interest, and illustrate in a remarkable way the possibilities of admixture in the genus. Many of them are verj' productive, in apparent defiance of the pronouncements of science, w^iich are that hybrids should be deficient in fruitfulness. Of the four species commonlj^ known as dewberries, Ruhns Mspidus, generally known as the running swamp blackberry, although sometimes found on dry, sandy ground also, may first be mentioned. It is a delicate little plant, running on the ground, bearing stiff, shining leaves, which frequently remain green all winter. The flowers are few and small, and the fruit of little or no value. It is simply as a wild form that we need consider it, since there seems to be no reason for attempting to cultivate it. The most important species, from a horticultural standpoint, is Bnhus villosus (but universally known as Rnhus Canadensis), or the Northern dewberry, since it is from this species and its botanical varieties that most of our cultivated sorts have come. This is the spe- cies which most nearlj^ approaches the common black- berry in character of plant and fruit. Hybrids between the two are common in regions where both abound. DEWBERBY TYPES 243 The specific type of Rudiis vilJosus is represented in cultivation by Windom, Geer and Lucretia's Sister. The sub- type known as variety roribaccus is repre- sented by Lucretia ; the type designated as Biibus invisus by Bartel, General Grant and Never Fail. Riihus friviaJis, or the Southern dewberry, is some- what similar to Bvhiis viUosus (R. Canadensis), but distinguished from it by having the main canes thickly beset with stout prickles, which are sometimes dark purple in color. The leaves are firm, smooth and prac- tically evergreen, usually bearing stout prickles on the petioles and midribs. It is common throughout the southern states, and often very productive, bearing at- tractive and desirable fruit. Several varieties belonging to this species have been introduced into cultivation, among which are Manatee, Bauer, and Wilson's White. None of these have become prominent. Rubus vltifolins, or the Western dewberry, which is the dewberry of the Pacific slope, is a very peculiar species, bearing some slight resemblance to Ruhus vil- losHS (R. Canadensis) , especially in the young growth. The canes are long and slender, however, and the fruiting branches entirely different, the leaflets being broad, coarsely toothed, light green and pubescent both above and beneath, while the other parts are more or less densely covered with straight bristles and glan- dular tipped hairs. As explained in the botanical sec- tion, this is an exceedingly variable species, and many forms are likely to appear should it become prominent in cultivation. The varieties known as Aughinbaugh, Washington Belle, and Skagit Chief belong here. One 244 BUSH-FRUITS of the obstacles to the successful cultivation of this species is the variable sexual character of its blos- soms. If pistillate varieties are introduced, they must of necessitj' be planted with perfect or staminate plants to insure fruit production. It is doubtful, also, whether even the perfect -flowered sorts would prove fully self -fertile in a species with such a strong ten- dency to separate sexual development. Until these points are more fully determined, it appears to be a wise precaution, if this species is to be planted at all, to plant more than one variety together. VII. The Northern Dewberries Buhus invisus, E. viUosus and Varieties* Bartel {Buhus invisus). — This was the first named variety of dewberry. It was brought to notice sometime in the 70's by Dr. Bartel, of Huey, Clinton county, 111. The plants are said to have appeared in an old cornfield on his farm, and the large size of the fruit led him to offer them for sale. The fruit is described as large, rich, juicy, slightly acid, but not so sour as the blackberry, and sufficiently solid to bear shipping well. Colossal. — A sort offered by L. L. May & Co., St. Paul, Minn. Geer (Buhus villosus). — A variety discovered by F. L. Wright, in a wood-lot belonging to a Mrs. Geer, of Plainfield, Living- ston Co., Michigan. It was first brought under cultivation in 1887. Said to be productive, though small in fruit. General Grant {Buhus invisus). — Introduced by Charles A. Green, of Rochester, N. Y., in 1885 or 1886. It came from M. W. Broyles, somewhere in Tennessee. It possessed little value, and never became prominent Latimer Seedling. — Mentioned as on trial at the Geneva (N. Y. ) Experiment Station. Received from J. W. Latimer, Pleasanton, Kansas. *A full account of the eastern dewberries is given by Bailey in Bulletin 34 of the Cornell University Experimental Station, which is freely drawn i^pon in making up the following list. NOB THE EN DEW BEERY VARIETIES 245 Lttcretia (Euhus viUosus var. roribaccus). — This is the best known of all the dewberries. Found by a soldier in the Civil War, who, being stationed near Beverly, W. Va., iduring most of his service, returned there after the war in search of a wife, and acquired this dewberry as a perquisite to the plantation owned by her. He transplanted some to his garden, and later sent plants to his father in Ohio. These fell into the hands of B. F. Albaugh, of Covington, Ohio, who named the variety and intro- duced it to the trade. As sent out, this variety has been greatly mixed, but the true type is a large fruit, productive, of good quality, and gives satisfaction wherever the dewberry succeeds. Lucretia^s Sister {Euhus viUosus.) — Introduced by J. B. Treed- way, of Brandt, Ohio, about 1886. Seems to possess little value. Mammoth. — Two varieties appear to have been sold under this name, one being Euhus invisus and the other Euhus viUosus. The former Professor Bailey considers to be the same as Bartel. The other he has been unable to trace. — Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. Bull. 34: 306. Mayes (Mayes Hybrid, Austin's Improved) — {Euhus viUosus var. rorihaccus [?])• — Found growing wild in Texas, on the farm of John Mayes, some time about 1880, mingled with both the native Texan, now called Dallas, and the common dewberry, Euhus tririalis, and thought to have been a hybrid between the two. This account of its origin would indicate that it belongs among the southern dewberries, but herbarium specimens seem to agree much more closely with the Imcretia type, and I there- fore place it there provisionally. Mr. Mayes began cultivating the variety, and found it to improve under cultivation. Later it was sent out by J. W. Austin, of Pilot Point, Texas, as Austin's Improved. The plant is trailing in habit when young, but is said to become stronger and somewhat upright with age. It propagates by tips or root -cuttings. The fruit is very large, of fine appearance, and the plants are prolific. Young plants at the Nebraska Experiment Station were much more promising than those of Lucretia. Unfortunately these were destroyed by the erection of a building in midsummer, so that their further behavior cannot be reported upon. It seems to be one of the most promising varieties now grown. Xever Fail {Euhus inrisus). — A variety mentioned by Bailey (1. c.) as known to him only from a specimen and notes received from F. L. Wright, Plainville, Mich., who obtained it from central Indiana, though it is supposed to have originated in central Ohio. Mr. Wright's statement regarding its qualities is that "it never fails to produce an abundance of wood, but always fails to produce fruit. I never had a perfect berry." 246 BUSH-FBUITS Sanford. — A new variety mentioned as on trial at Geneva, N. Y.— Exp. Sta. Bull. 81:585. Windom (Cook's Hardy), (Buhus villosus). — This variety was first brought to public notice in 1887 by the Seedling Commis- sion of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society. It was dis- covered and brought into cultivation by Dewain Cook, of that state, who found it to be hardy, productive, of fair size, and good flavor. VIII. The Southern Dewberries Buhus trivialis Bauer. — A variety sent out from Bauer's nursery, Judsonia, Ark. It was said to be a vigorous grower, with fine fruit, but apparently unproductive. Fairfax. — Bailey refers this variety doubtfully to this group. It was sent out by C. A. Uber, of Fairfax county, Virginia, who found it wild on a stony, unproductive hillside in that county. There the vine was vigorous but not rampant, and the berry large and fine flavored, but when transferred to garden soil it developed excessive growth, with but few and imperfect berries, notwitli- standing its proximity to a number of varieties of blackberries, which might have been expected to furnish sufficient pollen. Manatee. — Introduced by Reasoner Brothers, Oneco, Fla., in 1889. They report it to be only a selected strain of Buhus trivi- alis, but say that it succeeds much better in that state than any other variety, having proved very productive, ripening its fruit in April, and being a good shipper. It is also reported as succeeding in California. White Dewherry. — White dewberries appear to be well known in Texas. One is mentioned in the Gardener's Monthly for 1877, p. 174, as being known among the horticulturists of that state. What is very likely the same thing was received from Colorado county, of that state, and introduced by Samuel Wilson, of Penn- sylvania, in 1890, under the name Mammoth White, or Wilson's White. The natural inference is that the Albino White of Parry and the Crystal White of Childs belong to the same type, and, perhaps, have come from the same source, though I have no proof of this. The variety introduced by Mr. Wilson is said by him to be hardy in Pennsylvania, productive, of large size and excellent qualitj'. WE STUB y^ DEWBERBV VARIETIES 247 IX. The Western Dewberries Ruhus rififolius Aughindaugh. — This is one of the best known varieties of the Western dewberry, and is especially noteworthy as being the pa- ■ent of the Loganberry which has attracted so much attention of iate. It was propagated and sold by a man named Aughinbaugh, about 1875. The blossoms are pistillate, which means that it should be planted with other varieties to furnish pollen. The fruit is said to be of excellent quality, but the plant is a weak grower and unproductive. Humholdt. — A writer in The Rural New-Yorker for 1896, p. 574, mentions this as having been selected from the wild black- berry of California, and describes it as a rampant grower and abundant bearer, ripening with Hansell raspberry, a month before the Early Harvest blackberry. Fruit jet black, one and one -half inches long by one inch thick, in selected specimens. Flavor "marvelous, delightfully spicy, with a wild-wood aroma." Logayiherry {Ruhus vitifoUus X Idceus [?] ). — This berry orig- inated on the grounds of Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, California, in 1882, from seed planted by him the preceding year. A full account of its origin, as given by Judge Logan himself, appears in Bulletin 45 of the Rhode Island Experiment Station. It seems that he had for some time been interested in raspber- ries and blackberries, and had growing together the Texas Early blackberry, the Aughinbaugh dewberry, and an old but unknown variety of red raspberry, resembling the Red Antwerp. In August of 1881 he planted seeds of the Aughinbaugh, expecting to get a cross between it and the Texas Early. He raised about fifty seedlings. One of these, the Loganberry, was very similar in every respect to the parent, but much larger and a stronger grower. At the time the seed was sown Judge Logan did not think it pos- sible to cross the Aughinbaugh with the raspberry, but the char- acters developed by this seedling have convinced him that it is almost certainly a hybrid between them. One remarkable fact stated by him is that out of thousands of plants grown from seeds of this variety, not one has ever shown, so far as he is aware, any of the distinct characteristics of either parent, not one has gone back to the original type of either the raspberry or the Aughinbaugh, though most of them are inferior to the original plant. He also states that he has, never succeeded in crossing the Loganberry with either of its parents, nor with seedling crosses between the Aughinbaugh and the Texas blackberry. Fig. 31 is used, by permission, from Bull. 45 of the R. I. Exp. Sta. 248 BUSE-FBUITS In the characters of the plant, and in the shape and conforma- tion of the fruit the variety is essentially like the Aughinbaugh, propagating entirely by tips, though by artificial methods they may be grown from hard wood cuttings. The core remains with the fruit, like the blackberry, its principal resemblance to the The Loganberry. raspberry being in color and flavor, although the dewberry dom- inates in flavor. Judge Logan says: "As to the fact of the plant being a hybrid between the blackberry and the raspberry, of course there is no absolute proof. The color, with the distinct raspberry flavor of the fruit, and the circumstances under which it originated, I think render the fact of such a cross almost cer- tain." The other plants in this lot of seedlings Judge Logan thinks to have been crosses between the Aughinbaugh and the Texas, as he WESTERN DEWBEBRY VARIETIES 249 expected, though they resemble the Aughinbaugh in most of their characteristics. These he also considers valuable, the fruit ripen- ing early, being shining black and very long, some specimens having measured as much as two and one -fourth inches. The Loganberry appears to promise well in the Eastern states. In Rhode Island it passed the winter perfectly when covered, though those left uncovered were killed. The fruit ripened with the raspberry and, while not high flavored, was improved by cooking, and made a desirable sauce. The plant propagates slowly. Mammoth. — The American Agriculturist, 1897, p. 494, prints a picture of this fruit, natural size, in which individual berries are two and one-fourth inches long and about an inch wide; and it has the following account : '■ The Mammoth blackberry was orig- inated by Judge J. H. Logan, the originator of the now famous Loganberry, descriptions and illustrations of which have appeared in former numbers of this journal. Judge Logan informs us that the Mammoth is a cross between the wild blackberry of California (Biibus nrsinus)* and the Texas Early, the former a species of the dewberry type, while the latter has more the shrubby habit of the high blackberry. The most remarkable feature about this new blackberry is that while the fruits of both parents are below medium in size, a cross between the two should produce berries of the largest size, specimens measuring two and three-eighths inches in length being not unusual. When fully ripe, the berries are sweet and of excellent flavor, and for cooking or canning they are unrivaled. Unlike the high blackberry, the Mammoth does not throw up sprouts from its roots, and cannot be propagated from root -cuttings. Instead, its canes run from twenty -five to thirty feet in one season, and strike roots at their ends or tips, like Black-cap raspberries. So far this interesting novelty has not been sufficiently tried outside of its original locality to establish its value for general cultivation, the results of which are eagerly looked for by progressive fruit-growers." Primus. — A variety produced by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, California, and said by him to be a cross between Bubus vitifoUus and i?. cratcegifolius. The plant is said to be a strong grower and productive, having in part the trailing habit of the pistillate parent. It is thickly covered with short, blunt prickles, and propagates by tips, though with some difficulty. Fruit large, long, blunt, conical or oval, juicy, subacid, aromatic, resembling the raspberry in flavor, adhering to the core and ripening with the Hansen raspberry. A colored plate, together with a description, appears in the report of the United States Pomologist for 1892. *i?. vitifoUus. 250 BUSE-FRLITS Skagit Chief. — A variety sent out from the state of Washing- ton in 1891. Washington Belle. — Sent out from the state of Washington with the Skagit Chief. Neither variety appears to have attracted much attention in the Eastern states. As observed by the writer at Cornell, while the plants were still young they appeared to pos- sess the imperfect blossoms characteristic of this species in many cases, which would naturally tend to interfere with their success. Recommended Varieties of Dewberries Apparently but three varieties need be mentioned here, the Lucretia for the Eastern states, the Mayes for the West and Southwest, and the Loganberry for the Pacific Coast. How far these will succeed in the other regions it is yet impossible to say. The Bartel is also successfully grown by some persons in Wisconsin and Iowa. CHAPTER IX INSECTS AFFECTING THE BRAMBLES The insects attacking the genus Rubus are many, and to attempt to adequately discuss them all would far exceed the limits of space which can profitably be allotted to the subject. Nevertheless, it seems wise to list, in so far as possible, all which are known to attack plants of the genus in any way, and to give a few of the more important and most easily accessible refer- ences to literature on the subject as an aid to those who may have occasion to study any of the species mentioned. To make original observations concerning an}^ considerable number of these species would have been impossible even for an entomologist. In the case of those species considered really injurious, the aim has been to collect and present in condensed and con- venient form the more important facts already known about them, together with the methods which at pres- ent seem most feasible for combating them. While it is to be hoped that these brief statements will, in most cases, be sufficient to aid the busy man who must meet the insect and meet it at once, the refer- ences will doubtless prove far more helpful to any who may wish to make a more careful study of the subject. Original illustrations of the species of great- est economic importance are added. These are drawn (251) 252 BUSH-FRUITS and engraved on wood from the insects themselves, by Anna Botsford Comstock. THE MORE IMPORTANT INSECTS The Snowy Tree-Cricket CEcanthus niveus, Serv.*— Order Orthoptera: Family Gryllidae Saunders, Insects Inj. to Fruits. 308. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:199. Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 2.3:124. Webster. Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:206. The work of this insect is well known, and it has been frequently mentioned, both in entomological and horticultural literature. The insect is a delicate, greenish white cricket, with broad and transparent wing-covers, through which the folded wings can be seen. These wing-covers are crossed by oblique thickenings, or ribs, part of the musical apparatus of the insect. The female appears much narrower than the male, the wing- covers being closely wrapped about the body. The chirp of this insect is a familiar and prominent nocturnal sound during late summer and early autumn, all the males in the immediate vicinity chirping in unison. The sound may be imagined to bear a faint resemblance to the words Katy-did, Eaty-did, but is very unlike that of the true Katy-did. The only injury to plants, worthy of mention, is that caused by the female in depositing her eggs in autumn; these are most frequently placed in berry canes, but are also found in grape vines and on twigs of various trees and bushes. Their location is shown by a long, ragged wound, and if the cane is split open there will be found inserted in the pith, at close intervals, a series of yellowish, oblong, cylindrical eggs, about one-eighth of an inch long. *For the sake of uniformity -with other parts of the volume and of the series of which it forms a part, a comma is inserted after the specific name, and the latter begins with a capital when derived from a proper noun. This practice, though common among Eui-opean entomologists, is not so general in the United States. THE TABNISSED PLANT-BUG 253 Remedy. — The eggs are laid late in autumn, but do not hatch till the following summer, so that cutting out and burning the wounded portions at the annual pruning is the only remedy- necessary. As the young insects are carnivorous, feeding largely on plant lice, the benefit which they render the fruit-grower probably exceeds the injury, unless at times when they are unusually abundant. The Tarnished Plant-Bug (Fig. 32) Lygus pratensis, Linn. — Order Hemiptera: Family Capsidae Weed, Ins. and Insecticides. 93. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:213. Lygus lineolai-is (P. Beauv.). Forbes, 111. Rep. 13:11.5 Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 147. Capsus oblineatus. Say. Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:291. This species is one of the true bugs, a class of insects destitute of jaws, but provided with a sucking beak for draw- ing the juices from plants. It is very abundant in nearly all parts of the United States, subsisting upon a great variety of plants. Although not re- garded as specially injurious in a general way, it sometimes proves very destructive, espe- cially to strawberries, attacking the young fruit, and causing an imperfect development, in the form of "nubbins" or "buttons." It also at- tacks young blackberries, and perhaps rasp- berries, in a similar way, in addition to feed- ing on other tender parts of the plant. Fig. 32. Tarnished The following brief account is taken from plant-bug. the summary of Forbes's excellent article on Lygus pratensis. this species: "The old bugs winter under rubbish upon the ground, emerge early in spring, cluster upon the unfolding buds of fruit trees, the fresh foliage of strawberries and other early vegetation, and there lay their eggs, which hatch, and old and young together 254 BUSH-FBUITS drain the sap of these succulent growing parts. The effect is to arrest the development of the leaves, or even to kill them, and in the case of the strawberry, to interfere with the growth of the fruit; sometimes, at least, causing what is known as the "buttoning" of the berry. Later in the season, the buds and leaves of flowering plants and vegetables, especially the cabbage and potato, are attacked. " There are at least two broods in a year, one maturing in May and June, the other in July and August, while it is possible that there is still another intermediate. "Although a few of these insects are devoured by birds, no natural enemies are known to have any positive effect upon their numbers. There is some evidence, however, that wet seasons are injurious to them." Remedies. — Obtaining their food by sucking the juices as they do, the arsenites are of no value in preventing their depre- dations. Pyrethrum has proved most satisfactory where the expense is not too great. Kerosene emulsion also kills them, and collecting them with insect nets during the cooler parts of the day has sometimes proved practicable. The Bramble Flea -Louse Trioza tripunctaia, Fitch. — Order Hemiptera: Family Psyllidae Psylla tripunctata (Fitch). Fuller, Amer. Ent. 3:62. Thomas, 111. Ent. Rep. 8:18. Psylla rubi, Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:225. Thomas, 111. Ent. Rep. 8:17. Strong, Fruit Cult. 179. This insect belongs to a family closely related to the Aphides, differing in the veining of the wings, and in having antennte knobbed at the end. They jump as readily as a flea. The fol- lowing account of their injury was given by Charles Parry, of Cinnaminson, New Jersey, in 1869: "The suckers upon which this insect occurs in the spring commence to twirl around, and, when not interfered with, make THE BB AMBLE FLEA-LOUSE :^oo a complete revolution before they resume their usual course. The leaves curl up, and become matted around the curl, so as to make a safe harbor for the lice-like larvae, which during the summer appear on the under surface of the leaves. I presume Mistletoe of the blackberry. we can get clear of this insect, after the larvae are produced, by cutting off the curls and burning them." In 1880 A. S. Fuller calls attention to the rapid increase of this insect, and to the great injury to blackberry plantations caused by it. It is also mentioned by W. C. Strong, in his work on fruit culture, as doing great damage in some localities. The 256 B USH-FR UITS injury caused by it has been mistaken for a fungous disease at times, and in parts of Delaware it is known as "Mistletoe." (See Fig. 33, from Bull. 117, Cornell Exp. Sta.) BemecUes. — Thorough work in cutting out and destroying the infested tips, taking care that none of the insects escape, would doubtless prove effectual. Mr. Strong recommends strong to- bacco water. Kerosene emulsion may prove to be the most efficient and practicable remedy. The Bud Moth Tmetocera ocellana, S. V. — Order Lepidoptera: Family Grapholithidfe Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 249 (Flint Ed.). Saunders, Ins. Inj, Frts. 95. Fletcher, Ent. Rep. Ont. Dept. Agr. 1885: 24. Femald, Bull. Mass. Exp. Sta. 12. Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 50. This insect has recently proved very destructive to apples, and has also been observed on blackberries. It appears early in spring, as soon as the buds begin to open, eating into them and devouring the inner portions. It is a European species, which first appeared in this country in Massachusetts, about 1841, and has now become widely distributed over the northeastern portion of the United States and parts of Canada. Some excellent results of observations upon this insect were published by M. V. Slingerland, in Bulletin 50 of the Cornell University Experiment Station, from which many of the follow- ing statements are taken. "The central leaves and flowers are tied together with silken threads, and when the pest needs more food it draws in and fastens an outer leaf or flower. In a short time some of the partly eaten leaves in this nest turn brown and become detached from the branch, thus rendering the work of the pest quite con- spicuous." The larva lives most of the time within a tube formed by roll- THE BUD MOTH 257 ing the edge of the leaf down, faelening it, and sparsely lining the interior with silk. It comes forth from this tube to feed, but quickly retreats into it again when disturbed. Pupation occurs in a cocoon formed in a similar manner. The moths, which in New York appear in the latter part of June, fly mostly at night, re- maining quiet on the trunk and limbs of trees during the day, and are so similar to the bark in color as not to be easily seen. The eggs are generally laid singly on the under surface of the leaves, and are so nearly transparent that they closely resemble fish scales or minute drops of water. They hatch in from seven to ten days, and these summer larvae soon make themselves a tube of silk mingled with bits of excrement. They feed on the epi- dermis and inner tissue of the leaf, not eating through it, and spin a protecting web over their entire feeding ground. After the third moult, when they have attained a length of about 4 milli- meters, they leave their tubes, and make for themselves a little silken cell in some crevice or roughness of the bark, where they pass the winter, in readiness for the opening buds the follow- ing spring. Their injuries at that time are particularly exas- perating, because they apparently destroy as many leaves and flowers as possible by eating only a part of each. There is nor- mally but one brood in northern latitudes, though since the larvEe hibernate when half-grown, two different generations appear dur- ing the same season. Remedies. — The following is Slingerland's summary concerning the treatment of this enemy: "It is not practicable to try to check this pest in either the adult or egg stages, or while it is in hibernation as a half-grown larva. Undoubtedly it can be checked somewhat by spraying in July, when the larvee are at work on the under side of the leaves. But the best time to combat the pest the most profitably and suc- cessfully is in the spring, when a little poison can be easily sprayed upon the opening buds ; and thus the little larva, hungry from its long winter's fast, will be quite certain to get the fatal dose at its first meal." It is preyed upon by several hymenopterous parasites, a large predacious wasp, Oclynerus CatshiUensis, and by birds. Q 258 BUSE-FBUITS The Bramble Crown-borer. (Fig. 34) Bembecia marginata, Harris.— Order Lepidoptera : Family Sesiidse Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 303. Smith, Spec. Bull. N. J. Exp. Sta. N. 9. Jack, Gar. and For. 1892: 426. Webster, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 45: 1.59. ^geria rubi, Riley, Mo. Rep. 6: 111. French, 111. Rep. 7: 175. Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881: 193. Weed, Ins. and Insecticides, 103. This insect is a near relative of the peach-borer, being so simi- lar in all its transformations that it has at times been mistaken for that insect by growers. The adult insects are clear-winged moths, appear- ing much like wasps or hornets, for which they may be readily mistaken when seen in the open field. The body of the insect is rather more than half an inch in length, black and prettily Fig. 34. Crown-borer. landed with golden yellow, with a tuft Bembecia marginata. of yellow hair near the base of the ab- domen. The wings are narrow, trans- parent, with a bronze or reddish brown margin, the front wings having also a narrow cross-band toward the tip. They measure about an inch across when expanded. I quote the following points concerning its life history from John B. Smith:* "The moths make their first appearance in the fields late in August and early in September, and soon after begin ovipositing. A single egg only is laid on the cane near the surface of the ground, or even a little below. The young larva, when hatched, immediately eats through the bark and begins work at the base of the stalk, where it joins the crown or main root, confining itself largely to the sap-wood. The egg has not been observed by me, *Special Bulletin N., N. .T. Exp. Sta. THE BB AMBLE CBOWX-BOREB 259 nor do I know the duration of this stage. The young larva is yel- lowish white, usually with a faint reddish tinge. It attains a length of from one-quarter to one-third of an inch during the fall, and has at that time eaten about half through the cane, sometimes entering the pith and boring up into the stem for a short distance. It is likely that this is not an unusual habit, but it is by no means general, and of the many specimens taken, only two were found in the stem early in the season. In very few of the infested canes did I find burrows, old or recent, in the center." The injury is done by girdling the canes at the base of the main root. In one field in Xew Jersey, nearly 50 per cent of the canes were infested. As the season advances the laiwge appear to leave the old wood and attack the young shoots, causing them to wilt and die. Smith observed larvae of two distinct sizes, and further obser- vation of their transformations led him to the conclusion that the insect remains two years in this state. Much of the work of this pest has been attributed to winter- killing, from the fact that many of the canes attacked in the latter part of the season remain alive till winter, and fail to leaf out the following spring. Remedies. — The habits of the species place it beyond the reach of any insecticide, so far as known, and the only practical means of combating it is by removing and burning the infested canes, taking care that no larvae escape. All dead canes which are visible after growth starts in spring should be examined, and if their death is due to this cause, the borer is pretty sure to be found at the base. Their attacks on the young canes in summer offer an especially favorable opportunity for their destruction, since these tender shoots show the effects of their presence at once, and there is more certainty of discovering the depredator. Thorough work on this plan will almost wholly prevent the devel- opment of the perfect insect, and its consequent reproduction and spread. Especially is this true since the larva carries on its work for two years before reaching that state. 260 BUSE-FBUITS The Raspberry Geometer Synehlora glaiicaria, Guen. — Order Lepidoptera: Family Geometridse Comstock, Man. of Ins. 288. Aplodes ruhivora, Riley, Mo. Rep. 1: 139. Synehlora albolineata, Pack. Eunemoria gracilaria, Pack. Synehlora rubivoraria, Pack. Mon. Geom. 382. French, Trans. 111. Hort. See. 1881: 196. Sannders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 316. This small caterpillar feeds on the leaves and fruit of the raspberry and blackberry, especially the fruit, and is more con- spicuous for its unwelcome presence there than for the amount of injury which it does. It is particularly troublesome because it has the ability to so thoroughly disguise itself that it is difii- eult to detect. It does this by fastening to the thorny prickles on its body bits of dried berry, seed, pollen, leaves and other debris which, added to its habit of looping itself into a small ball, renders the disguise complete. Confining itself principally to the ripe fruit, no practical remedy seems to be available. The Raspberry-cane Maggot Phorhia sp. — Order Diptera: Family Anthomyidse Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 126: 54. This is the larva of a true fly, grayish black in color, closely resembling the common house-fly, though not quite as large. The larva is a slender, white, footless maggot, found burrowing in the tips of raspberry canes. It is closely related to the radish and onion maggot. The eggs are laid early in spring, very soon after the young canes start, in the fork at the base of the tip leaves. The young larva burrows into the cane near the point of hatching, works its way downward in the pith a short distance, THE EASPBEFBr-CANE MAGGOT 261 then proceeds to girdle the cane inside the bark. The part above the girdle soon wilts, turns to a dark blue color and dies. The effect is usually to kill the entire shoot also. The larva continues to bore downward in the dead or dying cane, transforms to a pupa near the base, and there remains until the following spring, when it emerges as the adult fly. Although often a serious pest, the insect may readily be over- come. If the wilting tips are gathered and burned as soon as noticed, which will usually be during May, the work of those larvae will be forever ended. Professor Slingerland also found* that many of the pupoe were destroyed by a hymenopterous para- site, Idiasta incompleta. The Pale Brown Byturus (Fig. 35) Byturus unicolor, Say. — Order Coleoptera Family Dermestidae Saunders, lus. Iiij. Frts. 310. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881: 198. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 14: 358. Jayne, Proc. Amer. Fhilosoph. Soc. 1882: 345. This insect is a doubly troublesome one, on account of the injury and annoyance which it causes both in the perfect and in the larval state. The mature insect is a small beetle about three - twentieths of an inch long, of a yellowish brown or pale reddish color, and densely covered with fine, pale yellow hairs. In this form it is injur- ious to raspberries and blackberries by eating into the flower buds and destroying the sexual organs. A hole in the side of the bud will show where the beetle has entered. When the injury is com- plete, the buds usually wither and fail to open: , ^^' '^'. ,^' ^ ' r 7 furus umcolor. if only partial, the flower may expand, but only to develop an imperfect, worthless berry. It also attacks the open flowers, partially hiding at the base of the stamens. It * Local citation. 262 BUSH-FRUITS works chiefly in the morniug and evening, seldom being seen in the middle of the day. Its offspring next makes its presence unpleasantly noticeable as a small, soft, tarnished white worm, remaining on the fruit of the red raspberry when it is gathered. It is usually found within the cup or cavity of the berry, and is difficult to detect. This can only be done by carefully examining the berries one by one, though even then many of the smaller worms are likely to evade the keenest search. When full grown, the larva drops to the ground, often with the berry, no doubt, hides under any convenient rubbish, forms a little cell in the earth, and changes to a hairy pupa of a pale, dull yellowish color. Here it remains during the winter, transforming to the perfect beetle about the middle or latter part of May, and emerging in time to carry on its destructive work in the blossom buds. Eemedies. — Spraying with Paris green, not too strong, using as much lime as Paris green, just as the buds are developing, will probably check its ravages to a great extent. The Red-necked Cane-borer (Figs. 36, 37) Red-necked Agrilus. — Gouty-gall Beetle Agrilus ruficoVis, Fabr. — Order Coleoptera: Family Buprestidae Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 2: 103, 128. Saunders, Rep. Ent. Soe. Ont. 1873: 8. Ins. Inj. Frts. 307. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 6: 123. Smith, Spec. Bull. N. J. Exp. Sta. N: 4. Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 18: 289. Hopkins, Bull. W. Va. Exp. Sta. 15. Ann. Rep. 3: 160. Webster, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 45: 191. In winter and spring the canes of raspberries and blackberries often show one or more comparatively small and regular swellings, an inch or more in length, the outer portions being roughened with brownish slits and ridges. They are rarely more than one -third thicker than the normal cane, and are caused by the work of a THU BED NECKED CANE-BOBEB 263 small borer, which is very similar in appearance and which be- longs to the same family as the flat-headed apple-tree borer. This swelling, which is a pithy gall, has been named by Dr. Riley the Raspberry Gouty -gall — Buhl podagra — although there seems to be no good reason for applying a special name to the gall so long as the insect which produces it is equally well known. The galls are usually confined to the main canes, and may be near the base, or two or three feet above ground, though sometimes even the more vigorous laterals are at- tacked. The injured canes may put forth leaves and blossoms, but the fruit seldom ripens, and the cane dies before the end of the season. The larvae burrow in a spiral direction, confining themselves, in the early stages of their ex- istence, wholly to the sap wood, and by this means girdle and kill the cane. According to one observer, this habit of girdling the cane in order to kill it the first season seems to contribute to the safety of the larvae, which otherwise freeze and perish, perhaps owing to the greater quantity of sap which surrounds them in living canes. They are said to be more frequently destroyed in this manner in blackberries than in raspberries. Like the crown-borer, it often escapes detec- tion by reason of the belief that the injury is due to winter- killing. Fie . 36. Agrilus ruficolis. Fig. 37. Work of red-neeked Cane- borer. 264 BDSH-FBUITS The larva reaches its full size toward the latter part of April, bores into the middle of the cane, where it will be more secure from insect foes, forms a smooth, oval cell, and transforms into a white pupa, showing quite plainly the marks of the future beetle. It gradually darkens, and assumes more and more the form of the perfect insect. The mature beetles begin to emerge about the last of May, and are usually most abundant in June. It is during this period that the eggs are laid. John B. Smith, who has examined large numbers of the very young larvae, finds that the egg is laid at the base of a leaf-stalk, generally near the ground. He says: "The beetle probably does not lay more than one egg at the same point, and one larva at a leaf-stalk is the rule; but sometimes different specimens may choose the same point for oviposition, and in one ease three larvce had started together, burrowing under the bark, each for himself, in distinct channels. There seems to be no rule as to the direction in which the girdling is done, some starting to the right and some to the left. Sometimes, when eggs are laid at the base of a leaf from which a vigorous lateral starts, the young larva will run up the lateral rather than the main stem. Early laterals are sometimes as badly infested as the main shoots." The insect is thought to prefer raspberries to blackberries, as a rule, but in New Jersey the Wilson blackberry suffers most of all. Professor Smith observes that although it attacks black raspberries, there are no galls formed and no injury is done, the larva apparently confining its work to the center of the cane. Remedies. — A knowledge of the life history of the insect at once reveals the remedy. As the perfect insect does not emerge from the cane till late in spring, it is only necessary to attend to the spring pruning promptly, taking especial care to watch for and remove all galls. This may often necessitate cutting away whole canes, but the value of the treatment depends entirely on the thoroughness with which it is done. All wood cut away should be carefully collected and burned, for removing it from the root in no way hinders the development of the beetles. It is important that growers cooperate and do the work thoroughly, for one neglected patch wall serve as a breeding ground for a whole neighborhood. THE ROSE-BUG 265 If its habit of work on the blaek-eap, which prevents the forma- tion of galls, is general, this may form a barrier to its destruction because more difficult to detect. It has usually proved more destructive in the southern than in the northern states. The Rose Chafer (Fig, 38) Macrodactylus subspinosus (Fabr.) — Order Coleoptera: Family Scarabseidae Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 35 (Flint Ed.), Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 280. Riley, Ins. Life, 2: 295. Smith, Ins. Life, 3: 220. Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1876: 183. This insect is one of the most dreaded enemies of the horti- culturist wherever it occurs. It seems to be created on a plan which renders it proof alike against arsenites, pyrethrum, and all known insecticides. It can be scalded to death, but this is not a practical treatment on a large scale. Their favorite breeding places appear to be open fields of light, sandy soil. In New Jersey, where they are particularly destruc- tive, Professor Smith states that they breed in the whole of the sand district of South Jersey, the larvae being abundant everywhere in the brush lands, even down to the shore. In July the female beetle lays about thirty whitish, nearly globular eggs about one -thirtieth of an inch in diameter, which are placed one or two inches beneath the surface of the ground. The eggs hatch in about twenty days, and the young larvae feed on the roots of grasses and other plants until the approach of cold weather, when they work their way deeper into the ground, passing the winter in a torpid state. In spring they approach the surface and form an oval cell of earth in which to pupate, and from which they emerge in great numbers, all at once, a habit common to other beetles of the class p. gg j^ to which they belong. This occurs about the time bug. 266 BUSH-FBUITS that grapes are in blossom. The favorite food of the mature beetle consists of flowers, especially those of the rose, grape, spiraea, sumach, magnolia, etc, ; but the foliage of nearly all plants also suffers. In one report of their ravages in New Jersey, Professor Smith says: "Of the small fruits, the black- berries seemed very attractive. They were on each blossom, and ate the petals but left the green forming fruit. Last year they ate the leaves as well, and left only the canes. This year they left the leaves. Raspberries were totally destroyed." Although occurring throughout the greater portion of the northern half of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, it appears to be more or less local in its habits, for in parts of central New York and northern Pennsylvania it is seldom or never seen. In the Gulf states the species is replaced by the closely allied one, M. angustatus, and in the extreme southwest by M. uniformis. These are very similar in appearance, differing only in the character of the prosternal process and the pubescence, but have not thus far proved so injurious. Bemedies. — When occurring in such vast numbers as they fre- quently do in some sections, nothing avails against them, and the cultivator is utterly helpless before their march. Where their numbers are limited, kerosene emulsion, pyrethrum, and coating the vines with whitewash to which crude carbolic acid has been added, have been found useful, and sometimes really satisfactory. Mechanical devices for knocking them off and catching them have, in some eases, proved more practicable than any other plan. At one time it was thought that hot water would prove effective against this insect, but notwithstanding the apparent simplicity of such a remedy it was found to be impracticable for general use. The temperature required is about 130 degrees Fahrenheit, but the range is very narrow. If much above this temperature the plants are injured, if much below it the insects suffer no harm. To maintain the right degree of heat in field operations is not feasi- ble. Even if the water as it leaves the nozzle has the right tem- perature, it may not have when it touches the insect. THE GIANT BOOT-BOBJbJB. 267 The Giant Root-borer (Fig. 39) Prionus laticoJlis i^Drii.). — Order Coleoptera: Family Cerambyeidse Riley, Mo. Rep. 1: 124.-2: 87. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 227. Thomas, 111. Eut. Rep. 6: 147. Smith, Spec. Bull. N., N. J. Exp. Sta. The following statements eoncerning this species are quoted from Professor John B. Smith's bulletin on blackberry insects: "Besides the crown-borer, the black- berry also harbors in its roots an enormous beetle larva between two and three inches in length, white in color, with strongly marked constric- tions at the segments, a distinct en- largement anteriorly, and a small, smooth, brown head, with stout, dark- brown jaws. The parent of this larva is a long-horned beetle, and most probably Prionus laflcoUis, Dru. Dr. Riley found this larva injuring roots of grape and apple in Missouri more than twenty years ago, and it has been found also in other trees. So far as I am aware, it has not been heretofore recorded as a blackberry pest. Dr. Riley, from obser- vations made by him, concluded that the larva required three years to come to maturity, and with this conclusion my own ob- servations agree. " The pupa is formed in June or early in July, and the beetle makes its apj)earance at about the middle of the latter month. It is rarely seen, even where not uncommon, and flies principally at night. Fortunately this borer is comparatively scarce; but where it does occur, signs of its work are readily observable. It lives in the large, woody portion of the main root, in which it bores huge channels, and the sudden dying off of several canes in a hill is a Fig. 39. Root-borer. —Friomcs laticollis. 268 BUSE-FECITS certain indication of its presence. Rarely only a single cane will be affected, and then if a crown-borer is not found, the presence of this insect in the main root is almost certain." Remedies. — '^Whenever signs of its presence are noted, it should be at once sought for and destroyed. It is more common in old, carelessly kept fields, and, where numerous in such places, it will be better to grub out and burn all suspected stocks, and replace them by new plants. This should be done before the middle of June, to prevent the maturing of the beetles." The Raspberry-cane Borer (Fig. 40) Oherea bimaculata (Oliv.) — Order Coleoptera : Family Cerambycida? Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 305. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 5: 231. Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 23: 122. Saperda tripunctata, Fabr. Harris Ins. Inj. Veg. lU (Flint Ed.). Oberea tripunctata (Fabr.). Bethune, Canad. Ent. 9: 226. Saunders, Rep. Ent. Soc. Out. 1873: 9. Oberea perspicillata, Hald. Riley, Mo. Rep. G: 111. The larva of this species is a footless grub, similar to the round-headed apple- tree borer in form, found boring in both ° . Fig. 40. Cane-borer, blackberry and raspberry canes. It is best ^^^^^^ bimaculata. known as a raspberry insect, but in Bulletin 23 of the Cornell University Experiment Station, from which the following quotations are taken, an instance is recorded of serious injury to blackberries. In this ease the boring larvae were found only in the bearing canes, wliile in raspberries they attack the young shoots. "The mature insect is a long-horned, slender-bodied beetle about half an inch in length. It is of a deep black color, except the segment next the head, the prothorax, which is yellow. There are usually two or three black spots on the upper part of this segment, but frequently these are wanting. TEE BASPBEBRY-CANE BOBEB 269 "The eggs are laid in the early summer, usually during the month of June. They were not observed in the blackberry; but when the insect infests raspberries, the first indication of the injury noticed is usually the withering and drooping of the ends of the young shoots. If these be examined, there will be found at the base of the wilted portion two rows of punctures encircling the cane about half an inch apart, and between them a small hole in which an egg has been deposited. This double girdling of the cane is done by the beetle with her jaws at the time she lays her ^^g. It has been suggested that the purpose served by this gir- dling is the arresting of the circulation of the sap in this part of the cane ; and in this way the prevention of the crushing of the tender ^g^ by a vigorous and rapid growth of the tip of the cane." The larvae bore downward in the pith of the cane, prob- ably reaching the root in autumn, where they transform and pass the winter. ''The burrows are about one-eighth of an inch in diameter ; they wind from side to side of the pith, and at frequent intervals penetrate the woody part of the cane. In some of the cases where the woody part of the cane is penetrated, an opening is made through the bark. These openings occur at intervals of a few inches throughout the length of the tunneled portion of the canes ; they are small, being about one-third of the diameter of the burrow ; and their object is to enable the larva to deposit its excrement outside of the burrow." Remedies. — "The methods of combating this insect are simple, but they require prompt attention. As soon as the tips of the canes begin to droop they should be cut off below the point where they are girdled. In this way the larva can be destroyed before it has begun to bore into the lower portion of the cane, and thus only the tip of the cane will be lost. When, however, the first indication of the presence of this pest is the dying of the entire cane, caused by the boring of the larva, the infested canes should be promptly cut out and burned. These canes can be readily recognized by the dying of the leaves and by the small holes in them described above. They are most likely to be observed at the time of the blackberry harvest. It is of the utmost importance that the cutting and burning of these canes should be done 270 BUSn-FBUITS promptly. For if it be delayed till autumn, the larvse will have penetrated the roots and will then be beyond the reach of the pruning shears." The Strawberry Weevil (Fig. 41) Anthonomus signatus, Say. — Order Coleoptera: Family CureulionidaB Chittenden, Ins. Life, 5: 167. Hamilton, Can. Ent. 24: 41. Anthonomus viusculus. Say. Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1885: 276. Fletcher, Rep. Can. Exp. Farms, 1890: 173. Beekwith, Bull. Del. Exp. Sta. 18. This insect, which was first noticed as injurious to the straw- berry in 1871, is at the present time coming to be a most serious pest, not only to strawberries, but to blackberries as well. It is a small cureulio, or snout-beetle, about one-tenth of an inch long, with black head and convex shining wing-covers variable in color. Its injury to strawberries has been so great that a series of special investigations were carried on during the season of 1892 by F. H. Chittenden, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the results of which appear in Insect Life, Vol. V, p. 1G7, which is freely quoted here. The principal damage is done by the adult beetles punctur- ing the pedicel or flower- stem a short distance below the flower- buds. Concerning its work on blackberries, Mr. Chittenden says: "A blackberry patch at Falls Church, of the variety known as Early Harvest, was visited June 3, and although the bushes were covered with white blossoms, betokening, un- der normal conditions, a rich crop of berries, it was soon seen that the insect had been at Fig. 41. Weevil. work, but not in the same uniform manner Anthonomus signatus. as on the strawberry, some plants being noticeably more injured than others. An esti- mate of the total damage done to the patch is about 20 per cent. Badly damaged sprays selected at random showed an average of THE STBAWBEBBT WEEVIL 271 five or six injured buds to each flower cluster. On one large spray over two-thirds had been killed." It was found that the work of the insect on the blackberry did not differ materially, either in appearance or ultimate injury, from that on the strawberry. In the strawberry, however, the punc- tures were nearly always plainly seen, both on the bud and the stem beneath, while in the blackberry only a small proportion of the blighted buds showed the punctures plainly. Sometimes the wounded spot in the calyx had healed up or grown over, so as to be nearly invisible, and in other eases the punctures had been made between the sepals. "Raspberries of the black -cap varieties appear to be exempt from the attack of the strawberry weevil, but whether or not the red raspberry enjoys the same immunity has not been ascertained. On Mr. Sprangle's place, at Falls Church, a patch of black-caps, which is located between the infested strawberry bed and black- berry bushes previously referred to, was repeatedly examined for traces of the attack of this insect, but most careful search failed to show any signs of injury, and no beetles were found, even with the aid of a beating net. The wild plant, Buhus viUosus (that is, B. nigrohaccus) is prob- ably the natural food-plant of this species. Dewberries, Bubus Canadensis (that is, B. villosus) were examined and a number of injured buds were found, but on close inspection proved to contain only Dipterous larvae. It is still somewhat doubtful whether this species is attacked or not, but it certainly is not to any great extent." The following is Chittenden's summary of the life-history of the species: "The insect undergoes true hibernation, i. e., in the adult state, and in April individuals of this hibernating brood begin to crawl forth from their winter quarters, fly to the nearest flowers, and commence feeding. They probably continue to issue from their hiding-places for a month after the first arrivals make their appearance. "Blackberries are invaded at the time that the [plants begin blooming, or about four or five weeks later than the strawberry. Wild blackberry is visited still later, and the beetles continue on 272 BUSH-FBUITS this plant for some time. The injury to these plants is done by the female in the course of oviposition, and is produced by punc- turing the stems just beneath the buds, causing the death of the plant above the point of attack. A single egg is deposited at this time in each flower-bud. The larvas are believed to hatch within from three to five or six days after the egg is deposited in the bud, and probably attain their full growth three or four weeks there- after, when they transform to pupoe. The pupal stage lasts from about five to eight days, according to thermometric conditions, and the first mature insects of the new brood begin to issue from the strawberry buds toward the end of May, continuing through the month of June, and in exceptional cases into July. The beetles are so seldom seen after the middle of July that they are believed to begin to hibernate at this time. Our observations indicate only a single annual generation. All of the earlier stages of the insect are passed in the bud. It never attacks the fruit. The larva, which in general appearance resembles the grubs or "worms" found in plums, cherries and nuts, feeds at first on pollen and the stamens and pistils of the unopened flower, but if these are consumed before it completes its growth, the receptacle is attacked. Pollen is thoughi to furnish the greater portion of the food of the adults also, a fact which accounts for the greater in- jury to staminate varieties of strawberries, and .especially those which are the most prolific pollen bearers. Remedies. — Four species of parasites have been bred from the insect, and these will doubtless aid in checking their multiplica- tion to a certain extent. Few practical remedies seem thus far to have been tried, and the most that is offered is in the line of suggestions. Kerosene emulsion and pyrethrum, applied when the beetles are at work, may be found satisfactory. The planting of very early staminate varieties as a decoy or trap crop for the hibernating brood, and wild bergamot or horse-mint for the new brood, is suggested. The beetles are said to fairly swarm on this plant when in bloom, and can be readily captured with a sweeping net or reached with insecticides. Mr. Chittenden's investigations show the insect to be averse to working or feeding in shady places, and he suggests a protecting THJ<] EASPBEBBT SAW-FLT 273 screen of muslin, netting or paper, as affording certain immunity from attack on small patches where available. The Raspberry Saw-fly Movopliadnus ruhi (Harris.) — Order Hymenoptera: Family TenthredinidaB Selandria rubi, Harris. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 311. Thomas, 111. Rep. 6: 61. 10: 67. Webster, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 45: 154. Norton, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soe. 1: 249. This is a four- winged fly which appears soon after the rasp- berry leaves unfold. It is thus described by Professor Saunders: " The wings, which are transparent, with a shining surface and metallic hue, measure, when expanded, about half an inch across: the veins are black, and there is also a streak of black along the front margin extending more than half way towards the tip of the wing. The anterior part of the body is black, the abdomen dark reddish. In common with some other species of Selandria, these flies have a habit of falling to the ground when disturbed, espe- cially in the cool of the morning, and remaining inactive long enough to enable one to catch them ; but with the increasing heat of the day they are much more lively, and take wing readily when approached. "The eggs are buried beneath the skin of the leaf, close along- side of the ribs and veins, placed there by means of the saw- like apparatus with which the female is provided, where it swells some- what and produces a slight discoloration of the cuticle on the upper surface. The skin covering the surface of the swelling is so thin and semi-transparent that the movements of the larva may be observed a day or two before hatching, by the black spots on the side of the head showing through. The larva escapes through an irregular hole made on one side of the swelling. "The young larva is about one-twelfth of an inch long, with a large greenish white head, having a black eye -like spot on each R 274 BUSH-FBUITS side; the body nearly white, semi-transparent, and thickly cov- ered with transverse rows of white spines." As its age increases it assumes a close resemblance to the color of the leaf on which it feeds. "When full grown it leaves the bush, enters the ground and constructs a little oval earthy cocoon mixed with silky and glu- tinous matter, from which the fly emerges the following spring. Remedies. — Spraying or dusting with hellebore proves an effi- cient remedy. THE LESS PROMINENT INSECTS While the preceding list aims to include all species which are sufficiently injurious to possess real eco- nomic importance, it is obvious that no strict dividing line can be drawn. In some cases insects included in the following list have done much more injurj^ than many of those already mentioned. Much depends upon local conditions and environment. If special condi- tions favor an unusual development of any particular species, the food supply of its parasites is thus in- creased, thereby inducing an increase of the parasites, and enabling them to reduce the species to normal conditions. Thus nature's balance-wheel prevents the undue increase of any class of her children and con- sequent destruction by them. To all having access to entomological literature, the references given here will be of aid in quickly ob- taining information upon any of these species which may chance to manifest unusual development and con- sequent injury. Manj^ of those mentioned can never prove injurious, and to know this fact may at times be even more welcome than to find methods of com- bating them as foes. BRAMBLE INSECTS 275 Class Arachnida (Spiders and their relatives) Order Acarina Tetranychns telarius (Linn.). The Red Spider. —Attacks rasp- berries under glass, doubtless also in the Held in dry climates, as it does many other plants. Bryobia pratensis, Garman. The Clover Mite. Riley and Marlatt, Ins. Life 3:45. Rural New-Yorker 1894: 568. On raspberries. Class Myriapoda (Centipedes and Millipedes) Order ChUognatlia lulus impressus, Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:216. — Ins. Life 2:258. Found in raspberry fruit after being harvested. Class Hexapoda ("Insects) Order Orthoptera Family Acridid.^. Melanoplus spretus (Thomas). Comstock, Man. Ins. 110. [Calop- tenus spretus, Thomas. Riley, Mo. Rep. 7:159.] Nearly omniv- orous; injures blackberries more than raspberries. Family Locustid^. Orchelimum qJaterrimnm, Burm. , Riley, Mo. Rep. 5:123. — Fruit Recorder, 15:180 (1883). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:205. De- posits its eggs in the canes and other pithy stems. Order Physopoda Thrips tritici. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 2:304. Lintner, Rep. N. Y. Agr. Soc. 1881-82:192, Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:207. On flow- ers of raspberry and blackberry. Order Hemipiera Family IjYGmydm. Nysius angustatus, Uhler. Lintner, N. Y. R^. 5: 321. Riley, Rep, U. S. Dept. Agr. 1884:315. [Xysius destructor, Riley. Nysius raphanus, Howard.] On raspberry fruit ; a general feeder. Family Pentatomid^. Cosmopepla carnifex (Fabr.). Lintner, X. Y. Rep. 2: 144. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:212. [Cimex carnifex, Fabr.] On leaves and stems of blackberry and potato, fruit of currant, etc. Euschistus variolaritis, Pal. Beauv. Townsend, Ins. Life, 2:44. Reported as injuring red raspberry fruit. 276 BUSH-FRUITS Fig. 42. Cori melcena puli- carta. Family Corimel^nid^. Cori^nelcena j)ulicaria, Germar. (Fig. 42.) Bethune, Canada Farmer, Aug. 1,1870. Riley, Mo. Rep. 2:33. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 317. French, Trans". 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:200. [Thyreocoris puli- carh(S (Germar. ). Forbes, 111. Rep. 13:106. j Piercing raspberry fruit and injuring it by the "bed-bug aroma" imparted by its presence. Family Cicadid^. Cicada septenclecim, Linn. Packard, For. Ins. 95. Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1885: 223. -Bull. U. S. Div. Ent. 8. Comstock, Man. Ins. 150. Eggs deposited in berry canes, twigs of trees, etc. Family Cercopid^. Aphrophora quadrangularis , Say. TValsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:228. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 5:245. Morse, First Book Zool. 97. (1875 ed.) A spittle insect; a general fe«der, often found on black- beri-y. Family Jassid^. Tjjphlocyba tricincfa (Fitch). Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:115. [Erythro- neura tricincta, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 392.] On raspberry, currant and grape leaves. Family Aphidid^. Aphis rubicola. Oestland, Geog. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn. Bull. 4 : 60. On leaves of red raspberry. Macrosiphum ruhicolum. Oestland, Rep. Geog. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn. 14:27. — Bull. 4:78. On twigs and leaves of red raspberry. Pemphigus fiibi. Thomas, 111. Rep. 8:147. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc, 1881:200. On leaves of black raspberry. Sipha riihifoUi. Thomas, 111. Rep. 8:121. On blackberry leaves. Siphonophora rubi, Kalt. Thomas, 111. Rep. 8:64. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881: 200. On raspberry and blackberry. Family Aleyrodid^. Aleyrodes spJ Observed on" leaves of Rubtis odorahis at Ithaca, N. Y., in the summer of 1893. Family Coccid^. Lecaninm Fitchii, Signoret, Essai, 404. Comstock, Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta, 2: 133. On raspberry and blackberrj'. Mytilaspis pomorum (Bouche.). Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880:325.— Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:118. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. : 40. [Aspidiotus pomorujn, Bouche.] On raspberry in common with other plants. Aulacaspis rosce (Bouche.). [Diaspis rosce (Sandberg). Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880:312.] On rose, raspberry and black- berry. BRAMBLE INSECTS 211 Chionaspis furfurus (Fitch.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. : 44. Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dep. Agr. 1880: 315. -Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:103. [Aspidiolits furfurus, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:352. Aspidiotus cerasi, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:3G8. Diaspis Earrisii, Walsh. Riley, Amer. Nat. 15:487.] On black raspberry, apple, pear and other trees. Order Lepidoptera Family Megalopygid^. Megalopyge crispata (Pack.). Comstock, Man. Ins. 218. [Lagoa crispata. Packard, Amer. Nat. 19:714. — For Ins: 139. Lintner, Ent. Corres. 2:138. -Rep. N. Y. Cab. Nat. Hist. 4:138.] On leaves of blackberry, raspberry plum, apple, and other trees. Family Eucleid^. Empretia stimulea, Clemens. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 113 — 353. Packard, For. Ins. 146. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:168. A general feeder. Family Pterophorid^. Oxiptilus tenuidactilus, Fitch. [ Oxiptilus nigrociliatus, Zell. Saun- ders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 314. OxiiHilus delavaricxis, Zell. Forbes, 111. Rep. 14: 91.] On leaves of raspberry and blackberry. Family Grapholithid^e. Eudemis botrana (Schiff.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 299. [Penthina vitivorana, Pack. Riley, Mo. Rep. 1:113. Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:177.] On blackberry blossoms, and within the fruit of grape. Exartema permundana, Clem. (Fig. 43.) Clemens, Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci. 1860:356. Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880:267. [Eccopsis permundana (Clem.). Packard, For. Ins. 312.— Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1885:330. Saunders, Ins. fig. 43. Exar- Inj. Frts. 324.] On leaves of raspberry, black- jg,,j^ permun- berry, strawberry, and other plants. dana Phoxopteris comjitana, Frol. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 323. Forbes, 111. Rep. 13: 87. [Anchyloptera fragarice-, Walsh & Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:89. Riley, Mo. Rep. 1:142.] On leaves of strawberry, raspberry and blackberry. Family Tortricid^. Caececia rosaceana (Harris). Packaz-d, For. Ins. 505. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 90. [Laxotenia rosaceana, Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 48 (Flint ed.). Thomas, 111. Rep. 11: 10.] On leaves of rose, apple, raspberry, blackberr)^, etc. Caececia rosana, Linn. Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 23:119. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:180. Comstock, Man. Ins. 244. A general feeder. Loplioderus re?KY/Hana, Walk. Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:88. Packard, For. Ins. 196. On blackberry, oak, balsam-fir and maple. 278 BUSH-FBUITS Loxotcenia musculana, Hub. Pernald, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 10:13. On Rubus, and many other plants. Family Nepticulid^. Nepticula rubifoliella, Clemens, Tineina N. Amer. (Stainton), 152. — Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci. June, 1860. Mining in leaves of black- berry. Nepticula viUosella, Clemens, Tineina N. Amer. (Stainton), 161— 174. — Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. 1: 84. Mining in blackberry leaves. Family Lithocolletid^. Tischeria cenea, F. & B. Chambers, Bull. U S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. 4:99-113. [Tischeria malifolieUa, Clemens, Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci. 12:208. Tineina N. Amer. (Stainton), 141. Weed, 111. Rep. 15:45.] Mining in leaves of Rubus. Now considered distinct from the apple-leaf miner. Family Sesiid.^. Sesia hemizoni(e {Hy. Edw. ). [^geria hemizonioe, Hy. Edwards, Papilio, 1: 198. Rivers, Papilio, 3: 26.] Boring in the pith of cul- tivated raspberries. Family Notodontid^. Apafelodes torrefacta (Sm. & Abb.). Hy. Edwards, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 35:67. A rare southern moth, known to feed on Rubus. GEilemasia concinna (Sm. & Abb.). Saunders, Ins. luj. Frts. 62. Packard, For. Ins. 457. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:167. [jVotodonta concinna, Sm. & Abb. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg, 425.] On apple, blackberry, and other plants. Schizura ipomeoe, Doub. Packard, For. Ins. 155. Dyar, Ins. Life, 3:62, [Ccelodasys bigiittatus, Pack.] On oak, maple and black- berry. Schizura unicornis (Sm. & Abb.). Packard, For. Ins. 269. [Noto- donta unicornis, Sm. & Abb. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 424. Fitch, N. Y. Rept. 3:363. Coelodasys unicornis. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 80.] A general feeder. Family Ennomid^. Cingilia catenaria (Cramer). Comstock, Man. Ins. 279. [Zerene catenaria. Cram. Packard, Mon. Geom. 218. — For. Ins. 783. Caterva catenaria (Cram). Coquillet, Papilio, 1: 56.] On black- berry and several other plants. Family GEOMEXRiDiE. Aspilates coloraria, Fabr. Packard, Mon. Geom. 206. [Aspilates afropunctaria. Walk.] On leaves of Rubus. Eucrostis chloroleucaria (Guen). Packard, Mon. Geom. 370. [JVemoria chloroleucaria, Guen.] On red raspberry. Eupithecia implicata, Walk. Var. interrupto -fasciata, Pack. [Eupithecia interrupto-fasciata. Thomas, 111. Rep. 11:23. Saun- ders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 352. Coquillet, Papilio, 1:56.] On fruit of currant and raspberry ; also on Hower of clover and other plants. BRAMBLE INSECTS 279 Microgonia limharia, Haw. [Nematocampa filamentaria, Guen. Packard, Mon. Geom. 471. — For. Ins. 182. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 167. Forbes, 111. Rep. 13:79.] On raspberry. Family Cymatophorid^. Thyatira scripta (Gosse). [Hahrosyne scripta, Gosse. Thaxter, Papilio, 3:10.] Eggs found on raspberry leaves. Family Noctuid^. Acronycta Americana, Harris. French, HI. Rep. 7: 200. [Apatela Americana (Harr.). Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg. 43n. Packard, For. Ins. 397. Hulst, Ent. Ainer. 4:85.] On blackberry ; a general feeder. Acronycta brumosa, Guen. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:194. [Apatela brumosa (Guen). Coquillet, Papilio, 1:56. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 313.] On raspberry leaves. Acronycta oblinita, Sm. & Abb. [A2)atela oblinita (Sm. & Abb.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 325.] A general feeder. Acronycta spinigera, Guen. [Apatela spinigera (Guen.). Thaxter, Psyche, 2:121.] On blackberry; a general feeder. Acronycta xyliniform is, Gnen. [Acronycta xylinoides, Gnen. Riley, Mo. Rep. 5:126. Apatela xyliniformis (Guen). Thaxter, Papilio, 3:17.] On blackberry ; a general feeder. Amphipyra pyramidoides, Guen. Saunders, Canad. Ent. 7:14. Comstock, Man. Ins. 302. [Pyrophila pyramidoides (Guen). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 274. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:195. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:177.] On grape, ^rasp- berry, plum and other plants. Rydrcecia nitela (Guen). JGortyna nitela, Guen. LeBaron, 111. Rep. 3:141. Smith, 111. Rep. 7:112. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 1: 110. Saun- ders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 334. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:176.] Boring in the stems of cereals and many other plants. Hyppa xylinoides (Guen.). Lintner, N. Y. Rept. 4: 138. [Hadena xylinoides, Guen. Saunders, Canad. Ent. 2:33.] A general feeder ; taken on raspberry. Mamestra picta, Harris. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 4:16.-5:206. [Ceramica picta (Harris). French, 111. Rep. 7:226.] A general feeder ; reported on raspberry and currant. Noctua fennica, Tausch. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:175. [Agrotis fennica (Tausch.). Fletcher, Ins. Life 3: 247.] A general feeder ; primai'ily on clover. Prodenia ornithogalli, Guen. [Prodenia lineatella, Harv. French, Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881: 195. -Canad. Ent. 13:24.] Feeds on raspberry in confinement. Pyrrhia umbra (Hiibn.). Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:88. [Heliothis ex- primens (Walk.). French, 111. Rep. 7:233. Pyrrhia exprimens. Walk. Edwards and Elliott, Papilio, 3:135.] On Desmodium, smartweed, rose and blackberry. Scopelosonia sidiis, Guen. Packard, For. Ins. 116. [Scopelosoma vinulenta, Grote. Thaxter, Canad. Ent. 16:32.] On blackberry. 280 BUSH-FRUITS Family Arctiid^. Haploa Lecontei (Boisd.). [CalUmorpha Lecontei, Boisd. Forbes, 111. Rep. 15:2, Var. fulvicosta, Clem. LeBaron, 111. Rep, 2:47. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 197. J On buds and leaves of raspberry, peach and other plants. Hyphantria cunea, Dru. Com.stock, Man. Ins. 32. Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1886: 518. Packard, For. Ins. 244. [Hyphantria textor, Harris. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 71.] The Fall Web-worm; feeds on more than 100 different species of plants. PyrrJiarctia Isabella, Sm, & Abb. Comstock, Man. Ins. .322. Web- ster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:162. Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg, 355. A general feeder. Family Sphingid^. Paonias exccecatus (Sm. & Abb.). [Stnerinthiis exccecatus, Sm. & Abb. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 85. Beutenmuller, Ent. Amer. l:196.-Can. Ent. 23:14. Dimmock, Psyche, 4: 282. Packard, For. Ins. 487.] A general feeder. Family Bombycid^. Bomhyx mori, Linn. Comstock, Man. Ins. 340. [Sericaria mori (Linn). Edwards, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 35:67, Jaeger, Life N. Am. Ins. 146.] The silk worm. It has been reported, though not on the best of authority, that it will feed on Rubus. Uuproctis chrysorrhoea (Linn), Fernald and Kirkland, Special Bull. Mass. Hatch. Exp. Sta. 1897. [Bomhyx chrysorrJioea, Linn. J A general feeder, preferring the pear. Family Citheroniid^. Anisota senataria (Smith & Abb.). Packard, For. Ins. 124. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 5:192. [Dryocampa senatoria (Sm. & Abb.). Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:26.] On oak ; eggs reported on raspberry, but per- haps accidental. Family Saturniid^. Automeris io (Fabr.). Comstock, Man. Ins. 351. [Hypercheria io (Fabr. ). Goodell, Canad. Ent. 11:78. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 209. -Rep. Ent, Soc, Ont, 10:75. Riley, Mo. Rep. 5:133.] A general feeder. Satnia cecropia, Linn. Comstock, Man. Ins. 356. [Attacus cecropia (Linn.). Dimmock, Psyche, 4:276. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:170. Platysamia cecropia fLinn.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 73. — Rep. Ont. Ent. Soc. 1874:22.] A general feeder, over thirty different genera being included among its food plants. Family Lasiocampid^. Clisiocatnpa Californica, Packard, For. Ins. 119. Stretch, Papilio, 1 : 64. On oak and blackberry. Family Nymphalid^. Polygonia comma (Harris). Comstock, Man. Ins. 404. [ Vanessa comma, Harris. Ins. Inj. Vig, 300. Grapta comma (Harris). Packard, For. Ins. 241. Webster, Bull, O. Exp. Sta. 45:158.] On elm, nettle basswood, etc. ; also reported on blackberry. BRAMBLE INSECTS 281 Order Diptera Family Cecidomyid^. Cecidomyia spJ Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:188. In canes of Bubus hispidus, forming galls. Lasioptera farinosa, O. S. Smith, Spec. Bull. N. J. Exp. Sta. N:13. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:188. Osten Sacken, Mon. Dip. N. A. 1:204. [Cecidomyia farinosa (O. S.).] Forming galls on midrib of the leaves and tips of young canes of blackberry. Dipterous Larva, undetermined. Feeding within buds of Bubus odoratus, at Ithaca, N. Y., destroying the floral organs and pre- venting many of the buds from opening. Order Coleoptera Family Coccinellid^. Anatis 15-punctata (Oliv. ). {Coccinella 15-punctata, OWv. LeBaron, 111. Rep. 5:183.] On fruit of raspberry. Family Nittdulid^. Carpophilus brachyptertis, Say. Webster, Ins. Life, 2:258. — Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45: 191. In fruit of raspberry. Family Elaterid^. LitnoniHS auripilis, Saj'. Webster, Ins. Life, 2:258. Say, Amer. Entomology, 2:112. On ripe raspberry fruit. Melanotus communis, Gyll. Walsh, Pract. Ent. 2:119. On ripe fruit of raspberry. Monocrepidius vespertinus, Fabr. Walsh, Pract. Ent. 2:119. On ripe raspberries. Family Scarab^id^. Anomala hitiotata, Gyll. Thomas, 111. Rep. 6:105. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:197. On flowers of blackberry. Cofalpa lanigera, Linn. Packard, For. Ins. 274. Forbes, 111. Ent. Rep. 13:146. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 155. Fletcher, Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont. 1879: 70. Lockwood, Amer. Nat. 1869, 186, 441. A gen- eral feeder, the beetle attacking the leaves and the larvae the roots of plants. Family Chrysomelid^. Bassareus niammifer,'NewTn. Beutenmuller, Ent. Americana, 6:175. On blackberry. Chelymorpha argus, Leich. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 315. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:204. A general feeder. Chlamys plicafa, Fabr. Rilev, Mo. Rep. 6:128. Packard, Guide, 510. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:200. On blackberry and other plants. Cryptocephalus binomis, Newm. Beutenmuller, Ent. Amer. 6:175. On blackberry. Cryptocephalus quadruplex, Mim. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:201. On blackberry. 282 BCfSH-FBUITS Gryptocephalns venustus, Fabr. Beutenmuller, Ent. Auier. 6:175. On blackberry. Diahrotica H-punctata. Oliv. Riley and Howai'd, Ins. Life 1:58. Riley, Ins. Life 4:104. Garman, Psyche, 6: 28. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45: 202. The Southern Corn Root-worm. On raspberry. Crepidodera cncumeris (Harris). Saunders, Ins. luj. Frts. 317.-364. Comstock, Man. Ins. 578. [Haltica cncumeris (Harris). French Trans. 111. Hort. Soc. 1881:198. Thomas, 111. Ent. Rep. 6:167. Epitrix cncumeris, Harris. Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 16:245.] The Cucumber Flea-beetle. On raspberry, vegetables, etc. Pachyhrachys carhonarius, Hald. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45: 202. On blackberry. Paria 4-notata, Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:202. On rasp- berry and blackberry. Tynines tricolor, Fabr. Beutenmuller, Ent. Amer. 0:170. On black- berry. Family RHYNCHiTiD-a;. Rynchites hicolor, Fabr. LeConte, Rhynchit. of Amer. 7. Cassidy, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta. 6:18. Comstock, Man. Ins. 591. On rose and raspbei'ry. Family Otiorhynchid^, Otiorhynchus sinyularis, Linn. Hamilton, Trans. Amer. Ent. 21:402. [Otiorhynchus picipes, Fabr. Packard, Rep. Ins. of Mass. 2:14. Riley, Amer. Ent. 3:127.] Destructive to raspberry and other plants in England'. Reported in America by Packard, 1. c. Order Hymenoptera Family Tenthredinid.^. Blennocampa paupera (Prov.). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:152. [Selandria panj)era, Provancher, Faun, Ent. Can. 2:742.] On raspberry. Fenusa rubi (Forbes). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:152. [Metal- liis rubi, Forbes. 111. Rep. 14:87.] Mining in leaves of black- berry. ffarpiphorus varianus, Nort. (?). Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:153. Riley and Howard, Ins. Life. 2:239. Larvae thought to be this species were found by Professor Webster on leaves of blackberry. Family Urocerid^. Phyllcecus trimaculatus , Say. Smith, Rep. N. J. Exp. Sta. 1892:464. Norton, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 2:345. Boring in the pith of raspberry and blackberry canes. Family Cynipid^. Piastrophus Bassettii, Beutenmuller, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 4:248. Forming galls on canes of Biibus Canadensis. Piasfrophus cuscutceformis, Osten Sacken, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. 2: 39. Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent. 1:188. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 319. Forming seed-like galls on canes of blackberry. BBAMBLE INSECTS 283 Diastrophus Kincaidli, Gillette, Canad. Ent. 25:110. Forming galls on twigs of Buhus parviflorus. Diastrophus nebuJosus, Osten Sacken, Froc. Ent. Soc. Pliila. 2:36. Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:159. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 318. Forming elongated pithy galls on canes of blackberry. Diastrophus radicum, Bassett, Canad. Ent. 2:98. Ashmead, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 14: VSi. Forming galls on the roots of blackberry. Diastrophus turgidus, Bassett, Canad. Ent. 2:99. Ashmead. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 14:134. Forming galls on the canes of red rasp- berry. Bhodites radicum, Osten Sacken, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. 2:42-46. Rile}', Amer. Ent. 2:181. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 304. Forming galls on the roots of rose, raspberry and blackberry. Bhodites rosoe, Linn. (?) Beutenmuller, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 4:248. Forming woolly galls on stems of rose and black- berry. Cynipid Leaf Gall, undetermined. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:157. Forming galls on the leaves of blackberry. Family Myrmicid^. Solenopsis fugax (Latr.). Webster, Ins. Life, 2:257. — Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45: 157. A yellow ant, burrowing in ripe blackberries. " Family Pemphredoxid^. Stigmus fraternus, Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:158. Pack- ard, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. 6:387. Burrowing in dead canes of raspberry. Family Crabronid^. Crahro sexmaculatus (Say). Couper, Canad. Ent. 1:77. A sand wasp, burrowing in canes of raspberry. Family Andrexid^. Prosopis sp., Smith. Kingsley's Stand. Nat. Hist. 2: 536. Boring in the stems of bramble. Family Apid^. Ceratina dupla. Say. Webster, Bull. O. Exp. Sta. 45:158. Com- stock, Man. Ins. 669. Burrowing and nesting in pithy stems of bramble and other plants. CHAPTER X DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES How to control the diseases which prey upon plants is an important question in all branches of agriculture, and in berry -growing there is particular need of this inquir}'. Cultivators far and near are being driven out of the business b}' certain of these dis- eases, yet no one is able to offer positive remedies. The reasons are various, one being, the nature of the plants and fruits themselves, neither of which can be treated with remedies or preventives during a con- siderable portion of the active season of depredation, without injuring the fruit or rendering it unfit for use. Another and more potent reason is the lack of a sufficient number of skilled men to study the complete life -history of the maladies, with a view to ascertaining their weak points and the means of meeting them. Few people not engaged in the work can appreciate the amount of careful, accurate work often required to trace out these things. Further- more, onl}^ a trained specialist, who can interpret and understand what he sees, can expect to cope with them. It is to be hoped that careful study and field experiments may in time make it possible to undertake berry -culture without fear that these enemies will thwart the best efforts of the grower. (284) BED BUST 285 This book can add little to what is already known concerning the numerous fungous enemies of bush- fruits. The aim of the present chapter is to present in brief form the more important facts known about those which prove most serious, together with a few of the most accessible references to what has been written concerning them. THE IMPORTANT FUNGOUS DISEASES Red Rust, Yellows Puccinia interstitialis (Schlecht.) Tranzschel, Hedwigia, 1893:257. Cceovia inter stitiale, Schlecht. ^cidhiui nitens, Schw. Cceoma (^cidium) luminatum, Link. Vredo interstitialis, Schlecht. Vredo lucida, Dietr. Puccinia Peckiana, Howe, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 23: 57. Puccinia tripustu- lata. Peek, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 24: 91. Order Uredinere. Saccardo, Syll. Fuug. 7: 699, 866 aud 9: 331. Burrill, Par. Fuug. 111. 178, 220. Xewcombe, Jour. Myc. 6: 106. Clinton, Bull. 111. Exp. Sta. 29: 273-300. On leaves of Eubiis nigrobaccus (villosus), B. villosus (Cana- densis), B. occidentalis, B. cimeifoUus, B, strigosus, B. tri fonts, B. trivialis, B. hisjndus, B. saxatilis and B. arcticus. This fungus was first described by Schlechtendal in 1820 as Cceoma interstitiaJe. The relationship between the mature and immature forms was independently established by Tranzschel in Germany, and by Clinton in the United States, in 1893. The appearance of this disease is well known, both on wild and cultivated plants. The orange-red color of the under surface of the infested leaves is due to the abundance of sori, which produce the orange -red spores by means of which the disease may be spread from plant to plant. These are connected in chains, and form a waxy layer over the affected portions. The mycelium of the fungus, which corresponds to the roots of higher plants, is perennial, living throughout the winter in the canes and roots, and a plant once attacked is doomed. Its vitality is sapped, and its condition is soon manifest by the numerous small, weak canes which spring up. 286 BUSH-FBUITS Treatment. — Diseased plants should be rooted up and burned as soon as discovered, to prevent the spore formation and con- sequent spread of the disease. This, if promptly done, is a prae- « tical remedy. Spraying can only be of use in pre- "^-m^ venting new infection. If employed against the anthraenose, it will also be of use against red rust spores, if they exist. Anthracnose (Fig. 44) Gloeosjwrium Venetum, Speg. Glozosporium necator. Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 3: 129. Order Melaneonieae. Saecardo, Sj^ll. Fung. 3: 706, and 10: 450. Burrill, Agr. Eeview, 1882: Nov. Galloway, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1887: 357. Paddock, Bull. New York Stale Exp. Sta. 124: 261-274. This is unquestionably one of the most serious ene- mies to raspberry and blackberry culture now known. The disease was first described by an Italian botanist, M. Spegazinni, from leaves of Enhiis Chamcemorus. Its first mention in this country was in the Agri- cultural Review for November, 1882, by T. J. Burrill, who referred to it as the Raspberry Cane Rust. In 1887, Messrs. Ellis & Everhart, in The Journal of Mycology, Vol. Ill, p. 129, described the disease as a new species under the name Glceosporium necator. The gray discolored spots caused by this fungus are well known to all berry growers. They are found ^, . ' on all parts of the plant above ground. On the leaf tnracnose in- ^ ^ ° citing knotty Surface, however, they are not easily distinguished growth on red from those of Cylindrosporium and Septoria. They raspberry. often become so numerous that they destroy a large part of the living cane and greatly weaken or even kill it. The disease is especially liable to work injury just at the ripening period. On red raspberries its presence sometimes incites a warty growth like that shown at Fig. 44. The mycelium, creeping between the plant cells, causes their destruction and the consequent appearance of the dead spots. 44. A NTHBA CNOSE 287 Only the bark and cambium layer are affected as a rule, the my- celium rarely entering the wood to any extent. Near the center of the spots the mycelium threads unite to form a dense tuft, made up of the slender club-shaped basidia on which the spores are borne. These basidia are formed beneath the surface, but soon rupture it and form a minute globule outside, being covered with a clear, gelatinous substance which holds the spores in place. When brought in contact with water, this substance readily dis- solves and allows the spores to float away. These germinate readily in water, and many of them soon find lodgment in healthy portions of tissue and form new centers of infection. If the water which sets them free from the inclosing mass soon evapo- rates, they are readily distributed by the wind. Treatment. — Experiments at Washington have shown that the spores germinate most readily in pure water. It has also been observed that the spread of the disease is more rapid in wet weather than in dry weather. For these reasons it has been recommended that the plants be so set and trained that they shall have plenty of sunlight and air. I have frequently ob- served neglected plantations, or others in which no pinching of the tips had been done to induce branching, which were very free from this disease. How much of this may have been due to the fact of the long, slender growth of canes and consequent absence of shade and moisture, I cannot say. Old wood should be removed and burned as soon as fruiting is over. The removal of diseased wood in autumn or spring will also aid, but this is seldom a feasible plan, for the fungus is so indiscriminate in its attacks that to remove all diseased wood would often be to remove nearly all prospect of fruit. Experiments at the Ohio, Minnesota and New York State Experiment Stations have all shown that the disease may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The New York experiments,* while showing beyond question that the disease may be controlled, did not show a suffi- cient increase in fruit to cover the expense. It is often recom- mended to treat the bushes with a strong solution of copper sul- phate early in spring, before the leaves start, but their results *Bull. 124. 288 BUSH-FBUITS seem to indicate that this is unnecessary. In setting a new plan- tation, care should be used to secure plants free from the disease. If not wholly free, cut the old wood away as close as possible. Spraying the young shoots when they have reached a height of six or eight inches, and once or twice thereafter, will prove an additional precaution, and the cost at that time will be slight. If, then, the plantation is given good care, it is not likely to seriously suffer until after it has produced its best crops. The longer the bushes remain, the more troublesome is the disease likely to be- come. It will, therefore, generally be more satisfactory to remove the plants after they have borne their third crop. If spraying is resorted to, it should be remembered that |the mycelium remains alive in the canes during the winter, and that spraying can in no way cure the disease. It can only prevent, if thoroughly done, the germination of spores as they are produced. Glceosporium Eubi, Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 4: 52. Saccardo, Syll, Fung. 10: 450. Found on leaves of Euhiis nigrohaccus, associated with Puccinia interstitialis, by Prof. S. M. Tracy, at Starkville, Miss. Although closely related to the preceding species, it seems to be less common and of less importance. It is not easily dis- tinguished from the other, and both should be treated alike. Leaf- Spots Septoria Riibi, West. — Order Sphajropsideae : Family Spheerioidese. Saccardo, Syll. Fung., 3: 486. Martin, Jour. Myc, 3: 73. Goff, Rept. U. S. Dept. Agr., 1890: 399. On leaves of most species of the genus. The following varieties have been named: Septoria Riihi paUida., Ell. and Howl. Martin, Jour. Myc. 3: 73; on leaves of Euhus hispidus. Septoria Euhi alba, Peck. Rept. N. Y. Mus. 34: 57; on Buhus nigrohaccus, B. viUosus, and B. trivialis. This is one of the commonest species affecting the genus, and when abundant is without doubt injurious to the plant, owing to the amount of leaf tissue which is killed by it and thus prevented LEAF-SPOT DISEASES 289 from performing its natural function. The small brown or light colored spots on the leaves caused by this and Cylindrosporium Bubi are familiar to all. Treatment. — Few experiments with fungicides have yet been made, and these are somewhat conflicting. Treatment with the Bordeaux mixture in Mississippi in 1889 was reported successful, but experiments made by Goff, with Bordeaux mixture and a mix- ture consisting of equal parts of ammoniated copper sulphate and ammonium carbonate, were on the whole unsatisfactory. This was used in the proportion of 12 ounces of the mixture to 22 gallons of water. Professor Goff's conclusions are quoted here: "The foliage of the raspberry is delicate, and cannot endure applications of a corrosive nature. The foliage of the black- berry, though more resistant than that of the raspberry, is more susceptible to injury than that of the apple. None of the treat- ments given are to be recommended for the raspberry, and of the materials used, only the copper carbonate solution can be pronounced beneficial in the case of the blackberry." Cylindrosporium Eubi, Ell. and Morgan. — Order Melanconiese. Ellis & Everhart, Jour. Myc. 1: 129. Saceardo, Syll. Fung. 10: 500. On leaves of cultivated raspberry and blackberry. This species is very similar to Septoria Bitdi in many of its characters; it differs from it chiefly in that the spores of Septoria are borne within a more or less thick- walled and dark -colored conceptacle, while in Cylindrosporium there is no surrounding conceptacle. The two species are often associated, and cannot be distinguished by the naked eye. Peronospora Eubi, Rabenh. — Order PhyeomycetesB. Family Pero- nosporaceaB. Rabenhorst, Fung. Europaei, 2676. Saceardo, Syll. Fung. 7: 263. Halsted, Bot. Gaz. 15: 179, 323.— Amer. Garden 1890: 688. On leaves of raspberries and blackberries. Although a common fungus in Europe, this species was first reported in the United States by Professor Halsted, in 1890, from New Jersey, and later from Long Island. It develops on the under surface of the leaves, and is difl&cult to detect upon rasp- 290 BUSH-FRUITS berries, so closely does it resemble the tomentum of the leaf. Upon the blackberry its appearance is marked, causing a red dis- coloration of the upper surface of the leaf, as if it were ripening. Halsted calls attention to the fact that this is liable to cause serious trouble to our berry growers, and suggests the advisability of appropriations to stamp out such dangerous species while still confined to limited areas. Leaf -Rusts Pliragmidium Euhi (Pers.) Winter.— Order Uredinea^. For synonymy, see Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 745. Winter, Die Pilze, 1: 230. Burrill, Parasitic Fung., 111., 1: 208. On leaves of E. nigrohaccus, and in Europe on E. fruticosus, E. cwsius, E. saxatiUs and E. arcticus. The uredospore form appears like a coarse dusting of light- colored powder on the under surface of the leaves; the teleuto- spore stage appears in the form of black dots raised above the surface. Although this never seems to have been reported as seriously injurious, the abundance with which it is sometimes found seems to indicate that it might become so. Its position on the under side of the leaves would render it difficult to combat. Pliragmidium Eubi-idwi (Pers.) Karst. For synonymy, see Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 7: 748. Winter, Die Pilze, 1: 231. Burrill, Par. Fung. 111. 207. On leaves, petioles and peduncles of Eubus Idceus, E. strigosus, E. odoratiis, E. parviflorus, E. occidentaUs, and E. cuneifolius. This is closely related to the preceding species, and is the same in outward appearance ; it occurs on raspberries, however, while the other is found chiefly on blackberries. Splicerotlieca HumuU (D. C.) Burrill. Burrill, Par. Fung. 111. 2: 400. Ellis and Everhart, Pyren. 5. \Erysiphe Hunndi, D. C, Flore Frangaise, 6: 106. Sphcerotheca Castagnei, Lev. in part. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 1: 4.] Order Pyrenomyeeteae. — Family Perisporiaceae. Known to occur on leaves of Eubns odoratus, E. triflorus, E. strigosus, E. hispidus, and other species of Rosaceae. Treatment. — Although not often mentioned as a disease of LEAF-BUSTS 291 Fig. 45. Double-blossom, a disease of the blackberi-y. economic importance, Burrill states that it sometimes does con- siderable damage to raspberries. It is one of the powdery- mildews, and if abundant may be treated with fungicides. Double -BLOSSOM (Fig. 45) Fusarium (?) Biihi (Wint.) Sacc. Saccardo, Sj-11. Fuug. 10: 220. Fusisporium Eubi, Winter, Hedw. 24: 258. Seymour, Rep. Minn. Hort. Soc. 14: 220. Ellis and Everhart, N. A. F. 1645. Sesrmour and Earle, Econ. Fung. 25. Order Hymenomveetefe : Family Tubereularieae. On blossoms of cultivated blackberry. This fungus was first worked out by F. S. Earle, from Cobden, 292 BUSH-FBUITS 111. He sent 'specimens of it to Dr. Winter, of Germany, who described it as a new species, referring it provisionally to the genus Fusisporium. It is well known to growers in certain sec- tions under its common name "Double-Blossom." It has been especially troublesome on the Wilson Early blackberry, and in portions of New Jersey has caused immense damage, often ruining entire fields. Treatment. — Few, if any, experiments have been made in trying to combat it with fungicides, and it will probably be found diffi- cult to control in that manner. In fact, until a careful study of its life history has been made, any attempt to suggest a remedy can be little more than guess work. Brown Rot Monilia fructigena, Pers. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 4: 34. Arthur, Rept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta. 3: 254. Smith, Jour. Myc. 5: 123. Galloway, Rept. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1888: 349. Humphrey, Bot. Gaz. 18: 85. Order Hyphomyceteae. Family Mucedineae. On fruit of apples, peach, plum, cherry, etc. This is the well-known brown rot of the stone fruits. Al- though injurious chiefly on this class of fruits, Professor Arthur has induced it to grow on ripe blackberries, and it may be one of the forms which hasten their destruction when over-ripe. OTHER IMPORTANT DISEASES Bacterial Disease (Fig. 46) In addition to the fungous diseases mentioned, there are one or two maladies whose natures are not so well understood, but which promise to be serious enemies. The first of these is a bacterial disease affecting the canes. Its presence is shown by the ap- pearance of dark purplish spots which have a comparatively regu- lar outline and vary much in size, sometimes extending until a single spot wholly encircles the cane. They are perfectly smooth at first, but later the epidermis within the spots often becomes ruptured and slitted. Burrill has suggested that this may be identical with pear blight. As yet it is uncertain how much damage it may cause. Fig. 4G. Bacterial disease of raspberry. Fig. 47. Root-gall of raspberry. 294 BUSH-FRUITS EooT OR Crown Gall (Fig. 47) Woodworth, Bull. 99, Cal. Exp. Sta. Smith, Jour. Myc. 7:376. Bailey, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 74: 383; Bull. 117. Card, Bull. Neb. Expt. Sta. 39: 131. Selby, Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 79: 110. The disease is characterized by a rough, knotty growth about the stem at the surface of the ground or on the roots beneath. These knots or galls have a granular appearance, somewhat resem- bling, when young, the callus growth at the end of a cutting. When old they look something like the black-knot of plums, but are not so dark in color. In Germany the disease is known as "Wurzelkropf." In California it has ruined thousands of trees, for its injury extends to fruit trees as well as to raspberries. In that state it has been given the name Crown Gall, which it may be best to retain, though the disease is by no means confined to the crown of the plant. Notwithstanding the fact that it is so widespread, no one seems to have been able to discover the cause of the injury until very recently. It has often been attributed to the work of the gall fly, Bhodites radicum, but the galls are very different from those made by that insect. Experiments made by the writer during the winter of 1894-5, to determine whether the disease is communicable, gave negative results. Some plants which were, apparently, perfectly healthy, and supposedly planted in healthy soil, were diseased when removed from the boxes. Others diseased at planting time, but which had the knots removed and the roots soaked in Bordeaux mixture, were apparently free from them when r^^nioved. On the whole, the results were so contra- dictory that no deductions can be drawn, from them. Professor Selby, of Ohio, has recently been making a careful study of this diseasej and finds nematodes or eelworms so uni- formly associated with the galls that he feels warranted in con- cluding that they are the cause of the trouble, but no one else, so far as I know, has found nematodes in connection with the galls. A. F. Woods, Assistant Chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathology at Washington, writes that the name Crown Gall ought to be reserved for those large swellings which occur near the surface of the ground, as he believes these to be due to some other cause. The forms at the surface of the ground and on BLA CKBEBB Y CA SE-KNO T 295 the roots are so commonly associated, upon the same variety and under the same conditions, that I cannot but believe that both are due to the same cause. Indeed, the presence of these large, blackened and decaying galls at the surface of the ground, which are readily noticed in spring, may be the first, and is certainly the surest, indication to the grower that the smaller ones are to be found upon the roots beneath. Treatment. — With our present knowledge, no method of treatment can be recommended. All that can be done is to zealously exclude and burn, at planting time, all plants found to be affected, and to root up and destroy any found in the field. There can be little doubt that the trouble spreads from plant to plant, and Selby says that instances have been cited where the disease spread from raspberries to peach trees. This leads him to suggest that planting raspberries and blackberries in young orchards is on that account a very dangerous practice. Cane-Knot. (Fig. 48.) Bailey, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 99: 427. This is a disease of the same insidious, treacherous habit as the one just described. It is most common on blackberries, though perhaps not confined to them alone. It is manifest by numerous rough, warty knots upon the canes. These knots somewhat resemble the black-knot of plum in appearance, but with small, whitish eruptions suri'ounding the central knot. It is not common, but seems to be widespread, and in a few cases, at least, has wrought serious injury. A similar diseased condition is sometimes to be obsers^ed upon the canes of red raspberries, as a result or accompaniment of anthracnose. The only treatment that can be recommended at present is to Fig. 48. Cane-kuot of blackberry. 296 BUSH-FRUITS avoid all plants showing indications of the disease, or to eradicate them at once, if found growing in the field. To combat a dis- ease with the cause unknown is to fight an enemy in the dark. Yet many such problems confront the grower, for the solution of which he must look to the student and the specialist. LESS PROMINENT DISEASES In addition to the species mentioned in the pre- ceding pages, manj^ others have been reported upon different Rubus hosts. The greater part of these are of little or no economic importance. The following enu- meration is designed as a mere reference list for the benefit of the student. The species are arranged ap- proximately in systematic order, according to Sac- cardo's classification, with the most available refer- ences to the literature of each. The hosts given are simply those upon which the species is known to have been found. Though as full as practicable to make it, no claim is made to completeness in the enumer- ation, either of species or of hosts. Since the genus Rubus is so largely a European one, and since this work aims to deal with it only as found in North America, only those species reported from North America are included. Little attempt has been made to decide questions of nomenclature or synonj-my. That battle is left for those better able to fight it. The nomenclature follows Saccardo's "Sylloge Fungorum," since that can be taken as a standard throughout, while most other works deal only with special groups, and hence are but fragmentary so far as this list is concerned. FUNGI FOCND ON BRAMBLES 297 Order Pyrenomycetece Family Perisporiace^. Sphoerotheca pannosa (Wallr. ) Lev. Saccardo, Sylloge Fungorum 1:3. Ellis and Everhart, North American Pyrenomycetes 6. On leaves of different species of Rosa and Rubus. Asterina rubicola, Ell. and Ev. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1890: 219.— Pyren. 35. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 9:38-1. On leaves of Hubus strigos2is and M. occidentalis. Asterella Pearsoni, Ell. and Ev, Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 9: 395. [-4s- terina Pearsoni, Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 1:92, 135. — Pyreu. 42. Saccardo, Additamenta 10,] On canes of cultivated blackberry, Vineland, N. J. Meliola manca, E. and M. Am. Nat. 17: 1284. Ell. and Ev. Pvren. 47. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 9:419. Meliola sanguinea, Ell. and Ev. Jour. Myc. 2:42. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 9:420, The two preceding species on leaves, stems and petioles of P. Irivialis, Louisiana, and P. nigrobaccus, Alabama. Capnodium elongatum, Berk and Desm. Saccardo, Syll, Fung. 1: 75. Ell. and Ev, Pyren. 50. On leaves of many different plants. Family Sph^riace^. ralsa Pubi, Fuck. Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 28:72. Saccardo, Syll. Fung. 1: 109. Valsa ceratophora, Tul. Ell, and Ev, Pyren. 461. The two preced- ing species on branches of Riibus Canadensis and other plants. Valsa subclypeata, C. and P. Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 27: 109. Sacc. Syll. Fung, 1: 126, Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 485, On leaves of Pubus villosus. Valsa syngenesia, Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:130. [Diatrype Fran- gulae (Pers.) Cooke, Handbook 2:816. Diaporthe syngenesia (Fr,) Fuck. Symb. 204. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 442. J On branches of Rubus, Valsa sepincola, Fuck. Sacc, Syll. Fung, 1: 134, On dry branches of Rubus. Gnomoniella melanosfyla (DC) Sacc, Syll. Fung, 1:419. [Sphceria melanostyla, DC. Fl. Fr. 6: 129, Gnomonia melanosfyla (DC.) Ell, and Ev, Pyren. 328. J On Pubus odoratus (Farlow and Sey- mour), Usually found on elm, Physalospora eriostega glabrata (C. and F.) Sacc. Syll, Fung, 1:443. [Botryosphceria fuliginosa (M. and P.) Ell, and Ev, Pyren. 546.] On branches of Pubus Idceus, New Jersey. Venturia Kunzei, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1: 588. On the upper surface of Rubus leaves j'et living. Diaporthe [CJiorostate] obscura (Peck.) Sacc. Syll, Fung, 1:627, Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 441. [ Valsa obscura, Peck. Rep. N. Y. Mus. 28: 73.] On dead stems of Pubus strigosus. New York. Diaporthe [Tetrastaga] gallophila, Ellis, Bull. Torr, Bot, Club, 8:90. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1:667. Ell. and Ev, Pyren, 457. On dead canes of Pubus nigrobaccus, New Jersey. 298 BUSH-FRUITS Diaporthe Tetrastaga rostellata (Fr.) Nits. Sace. Syll. Fung. 1:667. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 456. On branches of Ruhus nigrobaccus, R. ida'tis, R. parviflorus and R. vitifoUus. Didymosphmria Manitohensis, Ell. and Ev. Pyreu. 732. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 11:313. On raspberry leaves. Leptosphceria Doliolum (Pers.) DeNot. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:14. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 355. Common on dead stems of herbaceous plants ; also reported on Rubus. Leptosphceria fuscellu (B. and Br.) Ces. and DeXot. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2 : 30. Ell. and Ev.. Pyren. 353. On dead stems of R. strigostis. Clypeosphceria Notarisii, Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:90. Ell. and Ev. Pj'ren. 736. Common on stems of Rosa, Rubus, etc. ClypeospJueria Hendersonia (Ell.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:91. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 410. [Sphceria Hendersonia, Ell. Grev. 5: 14. Sphceria meJantera, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 29: 62.] On dead canes of black and red raspberry. Metasphceria anisometra (Cooke and Hark). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2: 163. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 381. [Sphceria anisometra, Cooke and Hark. Grev. 9:86. Endophloea anisometra (Cooke and Hark.), Cooke, Grev. 17:89.] On twigs of Rubus, Eucalyptus, Dracaena, and other plants. Metasphceria sepincola (Fr. 1) Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:164. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 380. [Sphceria sepincola, Fr. Syst. Myc. 2:^98.] On dead stems of Rosa and Rubus. Spli(Bria rubi ncola, Stchw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:380. [Falsa rubin- cola (Schw.). Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 473.] On branches of Rubus, Bethlehem, Pa. Sphceria ccespitulans, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:406. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 748. On branches of cultivated red raspberries. Sphceria obtusa, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:423. Ell. and Ev Pyren. 753. On dead canes of R. nigrobaccus. Sphceria Ruboriim, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:423. Ell. and Ev., Pyren. 752. Common on dead canes of Rubus. Family Hypocreace.s:. Hypocrea rufa (Pers.) Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:520. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 78. [Sphceria rufa, Pers., Syn. Fung. 13.] Common on decaying wood and bark. GibbereUa SaubineHi (Mont.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:554. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 120. On dried stems of many plants. Family Lophiostomace^. Lophiotrema 2)rcemorsum (Lasch.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:681. [Lophiostoma prceniorsum (Lasch) Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 233. Lophiostoma Scrophularice, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 28:76.] On dead stems of Rubus and many herbaceous plants. Lophiostoma bicuspidatum, Cooke, Handbook Brit. Fung. 2:848. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:707. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 233. On decorti- cated twigs of Rubus odoratus. FUNGI FOUND ON BRAMBLES 299 Family Hysteriaceje. GloniuM macrosporum, Tracy and Earle. Underwood and Earle, Ala. Fung. 197. On Hubics nigrobaccus. Hystermyyi angustatiim, Alb. and Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:744. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 693. [Hysferium pulicare, var. angustatxim (A. and S.) Fr. Syst. Myc. 2:580. Hysterium Eucalypti, Phil, and Hark. Grev. 13:23.] On branches and bark of Rubus, Pirus, and other plants. Hysterium confluens, Schw, Sacc, Syll. Fung. 2: 756. Perhaps only a form of Hypoderma commune (Fr.). Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 711. On Rubus canes, Bethlehem, Pa. Hypoderma virgultorum, DC. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:786. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 711. [Hysteritim BuU, Pers. Obs. Myc. 1:84.] On dead canes of Rubus. Hysterographium Buborum, Cooke. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 9:1123. [Hysterium viticolum, C. and P. Disc. U. S. 33. Grev. 4, t. 68. Hysterographium Mori viticolum, C. and P. Ell. and Ev. Pyren. 704. Hysterographium viticolum Buborum, Cooke. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:782.] On canes of Bubus nigrobaccxis. Order Spliceropsidece Family SPHiERioiDEiE. Phyllosticta Buborum, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:8. On weak leaves of Bubus strigosus and others. Phyllosticta bicolor, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 43: 26. -Jour. Myc. 6: 134. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10: 110. On leaves of Bubus odoratus. Phyllosticta variabilis, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 35:138. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:110. On leaves of Bubus odoratus. Phoma lethalis. Ell. and Martin. Farlow and Seymour, Host. Ind. 198. Now thought to be the pycnidial stage of Clypeosphceria Hendersonia. On Bubus villosus. Phoma herbarum,V^ est. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:133. On herbaceous stems in general. Vermicularia compacta, C. and E. Grev. 5:54. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:222. On branches of Rubus, grape, and dahlia. Vermicularia effusa, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:222. On badly decayed Rubus stems. Cytospora Bubi, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:252. On young twigs of red raspberry. Sphceropsis rubicola, C. and Ell. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:294. On canes of red and black raspberry. Diplodia Buborum (Schw.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 11:518. [Sphceria Buborum, Schw. Syn. Am. Bor. 1677. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:423. Diplodia Bubi, Fr. (?). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:339.] On canes of Bubus st7'igosus. Ascochyta Bubi, Lasch. Farlow and Seymour, Host Index 36. On Bubus villosus. 300 BUSH-FBUITS Darluca Filum (Biv.) Cast. Sacc. Syll. Fung:. 3:410. On Uredineae growing on Rubus and many other plants. Hendersonia platypus, Ell. and Ev. Torr. Bot. Club 1884:73. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:420. On twigs of Mubus nigrobacciis and M. villosus. Hendersonia sarmentorum, West. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:420—10:321. On branches of Rubus and many other plants. Hendersonia Bubi, West. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:424.-10:321. On branches of Rubus vitifolius. Bhabdospora Rubi, Ell. Jour. Myc. 3:90. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:388. On canes of Rubus strigosus. Family LeptostromacEwS;. Leptothyrium vulgare (Ft.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:633. On stems of Rubus and other plants. Leptostrotna virgultorum rubinum, Karst. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3: 639. On stems of Rubus arctictis and R. Chamcpmorus. Discosia Artocreas (Tode) Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:653. On leaves of Rubus and many other genera. Order Melanconiece Myxormia atro-viridis, B. and Br. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:734. On Rubus canes in Alabama. Libertella Rosce, Desm. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3:745. [Ncemospora Rosce (Desm.) Fr. S. M. 3: 479.] On weak or dead canes of Rubus vitifolius and other Rosacese. Melanconium griseum, Schw. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3: 750. On branches of cultivated red raspberries. Coryneuni microstictum , B. and Br. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 3: 775. On weak or dead branches of Rubus and other plants. Order Hyphomycetece Family Mucedine^. Botrytis patula, Sacc. and Berlese. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4: 125. Keller- man, Jour. Myc. 1:106. On dead branches of Rubus strigosus, willows, etc. Family Dematie^e. Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:350. On all parts of different plants the world over. Cercospora rosicola. Pass. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:460. On leaves of roses and blackberry. Cercospora Rubi, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:461. On leaves of Rubus trivialis and R. cuneifolius. Macrosporium punctiforme, Berk. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:531. On dead canes of Rubus occidentalis. Macrosporium Rubi, Ellis, N. A. F. 544. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:673. On leaves of Rubus hispidus FUNGI FOUND ON BRAMBLES 301 Septosporimn prcelongum, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:544. On twigs of Hubus occidentalis. Family Stilbe^. Sporoeybe parasitica (Peck) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:605. [Periconia parasitica, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus, 33:28.] On decayed branches of Ruhns strigosus. GrapMum pruinosipes (Peck) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4: 614. [Stilhum pruinosipes, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 33:28.] On dead branches of Rubiis strigosus. Graphium gracile, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 34: 50. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:616. On leaves of Riibus strigosus. Isariopsis Grayiana, Ellis, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1882:98. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:631. On old branches of Riibus nigrobaccus. Family Tubercularie^. TubercnJaria decolorans, Peck. MSS. [Ttibercularia carpogena, Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 43:31. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 10:705. Not Tubercularia carpogena, Corda.] On ripe blackberries, discolor- ing the affected drupes, making them red, like itself, hence easilj'^ overlooked. Tuberculina persicina (Ditm.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4:653. Parasitic on Red Rust and other fungi (Uredineae), found on the leaves of many different plants. Hymenopsis nigra (Fr.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 4: 746. On stems of dead plants in general. Order Hymenomycetece Family Telephore^. Hypoclinus Sambuci (Pers.) Fr. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 6:656. On dry branches of Sambucus and Rubus. Family CLAVARiEiE. Typhula rubicola, B. and C. N. A. F. 304. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 6: 750. On dead Rubus canes. Order Uredinece Phragmidiiim gracile (Farl.) Arthur, la. Ured. 161. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7:749. Peck, Rep. N. Y. Mus. 29:50. [Phragmidium incrassatum gracile, Farlow, N. A. F. 282.] On leaves of Rubus odoratus. Coleosporixim Vernonicp, B. and C. N. A. F. 569. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 755. On leaves of R. nigrobaccus (?). Chrysomyxa albida, Kuhn. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 761. Tracy and Galloway, Jour. Myc. 4:62. Stone & Smith Rept. Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. 9:74. [Coleosporium Rubi, Ell. and Holw. N. A. F. 1878. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7: 759.] On leaves of Rubus occidentalis and R. nigrobaccus in America and of R. fruticosus in Europe. 302 BUSH-FRUITS Uredo speciosa (Peck) Sacc. Syll. Fung, 7:860. [Lecythia speciosa, Peck, Bot, Gaz. 1878:34.] On leaves of Hitbiis deliciosiis. Lecythea tripustulata, Peck. Rav. Fung:. Am. 491. On H. nigro- haccus. Resembles Chrysomyxa albida in external appearance. Of-der Discomijcetece. Family Pezize^. Pezizella vulgaris (Fr. ) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:278. On dry bi*anches of Rubus and other plants. Pezicula rhabarbarina (Berk.) Tul. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 311. On de- caying branches of M. nigrobaccus and several European species. Pyrenopeziza Rnbi (Fr.) Rehm. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:361. On dead branches of Rubus in Europe and America. Pyrenopeziza lacerata (C. and P.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:361. [Peziza lacerata, C. and P. Grev, 1:6.] On twigs of Rubus odoratus. Lachnella rufo-olivacea (A. and S.). Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 398. [ Velu- taria rufo-olivacea, A. and S. Fuck. Symb. Myc. 300.] On dead but moist branches of Rubus. Trichopeziza subochracea (C. and P.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:408. [Peziza subochracea, C. and P. Grev. 1:6.] On stems of Bubus odoratus. Dasyscypha bicolor (Bull.) Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:439. On branches of Rubus and many other shrubs and trees. Dasyscypha actdipila (Kurst.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:447. On Rubus parviflorus, stems of grasses, etc. Dasyscypha clandestina (Bull.) Fuck. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:457. On fallen and decaying wood of Rubus and other shrubs and trees. Dasyscypha scabro-villosa (Phill.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:458. [Peziza scabro-villosa, Phill. Grev. 7:22.] On canes of Rubus parviJJortts. Family Dermate^. Tympanis conspersa, Fr. Sys. Myc. 2:175. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:578. On weak or dying branches of different trees and shrubs. FAMILy BULGARIE^. Orbilia vinosa (A. and S.) Karst, Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:622. On fallen and naked branches of Rubus and many other shrubs and trees. Family Sticte^. Stictis Rtibi, Schw. Syn. Am. Bor. 179. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8:694. On old canes of Rubus nigrobaccus. Family Phacidie^. Coccomyces Rubi (Fr.) Karst. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 751. [Phacidium Rubi, Fr. Syst. Myc. 2: 578.] On leaves of Rtibus parviflorus. Bhytisma Blakei, M. A. Curtis. Farlow and Seymour, Host. Ind. 37. On Rubus hispidus. Family Patellarie-s;. Durella compressa (Pers.j Tul. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 8: 790. CHAPTER XI THE BOTANY OF THE BRAMBLES In order that the student and the experimenter may gain a proper view and perspective of what has been done in the amelioration of the bramble fruits, and of what may be expected from further effort, a descriptive inventor}' is here made of all the species and marked natural varieties of the genus Rubus, which are either native to North America (north of Mexico) or are in cultivation here. A discussion of this sub- ject from the view -point of the historian and plant- breeder, together with a revision of the blackberries and dewberries, is contained in Bailey's "Evolution of our Native Fruits." RUBUS , LIXX . — BRAMBLE Calyx persistent, 5 -parted, without braetlets ; tube short and open. Petals 5, deciduous. Stamens numerous. Aehenes usu- ally numerous, with 2 collateral suspended ovules in each cell, one of which is abortive, becoming small drupes. Styles nearly terminal, stigma simple or obtuse. Receptacle spongy or suc- culent, convex, persistent or deciduous. Perennial herbs or somewhat woody, erect or trailing, often prickly, leaves simple or 3 - 5 foliolate, with stipules adnate to the petioles; flowers mostly white, reddish in a few species, solitary or in clusters; fruit usually edible, black, red or yellowish. The genus is supposed to derive its name from the Latin word ruber, meaning red. Although represented by many species in (303) 304 BUSH-FRUITS North America, it is much more abundant in the Old World, where the botany of the subject becomes exceedingly complex, owing to the endless variety and frequent intermixture of forms. The following list includes only species native to North America north of Mexico, and such European and Asiatic species as are known to be in cultivation in the United States. A. Fruit somewhat hemispherical, concave beneath, parting from the receptacle when ripe ; drupelets sometimes few in number, falling away separately (Raspberries). B. Leaves simple; flowers large; prickles none; fruit and receptacle flat and broad, c. Stems ascending, soft-woody. Nos. 1, 2, 3. cc. Stems above ground nearly or quite herbaceous ; plants low and delicate. 4, 5, 6. BB. Leaves simple; flowers small ; stems more or less prickly, c. Stems frutescent, low and trailing. 7. cc. Stems upright, shrubby. 8, 9. BBB. Leaves compound, of 3-5 pinnate or pedate leaflets, c. Stems annual, herbaceous; fruit usually of few grains. D. Unarmed. 10, 11, 12. DD. Armed with minute slender prickles. 13. cc. Stems biennial and woody, prickly; receptacle oblong. D. Fruit hemispherical; petals small, erect, white. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. DD. Fruit oblong; petals large, red. 20. BBBB. Leaves pinnate, evergreen: flowers double. 21. AA. Fruit, or collective drupelets, adhering to the juicy pro- longed receptacle, mosth^ ovate or oblong and black; flowers white. B. Stems upright : plant propagating by suckers. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26. BB. Stems trailing; plant propagating by tips. 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35. 1. RuBUS ODORATUS, Linn. — Purple -flowering raspberry. Thimble- berry, Mulberry (erroneously). Stem shrubby, erect, 3-5 feet (9-15 decimeters) high, branched; leaves large, cordate at base, 3-5 lobed, the middle one often prolonged, mucronately serrulate-toothed; stipules nearly free, deciduous, peduncles and calyx densely clothed with purplish, very clammy, glandular hairs, extending to upper parts of stem; peduncles many-flowered, compound; flowers very large, sepals tipped with a long appendage, as long as the BOCKY MOUNTAIN TEIMBLEBERRY 305 segment, and sometimes dilated; petals broadly obovate, pur- plish rose-color, longer than the sepals; fruit broad and flat, red, well -flavored. (Fig. 49.) Original distribution. — Nova Scotia to Florida and west to Michigan. A form with oblong-lanceolate leaf lobes, smaller and more compact inflorescence, and smaller fruit of a "more decided Fig. 49. liKhtis odoratus [Xyi) musky taste," was described from West Virginia by Millspaugh as var. Columbianus, in 1892. (Bull. 24, W. Va. Exp. Sta.) For the position which this species holds in cultivation, see Chapter VI. 2. R. PARVIFLORUS, Nutt.— Rocky Mountain Thimbleberry. B. Nutlcanus, Moeino. B. Californicus, O. Kuntze. Stems erect or drooping, 3-8 feet (1-2.5 meters) high; bark green and smooth, or more or less glandular pubescent, becom- ing brown and shreddy; leaves palmately 5-lobed, lower lobes smaller or equal, cordate at base, unequally serrate, 4-12 inchec 306 BUSH-FRUITS Fig. 50. Rubus parvijloras (X/^) (10-30 cm.) broad; the lobes acute or acuminate, glabrous or somewhat tomentose, the veins beneath, also the petioles and peduncles, usually more or less hispid with gland-tipped hairs, stipules lanceolate, acuminate ; flowers commonly few, white, 1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) broad; calyx glandular pubescent or tomentose ; sepals acute, terminating with a glandular linear cusp, about as long as the petals; carpels numerous, tomentose; fruit red, large, hemispherical, sweet and pleasant. (Fig. 50.) Found in shaded places from Monterey to Alaska and east' ward to New Mexico and Lake Superior. A ROCKY MOUNTAIN BRAMBLE 307 In California it becomes more tomentose, especially on the under side of the leaves (var. velutinus [Hook & Am.] Brewer). This is practically a white -flowered B. odoratus, its general character being otherwise much the same. In Europe it has been sometimes mentioned in gardening journals as B. odoratus var. alba. It is an attractive shrub, well worthy of cultivation. Al- though found in severe climates, it has not proved hardy at the Arnold Arboretum.* It was there grown from seeds collected in a mild climate, which may have rendered the plants tender. This is called Salmon-berry in Gray's Botany of California, but that name appears to belong properly to B. spectabilis of the Pacific coast. 3. R. DELiciosus, James. B. Neo Mexicanus, Gray. Stem woody, 3-4 feet (9-12 decimeters) high, branched, erect, smooth, or with bark loosened and shredded ; petioles and young shoots red ; leaves reniform -orbicular, slightly rugose, very mi- nutely glandular, somewhat 3-5 lobed, unequally and oftener finely serrate, 1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) broad ; peduncles, petioles and calyx slightly pubescent, but not glandular ; stipules lanceo- late, acuminate ; peduncles mostly one-flowered ; flowers white, 1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) broad; sepals oval or ovate-lanceolate, appendage linear or slightly dilated, shorter than the segments ; petals obovate, nearly twice the length of the sepals; fruit pur- plish or dirty wine-colored, hemispherical, drupes large and soft, resembling a red raspberry (Fig. 51). Original distrihution. — Sources of the Missouri and caiions of the Colorado. The fruit of this beautiful Rocky Mountain species was origi- nally described as "delicious," but later observers do not concur in the opinion. The seeds are large, covered with only a thin pulp, and the flavor is insipid. It was originally discovered by Professor James, in 1822, and has long been known in England, where it appears to be appreciated. Excellent figures have ap- peared in English horticultural and botanical journals. Garden- ers there report success in propagating it by seeds, root-cuttings and stem -cuttings. It has been thoroughly tested at the Arnold Arboretum and found perfectly hardly, although it seldom bears fruit. It does not throw up suckers from the root, and is difficult ♦Garden and Forest, 1:261, 308 BUSH-FRUITS to propagate ; seeds or stem cuttings are recommended as the most satisfactory means, although the latter do not take root readily.* On the Plains it suffers from the summer sun and dry- ing winds. 4. R. Cham^morus, Linn.— Cloud-berry. Baked -apple Berry. Low, monoecious, or sometimes dioecious; stem simple, herba- ceous, arising from a frutescent, creeping or subterranean one, 2-3 -leaved, 1 -flowered ; leaves roundish reniform, somewhat 5-lobed, lobes rounded or obtuse, irregularly serrate, wrinkled; calyx pubescent ; sepals oval, obtuse, with a very slight point; petals obovate, white, longer than the sepals ; fruit of few grains, amber-colored (Fig. 52). Widely distributed throughout the arctic regions of both hemi- spheres. It occurs in the Atlantic and Rocky Mountain alpine regions, but not in the Pacific alpine regions. This species is interesting and widely known. In England it is popularly known as "Averon" or "Mountain Bramble," and in Scandinavia as "Grapes of the North." The male and female flowers are borne on separate stems, which are usually, though not always, connected at or beneath the ground with a trailing stem or rootstock. In Northern Denmark and Sweden its fruit is im- portant, large quantities being gathered and sold in the markets. In Scotland it is found on the Grampian Hills, and it was the badge of the MacFarlane clan. Prize essays concerning it have appeared in the transactions of the Highland society. Attempts have been made to cultivate it in Europe, but with poor success. 5. B. LASiococcus, Gray. "Between i?. j^edahis and B. Chamcemorus. Stems herbaceous, dwarf, ashy-puberulent; stipules ovate, subscarious ; leaves round - cordate, 3-5-lobed, the lobes slightly trisected, lobes and segments very obtuse, somewhat doubly dentate: peduncles branching, short, few leaved, bearing 1-2 terminal flowers; calyx segments ovate, acuminate, entire; petals obovate, white, shorter than the sepals; ovaries few C5-9), drupelets fleshy and tomentose." — Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: (1882) 201. Described from Oregon, near Mt. Hood. Resembles R. pedatus, but is less slender, with thicker leaves, which are seldom divided, flowers little larger, petals broader. * Garden and Forest, 1: 225-3: 336. Fig. 51. Eubus deliciosus (X%). Fig 52. Eubus Chaincemorus {XI). 310 BUSH-FBUITS The eaneseent, dense tomentum of the ovaries is seen, even on the mature drupelets. 6. R. STELLATUS, Smith. Stem herbaceous, simple, 1-flowered, leaves cordate, rugose, deeply 3-lobed or 3-parted, often compound, serrate; stipules ovate, acute or obtuse; peduncles short; segments of the calyx linear-lanceolate or linear, sometimes slightly spatulate; petals oblong, erect. Distribution. — Behring region, Wrangel Land, Aleutian Islands. 7. R. NIVALIS, Dougl. Low, not more than 6 inches (1.5 decimeters) high, from a long, trailing, frutescent stem; spines rather stout, recurved; leaves cordate, 3-lobed, very rarely almost compound, very sharply toothed, glabrous, the petioles and veins armed with recurved prickles, stipules ovate, acute, prominent, often tqothed; pe- duncles short, 1- or 2-flowered; calyx lobes lanceolate, pubescent; petals small, lanceolate, very acute; fruit red, sour; seeds few, large and wrinkled. DistrUnition. — In the Bitter Root Mountains and northward on high ridges of the Rocky Mountain system; also, in the Cascade Mountains. This bears some resemblance to R. vitifoUus, but may be dis- tinguished from that species by the simple leaves, sharp petals, lack of pubescence, and especially by the simple inflorescence. Professor Piper writes that " In deep woods it never fruits, but on open, rocky places bears an abundance of sour red berries. The plant is prostrate, like R. vitifoUus." 8. R. CRAT^GiFOLius, Bunge. Chinese Raspberry. Stems shrubby, upright or drooping, 3-6 feet (1-2 meters) high, armed with few straight prickles; leaves glabrate, cordate, ovate, acute, 3-5 lobed, lower one smallest, middle lobe long, acuminate, often narrower at base, lateral lobes oblique, all doubly serrate, petioles and veins beneath armed with scattering, minute, re- curved prickles ; stipules linear, scarious, leafy shoots terminating in a several-flowered, cymose cluster; flowers white, nearly half an inch broad, inconspicuous; calyx slightly pubescent, lobes triangular, acuminate, bearing glandular tipped hairs along the margin; petals small; fruit orange -scarlet, nearly hemispherical (Fig. 53). Original distribution. — Manchuria, Northern China and Japan. A further account of this species appears in Chapter VI MAYBERBr 311 Fig. 53. Rubus cratcegifolius (X%). 9. R. MICROPHYLLUS, Linn. f. E. jmlmatus, Thunb. Mayberry. Spreading bush, 4 or 5 feet (12-15 decimeters) high, with short stout prickles; leaves small, dark green above, somewhat lighter beneath, silky pubescent on the veins beneath, 3-5 -cleft, the lobes very narrow, acuminate, doubly and sharply serrate, central lobe much longer than the lateral ones; flowers three fourths of an inch (20 mm.) broad; sepals narrow, acuminate; petals broadly ovate; fruit small, of little value. Japan. — Said by Luther Burbank to have entered into hybrids which he considers valuable; but otherwise unknown in this coun- try. The fruit is occasionally eaten by the Japanese. 312 BUSH-FBUITS 10. R. ARCTicus, Linn. Stem low, herbaceous, sometimes dioecious, slightly pubescent, mostly erect, 1-2-flowered; leaves trifoliolate ; leaflets rhombic- ovate or obovate, coarsely and often doubly serrate, slightly petio- late; flowers rose-colored, X-1 inch (12-25 mm.) broad; calyx slightly pubescent, sepals lanceolate, sometimes slightly dilated at the tip, nearly as long as the petals; petals obovate to oblaneeo- late; fruit amber-colored, pleasant (Fig. 54). Var. grandiflorus, Ledeb. Stem shorter, leaflets more Fig. 54. Rubus arcticus (XI). rounded, lateral ones sessile; petals larger, obovate, oblong; sepals narrower, often much elongated. Distrihution. — Northern countries of the three continents. In America it occurs in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific, but not in the Atlantic alpine region. PACIFIC COAST RASPBERRF 313 This pretty little plant was a favorite of Linnaeus, who called it a "beneficent plant," and said that he would indeed be "un- grateful did he not give a full description of it, since the vinous nectar of its berries frequently recruited his spirits when almost prostrate with hunger and fatigue." 11. R. PEDATrs, Smith. Stems slender, pubescent, creeping or filiform; leaves smooth or sparingly villous ; leaflets cuneate-obovate, not exceeding an Fig. 55. Rubus pedatus (X)^). inch in length, incisely toothed, the lateral ones often parted to the base; stipules ovate-oblong, searious, persistent; peduncles long and slender, bearing two bracts which are sometimes midway between base and tip; mostly 1-flowered; flowers white X~% inch (-12-20 mm.) broad: sepals ovate-lanceolate, entire or incised, about as long as the petals, at length reflexed; petals sessile, nar- rowly obovate ; fruit consisting of 3-6 large red, pulpv drupelets (Fig. 55). Pacific coast from San Francisco to Alaska, and in the Rocky Mountains between latitude 52° and 56°. The fruit of this plant lacks the protuberant receptacle com- mon to other species of Rubus, thus approaching the genus Dali- barda. 314 BCSH-FBUITS 12. K. American US (Pers.), Britton. — Dwarf Raspberry. B. triflo7-us, Richardson. Stems ascending, 6-12 inches (1.5-3 decimeters) high, or trail- ing, suffruticose at base, smooth or minutely pubescent, sterile ones sometimes rooting at the tips; leaves 3- (rarely pedately 5) foliolate, on long slender petioles; leaflets thin, glabrate, or pubescent beneath, rhombic ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acute at both ends, often acuminate, coarsely and somewhat doubly ser- rate; the terminal one petiolate; stipules ovate or oblong, entire; peduncles mostly terminal, 1-3 flowered; pedicels and base of calyx bearing glandular tipped hairs; sepals ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, tomentose toward the tips, at length reflexed; fruit small, red (Fig. 56). Labrador to New Jersey, and west to Colorado. This is a pretty little plant of eastern woods. 13. R. SAXATiLis, Linn. Stems pubescent, sparsely beset with minute prickles ; sterile shoots, long, slender, creeping, terete, often rooting at the tip in autumn; flowering stems erect, mostly simple, 4-12 inches (1-3 decimeters) high; leaves 3-foliolate, on long petioles, both sides green and slightly pubescent; leaflets ovate or rhombic - ovate, obtuse at both ends or acute at the apex, coarsely den- tate, middle one long, lateral ones short-petiolate ; stipules of flowering stems ovate, of sterile ones linear; inflorescence cymose, 3-10 flowered, peduncles terminal and axillary; pedicels prickly; calyx pubescent, especially within, but not glandular; sepals ovate or lanceolate, acuminate, commonly no longer than the petals, at length reflexed; petals small, erect, spatulate, white; fruit of 1-6 large grains, not coherent, deep red; seeds large, slightly wrinkled. Found in Greenland, and widely distributed in Europe, but apparently does not occur on the American continent proper. A French work entitled Traite des Plantes Fourrageres men- tions this as a good forage plant, either fresh or dry. 14. R. Id^eus, Linn. European Raspberry. Plant usually stiff, erect, and light colored, the main stems bearing nearly straight, slender prickles; flowering shoots, peti- oles, veins, pedicels and calyx finely pubescent, but not glandular, and sparsely beset with firm, recurved prickles; leaves of bearing wood 3-foliolate, of new canes mostly 5-foliolate, thicker than in B. strigosus, whitened -down 3^ beneath, and usually somewhat wrinkled; middle leaflet ovate, petiolate; lateral ones ovate-lan- ceolate, sessile, cut-serrate; inflorescence sub-corymbose; pedi- 2 X 816 BUSE-FRUfTS Fig. 57. Kubus Idceus (X.^2)- eels short, ascending, aggregated above; calyx tomentose; sepals ovate -lanceolate, acuminate, longer than the petals, at length recurved; fruit dark red or yellow, produced more or less con- tinuously throughout the season (Fig. 57). Original distribution. — Common throughout Europe and western Asia. This is the parent of the older garden varieties which were imported from Europe, and which ushered in raspberry growing in AMERICAN FED RASPBERRY 317 America. For a discussion of the characteristics of the species from the standpoint of the fruit-grower, see Chapter VII. 15. R. STRIGOSUS, Michx. American Red Raspberry. Stems more slender and flexible than in Buhus Iclceus, usu- ally brown or reddish brown , somewhat glaucous ; beset with stiff, Fig. 58. Rubus strigosus iX/i). straight prickles; flowering shoots, pedicels, calyx and petioles hirsute, with glandular-tipped hairs in the wild type, though largely disappearing in cultivation; leaves of bearing canes 3- foliolate, of young canes mostly 5-foliolate ; middle leaflet ovate, petiolate, lateral ones ovate-lanceolate, sessile, cut-serrate ; in- florescence racemose, peduncles usually scattered, mostly slender and drooping; calyx slightly pubescent or hirsute; fruit light red, produced less continuously than in Ruhus Iclceus (Fig. 58). 318 B USH-FB UITS Original distribution. — North Carolina to New Mexico and far northward. Northeastern Asia, Japan to Altai and the Himalayas. This species is closely related to B. Idccus, though wild forms can be readily separated by botanical characters. In cultivation these characters largely disappear. For the position of the species in the pomological world, see Chapter VII. A white variety of H. strigosus occurs rarely, and plants of it, received from A. S. Fuller, are growing in the Cornell University gardens. The form is also represented in cultivation by the variety known as Meredith Queen. The fruit is small, soft, amber-white, with prominent grooved drupes. 16. RuBUS NEGLECTUS, Peck. Purple-cane Raspberry. Habit various, but with the stem typically long and rooting at the tip, glaucous, more or less armed with prickles; leaves of bearing canes 3-foliolate, of young canes 3-5-foliolate, coarsely and irregularly serrate, middle leaflet petiolate, lateral ones sessile; inflorescence racemose-cymose ; peduncles mostly erect, armed with firm, mostly recurved prickles, and in wild forms more or less hirsute with glandular hairs when young, lower ones mostly unequally branched; blooms usually somewhat aggregated at the tip, sepals ovate, acuminate, scarcely longer than the petals; fruit varying from dull purple to dark red, or even yellowish. Original distribution. — Probably quite generally distributed with the two species which it connects. To this form belong the Purple -cane raspberries of cultivation. By many the form is thought to be of hybrid origin, while others regard it as a distinct species. From specimens before me I have been able to arrange a series from wild plants and another from cultivated forms, each representing an almost perfect gradation from B. strigosus to B. occidentalis, and I am led to believe that all are of hybrid origin. A further discussion of the group, as found in cultivation, will be found in Chapter VTI. R. STRIGOSUS X OCCIDENTALIS Var. LEUCODERMIS. Flowering shoots, petioles, pedicels, and calyx hirsute, with glandular tipped hairs, also beset with long, slender, straight or recurved prickles; leaves of bearing canes 3-foliolate, middle leaflet petiolate, lateral ones sessile, mostly ovate, sharply cut- serrate; inflorescence racemose, somewhat aggregated; calyx somewhat pubescent and hirsute, reddish purple within, as are also the base of the styles. THJU BLACK RASPBEBBF 319 This form holds the same position between the western repre- sentatives of the red and black raspberry that B. neglectus does between the eastern ones. It was found growing with R. occiden- taUsYSiV. leucodermis and R. strigosus at Sicamous, B.C., in 1889, by Professor J. M. Maeoun, who writes that it very much resem- bles R. neglectus, the fruit being abundant, purplish in color, lacking in firmness, but pleasant. 17. R. occiDEXTALis, L. Black Raspberry, Thimbleberry. Canes long, recurved, at length rooting at the tips, conspicu- ously glaucous, armed with strong recurved prickles; leaflets 3, lx)th on bearing canes and young shoots (rarely 5 on the latter), ovate, pointed, coarsely and doubly serrate, whitened- downy beneath, the lateral ones mostly somewhat stalked; inflo- rescence eymose ; peduncles mostly aggregated in a close cluster at the tip, short, stiff, erect, bearing stiff recurved prickles, rarely with straight bristles also ; petals shorter than the sepals ; fruit depressed, firm and dense, black, rarely yellow. Original distribution. — Mountains of Georgia westward to Mis- souri and the sources of the Oregon, and far northward into British America. This is to-day the most important raspberry of cultivation. Var. LEUCODERMIS (Dougl.). — R. leucodermis, Dougl. Leaflets coarsely dentate -seri'ate, often approaching iucised- serrate ; prickles strong and more hooked; fruit reddish black, with a gray bloom (Fig. 59). Found in the mountains of Arizona, California, Oregon, Wash- ington and northern Utah. This has long stood as a distinct species, but forms of R. occidenialis occur which show the same coarse serration of leaves, and there is an eastern yellow-fruited form which has as strong and prominently hooked prickles. Professor Piper writes: "I agree with Focke in considering this merely a variety of R. occi- dentalis. I have never seen it with ^yellow' fruit, as described in Botany of California. The fruit is dark wine-red, nearly black, and of excellent flavor." 18. R. HESPERius, Piper. "Habit of R. leucodermis; 1-2 meters high; young stems glaucous, older ones brownish and shining, densely beset with strong prickles, which are straight on the larger branches Fig. 59. liubus occidentalis var. leucodermis iX%), JAPANUSE WINEBERRr 321 but more or less recurved on the smaller ones; leaves trifo- liolate, or on young, vigorous shoots pedately 5-foliolate; leaf- lets 5-8 em. long, ovate, acuminate, thiekish, coarsely and doubly serrate, perfectly green and glabrous on both sides, not shiny, armed on the midrib beneath, and even on the lateral veins, with recurved or straight prickles; lateral leaflets on very short, 1-2 mm. long petioles; terminal leaflet sometimes 3-lobed; petioles stout, usually glaucous, 2-5 cm. long, armed with stout recurved prickles; stipules setaceous, about 8 mm. long; flowers in terminal corymbs, or a few in the axils of the upper leaves, these solitary or in clusters of two or three; peduncles and pedicels stout and more densely armed than the branchlets; sepals in fruit green, glabrous, deltoid-lanceolate, long-acuminate, 12 mm. long; petals and stamens not seen; fruit nearly black, without bloom, dry and rather tasteless; young carpels neither glaucous nor tomentose; seeds large. "Closely related to B. leucodermis, Dougl., and E. occidentalis, Linn., from both of which it is readily distinguished by the entire absence of pubescence on the under side of the leaves. It is also much more strongly and densely armed than either. "The plant occurs sparingly in Snake River canon, and Wawawai and Almota, Whitman county, Washington. It grows usually along stream banks, but occasionally in crevices of moist cliffs." — Piper. 19. R. PHCEXicoLASius, Maximowicz. Japanese Wineberry, Jap- anese Raspberry. R. occidentalis, Thunb. Stems 3-5 feet (9-15 decimeters) high, densely hirsute with reddish, glandular-tipped hairs, and occasional long straight prickles, which become recurved on the petioles and veins be- neath the leaves; leaflets 3, broadly ovate, acuminate, incised- serrate, whitened-downy beneath, the middle one often somewhat 3-lobed, petiolate, and much the larger, the lateral ones sessile; inflorescence paniculate, pedicels short, erect, calyx very hairy, closely clasping the fruit till nearly mature, when it becomes horizontally withdrawn ; sepals lanceolate, awl-pointed, stamens withdrawing with the calyx ; petals minute, obovate ; fruit small, red, acrid, drupes small, weakly coherent; seeds small, smooth, easily crushed. Orifjinal distrihution . — Upon the Islands of Yezo and Nipon, in Japan. The species was described in 1872, and in 1880 was figured in the Botanical Magazine* from plants grown at Kew. Frequent *t. 6479. u 322 BUSH-FBUITS mention of it is found in both English and American horticultural journals since that date. For a discussion of its horticultural qualities, see Chapter YI. 20. R. SPECTABiLis, Pursh. — Salmouberry. Stems rather robust, 5-10 feet (15-30 decimeters) high, spar- ingly armed with straight or ascending prickles; leaves 3- foliolate, or occasionally simple, thin, glabrate beneath ; leaflets petiolate, ovate, acute or acuminate, doubly incised-serrate, and often 2-3-lobed, the veins beneath, also the petioles and peduncles sparingly villous-pubescent ; stipules linear; flowers solitary or in pairs, red or purple, large and showy; sepals broadly ovate, acute, or with a short acumination, much shorter than the petals; fruit large, sub-conical, red or yellow; styles long, persistent (Fig. 60). Original distribution. — The Pacific coast from California north- ward to Alaska. Professor C. V. Piper, of the Washington Agricultural College, writes: "This is the ^ Salmonberry,' and not B. parvijiorus, as per Botany of California. There are two varieties, one with salmon- colored berries, whence the name; the other with dark wine-red berries. The former are better flavored, the latter having a bitter aftertaste. Both occur growing together, and are not to be dis- tinguished save by the color of the fruit. The plant is confined to swamps and stream banks." A more or less densely tomentose and silky form is also re- corded — Yar. Menziesii (Hook), Watson. This plant was introduced in England in 1827, and has been frequently referred to in the horticultural journals of that country. According to the Journal of Botany* it has become naturalized in Kent, where it is locally known as "Woodman's Rose." For fur- ther mention of it, see Chapter YI. 21. R. ROS.EFOLius, Smith. — Rose-leaved Raspberry. " Strawberry - Raspberry." R. sorhifolius, Maxim. (See Fig. 28, p. 149..) A low plant 1-2 feet (3-6 decimeters) high, forming dense clumps from the numerous suckers produced ; stems and branches covered with recurved prickles; leaves evergreen in its native habitat, pinnate, leaflets 5-7, or 3 at the ends of the flowering shoots, sessile or the end one petiolate, lanceolate, acuminate, sharply and dou1>ly serrate, the under side green, with scarcely *Vol. 19, p. 251. BOSE-LEA VED BA SPBEBB F 323 Fig. 60. Rubtts spectabilis (X%). visible soft glandular hairs or dots; flowers 1-3 in terminal clusters, double in the cultivated form, white, rose-like, 1-2 inches (25-50 mm.) broad, borne in succession; fruit of the wild form red or yellow, about an inch in diameter, made up of many small carpels. Original distrihution. — Japan, China and the East Indies. For an account of B. roscefoUus in cultivation, the reader is referred to Chapter VI. 324 BUSH-FBUITS 22. E. NiGROBACCUS, Bailey. B. villosus, authors, not Ait. Com- mon or High Blackberry. Long Blackberry.* Stems shrubby, 1-8 feet (3-25 decimeters) high, furrowed or terete, upright or reclining, armed with stout curved prickles; young branches, peduncles, stipules, petioles and veins beneath the leaves pubescent, and bearing numerous glandular tipped hairs ; leaflets mostly 3 on fruiting canes, 5 on young canes, ovate or oblong, pointed, unequally and sharply serrate, the terminal one petiolate, the lateral ones sessile or short petiolate; inflores- cence racemose, elongated, nearly or quite leafless; flowers nu- merous, conspicuous; bracts short; sepals glandular, ovate, with a long, linear point, which is often dilated; petals obovate- oblong, longer than the sepals; fruit narrow, varying from nearly globular to long-oblong, dull color, sweet; drupelets small, closely packed. Original distribution. — Common throughout the eastern portion of the United States and far northward in British America. Var. SATivus, Bailey. Clusters fewer flowered ; pedicels oblique ; fruit short and thick, glossy black, sour until very ripe; drupelets fewer, large, soft, loosely and irregularly placed. , Found in dry, open places. The type most common in culti- vation, as represented by Snyder, Kittatinny and Agawam. Var. ALBINUS, Bailey. White Blackberry. Canes terete, yellowish green; leaflets mostly 3, even on young canes; fruit pinkish cream or amber colored, sweet. Other char- acters closely resembling the specific type. Sparingly found wild, associated with the species. Though in- troduced into cultivation at times, it has never proved valuable. E. NIGROBACCUS X VILLOSUS. Blackberry-Dcwberry hybrid. Stems decumbent or ascending, rarely rooting at the tip, terete, sparingly armed with short, straight prickles; peduncles and petioles pubescent but rarely glandular. Leaflets usually 3, both on young and fruiting canes, simple in the flower cluster, oval, acuminate, very deeply, sharply and irregularly incised, the lateral ones sessile; inflorescence cymose, 4-8 flowered, inter- spersed with numerous simple, broadly oval or ovate leaves; sepals ovate, acuminate, rarely expanded at the tip, slightly tomentose within and on the margin ; petals longer than the sepals ; fruits globular or slightly oblong, good, bright black; drupelets large and prominent. *The nomenclature of the blackberries and dewberries is taken from Bailey's monograph in "Evolution of our Native Fruits." BLA C KB ERR T-DE WBERR T 325 Fig. 61. Snyder.— i?u6i/s nigrobaccus var. satii-iis. More or less commonly associated with the two parent species, at least in New York and Pennsylvania. At first sight this type appears like a variety of E. nigrohacciis, but it is apparently found only where both B. nigrohaccus and E. villosus are growing. This, with its habit of occasionally rooting at the tips, and the fact that various gradations between the two species often occur, seems to be convincing proof of its hybrid origin. The type occupies the same ground between the blackberry and dewberry that E. neglect us does between the black and red raspberry. In cultivation it is represented by the "Wilson, Wilson Jr., Thompson Early Mammoth, and others. This plant was in cultivation in Europe early in the century, and was called EuJ)us heterophyUus by Willdenow. 326 BUSH-FBUITS R. NiGROBACCUS X STRIGOSUS. — Blackberry -Raspberry hybrid. Stems upright, 2-3 feet (6-9 decimeters) high, terete, sparingly armed with long, slender, straight or slightly reflexed prickles; peduncles and petioles very slightly pubescent ; leaflets of bearing shoots 3, all sessile, of young shoots mostly 5, the three upper ones petiolate, broadly oval or obovate, acute or obtuse, sharply and irregularly serrate; inflorescence eymose, few-flowered, leafy, sepals small, ovate, acute, slightly tomentose at the margins, and bearing few minute glandular hairs; petals obovate, twice as long as the sepals ; fruit globular oblong, of few grains, adhering to the receptacle. Found growing in a dryish tamarack bog near Lansing, Mich., by L. H. Baile}', who, after observing it for several seasons, pro- nounces it i?. nigrohaccus X strigosus. 23. R. Allegheniensis, Porter. JR. villosiis var. montanus, Por- ter. R. montanus, Porter. Similar to B. nigrolxiccus, plant smaller and more slender, somewhat less prickly, branches commonly reddish, the younger parts very glandular; leaves and inflorescence like nigrobaccus; fruit rather dry, with a somewhat spicy flavor, small, long, thimble- shaped, narrowing toward the tip; drupelets small and numerous. Found upon the mountains and higher lands of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and North Carolina. 24. R. ARGUTUS, Link. B. frondosus, Bigel. B. viUosus var. frondosus, Torr. Plant lower and more bushy than B. nigrohaccus, younger parts pubescent, but sometimes scarcely at all glandular; leaves thicker, rather more numerous and persisting longer in the fall; leaflets coarsely, sharply and irregularly serrate, both on young and fruiting canes; inflorescence shorter, more corymbose, the lower pedicels subtended by leaves which are mostly simple and smaller toward the tip, giving the cluster a leafy or frondose ap- pearance ; flowers smaller ; sepals broader, less attenuate ; petals roundish. Original distribution. — Occurs with the type, and northward. Represented in cultivation by the Early Harvest and by the Dorchester, which was the first blackberry ever introduced. Var. FLORiDus, Bailey. B. floridus, Tratt. A form with very large flowers in very short clusters, and leaves on the flowering shoots short, broad and nearly or quite obtuse. New Jersey to Alabama. Probably not in cultivation. SAXn BLACKBERRr 327 Var. Randii, Bailey. "Low and diffuse, \°-2%° (3-8 decimeters) high, the canes bearino^ very few and weak prickles, or often entirely unarmed, very slender and soft, sometimes appearing as if nearly herba- ceous ; leaves very thin and nearly, or quite smooth beneath and on the petioles, the teeth rather coarse and unequal ; cluster stout, with one or two simple leaves in its base, not villous, and very slightly if at all pubescent ; flowers half or less the size of those of R. nigrobaccus; fruit small, dry and seedy." Original distribution. — Woods, Mt. Desert, Me., New Bruns- wick and Lake Superior. 25. R. Canadensis, L. Thornless or Mountain Blackberry. B. Millspaughii , Britton. Stems upright, 3-10 feet (1-3 meters) high, more or less deeply grooved, reddish brown, perfectly smooth and unarmed, except for a few weak prickles toward the top and on the smaller branches, petioles and mid-veins; branches and petioles of the young canes glabrous, those of the flowering canes, together with the pedicels, pubescent, but not glandular; leaflets of young canes 5, the three uppermost with long and slender leaf- stalks, glabrous above and beneath, narrowly ovate, mostly rounded at base, long-acuminate, leaflets of bearing canes 3, glabrate, often broader, more deeply and coarsely serrate and less acuminate ; stipules of young canes very long and slender, scarious ; inflores- cence racemose, pedicels oblique, the lower ones axillary, the upper subtended by foliaeeous bracts, 3^ inch or more in length ; sepals broadly ovate, whitened-downy within, acumination short; fruit ripening late, roundish, jet black, with large and promi- nent drupelets and a rather hard core, sour and sometimes even bitterish, at least until very ripe. Found in mountainous parts of the Atlantic states, but con- fined chiefly to high elevations, especially southward. Usually abundant wherever it occurs. The species often crosses with E. nigrobaccus, forming vari- ous gradations, where the two meet on the mountain sides. 26. R. CUNEIFOLIUS, Pursh. Sand Blackberry. Shrubby, 1-3 feet (3-9 decimeters) high, upright, armed with numerous stout, recurved prickles ; branchlets and lower side of the leaves whitish woolly, partially disappearing with age; leaflets 3 on the bearing canes, 5 on the young ones, obovate- cuneate, acute or obtuse, thiekish, entire at base, serrate toward the apex, often coarsely so on fruiting canes ; inflorescence eymose, peduncles few-flowered ; sepals oblong, mucronate, woolly within and without; petals large, narrowly obovate ; fruit roundish, of excellent quality (Fig. 62). 328 BUSR-FBUITS Distribution. — Sandy woods from southern New York and Penn- sylvania, south to Florida, and west to Louisiana and Missouri. This is represented in cultivation by the "Topsy," or "Child's Tree Blackberry." The Kew Index also rec- 'Y/|\ >=5^^^^ /tts ognizes a European species under the name B. cuneifoUus Merc, but it was published since E. cuneifoUus, Pursh., therefore cannot stand. In fact, the European name has already been replaced by E. splienoides, Focke. 27. R. viLLOSUS, Ait. — Low Blackberry. Dewberry. E. Canadensis, authors, not L. Main stems shrubby, long, trailing, rather sparsely and lightly prickly; leaflets 3, on both fruiting and young canes (rarely pedately 5-7) ; oval or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, or obtuse at base of fruiting shoots, thin, slightly roughened, sharply and usually singly cut-ser- rate, petioles and veins be- neath often prickly; in- florescence eymose, scarcely extending beyond the leaves, few-flowered ; peduncles slightly pubescent but not glandular; sepals tomertos? within, often 3-lobed at tip, the central lobe being long, expanded and leaflike. DisinftMfion.— Newfoundland to Virginia, and west to eastern Kansas and central Minnesota. This species, with its varieties, forms the foundation type to which the northern dewberries belong. Fig. 62. liubus cuneifoUus iXl). nobthebjY dewberry 329 Var. RORIBACCUS, Bailey. "Plants larger and stronger; leaflets broad below, usually tri- angular-ovate, doubly serrate with small teeth, and more or less notched or jagged; peduncles longer, straighter, stouter, and more erect, habitually more numerous and more conspic- uously overtopping the leaves; flowers very large, sometimes two inches (5 em.) across ; sepals uniformly larger, some of them much prolonged and leaf-like and conspicuously lobed (some- times becoming an inch long and wide) ; fruit much larger and longer as a rule." — Original description. This variety is represented in cultivation by the Lucretia. It was found in West Virginia, though evidently not common there. Yar, MiCHiGANENSis, Card. Stems woody, trailing in sand and more or less subterranean, sparingly armed with comparatively weak, reflexed or recurved prickles, which become stronger on the petioles of the present year's growth; upright shoots or peduncles nearly herbaceous, more pubescent, with but few slender prickles and with a greater diameter than in the species; stipules long, prominent, often 1 inch (25 mm.) long on young wood, with a distinct midrib; leaflets of flowering shoots 3, mostly ascending, giving the shoots a leafy appearance; leaflets of new wood pedately 5-7, larger than in the species, more deeply and irregularly incised, somewhat pubescent above and beneath; pedicels numerous, pubescent, but not glan- dular, upper one short, scarcely exceeding the leaves; flowers small, sepals densely tomentose within, reflexed, with a slightl}' expanded acumination; petals small, obovate, about as long as the sepals; fruit large and good. Collected by L. H. Bailey, near South Haven, Michigan. This resembles var. roribaeeus, but appears to be more strictly trailing, less woody, more pubescent, leaflets more incised and not so broad at base, pedicels not so long and straight, prickles fewer and more slender, stipules longer and flowers much smaller. 28. R. iNVisus, Bailey. — R. Canadensis var. invisus, Bailey. Stems stout and stiff, often partially ascending, sparingly armed with reflexed straight prickles ; leaflets much larger than in the species, broad and thin, glabrate above and beneath, the teeth usually very large, often rounded and terminating in a minute point ; peduncles or flower stems long and straight, glandular in the wild type ; young flower buds commonly bear- ing a prominent tip formed by the connivent ends ot the sepals, which often become foliaceous later; flowers generally larger than in the species and overtopping the leaves; fruit globular- oblong, of good size. 330 BUSE-FRUITS Found wild at Ithaca, N. Y, ; probably widely distributed. Represented in cultivation byBartel, Gen. Grant and Neverfail. 29. R. Enslenii, Tratt. — R. Baileyanns, Britton. B. vUIosus var. liumifiisus, Torr. & Gray. "Procumbent or ascending, pubescent or nearly glabrous, the stem slender, sparingly prickly, the upper leaves almost invaria- bly unifoliolate, and the racemes but 1 few-tlowered. The leaf- lets are broadly ovate or oval, acute or more commonly obtuse, thin, the terminal ones usually cordate, or all of them rounded or obtuse at the base; fruit small. The plant appears to be always a drj^ wood species." 30. R. TRiviALis, Michx. Low Bush Blackberry, Southern Dew- berry. Stems shrubby, procumbent, terete, beset with strongly re- curved or retiexed prickles, glaucous or hirsute with glandular tipped hairs and bristles; leaves evergreen, coriaceous, glabrate, mostly 3-foliolate on bearing canes, S-S-foliolate on young canes; leaflets ovate-oblong or lanceolate, sharply serrate; veins, peti- oles and peduncles bearing numerous stout, recurved or reflexed prickles; inflorescence cymose, 1-4-flowered; sepals ovate, acumi- nate or mucronate, slightly pubescent, but not prickly; petals obovate, twice as long as the sepals; fruit oblong, black, good. (Fig. 63.) Original distribution. — Sandy soil, Virginia to Florida, and west to Texas and Missouri. This is the common dewberry of the southern states. It is represented in cultivation by the Manatee and Wilson's White. 31. R. viTiFOLius, Cham & Schlecht. Pacific Coast Dewberry or Blackberry. E. ursinns, Cham & Schlecht. B. 7nacro- petaliis, Dougl. Hermaphrodite plant. — Stems becoming woody, weak or trail- ing, 5-20 feet (1.5-G meters) long, terete, glaucous; fruiting branches numerous, armed with straight, rather slender prickles, mostly pubescent; leaves 3-foliolate, I'arely 5-foliolate on young canes, often simple and 3-lobed on flowering branchlets; leaflets ovate to oblong, coarsely toothed, smooth or somewhat tomen- tose; veins, petioles, peduncles, and often the calyx, aculeate, with slender prickles ; stipules oblanceolate to linear, sometimes long and toothed; sepals ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, sometimes foliaceously tipped, then exceeding the petals; fruit oblong, black, sweet (Fig. 04). Pistillate plant. — Leaves all 3-foliolate, narrower, more sharply serrate, thinner and less pubescent, flowers smaller. Fig. 63. Eubus trivialis {X%) . 332 BUSH-FBUITS Fig. 64. Ruhus vitifoUus.— Skagit Chief dewberry {X%). Original distribution. — The coast ranges of California, Oregon and Washington, the valley of the Willamette, and also in Idaho. This is an exceedingly variable species. Different specimens of it were originally described on adjoining pages by the same authors as two species under the names E. vitifoUus and B. tirsintis. Later the pistillate form was described by Douglas as a. rnacropetalus. Some forms are hermaphrodite, others stami- PACIFIC COAST DEWBEBRT 333 nate, with abortive pistils, and still others pistillate, with only- rudimentary stamens. Some forms are wholly trailing, while others have strong and nearly upright stems. The staminate Fig. 65. Riibus hispidus (X3^). forms are said to be the stouter. The Aughinbaugh and others belong here. Professor Piper writes that it is "abundant in west- ern Washington, especially in old 'burns,' and fine flavored berries 334 BUSH-FBUITS are gathered each year in great quantities. It is locally called blackberry, although it is really a dewberry." 32. R. HispiDUS, L. — Running Swamp Blackberry. Stems slender, scarcely woody, long and trailing, bearing numerous small reflexed prickles ; stipules linear, conspicuous ; leaflets 3, rarely pedately 5, smooth, thiekish, mostly persistent during winter, obovate, obtuse, coarsely serrate, entire toward the base ; flowering shoots mostly glabrous, often bristly, and even glandular above when young, several flowered; flowers small, sepals ovate, mueronate, half the length of the obovate, white petals; fruit of few grains, dark red or purplish (Fig. 65). Distribution. — In low woods or swampy ground from Nova Scotia to Georgia, and westward to eastern Kansas and Minnesota. A pretty species, of interest to botanists only. 33. R. SETOSUS, Bigelow. B. kispidus var. setosus, Torr. & Gray. B. hispiclus var. suherectus, Peek. Stem erect or recurved, somewhat woody, densely beset with stiff bristles and long recurved prickles, which extend to the petioles and midrib of leaflets in young shoots, upper portions of plant glandular even on young shoots. Leaflets of bearing wood 3, oblong-obovate, obtuse or often acute and long-pointed at base, serrate towards the tips, sometimes nearly entire at base; leaflets of new shoots mostly 5, sharply serrate, acute or acuminate, veins prominent ; branchlets and pedicels bristly and glandular, several flowered; flowers small, sepals ovate, mueronate, half the length of the oblanceolate white petals; fruit black, rather larger than in B. hispidus. Distribution. — Swampy ground, and even in dry pastures in New York and New England. 34. R. LACiNiATUS, Willd. — Cut-leaved, or Parsley -leaved Black- berrj'. Stems procumbent, terete, glaucous, armed with strong re- curved prickles, sometimes perennial at base; leaves pedately and pinnately foliolate, much parted and divided, sparingly villous, especially at the margins, persistent and evergreen when pro- tected; petioles pubescent but not glandular; inflorescence cy- mose; pedicels bearing very short stalked glands, calyx somewhat pubescent and aculeate with slender prickles; sepals ovate-lan- ceolate, with a long foliaceous tip, exceeding the white obovate petals ; fruit black, large, of good quality. This is generally supposed to be a form of the European black- berry, but its origin is in doubt. It was found in the Botanic WHITE AXD PIXK BRAMBLES 335 Garden at Berlin and described and figured by Willdenow, in Wat- son's Dendrologia Britanniea, 1825. It was imported to the United States from France by Charles More, of Yorkville, N. Y. 35. K. ULMiFOLius var. bellidiflorus hort. B. hellidiflorus hort. B. fruticosus flore plexo hort. Stem recurved -prostrate or climbing, strong, angular and fur- rowed, finely pubescent above, but not glandular; prickles large, strongly reflexed, from a large, dilated, compressed base; leaves 3-5-foliolate, partially persistent; leaflets broadly oval or obovate, acute or cuspidate, coriaceous, slightly rugose above, with very fine close white felt beneath; petioles prickly ; panicles upright, terminal, felted, with prominent angles and large -based strongly recurved prickles, which are more numerous on the pedicels, lower branches of the panicle axillary, the upper subtended by linear-lanceolate bracts, which are more or less deeply 3-cleft at the apex; flowers double, red or white; sepals broadly ovate, cus- pidate, finely white-felted, reflexed in flower; outer petals par- taking somewhat of the felty character of the calyx; stamens and styles similar to the petals in color. Cultivated both in Europe and America, the parent form a native of southern and western Europe and northwestern Africa. This plant was found plentiful and well established at Freder- ick, Maryland, by A. Commons, in 1876. It is there known as "Blackberry Rose," owing to its comparatively double and showy flowers. The white-flowered form was received at the horticultural department of Cornell University, from Berlin, under the name B. spectabiUs, although in no way resembling the true B. spectahiJis of the United States. These appear to be the forms which have long been known as Double "White and Double Pink Brambles. Downing describes them* as follows: "They are beautiful climbing shrubs of re- markably luxuriant growth, which may be trained for a great length in a season, and are admirably adapted for covering walls and unsightly buildings. The flowers are like small double roses, and are produced in numerous clusters in June." The foregoing* list includes the important species which have found a home in the United States, but *Fruits and Fi-uit Trees of America, 446. 336 B USR-FB HITS still others have been introduced, chiefly from Japan. In the American Horticultural Annual for 1871, p. 93, A. S. Fuller mentions Ruhus Armeniacus and B. Koefineisterianus, though the latter may have been a misprint for Hoffmeisterianus. The plant referred to was apparently the one better known as Grape-vine Raspberry. The same author mentions* B. Japoniciis as having been sent out by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. These long ago passed out of cultivation. Among the newer ones may be mentioned B. trifidiis, Thunb., known as the "Fire Raspberry." This Japa- nese species is described bj" Professor Georgeson,t as follows: "The canes are verj^ stout, seven to ten feet high, upright, cylindrical, smooth, no prickles; leaves large, palmately veined, mostly seven -cleft, serrate, dark green above and but slightly lighter below; berry of good size, scarlet; drupes pointed. It ripens gradually through July." The Kew Index mentions B. decumhens, Thunb., B. lorifftpetalus, Dougl., and B. tetraphyllus, Willd., as recognized North American species. Of these, B. longi- petalus is given as a name only, while B. tetraphyllus is apparently a misprint, for at the place referred to the name is B. heterophijUns . B. decimibens I have not been able to trace. B. nanus, mentioned in Heller's Catalogue of North American Plants, was collected on the Island of Ascension, and is not an American species. *Small Fruit Cultiirist, 116. fAmer. Garden, 1890, p. 204. Paet III THE GROSELLES* CHAPTER XII CUBBANTS The currant, though less extensively cultivated than some of the other small fruits, fills an important place in the pomology of our country. Its sprightly and healthful qualities render it desirable to the con- sumer, and its staple character makes it a compara- tively safe crop for the producer. As before inti- mated, it is almost wholly a northern fruit, having no commercial importance in the southern states. Neither currants nor gooseberries receive notice in "Florida Fruits," by Helen Harcourt, though other small fruits do. It does not prosper in hot and dry climates. Even in Nebraska it does not succeed well. The plants thrive and look healthy, but are com- paratively unproductive, so far as I have been able to *I find no English word in use which includes both currants and gooseberries. Since there is an evident need for such a term, I have adopted the word groselle. This is a modification of the old French word groiselle, or groisselle, which was used for both these fruits before a separate term was employed to designate the currant. The present French word groseiUe, meaning a gooseberry, also formerly included both. V (337) 338 Busn-FBuiTs observe them. The fruit is but little seen in market, which is probably the result of unfavorable experience. Figures in regard to the extent and value of the crop are not readily available, but something. 'of its importance can be estimated from the number of acres devoted to the production of plants by nursery- men, as shown b}- the census report of 1890. The returns at that time showed 2,020 acres devoted to currants in the nurseries. Of this number 1,316 acres were in one-year-old plants and 704 acres in two- year -old plants. Ohio leads in the production, with 451 acres, followed by New York with 405 acres and Illinois with 383 acres. But 23 acres are reported from the south Atlantic division, which includes New Jersey, 7 from the south central, and 11 from the western division. The total acreage is less than half that of either strawberries, raspberries, blackberries or grape vines. About twenty -five thousand plants are grown on each acre. The estimated cost of producing one-year-old plants is about $1 per hundred. The average selling price reported in the north Atlantic division is about $1.85, and in the north central division $2.08 per hundred. The estimated cost of two -year -old plants is about $1.50 per hundred, and the average wholesale selling price $3 in the north Atlantic and $2.60 in the north central division. These figures show plainly the region of adaptation of the currant, though the small acreage in the ex- treme western portion may be due to a want of sat- isfactory markets rather than to a .lack of adaptation in climate. SOIL FOB THE CUBE A NT 339 There seems to have been a boom in currant cul- ture about 1856, and American nurserymen were not able to keep pace with the demand,'^ but in recent years there has been little fluctuation, the demand having been steady with the markets seldom glutted. SOIL AND LOCATION Currants will thrive and bear some fruit on almost any soil, but, as their natural habitat indicates, in order to produce really satisfactory- and profitable crops they need a cool and moist soil. Experience has fully demonstrated this fact. The best results are, therefore, to be expected from strong clay loams. Even a stiff clay, under good culture, will be found satisfactory. Strong, moist, saudy loams, if not too light, are also good. In the selection of a site, the natural habitat of the plant will point to a cool northern exposure. A proper site maj' in part offset the disadvantage of an unfavorable soil. Low, moist ground, with some reduction in the intensitj- of the sun's raj'S, will be found advantageous. For this rea- son the currant often thrives well in orchards. This is most satisfactory in those regions approaching the limit of its adaptability to culture. For family use, it may be planted on the north side of buildings or fences. Mulching tends to accomplish the same end, since it keeps the soil shaded and cool. Regions somewhat elevated are generally more sat- * Horticulturist , 1856 : 210. 340 BUSH-FRUITS isfactory than lower altitudes, especially toward the southern limits of its range. It is stated* that in Pennsylvania better fruit is produced at an elevation of 1,000 feet than on plateaus near the sea, the leaves falling earlier on the lower lands, and the fruit being smaller in consequence the succeeding year. FERTILIZERS The currant is a rank feeder, and needs a rich soil, with liberal fertilizing. Yet the roots are small and fibrous, and do not extend far for their food. It must be supplied in liberal quantities and close at hand. While no fruit will live and apparently thrive under greater neglect than will the currant, it is equally true that no fruit will more quickly or fully respond to liberal treatment. Too often it is relegated to the fence corners, without care or culture, there to battle with sod and currant worms from j'ear to year. Little wonder that the returns are sour and small! Liberal applications of stable manure, preferably in the fall, supplemented with the addition of wood ashes or potash in the form of commercial fertilizers in the spring, are always in order. Currants contain! 0.11 per cent of phosphoric acid and 0.27 per cent of potash, w^hile stable manure contains only about one- third more potash than phosphoric acid, which shows the need of additional potash. There is little danger *Gardeners's Monthly, 1887:208. tExp. Sta. Handbook, p. 402. PBOPAGATION 341 of too rank growth or of diminished fruitfulness from an excess of stable manure. Observations at the Massachusetts State Experiment Station* show that the desirable qualities of the fruit were in- creased in everj" case by the application of potash fertilizers. A comparison of sulphate and muriate of potash at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta- tion showed no practical difference in favor of either, t To sum up, fertilizing' for the currant does not differ from that required for other fruits, except that it needs to be more liberal than in most other cases, if satisfactorv returns are to be obtained. PROPAGATION Currants are readily propagated from hard -wood cuttings made from well -ripened shoots of one sea- son's growth. The cuttings may be taken and planted either in fall or in spring, but the common custom among nurserymen is to take them in early autumn, as soon as the leaves mature. The leaves commonly begin falling as early as August, but they are fre- quently stripped a week or so before the cuttings are taken, which is usually done the last of August or first of September. They may then be planted at once, or tied in bundles and buried upside down with two inches of soil over the butts. In this position they may callus, and even form roots, before winter. *Mass. Agr. Rept. 1884:444. Exp. Station Bull. 7. tAnnual Rept. 1890:283. 342 B LfSH-FR UITS They may be taken up and planted later, removed to a cellar and buried in sand during the winter, or be given an additional covering and be left where they are until spring. If planting is deferred until spring, it must be done very earlj^, as they begin growth at a low temperature, and must receive attention at the earliest possible moment. The commoner practice is to plant in nurserj^ rows soon after the cuttings are taken. They are said to root more quickly if packed in damp moss a week or two before planting. The cuttings are ordinarily made from six to eight inches long, though the older writings recommended them to be a foot long. The base should be formed with a clean, square cut just beneath a bud. The top is commonly a slanting cut some distance above the uppermost bud. Planting may be done by means of a spade, but is more conveniently and rapidly done by plowing furrows and setting the cuttings against the land -side of the furrow. One or two buds only are left above the surface of the ground, and the earth should be firmly packed about the base of the cuttings. If set early in September, manj^ of the plants will form roots and establish themselves before winter, being in condition to begin growth immediately in spring. As freezing weather approaches, a shovel plow is sometimes run through the rows, in order to throw the earth toward but not over the cuttings. This leaves a depression along the rows, and the plants are then easily protected by covering with straw or coarse manure. Mulching in some form is essential during the winter, if currant cuttings are CUTTINGS 343 planted in the fall. Rich land should be selected, and heavy di*essings of well -rotted manure are useful. G. A. Marshall, of Arlington, Nebr., gives the fol- lowing method of propagating the currant. As soon as the leaves fall, which is about September first, the cuttings are made, nine inches long, much of the suc- cess of the operation depending upon long cuttings in the dry climate and light soil of Nebraska. They are then buried with the butts up and about three inches beneath the surface of the ground. About the first of November they are taken up and planted in nursery rows, and a ridge of earth thrown over them so that they are covered about two inches deep. In the spring this covering is raked awaj*, so that the tips are left just below the surface of the ground. This method is interesting, because it shows some- thing of the modifications demanded by a dry climate. Single -eye cuttings under glass, or green -wood cut- tings may be used, but are less satisfactorj' than hard- wood cuttings, and are only used under special cir- cumstances. Plants may also be grown from layers, and even from tip layers, like the black raspberries, but these methods have little to recommend them. It was formerly advised to cut out all the lower buds in planting cuttings, in order to insure a tree form of growth, but this is seldom practiced now. Plants so grown are of interest as curiosities or novelties, but are not satisfactory in field culture. New varieties are grown from seeds, which should be taken as soon as the fruit is ripe. They may be washed from the pulp and dried like vegetable seeds, 344 BUSH-FEUITS but it is better to sow or mix them with sand at once, and not allow them to dry. If mixed with sand, they should be buried or kept in a cool, shady place, and sown very early in spring. They may be sown, not over half an inch deep, in flats or in the open ground, in fine, rich and mellow soil. Partial shade and a light mulch of fine manure will aid in retaining moisture and prevent the ground from baking. The seeds germinate at a low temperature, and are likely to start too early unless kept in a shaded place. If sown at once in flats, the flats can be kept in a cool, shaded place during the winter, and given partial exposure in spring. Plung- ing them in the soil will aid in preserving uniform conditions of moisture, and covering with a wire screen will insure safety from destruction by mice or other animals. If a greenhouse is available thej^ may be brought inside toward spring, where the seeds will germinate quickh'. The young plants may be potted off when two or three inches high, and planted out when well established. PLANTING The first essential in planting fruit is a thorough preparation of the soil. For currants, the land should receive a heavy dressing of well -rotted stable manure, be plowed deep, and, if the underlying layers are hard and impervious to roots and moisture, sub- soiled. One may choose almost any distance apart to set the plants, and find it recommended some- where in horticultural literature. The distances ad- PLANTING THE CUBE ANT 345 vocated vary from three -by -four feet to five -by -eight feet, with every possible intermediate combination. It will generally be found satisfactory to place the rows six feet apart, with the plants four feet apart in the rows. If the design is to cultivate both ways, five feet apart each way may be better. Cross -cultiva- tion is commonly only needed at intervals, and the wider row should be in the direction most conven- ient for cultivating. The land should be in fine, mellow tilth as deep as plowed. It should then be marked both ways, with furrows in one direction. It will be all the bet- ter if these furrows are made deeper than necessary to receive the plants, in order to insure their being set in a well -fined bed. The setting is easily done by placing the plants against the land- side of the furrow and drawing the earth about them, packing it firmly about the roots with the feet. No one point is more essential than this thorough firming of the soil about the roots. A layer of loose, fine soil should be left at the surface, to act as a mulch and prevent the packed soil beneath from drying out. The re- mainder of the furrow may be left to be filled in as cultivation progresses later on. One-year-old plants, if vigorous and well grown, are quite as sat- isfactory and cost less money. They are easily set, meet with little check in transplanting, and make a better growth than if left in the crowded nursery row during the same time. The earliness of the currant in starting into growth in spring is a point in favor of fall planting. This 346 BUSHFBUITS depends so much upon climate, however, that it is unsafe to lay down a general rule. Throughout the western plains, where the winters are dry and open, fall planting is always uncertain, though with care- ful protection it may succeed. Whatever the location, if the planting is done early enough in spring there is nothing to fear. If neglected until the plants have started into growth, the check must always seri- ously affect the first season's results. SUBSEQUENT TILLAGE Cultivation of the currant should be shallow. The roots run near the surface, and are likely to be in- jured by plowing, or even by the ordinary cultiva- tor. Frequent stirring of the soil with a light -har- row-tooth cultivator or a spring -tooth cultivator hav- ing the teeth set well back, is most desirable. It may be owing to this habit of shallow rooting, that both the currant and the gooseberry succeed especially well with mulching. Any refuse material like straw, weeds, wild grass, or even coal ashes, may be used. The mulching not only replaces cultivation in keeping down weeds and retaining moisture, but helps to keep the fruit clean as well. This is a good way to grow currants for family use, especially if they occupy small or inaccessible corners of the j^ard or garden, where cultivation is inconvenient or must be done by hand. In the well arranged fruit -garden, where the plants occupy definite rows, and also in field culture, cultivation is far more practicable than mulching. PRUNING THE CC BRANT 347 PRUNING %:5^ Pruning the currant is often neglected, j'et pro- ductiveness largely depends upon it. Plants will pro- duce some fruit no mat- ^ ter how treated, and hence are likely to be treated very indiffer- ently. The fruit is borne both on old and young wood, the best and most of it appar- ently near the base of the one-j^ear-old shoots and on short one year- old spurs from the older wood. Consequenth', most of the young wood may be cut awaj', or the old wood may be cut out, leaving young shoots, and fruit will still be produced. The younger the wood the liner the fruit, as a rule, but the plants are likely to be less produc- tive unless a fair supply of wood more than one year old is left. Yet this older wood soon becomes weak, and produces small and inferior fruit. Fig. 66. Tree-form currant. 348 BUSH-FRUITS The older plan of training to a tree form (Fig. 66), by removing the lower buds from the cuttings when planted, is now practically discarded. The plants are less productive, and if attacked by the currant borer, the whole plant is destroyed instead of a single stalk, as when grown in the bush form. If the tree form is desirable for novelty or ornament, six or eight shoots are selected, as the bush develops, to form permanent branches. These are cut back to four to six inches every year till the bush is full grow^n, and afterward to only two or three buds. All lateral shoots are cut to within an inch of the old wood each year. For practical field culture, from four to eight main stems are allowed, and these should be frequently renewed. It is safe to say that wood over three years old should not be allowed to remain. Some expert growers of long experience say that none over two years old should be left. Superfluous young shoots should also be cut away, but the buds at the base of these may well be left, as they develop into fruit -bear- ing spurs. A difference of opinion exists in regard to cutting back the young growth. The longer the old w^ood is left the greater will be the demand for cut- ting back. This method may give increased produc- tiveness, but finer fruit will result from frequent renew- ing. In any event, the more vigorous shoots should be shortened- in, to prevent the bush from becoming strag- gling and to preserve its balance. Since the greater part of the fruit is borne near the base of the shoots, shortening these may tend toward a better develop- ment of the fruit spurs, especially if the shoots are THINNING AND TRAINING 349 nipped back in summer, when they have reached suf- ficient height. In common practice, a liberal and judi- cious thinning out of old wood and superfluous young wood in early spring will be all that is rec[uired. Experiments in thinning the fruit, made in New Jersey,* showed that when the outer half of the flower cluster was removed with a pair of scissors there were 15 per cent more berries to the cluster, and the berries were 7 per cent heavier. The quality also seemed to be better. Various fancy methods of training are resorted to bj' those with a taste for oddities. Sometimes they are trained in "pillai'" form, one upright shoot being tied to a stake and the side branches kept very short. They may also be readily trained against a wall, and it is said that specially fine fruit maj^ be obtained on a north wall. They have even been grafted, from time to time, in order to secure standard or tree forms, Ribes aureum being most commonly employed as a stock for this purpose. These methods were chiefly in vogue early in the horticultural develop- ment of our own country, but are now little used. GATHERING AND IVIARKETING The currant, like all other fruits, should be picked only when diy. Although a flrm fruit, which stands shipment well when properly treated, it will readily spoil if gathered and packed when wet. Much care *Garden and Forest, 3:19. 350 BUSn-FBUITS is needed to prevent pickers from crushing the berries or tearing them from the stems. It is so much easier to grasp a cluster and give it a pull than it is to care- fully sever the stem, that onlj^ the strictest vigilance will insure proper care in the work. This is written with a very distinct remembrance of the work of some Irish girls, who thought it much more convenient to strip the berries from the clusters and throw them in loose than to pick the stems at all, especially in the middle of the baskets, where less likely to be detected. All such berries will quickly spoil, the juice which exudes from them will soon render the others wet and sticky, and a general collapse of the whole package is likely to result. Varieties like the Fay, which have more clear space of stem at the base of the clusters, have a distinct advantage in this regard, for they may be more readilj^ picked without crushing any of the fruits. For shipping purposes, the fruit must be picked while still hard and firm, in order to carry well, but for home use or near market it should not be picked too soon, especially for dessert use. If left on the bushes until thoroughly ripe and soft, they make an admirable dessert fruit. For this purpose the White Grape is one of the best, being less acid than most varieties. The fruiting season may be prolonged until autumn, if the fruit is protected by covering the plants with light cheese- cloth or netting. The fruit is commonly marketed in quart baskets, put up in bushel crates like other berries, but of late years the grape basket has been gaining in favor as USUS OF THE CURRANT 351 a package, and is now very largely used. The nine- pound basket is the size preferred by most markets. This is a convenient size for the consumer, especially if purchased for jelly or preserving. USES The paramount use of the currant is in making jelly, for which purpose it is unsurpassed. The red varieties are preferred owing to their higher color, but it is said that if white currants are scalded before pressing, they make a rich, red jelly, not as dark as that from red varieties, but very handsome. The fruit, either green or ripe, makes excellent pies or sauce. It is especially satisfactory when used in combination with fruits which lack sprightliness or acidity. With a few currants added, even the Rus- sian mulberry becomes a most appetizing fruit, and the juneberry seems to be all that one could wish. The currant supplies the requisite acidity, and these fruits furnish the richness of flavor which the currant lacks. In canning it preserves its qualities intact, so that it is nearly as available in winter as in summer. Currant shrub is a pleasant summer drink, made from the ripe fruit crushed and com- pounded like lemonade. The juice is said to be very useful in soothing fevers. At one time the fruit was reported* as having a steady demand in St. Louis for use as a flavoring in soda wate"f. ♦niinois Hort. Soc. ] 890: 157. 352 BUSH-FEUITS DURATION OF PLANTATIONS The length of time during which plantings will con- tinue productive will depend much upon the care and treatment which they receive. Downing advised* re- newing them everj' six or eight years, as finer fruit, with less trouble, can be had from j'oung bushes. He was then recommending the tree form of culture, how- ever, and these fail sooner than when a number of stalks are grown and renewed as fast as they become weak. As against this view, it does not occur to the ordinary farmer that they need to be renewed at all. To him a currant bush, once planted, should take care of itself, and last indefinitely, or at least as long as an apple tree. That is just what the plant ordinarily does under the conditions to which the farmer too often subjects it. It looks out for itself, but does not devote anj^ great amount of energy to the pro- duction of a high grade of fruit. So, too, with good care, liberal fertilizing and frequent renewing, bushes may be kept in a profitable condition for many j^ears. Practical growers, however, seem to find it advisable to replant after eight or ten years of service. The cost of replanting is slight, and the advantage of young and vigorous plants will more than repay it. If for any reason it is found desirable to rejuvenate old bushes in the home garden, cutting them off close to the ground and working manure into the soil will infuse new life into them. *Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, 488. HARDINESS AXD YIELD 353 HARDINESS The question of ability to endure cold hardly enters into consideration in connection with the currant. It endures the most severe winters, in the extreme north- ern limits of the United States at least, and comes out in spring with every bud unharmed. The question of hardiness here centers not on ability to endure cold, but on ability to endure heat, and in this it fails, as already shown by its distribution and its more or less complete failure in warm climates. YIELD Perhaps no fruit is grown in which the jdeld varies more than with the currant. This is largely owing to the fact, already indicated, that it will grow and pro- duce something under almost any kind of treatment. It is doubtful whether, taking the currant fields of the country as they run, the yield per acre would be over fifty bushels. Yet there are growers who report as high as 250 bushels. With good care they ought to yield from 100 to 150 bushels per acre. Yet it should always be remembered that there are many drawbacks to the production of all kinds of fruit, and while this may seem very easy to obtain, when compared with the exceptional yields occasion- ally reported, it will be found that only by high cul- ture and the most careful attention to details will even these yields be reached. In garden culture, from two to four pounds per bush may be expected. w 354 BUSH-FBUITS As instances of exceptional yields, five and one -half tons from one and one -fourth acres, or 220 bushels per acre, is reported* as the best yield on the Hud- son previous to 1871. W. W. Farnsworth reported a crop in 1889 1 which averaged six quarts per bush, or 320 bushels per acre. Sixteen tons from three acres was reported by J. S. Stickney, of Wisconsin, the same yeart. Let no one mistake these for probable yields, however, in forming estimates of the results which are likely to follow prospective planting. PROFITS Profits vary greatly, not only with methods of cul- ture, but also with conditions of the market. There have been periods at which they have proved unprofit- able, and again they have yielded large returns, but this fluctuation is no greater than with other fruit. The larger markets are frequently filled and the price low, but Doctor Hoskins is authority for the state- ments that the New England market is never over- stocked, and that they are more profitable than straw- berries or raspberries. To the skillful grower who is near a market or has exceptionally good facilities for shipping, the currant will prove profitable, while to the ordinary farmer, unaccustomed to their care, and remote from market, they will prove unprofitable. ♦Horticulturist, 1871:368. tPopular Gardening, 4:111. Illlinois Hort. Soe. Rept., 1889:21. §Rural New-Yorker, 1896:234. BLACK CURRANTS 355 At six cents per pound or eight cents per quart, they should prove a satisfactorj' crop. Canning factories use them in large quantities at about four cents per pound, and they weigh about forty pounds per bushel, making the equivalent of $1.60 per bushel. This, with a convenient location and good culture, to insure a yield of not less than one hundred bushels per acre, will jield a fair return, provided pickers are readily obtainable in sufficient numbers, so that enough can be grown to make it an object. BI-ACK CURRANTS The treatment of the black currant does not differ materially from that of the red. The bushes grow a little taller, and may require a little more room. This can be easily given under ordinary circumstances, for in most localities one bush will supply the demand of the whole community. A convenient method of pruning the black currant is quoted from the Garden by the Canadian Horticulturist, 1896, page 198. It consists in cutting out the bearing branches when the fruit is ripe, carrying them to a shady place and there picking the fruit at ease. The annual renewing thus given is said to produce well-ripened wood and fine fruit, since fruit borne on old wood is much inferior. Notwithstanding the lack of popularity of the black currant in America, we might do well to cultivate it more than we do. It undoubtedly possesses more value than we accord to it. It is stated by Prof. 356 B USH-FB UITS Budd* that if the fruit is scalded for a few minutes in boiling water, then put into fresh water for cook- ing, the peculiar flavor of the skin will be wholly re- moved, and that when canned it is much like cran- berry sauce in flavor and color. The fruit is credited with some medicinal qualities, especially in alleviat- ing inflammation or soreness of the throat. Jell}^ from the fruit, mingled with water, or the parts of the plant steeped, are said to be useful in bowel and summer complaints. People accustomed to its use certainly relish it, especially for jam and jelly. Fuller states t that the people of Siberia use the leaves for making a drink the same as we use tea. Loudon says J that the dried leaves so much resemble green tea in flavor that a very small portion of them added to black tea Avill communicate that flavor so effectually as to com- pletely deceive the taste. From Loudon's statements it appears that the fruit, either dried or in the form of jam or jelly, is ver}^ widely used throughout Europe against affections of the throat. *Bull. 16, la. Exp. Sta., p. 364, tSmall Fruit Culturist, p. 188. t Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannieum, 2:985. CHAPTER XIII GOOSEBERRIES The gooseberry is one of the lesser lights in the pomologieal firmament of the United States. It is ap- parently prized and appreciated less than almost any other fruit. It is extremely sour, and the custom of using it only in the green state prevents its better qualities from becoming known. Manj^ people do not care for it, and the demand is much less than for the berry fruits, while the supply is usually more than cor- respondingly less. In spite of this apparent indiffer- ence, it has many good qualities to commend it. In the green state, as generally sold, it bears shipment exceedingly well, reaching the consumer, when prop- erly handled, with no waste, and in as good condition as when it left the plants. Some idea of the extent to which the gooseberry is cultivated may be gained from the census report of 1890, which shows 1,009 acres of plants to have been growing in the nurseries of the United States. This is only half the acreage devoted to currants, while the average number of plants produced from an acre is given as 14,000, as against about 25,000 currant plants per acre. This indicates that the plant- ing of currant bushes is over three and one-half times as great as the planting of gooseberry bushes. (357) 358 BUSH-FBUITS Like the currant, the gooseberry is a northern plant, and refuses to be content in a hot climate. It proves a complete failure in the southern states and along the Gulf coast. In Nebraska it seems to thrive better than the currant. It loses its leaves earl}', and the fruit is decidedly smaller than in the eastern states, yet the plants make a good growth, appear healthy, except in the early loss of leaves, and are fairly productive. The English varieties produce an occasional fruit, but so far as tested may be termed a practical failure. It should be remembered that the summers are here hot and dry, consequent!}' unfavor- able to these fruits. Frequentl}', however, the early part of the season is favorable, so that the fruit has an opportunity to mature before severe heat and drought affect it. The chief injury in that case is undoubtedly in the early loss of leaves and conse- quent enfeebled condition of the bush the succeeding year. SOIL AND LOCATION The gooseberry is much like the currant in its soil demands. A cool, moist, strong and rich soil, deeply worked, is the requisition which it makes, and the more unfavorable the location in the waj' of climate, the more closely will this demand in the way of soil need to be met. Well to the north, in high alti- tudes or cool northern exposures, it will succeed well on sandy or even gravelly loam, though the rule is that the lighter the soil the less satisfactory the crop. Still, the opposite extreme is not advisable. A muck SOIL AND FERTILIZERS 359 soil will produce a strong growth but diminished pro- ductiveness, while a heavy, cold clay is hard to work, and may cause the bushes to heave. A strong clay loam, not liable to injury from drought, but well drained, well enriched, deeply worked and subsoiled, is the ideal. A cool northern exposure is desirable, if it can be had. Partial shade may be an advan- tage, but the plant does not appear to thrive under the shade of trees as well as the currant. For home use, the north side of a fence or of buildings is a good location. Proper selections of soil and location will do much to preserve a healthy condition of the bush, retain the foliage and prevent mildew. FERTILIZERS Growers of long experience agree that no fertilizer is better for gooseberries than well -rotted cow ma- nure, very liberally applied. The plants are gross feeders, and a heavj^ top-dressing every autumn will be profitabl}' utilized. This may be supplemented with a dressing of wood ashes, or potash in some other form, early in spring, especially if the supply- of stable manure has been deficient. The soil must be rich, to insure good results. PROPAGATION The propagation of the gooseberry is much the same as that of the currant, though it does not root so readily from cuttings. The wood does not mature as early in the fall as that of the currant, so that 360 BUSn-FBUITS planting is oftener delayed until spring, though the cuttings may well be taken in fall, and be buried outside or placed in a cellar for winter, as directed for cur- rants. If left until spring, they must be taken very early, as they push into growth at the first touch of warm weather. Cuttings are made from six to ten inches long, using only well -ripened wood of the cur- rent season's growth. Formerly the lower buds were cut out before planting, in order to prevent suckers from springing up, thus securing a tree form of growth. This is no longer followed in commercial growing, though it may be desirable where attractive bushes are wanted for the garden. The soil should be pressed firmly about the base in planting, and only one or two buds be left above the surface of the ground. Thorough mulching is imperative, if the cuttings are planted in the fall. Some varieties, like Houghton, root readily from cuttings, but Downing and other strong, vigorous growers do not, consequently layering is oftener re- sorted to. It is generally believed that stockier and better plants are obtained from cuttings. Bent lay- ers root readily, but this is too slow, and the number of plants produced is too small for commercial work, so that mound -layering is the method followed. For this purpose the plants are cut back severely in au- tumn, to induce many shoots to grow the succeeding spring. About July 1, when these have made their principal growth, earth is mounded up about and among them, leaving only their tips exposed. Ameri- can varieties will root readily, and may be removed PROPAGATING TEE GOOSEBEBBT 361 the same autumn, but Euglish varieties are left in this position for two seasons. The last of October, or before the ground freezes, the soil is thrown back, and the shoots are cut awaj' and trenched or buried in the cellar for spring planting. In commercial work two grades are commonly made. In spring they are planted in nursery rows and cultivated for one year, when they are ready to go on the market. Some roots will have formed during the process of lay- ering, and the plants will be in condition to make a much better growth when planted out than cut- tings taken without previous layering. Spring is a busy season with the nurserj'man and fruit-grower, and the gooseberry is so impatient at the approach of warm weather that the layers are often planted in nursery rows when removed from the parent plants in fall, and mulched during winter. In favorable climates this will prove satisfactory, but where the winters are dry and open, as on the plains, the loss of plants is likely to be large, unless they are whollj' covered with earth. If bushes are to be managed principally or exclusively for the produc- tion of plants, they should be set in rows eight feet apart and close together in the row. This will facili- tate the work of mounding and removing the soil in layering, as much of it can be done with a plow. For home use, the suckers which spring up about the base of the old plants may be removed and planted. They commonly have some roots attached, and grow readily. The older wi'iters warn us against their use, but apparently for the reason that they, too, 362 BUSH-FRUITS are likely to throw up suckers from the roots, and when the fashion was to grow the plants only in tree form this was considered a serious fault. Bent layers may be emploj'ed in a small way. By this method, the branches are held beneath the soil by a forked peg and the tip allowed to grow upward. A slit is made on the under side of the arched portion which is buried in the ground, in order to induce more rapid rooting, by checking in some degree the flow of sap from the parent plant. Layering the tips, like black raspberries, is also said to succeed, though not a common method. A writer in the Gardener's Monthlj' for 1885, p. 49, says that the readiest and quickest way to propa- gate the English gooseberry is by pieces of its own roots. Old bushes are dug up in spring, the roots chopped in pieces three to four inches long, and planted in nursery rows three or four inches deep. He says that they will grow more in one year than a cutting will in two or three. This method is cer- tainly not in common use, and I cannot vouch for its success. Two trials in the greenhouse early in spring, embracing both English and American varieties, have resulted in complete failure. New varieties must come from seeds, which should be treated as directed for currants. It is not diffi- cult to grow plants by this method. There is likely to be little retrogression, and in rare cases there may be an advance in valuable qualities. A French article which appeared in the Horticulturist in 1849,* trans - *Horticulturist, 3:557. PLANTING 363 lated from the Eevue Horticole, states that seed- liug-s withstand the heat of French summers much better than cuttings, and recommends propagation by seeds rather than by other methods. Grafting is easily done, the Missouri currant being the stock oftenest used. According to Robert Man- ning,* the best results are obtained by side - graf ting- under the bark in August, the top being cut down in spring and the snag removed afterward, as with budded trees. Although quite extensive!}' practiced at one time in the production of standard bushes, and as a supposed remedy for the mildew, the fad soon died out. PLANTING The methods of planting recommended for the cur- rant are equally applicable to the gooseberry. If rows are placed six feet apart in the direction most convenient for cultivating, and the plants four feet apart in the opposite direction, in order to afford opportunity for cross cultivation when the plants are j'Oung, and at intervals thereafter, they will have room enough for proper development, with convenient space for their care and for gathering the fruit. The same arguments as with the currant will apply in regard to the choice of season for planting. These fruits drop their leaves so early that fall planting may be done much earlier than with most other fruits, even in September, allowing the plants to become *Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1879:37. 3 64 B USHFE UITS well established before the advent of cold weather. This is one of the hardiest fruits, but the grower who withholds the proper care in planting will inevi- tably reap the recompense for his ill doing. AFTER TREATMENT Since the gooseberry is subject to greater injury from drought than the currant, there is the more urgent need of complete and thorough cultivation. As with the cuiTant, it should be shallow but fre- quent. Hardness and dryness of the soil are espe- cially injurious. The better the cultivation, the cooler and moister can the soil be kept, and hence the nearer will be the approach to the normal conditions under which the gooseberry is happy and its fruit grows fat. Like the proper selection of soil and location, suitable cultivation will materially aid in preserving the health of the plants and preventing mildew, though by no means a remedy for that disease. Mulching also suc- ceeds well, preserving the soil in a cool and moist condition even better than cultivation. PRUNING Left to itself, the gooseberry soon becomes a tangled thicket, the fruit in consequence being small and difficult to pick. It produces much more wood than ought to remain for each year's fruiting. It is imperative that this be reduced, if the best results are to be hoped for. The particular manner in which PRUNING THE GOOSEBERRY 365 it is done is of far less importance. Berries are pro- duced from all parts of the bush except the present year shoots and the very old wood, but the finest fruits are borne on one-year-old branches. After two or three years in bearing the wood begins to fail, and the fruit borne from it likewise declines. The principle, therefore, should be to carefully guard the vigorous young wood, allowing it to replace that which is older before the latter has a chance to fail. The weak young shoots should be cut away, or per- haps be cut back to two or three buds, if the bush is still thin, the vigorous ones moderately cut back, and as much old wood cut away as can be spared without interfering with the productiveness of the bush. Benj. G. Smith states* that he prunes as carefully as he does grape vines, some on the spur sj^stem and some with long shoots, with equal suc- cess. This is significant, in showing that the method is of minor importance. The essential thing is to so renew that the bearing wood shall always be strong and vigorous, and the amount of such wood not greater than the bush is able to support and fill with well -developed fruit. In northern localities an open top is desirable, but where the summers are hot a thicker growth, with more shade, may be better. Shortening -back the lower branches severely will aid in keeping the fruit up from the ground. In the tree form of pruning, from six to ten main branches are allowed to grow, and all suckers are cut away. These main branches may be allowed *Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1883:123. 366 BUSH-FBUITS to divide as the bush gets older. They are an- nually shortened to a few inches of new growth and the side shoots cut back to from one to four buds. In practical culture, thinning is all done by the amount of wood removed. In the production of prize berries, as practiced by English growers, thinning is an absolute necessity. The largest fruit can only be produced by closely limiting the number which the plant is allowed to carry. Thinning is no less impor- tant in commercial work, because done by removing wood, instead of individual fruits. Various methods of training have been reported. In some cases they have been trained as single stems and tied to stakes; in others they have been made to cover arbors by carefully training up shoots at given distances apart. Some very remarkable bushes have been reported. In the tree form they have been said* to reach a height of sixteen feet, and others have been trained as standards with clear stems five feet high. In the Transactions of the London Horticul- tural Society, Vol. V, p. 490, a plant is reported which was forty -six j'ears old, measuring twelve yards in circumference and which had produced several pecks of fruit annually for thirty years. Another, thirty years old, was trained to a build- ing, and measured 53 feet 4 inches from one ex- tremity to the other. This bore four or five pecks of fruit annually. *Tilton's Journal, 9:378. GATHERING THE FBUIT 367 GATHERING AND MARKETING Picking gooseberries looks more attractive thau it is. I well remember the longing ej-es with which a crowd of inexperienced pickers watched the goose- berry rows, when working on currants, and with what eagerness they pounced upon them when at last the currants were done. The fruit looked so much larger than the currants, and so nice to pick! But experience brought a great change. They had for- gotten to reckon with the thorns, and soon longed for currants again. The Downing, our best well- tested variety, is one of the worst in this respect. The thorns are always ready, and apparently never fail to get in their work. This feature does much to check increased cultivation of the gooseberry. Vig- orous pruning, to keep the bushes thin and open, will materially aid in the matter, and the picker soon learns to avoid too careless contact. Another method of circumventing the difficulty is possible, from the fact that the berries are marketed when green and hard. This consists in wearing thick leather gloves and in stripping the berries from the branches. They are then run through a fanning mill to drive out the leaves. This method is most satisfactory in commercial work. It will not answer for ripe fruit, which is too easily crushed. Pickers are paid about 1% or 1% cents per quart, and will average from sixty to one hundred quarts per day. At the present time the market calls for green o 68 BUSH-FBUITS gooseberries onlj-. lu this stage the fruit Avill carry almost any distance in first-class condition, and need not be sold the day it arrives. Ten -pound grape baskets are the most satisfactory packages for shipping and general market purposes, though the quart berry baskets are still much used. It is a pleasure to pack this fruit for shipment. It is so clean and solid, and there is a feeling of security that it will remain so until it reaches the consumer. The markets are sel- dom overstocked, though P. T. Quinn stated l)efore the Pennsylvania Fruit Growers' Association in Phila- delphia, in 1872,* that he had seen 1,000 barrels thrown overboard for want of a market. To this Charles Downing added that they ought to be all dumped into the river, which shows that the goose- berry was not a favorite with him. USES The fruit is commonly used in pies, stewed, canned or for jelly. That it makes a good jelly is evidenced by an ingenious process of imitating it reported by the Gardener's Monthly for 1884, page 204, which states that gooseberry jelly is made from seaweed, the color being given by fuchsine or similar material, and the flavor by a mixture of acetic ether, tartaric acid and other substances. The good qualities of the gooseberry are not con- fined to the green state, and there is a growing *Horticulturist. 1872:112. KEEPING THE FRUIT 369 appreciation of its value when ripe. The flavor of a ripe goosebeny is hardly to be surpassed among fruits. When fully ripe and sweet it makes a fine table fruit, to be eaten with sugar and cream. Dr. T. H. Hoskins is authority for the statement* that ripe Houghtons are an excellent substitute for cran- berries, as a sauce for meat. So close is the re- semblance that at his table it is often necessary to explain that they are not cranberries. They are cooked enough to burst the skins, then put up in fruit cans, but not sweetened till wanted for use. Since they are much cheaper than cranberries, and can be grown anywhere, this is a strong point in their favor. A method of keeping green gooseberries which seems to have been in vogue before the process of canning was known, consists in filling a jug or bot- tle with sound fruit, taking care that no bruised or crushed ones go in, then filling with cold spring or well water, corking tightly and putting away in a cool cellar. Doctor Hoskinst makes the statement that the}' can be so preserved perfectly the year round, without sealing, though it is generally recom- mended to seal them. This method is certainly very simple and, if as satisfactory as it is said to be, makes fresh gooseberry pie available at all seasons of the year. Another method of keeping, recommended by the Prairie Farmer, + is to put them into bottles *Rept. Michigan Hort. Soc. 1884:262. tibid: 277. tHorticulturist, 3:132. X 370 BUSH-FRUITS when perfectly dry, then cork the bottles tight, cover the corks with sealing wax, and partially cover the bottles with sand or earth in the cellar. DURATION OF PLANTATIONS In the older method of pruning to tree form, the plants began to fail after six or eight years, and soon became unprofitable, generally bearing their best fruit about the fourth or fifth j^ear from planting. In bush training, they remain in vigorous conditions much longer. Plantations twenty or twenty -five years old, and still profitable, are not uncommon. Much depends on the thoroughness with which the renewing process is carried on. Liberal fertilizing and good culture will also aid greatly. Generally it will be found more profitable to discard them after ten or twelve years, for replanting is not expensive, and the younger plants will be more vigorous and bear finer fruit. A slight difference in the quantity and quality of crops will soon offset the cost of replanting. No rule as to number of years can be valid, for of two plantations of the same age, one may still be perfectly satisfactory and the other wholly unprofitable, owing to differences in treatment and conditions. In com- mercial work, a safe rule will be to replant as soon as the first trace of waning vigor can be detected. It is not a question of how long they will continue to bear well, but of which will prove the more pro- fitable, the old planting, with its regular care, or a new one, with the added expense of another plant- HABDINESS A^D YIELD 371 ing. If these points were carefully weighed, replant- ing would doubtless be much more frequent than it now is. HARDINESS Cold has apparently' no etfect on the gooseberry, at least such temperatures as are likely to be reached anywhere in the United States, and even far to the north. It stands unprotected through our severest winters without the loss of a bud, but if moved southward it soon becomes uncomfortable. It can- not endure scorching summer suns. YIELD Average yields of any fruit are hard to give, for results vary so widely. Full grown plants, vigorous and well cared for, ought to yield from five to eight quarts per plant, or, roughly speaking, from 300 to 500 bushels per acre, with plants four by six feet apart. One grower from Canada reports* one -half bushel per plant, set at this distance. This is excep- tional, and should not be considered as a basis for estimates. At the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta- tion, in 189 l,t plants gave an average of over ten pounds of fruit each, or about eight quarts. This would make about 450 bushels per acre with plants set four by six feet apart. Fuller! says that from *Popular Gardening, 2:145. tAiinnal Rept. 1891: 474. tSmall Fruit Ciilturist, p. 222. 372 BUSH-FBUITS 200 to 400 bushels per acre of native sorts can be grown. PROFITS On the whole the gooseberry is one of the most reliable and generally one of the most profitable small fruits grown. The price per quart is not high, but the j'ield is large and the loss little. The average price in the New York market seems to be about $2 per bushel, though fine fruit sometimes reaches double that price. A. S. Fuller once said* that at $1.75 per bushel they paid him well, and there is no reason why they should not. Although one of the most satisfactory fruits for shipping, they often pay unusually well in the home market. If people could be accustomed to the use of the ripe fruit, there is no reason why the consumption of the gooseberry should not be immensely increased, with correspond- ing benefit both to growers and consumers. ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES Although frequent mention has been made of the English varieties, it may be well to say a word further regarding their culture in the United States. Like all European fruits, they have been tried again and again, yet they have only succeeded here and there, when meeting peculiarly favorable conditions. Benj. G. Smith, of Cambridge, has successfully cul- tivated them for years, and occasionally other growers ♦Horticulturist, 1873:112 ENGLISH GOOSEBEEBIES 373 have succeeded, but the general fact remains that the English gooseberrj^ is not a success in America, It may produce a few good berries when young, but is almost sure to fail later. It is said to thrive well in Washington,* the climate of the northwest coast be- ing more like that of England. In 1884, a motion was made at the meeting of the American Pomologi- cal Society to strike all English varieties from their list, but it was barely lost. The reason for this failure of the large and fine English Goosbeerries in the United States is that they are constantly attacked by mildew. Any number of remedies have been suggested against the mildew in times past, the most common practice being to mulch the ground with manure, stones, tin cans, old boots, or other strange material which might be thought to possess especial virtue. Salt applied to the soil was vainly tried, and at one time grafting the plants on the Missouri currant was thought to be a remedy. Any of these things which afford a nearer approach toward the ideal conditions demanded by the gooseberry will aid in preventing the mildew, but none of them are infallible. Yet recent experiments show that under favorable con- ditions we can grow the English gooseberry by giv- ing it the proper attention. Thorough and vigorous treatment with potassium sulphide or with Bordeaux mixture, as dii'ected under the discussion of this disease, will hold it in check and admit of satisfactory crops being obtained. No slovenly or careless work *Gardener's Monthly, 1886:271. 374 BiFSn-FBUITS will answer; the work must be thorough, and done at th*3 right time, or the enemy will still gain the mastery. Whether the English gooseberries are worth growing, especially' for home use, is a fair question. Their only advantage is in their size and appear- ance, which of course commend them for market grow- ing. Most varieties are inferior to our own in quality. The reader will find another account of gooseberries, by Beach, in Bulletin 119, New York Experiment Station. CHAPTER XIV VARIETIES OF CURRANTS So far as fruit - producing species are concerned, the botany of the currant is simple, for the currant culture of the United States is practically' confined to a single species, Rihes ritbrum. It is to this species that all our red and white varieties belong. In its wild state the species is found both in Europe and America, and seems to be equally well adapted to the cooler portions of either hemisphere. It is in all cases a northern plant, found in cool, damp situations, and it objects to any radical change from these conditions. In culti- vation, it has become somewhat variable in character of fruit and foliage. Instances are reported^ in which both red and white fruits have been produced upon the same branch. In one caset three red, three white and one striped fruit were found in the same cluster. The black currant of the garden is a European species, Bihes nigrum. Although not found in America in the wild state it seems to have had no trouble in adapting itself to American conditions. The American people, on the other hand, have not been so successful in adapting their tastes to the peculiar flavor which it has to offer, and the species has never become popular. *Darwin, Animals and Plants landei* Domestication 1: 400. tGardener's Chronicle 26: 268. (375) o 76 BUSE-FBriTS The closely related American species, R. Amerieanum, seems to possess all the good qualities of the European one, and is more ornamental. It might well receive attention from plant breeders. An American species much oftener seen in cultivation is R. aureiim, better known as the flowering currant. This, though a black currant, is very different from the two preceding. Its fruit is often large, but produced in few-flowered clusters and ripens singl}^ so that it must be picked one by one. Its flavor, though peculiar, has not the disagreeable twang of the true black currants, but it lacks the quali- ties necessary to a good culinary fruit. Its most recent boom as a fruit -producing plant has been under the name Orandall. Ribes aureiim, R. sang nine urn, and a hybrid between the two, known as R. Gordonianum, are frequently cul- tivated for ornament, the last two being more beautiful but less known than the fii'st. HISTORY The currant is thought to have been unknown to the Greeks and Romans, as no mention of it is found in any of their writings. It seems to have first come prominently^ into cultivation about the middle of the sixteenth century, and according to Sturtevant,* re- ceived its modern improved form within fifty years following. The earlj^ English names "corans" and "currans" are thought to have been derived from the resemblance of the fruit to the little Corinth grapes or *Historj' of the Currant, Trans. Western New York Hort. Soe., 1887: 55. HISTORY OF THE CCRBAyT 377 raisins, these in turn taking their names from Corinth. In England, at times, currants were known as "red gooseberries" and "beyond -sea gooseberries." An equivalent to the latter name, "groseilles d'outre mer," was also applied to them in France. These names indi- cate that, if not native to these countries, the cultivated forms, at least, were received from elsewhere. The Dutch name "over-zee" indicates the same thing. Doctor Sturtevant thinks that the currant was first brought into culture from the northern countries through the Danes and Normans, though DeCandolle appears to doubt this.* The greatest improvement, however, seems to have been in the low countries. All the principal types of the cultivated currants are found in the wild plants, and were reported at an early date. Improvement has only been within a limited range. Culture and fertility often appear to have a greater influence on this fruit than parentage. There are growers who still believe that the old Red Dutch variety is superior to any of the more recent in- troductions. It is undoubtedly true that with good culture it will surpass the newer ones under neglect. Thos. Andrew Knightt was of the opinion that by repeated growth from seed the currant would become sweeter, and perhaps in time, even insipid. The ma- jority of seedlings grown by him from white crossed by red currants were red, but many first turned a color similar to the White Dutch, and then became brighter in color when ripe. He expressed himself as sur- *Origin of Cultivated Plants, 277. tTrans. London Hort. Soc. 3: 86. 378 BUSH-FBUTTS -prised at the range of variation which appeared, it being much greater than he had expected. Nearh' all were mild and sweeter than the red parents, some were insipid, and some even showed a medicinal fla- vor. Experience does not seem to bear out his expec- tations in regard to an increasing sweetness, as the newer varieties are many of them more acid than older ones. D. S. Marvin* reports less tendencj' to sport among currant seedlings than in an\* other fruit with which he has had experience. He also adds that there is little or no tendency to reversion, nearly all seedlings being as good as the parent, except in case of the Fay, seedlings of which commonh' bear smaller fruit than the parent, nearly half of them being white. Perhaps through its long sojourn in the low countries the currant has inherited something of the staid Dutch qualities of the inhabitants, and does not readily depart from long established customs. Yet no fruit, however stable, can long resist the influences of persistent and systematic breeding, and the currant has received too little attention in this line. There is no need that the currant should depart widely from the present types, for there is nothing wrong with them. A steady improvement along these same lines, with perhaps a limited reduction in acidity, is all that is needed, and there is no reason why this should not go on as long as horticulture exists. The lists in this chapter and the next are intended to catalogue all the varieties of currants and gooseber- ries known in this country up to the close of 1897. *Ainer. Garden, 11: 716. VABIETI±]S OF CURRANTS 379 RED AND WHITE CURRANTS (Bihes rnhrum) Attracior. — A variety from France. Plant moderately vigorous, with remarkably deep-lobed, sharply and deeply serrated leaves. Fruit medium to large, yellowish white. Bunches short. Bertin Seedling. — Appears in the catalogue of the American Pomological Society for 1869. Boston Lady. — Mentioned as a white variety, with fruit unusually large, bearing profusely, a quart having been picked from twelve inches of a single stem. — Gar. Month. 1860: 250. Bronze. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine for 1861, p. 101, as having been under discussion at the meeting of the American Pomological Society. Buist Long-hunched. — Originated by Robei't Buist of Phila- delphia, Pa. Described as a strong, vigorous grower, very pro- ductive. Fruit large, deep red, similar to Red Dutch in flavor. Bunches long and tapering. Leaves large and very thick. Caywood Seedling. — A seedling received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station from A. J. Caywood & Son, of Marlboro, N. Y. Described as a moderate grower, with spreading or drooping branches, very productive. Fruit more acid than the White Grape, of good quality, attractive, translucent, tinged with pale greenish yellow. Bunches of medium size, about two and one-half inches long. Berries large. Champagne (Pheasant's Eye, Grosellier a Fruit Couleur de Chair). — Of foreign origin. Described as vigorous and productive. Fruit large, acid, not rich, of a delicate reddish pink, like a cross between the red and white, though the wood, foliage, and growth place it at once among the reds. Bunches medium, loose, slightly tapering. Ripens late. Champion. — A white variety, described as tall, vigorous, and up- right, with bunches of medium length. Berries a shade lighter than White Dutch, uneven in size, averaging below medium. In- ferior to W^hite Dutch in appearance, flavor, and qualitv. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 95: 427. Cherry. — This variety was obtained from Italy by M. Adrienne Seneclause, a distinguished horticulturist of France. He received it among a lot of other currants known there under the name Bihes acerifolium. He gave it the name in consequence of the extraordi- nary size of the fruit. It was fruited at the Museum of Natural History in 1843, and from the plants there grown was figured in the "Annales de Flore et de Pomone" for Feb. 1844. (Roe says 380 BUSn-FRCJITS 1848.) It was brought to the notice of fruit-growers in the United States by Dr. William W. Talk, of Flushing, L. I., in 1846.* It was figured in the Horticulturist as a frontispiece to the volume for 1854 ; also in Hovey's Magazine, 1855, p. 425. This is one of the best known varieties at the present day, being largely planted both for market and home use. It is described as vigorous, stocky, and compact when young, but becoming spreading with age. It tends to produce a single stock, not suckering as freely as other kinds. The buds, at or near the ends of the shoots, are often im- perfect or wanting, differing in this respect from the Yersaillaise. Its fruit is borne in short -stemmed clusters close to the wood, which renders it somewhat difficult to pick. Fruit averaging large, though not uniformly so, juicy, and fine flavored. Color bright red. Season early. CUmhing. — One of the most interesting variations in character of plant is a climbing currant reported from Chautauqua Co., N. Y.t The plant was found growing wild in a thicket when quite young, and transferred to the garden. After its climbing propensity became evident it was planted near the house and trained against it, reaching a height of twelve feet or more. It proved to be very productive, the fruit being of excellent quality. It is really not a climber, but produces long and weak branches, which may be secured to a trellis or wall. The fruit is large and red, nearly or quite the size of Fay. (Fig. 67.) Dana White. — A white variety raised in Massachusetts. Bunches long and tapering, with berries as large as Varsaillaise, resembling the White Grape in color and quality. Fuller says that he obtained, from what he supposed to be a reliable source, five distinct varieties under this name. Dr. Brete. — A French variety imported and cultivated by Wil- liam S. Carpenter. Spoken of as a prolific bearer, with a long stem and short bunch. Fruit large, of excellent quality. Illus- trated with a full page engraving in the Horticulturist for 1870, p. 45. Eclipse. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station from H. S. Anderson, of Union Springs, N. Y. Described as a vigorous, upright grower, with bunches of medium length. Fruit varying from small to large, comparatively mild, acid, of good color, somewhat lighter than Fav. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 95 : 419. Fay. — Said to be a seedling of Cherry or Victoria, which origi- nated in 1868 with Lincoln Fay, in Chautauqua county, N. Y. It ♦Horticulturist 1: 439. tAmer. Garden 12: 575. RED AND WHITE CUBBANTS 381 was introduced about 1883, and became widely known and very generally prized, although receiving adverse mention from some quarters. Described as vigorous, though not as strong as Cherry, somewhat spreading, with the lower branches often trailing on the ground. Clusters long, with a good stem between the branch and the fruit, making it easy to gather. Fruit varying from medium to large, uniform in size, of good quality, darker than Red Dutch. K^v'iui/'' rl''^^, .:^'v-''\ \^ Fig. 67. Climbing currant. Pulp less acid than the Cherry. The comments on this variety, made at different times and places, afford interesting reading. Witness the following: One of the few new fruits which justify the rosy promises of the advertiser.— E. Williams, Garden and Forest, 1: 28;j. Additional commendation.— Ibid, 356. More productive than other sorts, with fruit as large and as good, possessing one fault, and that being that the plants tend to develop a trailing habit, the lower branches lying on the ground, curling up at the end.— Ibid, 3: 405. Good size, but not productive enough in Indiana.— Ibid, 6:347. No larger than Cherry and Versaillaise, less productive, and much inferior iu quality.— American Garden, 1888: 300. 382 BUSH-FBUITS Has not been over-praised. — T. Greiuer, American Garden, 1889: 47. Widely successful, but sometimes condemned.— T. H. Hoskins, Ibid, 212. Fay, Red Dutch, and White Grape the only profitable ones.— Ibid, ^4. Not very satisfactory at Ithaca, N. Y.— Ibid, 310. Good on light soil. Better with age. — Ibid, 349. Largest and most proUfic currant we have seen growing.— Pop. Gar., 11: 36. Somewhat deceiving. Has the largest berries, but these contain less pulp and juice than other varieties, hence makes less jelly than smaller currants. Its size largely due to seed development. Strong shoots from the bottom often become loosened by wind or handling.— D. S. Marvin, American Garden, 11: 716. The downward or spreading propensity is natural to this variety, and a decided objection to it. — E. S. Carman. Amer. Gar., 13: 447. One grower holds it up with sticks and slats.— Ibid, 687. A general failure in Michigan. Occasional bushes do well in sheltered places when protected from spring frosts.— Ibid, 378. (From Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept.) The largest, finest and most prolific variety, but blooms too early and suckers badly. The suckers brittle and easily broken.— 111. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1890: 146. Claimed by the originator to be as large as Cherry, with a longer bunch, and producing five times the amount of berries of the Cherry. Had measured berries two inches in circumference.- la. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1880: 414. John Burrows uprooted his plantation of Fays. — la. Hort. Soc. Rept, 1892: 75. The leading favorite, and worthy of all that is said of it.— Annual Rept. Ge- neva CN. Y.) Exp. Sta. 1880: 283. Far ahead of Cherry on light soils, the latter nearlj^ as good on heavy soils. — Ibid. 1891: 472. Especially liable to attacks of the Twig Borer.— T. T. Lyon, Mich. Expt. Sta. Bull. 118:20. Gloire de Sahlons. — Described as upright, vigorous, and only moderately productive. Bunches short. Fruit small, white, striped or splashed with red. Of interest chiefly on this account. Gloucester Bed. Probably an English variety which may never have been introduced in the United States. Described in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture for 1871, p. 188. Gondoin Red (Red Provence). — Said to have been named from the town in France where it originated. Described as of good size, red, later than Red Dutch. By some this is regarded as the same as Red Provence, and is apparently mentioned by Prince under this name in the Horticulturist, Vol. 2, p. 266. In the Gardener's Monthly for 1876, p. 209, the editor, Tliomas Meehan, mentions Raby Castle, May's Victoria, and Imperiale Rouge as synonyms. Imperial Yellow (Imperial Jaune, White Imperial). — Said to be practically identical with White Grape. Knight Early Red. — A variety originated by Thomas Andrew Knight, of England. Knight Large Bed. — Another of Mr. Knight's seedlings. De- scribed as large, bright red, with large bunches, and very pro- ductive. Knight Sweet Bed. — Described as large, dark red, bunch long, tapering. Similar in quality to the Red Dutch but less acid. A vigorous, upright grower, with thick, dark green leaves. BED AXD WHITE CURRANTS 383 La Hative (E.qX\vq de Bertin, La Fertile). — A French variety mentioned by Downing as a failure. Described as vigorous and productive, resembling the Cherry in fruit and cluster, but smaller and not quite so acid. In the Gardener's Monthly for 1876, p. 209, the editor, Thomas Meehan, gives this as a svnonvm of Red Dutch. Lakeicood. — A new red variety on trial in Michigan. Said to be a good grower, but not productive. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 20. London Marl-et. — Mentioned as an English variety imported in- 1878. Described as having racemes of moderate length, thickly set with large, light crimson berries, somewhat resembling Fay, though more delicate in texture, with seeds large and numerous. Firm, transparent, rather sharp acid. — U. S. Dept. Agr. Rept. 1891 : 395. London Bed (Short -Bunched Red). — Described as vigorous, upright, and very productive. Clusters with a very short stem. Fruit medium to large, similar to Red Dutch in quality and color. — Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 95:418. Long-Bunched Holland (Long-Bunched Red[?], Red Dutch Long-Bunched [?]) . — A popular variety in many parts of the West. Described as an upright grower, the young wood reddish in color; productive. Bunches long and full of fruit; ripening late, of moderate size and fair quality, somewhat resembling Victoria. Retains its foliage and fruit later in the season than most varieties. Magmun Bonum. — Mentioned as a red variety, not particularly distinct. — Horticulturist, 1854 :11. Marvin Seedling. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station from D. S. Marvin, of Watertown, N. Y. Described as a moderately vigorous, upright grower. Bunches of medium length. Fruit mild, larger than the White Grape, being one of the largest of the white currants. Resembles White Grape in color, but more acid. Controlled by J. C. Vaughan, of Chicago. — N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95 : 427. Mills No. 20. — On trial at the Geneva (X. Y. ) Experiment Sta- tion. Received from Charles Mills, of Fairmount, N. Y. De- scribed as vigorous, somewhat spreading. Bunches of medium length. Fruit medium to large, rather uniform, color fine, later than Cherry and darker than Prince Albert, less acid than Red Dutch. Said to be a seedling of the Versaillaise crossed by Red Dutch.— N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95:421. Mills No. 22. — Of the same origin and parentage as the above. Described as moderately vigorous, somewhat spreading. Fruit of good quality, later than Fay, variable in size, less acid than Red Dutch.— Ibid. 384 BUSH-FBUITS Mills No. 28. — Of the same origin and parentage as the pre- ceding. Clusters of good size. Fruit of medium size, dark red, mild flavor. — Ibid. Mills No. 20. — Same origin and parentage. Described as vig- orous and upright, with short clusters. Fruit variable, though averaging large, somewhat darker, though better in color than No. 22 ; of good flavor and excellent quality. — Ibid. North Star. — An accidental seedling, introduced by the Jewell Nursery Company of Lake City, Minn. Described as vigorous, upright, or somewhat spreading. Bunches of medium length. Fruit of good color, much like Red Dutch, variable in size, com- paratively mild acid. Reports as to its value vary much. Falluau (Fertile de Palluau). — Mentioned by Downing and Fuller as a French variety of vigorous, upright growth, and pro- ductive. Fruit large, bright red, resembling Red Dutch. Thomas Meehan* gives this as a synonym of Red Dutch. Palmer Sweet Bed. — Mentioned in the Horticulturist for 1824, p. 161, as a fine, long-bunched, large-berried variety of vigorous growth, and productive. Pitmaston Sweet Red. — Mentioned in the same place as the sweetest of all red currants, having short bunches, and small fruit. Said to have been raised by Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston. Pomona. — An Indiana variety, introduced by Albertson «fe Hobbs, of Bridgeport, Indiana. Claimed to be more prolific, with fewer seeds, and sweeter than any other currant ; clear, bright red, about the size of Victoria, easily picked, and hangs a long time on the bushes. Prince Albert. — Described as vigorous, even more upright than Red Dutch, and a very heavy yielder, though a weak grower when young. Bunches short to medium. Fruit medium to large, rather pale red, of poor quality, ripening late. One of the most profit- able varieties, and popular at canneries. Said to retain its foliage late like the Long-Bunched Holland. Red Cross. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Station from Jacob Moore, of Attica, N. Y., who states that it is a cross be- tween Cherry and White Grape. Described as vigorous and up- right. Bunches of medium length. Fruit medium to large, of good color, somewhat lighter than Cherry, milder, though more acid than White Grape. Season somewhat later than Cherry. Controlled by the Green Nursery Company of Rochester, N. Y. Red Dutch (Large -Bunched Red, Long-Bunched Red, Morgan's Red, Groseillier Rouge a Grosse Fruit) .—Meehan* also gives the *Gar. Month. 1876: 209. BED AND WHITE CU BRANTS 385 following list as synonyms of this variety: Fertile, Fertile d'Angleterre, Fertile de Palluau, Fertile de Bertin, La Hative, Hative de Bertin, Bertin No. 9, Belle de St. Gilles, Chenonceaux, Grosse Rouge de Boulogne, Queen Victoria, and Red Grape. One of the oldest and best known varieties. It is still retained by some growers in the West, and perhaps elsewhere, as more valu- able than any of its younger competitors. A strong grower, rather tall, upright, with comparatively slender shoots, productive. Fruit of fine color and sprightly flavor, but not large. Red Grape. — Mentioned by Fuller as having foliage not shining, as with the Red Dutch. Ruhy. — Raised by Jacob Moore, the originator of the Brighton Grape, from seed of the Cherry believed to have been crossed by White Grape. Described as not equal to Versaillaise or Cherry in size, but with larger bunches and better fruit; productive. Pro- fessor Troop, of Indiana, reports it as decidedly the best currant they have. Select. — Said by T. T. Lyon to lack in vigor and productive- ness.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 20. Short- Bunched Red. — Mentioned by Downing as much like Red Dutch, with shorter bunches. Stewart ('5 Seedling). — A Minnesota variety, mentioned as not having received its share of notice. Said to be the handsomest in bush and berry of any variety grown in that state. A vigorous, upright grower, prolific and hardy. Fruit somewhat hidden by the leaves, large, borne in good sized bunches, remaining a long time after ripening without injurv. — Ann. Rept. Minn. Exp. Sta. 1888:235. Storrs ^- Harrison Co.'s No. 1. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station for trial from Storrs & Harrison Company. Described as moderately vigorous, upright. Bunches of medium size. Fruit small to medium, much like Red Dutch in color, but less acid. — Bull. 95:422. Striped Fruited (Silver Striped). — An old German variety. Mentioned by Downing and Fuller as being distinctly striped, but small, a poor bearer, and of no value except as a curiosity. Transparent (Transparent White, Transparent Blanc). — A French variety mentioned by Downing and Fuller. Said to be a seedling of the White Grape, and to resemble that variety so closely as to be practically identical. Versaillaise {La) (Versailles, Macrocarpa, Fertile d'Angers, La Caucase, Caucasian). Originated by M. Bertin, of Versailles, from seed of the Cherry currant, and so similar to that variety that it has frequently been confounded with it. As grown at the 386 BUSE-FRUITS Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, it is less productive than the Cherry, with rather darker fruit, though generally regarded as more productive. The tendency of the shoots to "go blind," that is, to lack either the terminal buds or those near the tip, is said to be less common with this variety than with the Cherry, This is one of the best known market currants, and very generally prized. E. P. Powell says* that the true Versaillaise is not unlike Fay in size and color, a rather more upright grower, with a long, fine stem, enormously productive. Flavor almost like Fay. Victoria (May's Victoria, Goliath, Raby Castle, Red Grape, Houghton Castle, Wilmot's Red Grape). Said to have been known in Hexham and New Castle as the Hougliton Castle currant. Sent from there to Raby Castle, whence it was procured by Mr. May, of Leaming Lane, and advertised by him as May's Victoria. One of the most reliable red currants known. Described as a very strong grower, upright, very productive. Professor Beach saysf: "The buds have a peculiar grayish color, quite characteristic of this variety, as is also the cluster of well formed buds at the end of the shoot." Foliage rather pale green. Fruit bright red, medium or above in size, mildly acid, late in coloring, but will keep on the bushes in good condition later than either Cherry or Red Dutch. Less liable to attacks of the currant borer than most other sorts. This variety, the Long-Bunched Holland and Prince Albert seem to belong to a somewhat distinct class, being able to retain their leaves and fruit better than most sorts. Warner'' s Bed Grape, Warrior^ s Grape. — English varieties men- tioned in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, Vol. 9, p. 188. Per- haps synonyms of other sorts. White Dutch (White Crystal, White Clinton, Reeves' White, Morgan's White, White Antwerp, W^hite Leghorn, Clarke's Sweet, White Holland, White Pearl). Very similar to Red Dutch in habit. Bush vigorous, upright and productive. Fruit variable in size, translucent, slightly darker than White Grape, mildly acid; quality excellent, very rich and sweet. A well known old sort. White Grape (White Antwerp, Imperial White[?], Imperial Blanc). — Probably the best known and finest white currant grown. Described as moderately vigorous, rather slender, somewhat spreading, productive. Bunches long, berries quite uniformly large, translucent, whitish, attractive, mild in flavor and of fine quality. E. P. Powell says* that it was long before he secured the genuine White Grape. This he considers to be absolutely the *Gar. and Forest 7: 188. tGeneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull., 95: 424. RiJD AND WHITE CUBRANTS 387 finest white currant grown. The fruit is large, handsome, clear in color, entirely unlike the creamy color of the more common so- called white currants. White Imperial. — A variety strongly recommended by S. D. Willard, of Geneva, N. Y. Said to be by far the sweetest currant known, the difference in that respect being like that of the sweet and sour cherry. Clusters and berries of good size. White Pearl. — Mentioned and described, in Hovey's Magazine, Vol. 17, p. 217, as raised by Eemi Wilquet near Brussels. Per- haps not introduced in America. Fuller gives this name as a synonym of White Dutch. White Provence. — Mentioned by Downing, Prince, and Fuller. Said to be a strong, upright variety, with leaves more or less silvered at the edge. Fruit large, yellowish white. Not so pro- ductive as White Grape, though one of the most vigorous white varieties grown. White Versaillaise. — Said to have been raisen by M. Bertin, of Versailles, France. At the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station it is vigorous, upright, easily picked. Bunches long ; berries large, slightly darker than White Grape. Wilder. — A seedling of the Versaillaise which originated about twenty years ago with E. Y. Teas, of Irvington, Ind., who named and disseminated it to a limited extent. Later the stock was sold to S. D. Willard, of Geneva, N. Y., who catalogued it as "Presi- dent Wilder." Said by him to be the most productive currant which he has tried. Described as vigorous, upright. Fruit large, but not so uniform as Fay, of fine color, lighter than Fay, remain- ing bright and attractive until very late in the season. Flavor mild, quality good. Very promising, giving evidence of coming to be a standard (Fig. 68). Many of the varieties mentioned in this list doubt- less should be placed as synonyms. Others may have only received mention or have been little known in the United States. No attempt has been made to in- clude European varieties unless they are known to have received attention here. The following were mentioned as English varieties in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, Vol. 9, p. 220: Bang Down, Lander's New Red, Great Eastern, and Garibaldi. 388 BUSH-FRUITS Fig. 68. Wilder. CXutural size, medium cluster j EUROPEAN BLACK CURRANTS (Eibes nigrum) Baldwin. — Described as moderately vigorous and productive. Fruit variable, averaging medium. Flavor milder than that of the Common Black, ripening several days later. Bang Up. — Mentioned by Downing as a variety similar, and in no way superior, to the Black English. Black Grape (Ogden's Black Grape). — A vigorous grower, but unproductive. Fruit variable, strong flavored. Black Naples. — One of the best known English sorts. Vigor- ous, moderately productive. Fruit variable, strong flavored. Dovrning says it blooms earlier than the Common Black, but ripens later (Fig. 69). BLA CK C UEEA NTS 389 Broicn- Fruited (Green -Fruited, Eussian Green). — An English variety having the wood, foliage and growth of the Common Black, with greenish brown fruit when ripe. Berries dry, hard, rank flavored and worthless. Champion. — Described as of dwarf, upright habit, fairly produc- Fig. 69. Black Naples. tive. Fruit of large size, borne in short clusters, mild flavored, and more desirable than the Common Black. Common Black (Black English). — Described as vigorous and productive, of spreading habit. Fruit medium to large, the clus- ters ripening evenly. Pulp rather acid and strong flavored. Dwarf Black. — Mentioned in the Horticulturist for 1854, p. 1G2, as of more dwarf habit than the other blacks, with bunch and berry equal to Black Naples. Lee (Lee's Prolific).— Bush dwarfish, moderately vigorous, pro- ductive. Fruit rather brighter in color than most kinds, but not much of an improvement, if any, over the Black Naples. Prince of Wales. — Origin Ontario. Bush vigorous and produc- 390 BUSH-FRUITS tive, giving the highest yield of all black eurrants at Geneva, N. Y. Fruit variable in size, milder in flavor than the Common Black, nearly sweet when fully ripe. 5aHH<7ers.— Originated by William Saunders, of Ontario. De- scribed as vigorous and productive. Variable in size, rather mild. Fairly well disseminated and promising in Canada. Another variety originated by Professor Saunders, and received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Station as Saunders's No. 2, is reported to have little value. THE GOLDEN OR BUFFALO CURRANT (Ribes aureum) CrandaU. — The best known variety of this species at the present time, although the plants sent out under that name differ so much that they are supposed to have been only seedlings. Like the forms found in unnumbered door-yards, and every where known as the Flowering Currant, this is a tall, vigorous, upright bush. Although apparently productive, the average yield per bush at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station for three years was less than one pound. The fruit has a tough skin and such a peculiar flavor that it is little prized. Descret. — Another named variety of this species. Mentioned by Fuller, who says it is highly valued by the Mormons of Salt Lake City, whence he received it. Golden. — Apparently a variety of the western representative of this species, Bibes tenuiflorum, since it is described by Fuller as "large, round, deep golden yellow, very acid, and slightly bitter. Flowers yellow. Of no value for its fruit, but might be improved. Native of the Rocky Mountains and a variety of Bibes aureum." Jelly. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station from R. H. Blair & Company, Kansas City, Mo., being selected plants of this species obtained in western Kansas. Found to be of larger size and more productive than Crandall. This species has often been known under the name Missouri Currant. It has also appeared at times under other names, such as Utah, Utah Hybrid, etc. THE AMERICAN BLACK CURRANT {Bibes Americanum) This species is almost unknown in cultivation, yet Fuller men- tions one variety under the name Sweet-fruited Missouri, which he describes as large, black, roundish ovoid. Bunches small, VARIETIES TO PLANT 391 containiTig few berries of sweet, musky flavor. He says that it is a slight improvement upon the common wild black currant, which may be fonnd in almost any low, moist woods. RECOMMENDED VARIETIES For a general -purpose currant, the Victoria is prob- ably most popular. The Red Dutch is too small, but succeeds well on the Plains. Cherry and Versailles are standard varieties for large size. Fay is to be recommended when given extra good care. Prince Al- bert is very productive, and excellent for jelly and can- ning; very sour. Wilder is one of the most promising recent varieties. White currants are little grown for market. For dessert use, White Imperial is best, but White Grape is the most popular variety-. Beach makes the following summary of varieties of currants : * "The yields of the red currants at this station that are in full bearing may be compared by consulting the following table, which shows the average yield per plant in pounds for the last three seasons combined: Average yield Name per plant Cherry 5.15 Fay ; 4.70 Gloire des Sablons 2.07 London Red 7.14 ^ Prince Albert 8.86 Victoria 6.25 "It appears from this table that for this locality, at *Bull. 25, N. Y. state Exp. Sta. 392 Busn-FBuiTS least, the Cherry is superior to Fay in productiveness, and it still holds its place as one of the most desirable of the large -fruited red currants for the commercial grower. Faj' yields the longer bunches, more uniformly large fruit, and its fruit is more easil}' picked than Cheny, but it does not make as satisfactory a bush nor give as satisfactory a yield. Both these varieties need to be marketed comparatively early. They will not remain on the bushes in good condition for shipping as late as will Victoria, Prince Albert or Wilder. As to the comparative value of different varieties for jam and jell3% Curtice Brothers Co., Rochester, N. Y., who operate a very extensive establishment for preserving and canning fruits, write us that Cherry currant is preferred for jam because it is thin-skinned and juicy; but not so for jelly making, for the reason that it is necessary to evaporate awaj^ more of its juice to pro- duce jell}^ than it is with some other varieties. The currant that is preferable, they say, is the largest one that has a thin skin and is filled with rich juice or pulp, and thej^ believe this is true of Fay and Prince Albert above other varieties. London Red, also called Short Bunched Red, is objectionable, on account of its short clusters and fruit close to the wood, but has the merit of being one of the most productive of the red kinds that have been tested here. It ripens about with Red Dutch. The Red Dutch was not included in the above list, because the bushes under test were unsatis- factory. It is one of the best of the mid -season, me- dium-sized red currants. Prinae Albert and Victoria are both valued as productive late currants. The VARIETY SCTMMABY 393 former, when well grown, will pass for a large currant. The fruit is paler and less attractive than CherrJ^ Victoria is a good late currant, but it ranks only me- dium in size. Prince Albert was the most productive during the last three years of all the kinds thus far tested, having an average yield during the last three years of 8.86 pounds per bush. White Dutch was the most productive of the white, and Prince of Wales the most productive of the black kinds tested. Individual varieties in the different classes vary much in produc- tiveness, but the most productive black currants do not equal in yield the most productive red or white kinds. It is estimated that on account of their being less pro- ductive, one would need to realize from one and a half to two cents per pound more for the black as a class, than for the red or white currants." CHAPTER XV* VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES The gooseberries cultivated for fruit nearly all belong to two closely related species, Rihes grossularia of Europe and RWes oxyacanthoides of North America. These species are so much alike that if we were accus- tomed to take a broader view of the plants of the world and the influences which affect them, we might easily consider them a single species, and their differences due to climate and location rather than to inherent charac- teristics. As elsewhere stated, the horticultural differ- ences are more marked than the purely botanical dif- ferences. The European species has been long in cul- tivation and its fruit greatly improved, at least in size and appearance, while the American, being j^oung in cultivation, is far behind in size, though superior in qualit}'. The English varieties all have a thick, rough skin, that detracts from their value, and they are even more sour than our own. The susceptibility of Eng- lish varieties to mildew, which has been the chief cause of their failure in the United States, is really the most prominent distinction between the two spe- cies at the present time. The European type is essen- tially a stocky and close grower (Fig. 70), whereas the American type is a slender and open grower (Fig. 71). (394) Fig. 70. Industry, the European type. *» M,^'^^ % Fig. 71. Pale Red, the American type. 396 BUSH-FBUITS HISTORY AND FUTURE Like the currant, the gooseberry appears not to have been known to the ancients, and it is uncertain when it first began to receive garden culture. Although long common among the hedges and woods of England, it is thought \>Y most authors not to have been indigenous. It is reported, as first mentioned by British authors, about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Geo. W. Johnson* states that Tusser, in his "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry," published during 1557, mentions the gooseberry as then among garden fruits. Johnson's edition of Gerarde's Herbal, published in 1636, says: "There be divers sorts of the gooseberries, some greater, others lesse; some round, others long, and some of a red color. ^ * -i^ The sorts of goose- berries are these: the long greene, the great yellowish, the blew, the great round red, the long red, and the prickl}' gooseberry." The further statement is made that "These plants doe grow in London gardens and elsewhere in great abundance." Under the heading of names, the statement is that "this shrub hath no name among old Writers, who as we deeme knew it not, or else esteemed it not; the later writers call it in Latine, Grossularia, and oftentimes of the berries, Uva Crispa, JJva spina, Uva spinella, and Uva Crispina; in French, Groiselles; in English, Goosebeny, Goosebeny bush and Fea- berry bush in Cheshire, my native country." This latter name was also known in other parts of Eng- land, being abbreviated into Feabes or Fapes in some *The Cucumber and Gooseberry, p. 103. HISTORY OF THE GOOSEBERRY 397 localities. Most authors have thought that the name gooseberry was derived from the fruit having been first used as a sauce with "green goose." Others doubt this. Geo. W. Johnson says:* "It is somewhat unfortunate for this derivation that it has never been so used. It seems to me more probable to be a corruption of the Dutch name Kruisbes, or Gruisbes. Kruisbes, I be- lieve, was derived from Kruis, the Cross, and Bes, as Berry, because the fruit was ready for use just after the Festival of the Invention of the Holy Cross; just as Kruis -haring, in Dutch, is a herring caught after the same festival."! Loudon states t that the first marked improvement in size was made by the Dutch. But its present re- markable development has been brought about largely by the efforts of the Lancashire weavers. The pro- duction of new varieties, and the increase in size, has been greatly stimulated by the annual shows or "goose- berry prize meetings," at which liberal prizes are offered for the largest fruits. The results of these are pub- lished in the Gooseberry Annual, now forming an ex- tensive set. At the beginning of the century the largest fruits seldom exceeded 10 dwts. in weight, but in recent years they frequently exceed 30 dwts. Size is not the only quality sought; some sorts are prized for their flavor, some for their beauty, and others for their productiveness. There is also a wide diversity in the season of ripening among different sorts. *1. e. 109. tAn excellent early account of the gooseberries, -with colored plates, is Thory's "Monographie on histoire naturelle du genre Groseillier," Paris, 1829.— L. H. B. tArl)oretum et Fruiticetum, 2: 973. 398 BUSH-FBUITS The history of the American gooseberry in cultiva- tion began with the Houghton, which was raised from seed of a wild plant by Abel Houghton, of Lynn, Mass., in 1833. It is significant that the most reliable American sort, and the one most generallj- cultivated at the present time, is but one generation removed from this, being a seedling of it. What the gooseberry of the future will be no one can say, but it is certain to be largely what we make it. It seems safe to predict that it will not come from England. Adaptability to climate, with consequent resistance to disease, and quality of the fruit, are in favor of American species. We have given the gooseberry too little attention, and much of that has been on the wrong basis in trying to develop seedlings of the English varieties. The gooseberry as now grown is objectionable on account of its thorns. Yet there are forms comparatively free from these uncomfortable additions, and careful, persuasive treat- ment ought to induce the plants to relinquish them altogether. An English varietj- has been recently introduced which is said to be thornless. The fruit of our species is, in most cases, perfectlj' smooth, while that of the English gooseberry is roughly pubescent, if not hairy or prickly also. There are at least three other species, RWes Cynos- hati, R. rotund if olium and B. gracile, which might well receive attention in the way of selection and crossing, with a view to future development. All have good points to recommend them. The fruit of Ribes Cynos- bati is commonly much larger than that of R. oxya- VABIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES 399 canthoides, in the wild state, and while generally prickly, is often smooth. The fruit of R. rotundi- folium is small but agreeable, and the plants are very productive, while R. gracile is found all over the Plains, and is, therefore, well adapted to that region. AMERICAN GOOSEBERRIES Chiefly Rihes oxyacanthoides The American varieties have vigor, hardiness, ease of propagation, and superior qualitj' to recommend them, being inferior only in size, which must steadily improve as selection and breeding go on. Apex.— A variety from Oregon. Said to be a native seedling, though somewhat resembling the European type in growth and general appearance.— T. T. Lyon, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118:23. Champion. — Said to have originated with O. Dickinson, Salem, Oregon. Plant upright, prolific. Fruit large, uniform, transparent, with tender skin. Said to endure neglect well, and to be an excel- lent shipper. Popular in Indiana. Downing. — The great American gooseberry. More widely grown and more generally prized than any other known sort. Originated by Charles Downing at Newburg, N. Y., from seed of the Hough- ton. Pure seedlings of this variety grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, while not generally closely resembling the parent, seem, in some cases, to indicate a mixture of foreign blood, so that Professor Beach is led to consider this a hybrid between the American and European gooseberry. Downing describes it as upright, vigorous and productive. Fruit somewhat larger than Houghton, roundish oval, whitish green, with the rib-veins dis- tinct. Skin smooth ; flesh rather soft, juicy, very good. Excel- lent for family use. It has seldom mildewed in the United States, and succeeds over a wide area. Houghton is said to be sometimes sold for this variety because more easily propagated. The fruit must be picked very soon after reaching full size, for it ripens quickly and becomes too soft for handling or shipment. In quality it is superior to the European varieties, and surpassed by few, if any, native sorts. 400 BUSH-FBUITS Excelsior. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station from J. H. Haynes, of Delphi, Indiana, with whom it originated. A strong grower ; fruit light green, roundish, smooth. Hohhs Seedling. — A variety mentioned by Downing. Thought to have been originated by O. J. Hobbs, of Randolph, Pa. De- scribed as light pale green, roundish, slightly oval, of medium firmness, a good keeper, and nearly one-half larger than Hough- ton. Houghton, — Grown from seed in 1833 by Abel Houghton, of Lynn, Mass., who planted Crown Bob, White Smith, White Rock and Red Champion, with a native plant from the woods in the cen- ter. One plant only was saved, the Houghton. This was the first American variety introduced, and is still one of the best flavored, most hardy and productive, though too small. It is generally re- garded as a pure native, but the account of its origin, and experi- ments made at Geneva, N Y. , by growing seedlings from two of its seedlings. Smith and Downing, indicate that it is a hybrid be- tween the American and European species. The bush is rather slender and drooping in habit. The fruit small, handsome, dark red, with a whitish bloom, thin skinned, smooth, juicy, sweet, and of excellent quality. Hudson. — Raised by Joseph H. Ricketts, and said to be of fine quality, larger than Downing, free from mildew. Its style of growth and freedom from mildew led him to think it was an American or a cross-bred variety. Foliage thick and glossy, but liable to drop some before the fruit is past. Hard to propagate. — Gar. Month. 1880:303. Jewett. — Received at the United States Division of Pomology from George H. Andrews, Clarkson, N. Y. A chance seedling found in a pasture. Described as large, oblong, whitish green, changing to blotched and stippled red. Seeds numerous, large, light brown. Flesh purplish. Pulp moderately firm, juicy, sub- acid, rich ; season early. — Report of the United States Pomologist 1894:27. Orange (Engle's Yellow!). — Said to ripen seven to ten days earlier than other sorts. Described as a strong grower on almost any soil, but needs heavy pruning. A good bearer. Fruit about the size of Houghton, rich golden yellow, fine flavored and very sweet. Pale Eed (American Red, American Seedling, Robert's Sweet- water, Ohio Seedling, Dutch Joe, Ohio Prolific, St Clair [Ameri- can] Cluster.) — A variety of unknown origin which has long been in cultivation. Frequently known as Cluster or American Cluster. It appears to be of pure Bibes o.vyacanthoides parentage. The bush is a strong grower, with slender wood, very productive. AAfERICAN GOOSEBJiJRBIES 401 Fruit small or medium, darker in color than Houghton, tender, sweet and good. One of the oldest cultivated varieties. Pearl. — Originated with Professor William Saunders, of Lon- don, Ont., who gives its parentage as Downing crossed with an English variety known as Aston's Seedling. This latter name, however, appears to be a synonym of Red Warrington. The variety resembles Downing so closely, both in bush and fruit, as to be practically indistinguishable, although at Geneva, N. Y., it has proved less productive. Red Jacl'et. — A variety originated more than twenty years ago by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Named and introduced by George S. Josselyn, of Fredonia, N. Y. , who thinks that it was a seedling of Houghton crossed by Red Warrington, which would make it a hybrid between Eibes oxyacanthoides and Bihes Grossularia. It is a strong grower and productive, somewhat larger and a better shipper than the Pearl, though not quite so good a cropper, The fruit is large, roundish or elongated, reddish green shading into red, smooth, quite transparent when ripe ; skin rather tender. Flesh juicy, rich, fragrant, of good quality. Smith. — Originated by Dr. Smith, of Windsor, Vt., from seed of the Houghton. Professor Beach, of Geneva, N. Y. , says* that, like that variety, it shows indications of being a hybrid between the American and European species. Seedlings of Smith crossed with Pale Red, which is thought to be a pure American variety, have occasionally shown marked European characteristics, while none of the pure seedlings of Pale Red have ever given such indications. It is described as a vigorous grower, with somewhat curving canes and slender branches. Foliage firmer and more leathery than that of Downing, with a more glossy surface. Fruit dull, pale green, sometimes spotted with red, and having a light bloom. Skin smooth, thin. Pulp sweet and good. Sfruhler. — Seedlings originated by Phil. Strubler, of Naperville, 111., have been sent out under this name, with different numbers attached. Nearly all of them are seedlings of Downing or Smith. They are described by Professor Beach, in Bull. 3 14 of the Geneva (N. Y. ) Experiment Station, and have also been mentioned in re- ports of the United States Pomologist. Tree. — A variety mentioned by T. T. Lyon, in Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118:23, as apparently a native. Vigorous, healthy, with red fruit. Victoria.— ^Lent'ioned in the Gardener's Monthly for 1870, p. 156, as a small, smooth variety. Thorns not numerous, but sharp. *Bull. 114:19. 402 BCSH-FBUITS inclined to bend over. This description ^A'ould seem to indicate an American variety. Hybrids or Unclassed Varieties Cedar Rill. — A variety mentioned in the report of the U. S. Pomologist for 1891, p. 394, as received from Dr. A. W. Thornton, West Ferndale, Washington, with whom it originated. Described as a large, oval berry, with long, adhering flower parts, and a few scattering prickles. Skin thin. Pulp quite rich. Said by its originator to be an upright grower, of good size, very prolific, as much so as Champion or Houghton. Perfectly mildew proof in Washington. The clause "with long, adherent flower parts, and a few scattering prickles" would seem to indicate that this may be a seedling of some western species. Crystal. — Received at the Geneva (X. Y. ) Experiment Station from J. M. Ogle, of Puyallup, Wash. Professor Beach says"^ that this variety appears to be a hybrid between the European goose- berry and some American species, possibly Eibes Cynosbati, its European parentage being indicated by the general appearance and character of the fruit, which is pubescent, like the European varieties. Its canes, however, are tall and slender, and the leaves thin, the buds, too, being shorter than those of Eibes Grossularia. He reports it as the most productive variety on their grounds dur- ing a period of four years, but hardly desirable, owing to its dull green color and poor flavor. The fruit is slightly larger than Downing, but rather soft when ripe. Hale Golden. — Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, p. C46, as on trial at the Rural grounds. Mountain. — A variety which originated with the Shakers, of Lebanon, N. Y. Bush tall and productive, with slender, sprawl- ing branches, which need close pruning. Fruit dull, brownish purple, somewhat larger than Downing, oblong, smooth, with a thick skin, moderately juicy and sweet. Professor S. A. Beach sayst that this variety is of special interest, as being the only known representative of Bibes Cynosbati which has found its way into cultivation, being clearly a hybrid between this and a Euro- pean species. The long, slender, solitary spines, the tall canes, sprawling branches, dull brown purplish color of the fruit, and the very dark green pulp are like Cynosbati, as are also the beauti- ful brown and red color of its autumn foliage which is quite unlike the yellow or occasional brown tints of the European kinds. The *Geneva (X. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 114:16. fGeneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 114:18. ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES 403 fruit is very large for an American variety, and its thick, smooth skin indicates foreign parentage, the fruit of Cynosbati having a thin skin usually beset with prickles The glossy upper surface, and somewhat leathery texture of the foliage, and comparative short, thick, buds are also inherited from the European parent, Cynosbati having slender buds, with soft, pubescent leaves, neither leathery nor glossy. KeiceU Seedling. — A variety mentioned in the Report of the Illinois Horticulture Society for 1890, p. 59, as on exhibition in a preserving solution. Said to be large, of fine appearance, hardy, and free from mildew. Nothing is given which would indicate its parentage. •■ Oregon Juml)o. — A variety offered by the J. T. Lovett Company, of New Jersey, and described as "monstrous, and excelling all others. Superb in appearance and flavor. Vigorous, productive, hardy, and reliable. Fruit smooth, pale green, of high quality." This description does not make clear its parentage. Stein. — Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, p. 646, as "a cross between Houghton and an old German variety." ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES Ribes Grossularia The subjoined list includes only those English va- rieties which are, or have been, most prominently known in the United States, following chiefly those which are mentioned by Professor S. A. Beach, of the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, in his Bull- etin No. 114, as most promising. Gooseberries, and especially the English varieties, have received much attention at this station. The opinions of Professor Beach are, therefore, worthy of especial considera- tion. Lindley's "Guide to the Orchard," published in 1830, enumerates nearly one thousand varieties, and many more have been produced since then. Some of these have found their way across the water and have appeared in the United States, usually only to sue- 404 BUSH-FEUITS Climb to that inveterate enemy, mildew, and pass into oblivion. To attempt to describe all these varieties wonld be as futile as useless. Blucher. — Grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, and described as very large, dark red, oblong or roundish oblong, nearly smooth,* with thin skin, sweet, of very good flavor. Bush Fig. 72. Chautauqua gooseberry a strong grower, apparently productive, with but little mildew. Worthy of trial. Chautauqua. — Introduced by Lewis Roeseh of Fredonia, N. Y., being a chance seedling found in a garden in Dunkirk, N. Y. Said to be a vigorous grower and generally healthy, though some- times mildewing. Fruit large, roundish oblong, smooth, pale green, of best quality. A pron^ising variety for home use, though somewhat lacking in productiveness (Fig. 72). *The term "smooth," as used in describing English gooseberries, should be understood to mean free from hairs, for the skin of these varieties has a roughness to the touch quite different from that of the American varieties. EXGLISH GOOSEBEBBIES 405 *■ ' 4 J Columbus gooseberry. Columlus.—lntvodueed by Ellwanger & Barry, of Eocliester, N. Y. A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit large, oblong or roundish oblong, white or greenish yellow, sweet, of best quality. Possibly the same as Triumph (Fig. 73). Crown Boh. — A variety long known in England as desirable either for home use or market. Bush dwarfish, but vigorous and productive. Fruit medium to large, nearly round, dark red, nearly smooth, almost sweet, of good quality, similar to Industry in color, but somewhat smaller ; quite subject to mildew, less 406 B USH-FB HITS vigorous and less productive than Industry. It was figured in Volume I of the Horticulturist, p. 449. Dominion .—'Received at the Geneva (N, Y.) Experiment Sta- tion from E. C. Pierson of Waterloo, N. Y. Described as vigor- ous and promising. Fruit large, pale greenish white, nearly transparent, with a thin skin for fruit of this class, sweet, and of good quality. Excellent.— Fvomising at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta- tion. A strong grower, somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit medium to large, round and nearly smooth, light red, sweet, very good. Fro7itenac.—Fy.Qceiyed at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Sta- tion from H. S. Anderson, of Union Springs, N. Y. Said to be a strong grower. Fruit large, oblong, smooth, pale green, sweet, good. ^j ■"■^''' GraciJla. — Mentioned in The Rural New- ■-: ^^ Yorker, 1897, p. 646, as a promising variety M^i - ^ of the English type received from L. H. vf jL Hovsradt, Pine Plains, N. Y. , in the spring J; ■ ;^ of 1895. ^i- T Hedgehog (Improved Earlj^. — A vigorous /^ grower, productive, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit below medium size, nearly '^ ._ / round, somewhat hairy, yellowish green, •' '-"-'^ sweet, of fair quality Huntsman. — Said to be a strong grower, p. -i^^t'^i ,+ • - ^^^ apparently productive, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, pale green, sweet, good. Industry (Whinham's Industry). — One of the best known and generally successful European varieties. Vigorous, productive, somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit medium to large, varying from pear shape to roundish oblong, smooth, or with very few minute prickles, dark red, mild subacid or sweet, of good flavor. Said to be very hard to propagate in the United States. George S. Josselyn says:* "All the Industry plants I have ever seen were started in Europe." This, he thinks, is a stronger indication that it is not adapted to our climate. (Fig. 74.) JoUy Angler. — Vigorous, and apparently productive. Fruit medium to large, oblong or roundish oblong, smooth, light green, sweet, good. *Rural New-Yorker 1896:575. EXGLISn GOOSEBEBBIES 407 Keepsake. — A strong grower, promising to be productive, some- what subject to mildew. Fruit medium or above, nearly round, smooth, greenish white, sweet or nearly so, very good. Lady Popham. — A moderate grower, productive, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, yellow, very sweet, good. A good variety for exhibition purposes. Lancashire Lad. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, nearly round, dark red, almost wine color, slightly hairy, of good quality, subacid or nearly sweet. Leveller. — A moderate grower, mildewing but slightly, and promising to be productive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, yellowish, slightly acid, good. Lord Beaconsfield . — A good grower, promising to be productive, somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit below medium size, nearly round, green, smooth, sweet and good. Matchless. — A strong grower, promising to be productive, mil- dewing but slightly. Fruit large, oblong, green, slightly hairy, sweet, very good. Portage. — A variety received at the United States Division of Pomology from A. H. House, Mantua Station, Ohio. Described in the report for 1891, p. 395. Also described, and illustrated by a colored plate, in the report for 1894. Said to be a chance seedling found in 1874. Fruit solitary, evenly distributed, large to very large, oblong oval ; surface moderately smooth, dull, slightly downy, with an occasional prickle. Color yellowish green, with bronze dots near stem, and a long suture on some specimens. Flesh translucent, greenish, quite firm ; pulp melting, moderately juicy. A good shipper. Flavor mild subacid, rich, quality good. Puyallup (Puyallup Mammoth). — The original bush is said to have been dug in 1881, at an old Indian camp on the bank of the Puyallup River, one mile below the town of that name, by W. M. Lee and his wife, of Taeoma, Wash. Introduced by J. M. Ogle, in 1887. Said to be a fairly strong grower, rather late in ripening. Fruit large, pale green, smooth, sweet, of good quality. Men- tioned in the Report of the U. S. Pomologist for 1891, p. 395, as apparently identical with Triumph, but Prefessor Beach considers this an error. Queen of the Whites. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit of medium size, nearly round, smooth, pale yellow- ish green, sweet, good. Eed Champagne. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit small to medium, nearly round, slightly hairy, dark red, sweet, and good. This variety was recommended by the American Pomological Society in 1850. 408 BL^Sff-FBCriTS Bed Jacket. — An English variety, entirely distinct from the American Red Jacket. Not a strong grower, but promising to be productive and comparatively free from mildew. Fruit large to very large, and often narrowed toward the stem. Red Warrington (Aston Seedling). — A strong grower, compara- tively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, delicate pale red, hairy, sweet, of best quality. Recommended by the American Pomological Society in 1850. Also mentioned in the Horticulturist, Vol. II, p 341, as the best kind, both in Canada and in England. Said to ripen late and to hang long on the bushes without injury. Smiling Beauty. — A good grower. Fruit medium to large, nearly round, greenish yellow, sweet, of best quality. Spineless. Recently introduced in the United States, by C. H. Joosten, of New York City. It is figured in the Gardener's Chronicle for July 27, 1895, which says : "They are spineless varieties obtained from seed. The first spineless gooseberry, according to the Revue Horticole, 1892:180, was obtained as a chance seedling by M. Billard about 1860. About 1884, M. Ed. Lefort sowed the seeds of this variety, from which he obtained a race of spineless varieties, several of which are described in the Revue Hoi'ticole, as above cited. The variety we figure is a dwarf form, very productive, and with fruit of good flavor. It is the form described and figured by M. Carriere and Madame Edouard Lefort. The varieties are grafted upon Rihes aureum, but the scions soon become free." Whether this desirable novelty will achieve any degree of success in the United States remains to be seen. Stockicell. — A moderate grower. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, light green, sweet, good. Succeed. — A fair grower, promising to be productive, and com- paratively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, yellowish green, sweet, good. Sulphur (Early Sulphur J. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit of medium size, round, nearly smooth, fine yellow color, sweet, good. Placed on the list of the American Pomological Society in 1850. Sunset. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, nearly smooth, yellowish green, sweet, of best quality. Talbj Ho. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, pear-shaped, pale green, nearly smooth, sweet, good. EXGLISH GOOSEBEBBIES 409 Thumper- — A moderate grower, promising to be very produc- tive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, light green, sweet, good. Triumph. — A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew, productive. Fruit large, oblong or roundish, pale yellow, sweet, smooth, good. This variety has received strong commendation from various sources. Mentioned at the meeting of the Western New York Horticultural Society in 1892, as very promising, a stronger grower than Industry and equally productive. In the Fi''. 7.". Whitesmith. report of the American Pomological Society for 1889, p. 120, E. Williams says that it is a great improvement on any other variety that will grow in our climate. Wellington Glory. — The most productive European gooseberry grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit attractive in ap- pearance, medium to large, oblong, smooth, with slight bloom, pale yellow, nearly white, sweet, of very good qualit}'. White Eagle. — Bush a moderate grower, promising to be pro- ductive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, pear-shaped, smooth, greenish white, sweet, good. This variety was exhibited before the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society in 1853. Whitesmith (Woodward's). — A strong grower, somewhat sub- ject to mildew, productive. Fruit medium to large, nearly round. 410 BUSH-FBUITS smooth. Skiu thin and tender for rai English sort, i3ale yellowish green. Pulp sweet, very good. This variety has been long known in the United States. It was recommended both by the New York Agricultural Society and the American Pomologieal Society in 1850. It was figured in the Horticulturist, Vol. I, p. 448, where it is said to be quite as good among the whites as Crown Bob among the reds (Fig. 75). English Varieties Mentioned, but little Known IN THE United States The following varieties, though for the most part little known in the United States, have received men- tion in American literature, and have doubtless all been grown here at one time or another. Both Down- ing and Fuller mention additional varieties of promise Avhich had apparently not been tried on this side the water. No doubt others, not included in this or the preceding list, have also been brought to America without attracting general attention: B. Atlas (Hort. 2:410), Bendelon (Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 22), Bennet's Eureka (Kept. U. S. Pomologist, 1891:394), Bobby (on sale by Fred. E. Young, Eoehester, N. Y. ^, Companion (Hort. 1854:142), Conqueror (Fuller, Small-Fruit Culturist, p. 223), Dr. Woolley (for sale by Fred. E. Young, Rochester, N. Y.), Early Kent (Gar. Month. 1875:207), Echo (Hort. 1854:142), Green Globe (Fuller), Green Willow (Hort. 1854:142), Hunt's Tawny (Fuller), Irish (E. P. Powell's best gooseberry for CO years. — Gar. and For. 7:278), Jolly Printer (Hort. 2:410), Large Crystal (Fuller), Late Emerald (Gar. Month. 1877: 275.— Roe, Success with Small Fruits), Red Walnut (Fuller), Roe's Seedling (Gar. Month. 1876:240.-1877:274), Royal George (Fuller), Royal Sov- ereign (Fuller), Westerman's Favorite ((3^ar. Month. 1869:271), White Dutch (Fuller), White Walnut (Fuller), Yellow Amber (Recommended by B. G. Smith as one of four best English varieties.— Mass. Hort. Soe. Rept. 1883: [Parti] 125). Described by Downing, Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. — Bonny Lass, Bright Venus, British Crown, Bunker Hill, Cheshire ENGLISH GOOSEBEEBIES 411 Lass, Duck Wing, Eai'ly Green Hairy, Glenton Green, Golden Drop, Golden Fleece, Golden Gourd, Green Gage (Amer. Pom. Soc. List, 1850; Hov. Mag. 16:305; Fuller), Green Laurel (Amer. Pom. Soe. List, 1S50; Hov. Mag. 10:305), Green Ocean, Green Prolific, Green Walnut (Fuller; recommended by N. Y. Agr. Soc ; also by Amer. Pom. Soe. in 1850), Greenwood, Heart of Oak, Jolly Tar, Keen Seedling, Lady of the Manor (Hov. Mag. 16:427), Miss Bold, Rifleman, Roaring Lion ( exhibited before the Massachusetts and Buffalo Horticultural Societies in 1852, and before the Penn- sylvania Horticultural Society in 1853; Hov. Mag. 1852:41, 519. — 1853:378), Rockwood, Sheba Queen (Hov. Mag. 16:427), Top Sawyer, Viper, White Honey, White Lion, Yellow Ball, Yellow Champagne (Fuller). Grownat the Geneva (X.Y.) Experimeni Station. — Described in Bul- letin 114. — Alderman, Alice, Antagonist, Apologv, Auburn (Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118:22), Beauty, Berry Early Kent, Bollin Hall, British Queen, Briton, Broom Girl, Bull Dog, Bury Lane, Candi- date, Careless, Catherine, Cheerful, Clayton, Countess of Ams- dale. Crank, Cremore, Criterion, Cypress, Dagwell No. 1, Dan's Mistake, Diadem, Drill, Duck Wing, Duke of Sutherland, Duster, Faithful, Falstaff, Fascination, Flextonia, Flora, Forester, Fo- worius, Foxhunter, Freedom, Galopin, Garibaldi, General, George Ridley, Gipsy Queen, Golborne, Golden Drop, Golden Prolific (Pop. Gar. 4:166), Governor, Great Rock, Greenock, Green Wal- nut (Fuller; recommended by N. Y. Agr. Soc; also by Amer. Pom. Soc. in 1850), Gretna Green, Harriet, Helpmate, Hero of the Nile, Highlander, High Sheriff, Hit or Miss, Hue and Cry, Iron- monger (Fuller; Amer. Pom. Soc. List 1850; Hov. Mag. 16:305), Italy, Jem Mace, Jerry, Jessie, John Anderson, John Hall, Jolly Sailor, Keen Seedling, King of Triumphs, Lady Houghton, Lady Stanley, Largo, Lavinia, Leader, Leviathan, Lion's Provider, Liz- zard, London, Long Barney, Lord Leigh, Lord Rancliffe, Lord Scarborough, Lowton, Major Hibbert, Marlboro, Mary Ann, Miss Chester, Mitchell, Mitre, Monarch, Monument, Mount Pleasant, Mrs. Bowcock, Mrs. Whittaker, Nailor, Nancy, Napoleon le Grand, Nottingham, Overseer, Overall, Peru, Peto, Pilot, Plowboy, Post- man, President, Pretender, Priscilla, Queen Anne, Queen of Tri- umphs, Queen Victoria, Red Robin, Ringer, Roaring Lion (exhib- ited before the Massachusetts and Buffalo Horticultural Societies in 1852, and before the Pennsvlvania Horticultural Society in 1853; Hov. May. 1852:41, 519—1853:378), Rough Red, Rover, "^Rumbul- lion, Shiner, Sir George Brown, Slaughterman, Snowdrop, Speed- well, Sportsman, Stella, Telegraph, Thatcher, Thomas Williams, Thompson Seedling, Tichborne, Transparent, Try Me Oh, Unity, Veteran, Village Green, Viper, Visit, Wakeful, Watson, Weather- cock, White Hare, William Watson, Wonderful, Yaxley Hero. 412 BUSH-FBUITS RECOI^OIENDED VARIETIES The Downing is the one gooseberry to be generally recommended at the present time. Houghton may be able to endure more trjdng conditions, and is often more productive, but is smaller. The English varieties are to be recommended only to those who are willing to inaugurate a vigorous spraying campaign against the mildew. To such the Industry, Wellington Glory, Columbus and Chautauqua are worth}' of consideration. Beach makes the following summary remarks about varieties of gooseberries:^ "So far as we are able to judge at present. Industry', Crown Bob and Lancashire Lad are among the best of the large European kinds to grow for marketing green fruit. Wellington Glory has made an excellent record here, and Whitesmith is also generally considered good and productive, but has not done as well as Wellington Glory. Among the Ameri- can-grown seedlings of the European class which have been fruited here. Dominion and Triumph deserve especial mention as worthy of extended trial. The best of the American class of gooseberries are unexcelled in flavor, qualit}', hardiness and productiveness. They do not have the objectionable thick, tough skin which is common to varieties of the European class, but are inferior to them in size. Downing has long been con- sidered the standard of excellence in the American class. Among the recently introduced varieties of this *Bull. 114. X. y. State Exp. Sta. ORXAMEXTAL GBOSELLES 413 class, the American Red Jacket, Champion and Pearl deserve especial mention." ORNAMENTAL CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES The best known species in this role is the Flowering Currant, Ribes aureum (known also as B. fragrans) ^ so common in eastern gardens. This is a most attrac- tive plant early in spring. It forms a graceful, droop- ing shrub, well adapted to masses or groups. In the early months of summer few plants are more attractive than this, regardless of its bloom, for its foliage is bright and glossy, and the form of the plant perfect. Yet before the middle of August its leaves are mostly gone. Were it not for this defect, few plants would deserve a higher rank for ornament. The most showy plant of the genus is the Fuchsia- flowered Gooseberry, Ribes speciostim, of the Pacific coast. Its flowers are long, bright red and showy, and its foliage small, firm and glossy. Whether good in habit of plant or not, I do not know, nor whether it will thrive well outside the clime of its choice, but its flowers are certainly more attractive than those of many plants far more widely grown for the beauty of their bloom. A plant which has received much more attention for its flowering qualities is the Red -flowered Currant, Ribes sanguineum. It has been frequently grown both in the United States and in Europe, and seems to be everywhere prized. The flowers are rose- colored or reddish purple, borne in long, leafless racemes and 414 B USH-FB UITS produced in great profusion. Unfortunately, it is not entirely hardy in the northern states, needing some protection, which the beauty of its bloom will well repay. A hardier plant is the hybrid between the preceding species and Rilyes aureum, which is commonly known under the name Rihes Gordonianum. This is not so hard}- as Rihes aureum^ but will stand more exposure than Ribes sangumeum. It is intermediate in character between the two j^arents, resembling R. sanguineum in shape of flower, though the flowers are lighter in color and nearly odorless, while the character of bush is more like R. aureum. Although not a common plant, it has been well known, both here and abroad, and fre- quently mentioned in horticultural literature. Several species of the Menziesii group have large, attractive flowers, particularly R. amictum, and R. Cali- fornicum ; also, R. Lohhii. Whether they would prove attractive in habit of plant and sufficiently well adapted to cultivation to give them value, I am unable to say. The common gooseberries may well play a part in systematic ornamental planting for the production of easy and graceful spring effects. Were it not for the habit of early losing their leaves, there would be few plants more useful. R. oxyacantlioides and R. gracile are especially desirable. The native black currant, Rites Americanum, also forms a pretty and graceful shrub, and its flowers are large enough to add to its beauty. CHAPTER XVI INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROSELLES Like all other economic plants, the groselles are subject to attack from insects of divers character, appearance, and habits. Some only take a passing bite, like the schoolboy who devours beech leaves, "sweetbrier," birch, etc., to appease his ceaseless crav- ings in the long hours from meal to meal. Others, indifferently feeding upon whatever plant is available, may at times eat more than we wish. Still others, on evil bent, assiduously seek out our cherished bushes and settle down to a steady diet of groselles with all the persistence characteristic of their race. The list immediately following comprises those most likely to work serious injury. THE LEADING PESTS The Four-lined Leaf-bug Pcecilocapsus lineatus (Fabr.). -Order Hemiptera. Family Capsidae. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 1: 271. Saunders, Ins. Inj. to Fruits, 350 (2nd edition). Cook, Bull. Mich. Exp. Sta. 76: 10. Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 58 : 207-2;]9. Pcecilocapsus 4-vittatus iSaj). Riley, Bull, U. S. Div. Ent. 13:7. Webster, Bull. U. S. Div. Ent. 13 : 54. For complete synon- ymy, see Slingerland, 1. c This is a native insect which was first described by Fabricius in 1798. It came into notice as injurious to dahlias, currants and other plants soon after the middle of the present century, and has never ceased its evil ways from that day to this. Its food plants embrace esculent and ornamental plants and a few weeds. (415) 416 BUSH-FRUITS The insect appears about the middle of May in northern lati- tudes, and takes up its abode on the tenderest leaves at the tip of the twigs. It is then too small to be readily seen, but by means of its proboscis, a perpetual self-acting pump, it immediately begins to drain the leaf of its sap. At first its work is not con- spicuous, but soon becomes manifest by the appearance of small, dark spots, which later turn brown and die, the soft part of the leaf within having been sucked out. These spots, which at first are not larger than the hea^ of a pin, may become much larger and even run together, causing the death of the entire leaf. The shoot itself may be checked in growth, or even killed. The nymphs, or immature forms of the insect, are at first very small, but easily recognized by the shining vermilion-red color of the body, marked by blackish spots on the thorax. The mature insect is a bright orange -yellow colored bug, three -tenths of an inch long, with four black stripes extending down the back. The eggs are laid in clusters in slits near the tips of twigs of the present year's growth of currants, gooseberries, and other shrubs. They are deposited late in June, and remain in this position until the nymphs hatch the following spring. These undergo five moults before reaching the adult form. The adults disappear early in July, there being but one brood a year. Bemedies. — Since the insect feeds by sucking the sap of the plant from the inner tissues of the leaf, the application of poisons like Paris green can do no good. Kerosene emulsion, diluted with not more than five parts of water, if very thoroughly applied while the insects are still young, will prove effective. The egg clusters are not difficult to find, and since they remain over win- ter, trimming off and burning five or six inches of infested twigs is a practicable remedy, at least on a small scale. The Currant Plant-louse Myzus ribis (Linn.). — Order Hemiptera. Family Aphididae. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 9 : 370. Weed, Ins. and Insecticides, 100. Aphis ribis, Linn. Saunders, Ins. Inj Fruits, 3.51. This is a small, yellowish plant-louse, appearing on the under surface of currant leaves toward midsummer, causing them to TRE CURRANT PLANT-LOUSE 417 curl and present a blistered and generally a reddish appearance on the upper surface. This, like other plant-lice, may be destroyed by kerosene emulsion, but is so protected within the curled leaves as to be very difficult to reach. Success depends on applying the remedy very promptly before the leaves become much curled. In the home-garden, hand-picking will doubtless prove simpler. The larv£e are often destroyed in great numbers by the two -spotted lady-bug. They are also subject to attack from a small hymen- opterous parasite, which often does good service in depleting their numbers. The San Jose' Scale Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock. — Order Hemiptera. Family Coccidae. Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880 : 304. Howard. U. S. Div. Ent. Circu- lar 3, 2d series. Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1893 : 215. This insect first made its appearance in California about 1870, and is supposed to have been introduced from Chili. It was de- scribed by Professor Comstock in 1880, and since then has received attention from numerous writers. It has worked serious injury in California, and although not reported east of the Missouri River until 1893, it has become widely scattered throughout the eastern states. The insect is a near relative of the oyster-shell bark- louse, and appears as a round, flat scale about an eighth of an inch in diameter, resembling the bark in color, but with a black speck in the center. It attaches itself to the fruit and branches of pear, peach, apple, raspberry, gooseberry, currant, and other plants. It is thus distributed both on fruit and nursery stock, a fact which accounts for its rapid and widely scattered distribution. The females are wingless, but when young can crawl short dis- tances before becoming fixed in their position. Remedies. — The San Jose scale is not easily baffled. It has recently caused much excitement in the pomological world. An avalanche of literature and legislation has been hurled against it, and remedies without number have been tried. The treatment recommended by the Division of Entomology at Washington con- sists in thorough spraying with whale-oil soap and water in the proportion of two pounds to the gallon, when the trees or plants are dormant, preferably toward spring, since early spraying has AA 418 BUSH-FRUITS been found to reduce the amount of bloom. Infested nursery stock can be most effectively treated by hydrocyanic acid gas, but this is a dangerous insecticide, which should be used only by those who know perfectly well how to do it.''^ Late experiments at Cor- nell and in New Jersey show that the pest is easily destroyed in summer by a spray of kerosene and water. At Cornell, one part of kerosene to four of water gave efficient treatment. The Gooseberry Fruit -worm Zophodia grossularice (Pack.). — Order Lepidoptera. Family Phycitidae. Pempelia grossularice. Pack. Riley, Mo. Rep. 1:140. Myelois convolutella, Zell. Thomas, 111. Rep. 7:251. Dakruma convolutella. (Zell.), or (Hiibn.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Fruits, 357. Weed, Ins. and Insecti., 101. The larva of this moth works within the fruit of the gooseberry, and sometimes of the currant. The moths appear early in spring and deposit their eggs on the surface of the very young fruit. The larva bores into the fruit and eats out its contents. When one berry is disposed of another is fastened to the now empty shell, and the worm bores its way into that one. Several fruits may be thus destroyed. The larva commonly reaches maturity by the first of July, when it is a pale green caterpillar, about three - fourths of an inch long, with a small, pale brown, horny looking head. It then descends to the ground and spins a thin cocoon among fallen leaves and rubbish, within which it changes to a chrysalis, remaining in this condition until the following spring. Bemedies. — Infested berries color prematurely, and can be hand-picked, taking care that the very active worms do not quickly leave the fruit. If chickens are allowed in the field after fruiting time, they will consume many of the chrysalids. The Imported Currant Borer Sesia tipulif ormis {Lmn.). — Order Lepidoptera. Family Sesiidse. Comstock, Man. of Ins., 261. ^geria tipulif ormis, Linn. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 336. Cook, Rep. Mich. Hort. Soc. 1890 : 106. Trochilium tipuliforme (Linn.). Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3 : 423. This is a slender, rapid-flying, wasp-like, dark blue moth, half * See The Nursery-Book as to use of hydrocyanic acid gas. THE IMPORTED CURRANT BORER 419 an inch long and three -fourths of an inch broad, having three yellow bands across the body and a yellow collar. It appears toward the end of May or the first of June, and deposits its eggs upon the stems near a bud. When hatched the larva eats its way directly to the center, thence upward and downward in the pith. Here it remains until the following year, meanwhile eating out a tunnel from six to twelve inches in length. When full grown, the larva is about half an inch long, white, with a brown head and a few hairs scattered over its body. Like many other immigrants in the insect world, this species appears to prosecute its work with renewed energy in the home of its adoption, far outstripping the native currant borer in the success of its undertakings. It pre- fers the red currant, but it is not too fastidious to accept the black currant or gooseberry as a substitute when occasion demands. Remedies. — The method of treatment, which is the same for all species of borers attacking these plants, consists in pruning away and burning all infested canes, late in winter or early in spring, before the moths emerge. With several canes allowed to grow, and all wood cut away after it has borne one or two crops, this result will be accomplished with little extra trouble. The Currant Span-worm Diastictis ribearia (Fitch). — Order Lepidoptera. Family En- nomidse. Comstock, Manual, 279. Abraxas ribearia. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3 : 427. En- Jitchia ribearia (Fitch). Riley, Mo. Rep. 9 : 3. Cook, Bull. Mich. Exp. Sta., 73 : 9. This is the larva of a native pale yellowish moth, marked with several dusky spots, and measuring about an inch and a quarter across. The larva when full grown is about an inch long, of a whitish color, with broad yellow stripes running down the back and sides, and with a number of black spots on each segment. It is a "measuring worm," moving by arching its body in the center. When disturbed, it drops from the leaf and remains suspended in the air by a web. It is most commonly found upon the gooseberry or black currant, appearing soon after the leaves expand. It at- tains its full growth within three or four weeks, descends to the ground and transforms to a pupa, hidden by rubbish, or just be- 420 B USH-FB UITS neath the surface of the ground. The moth emerges about two weeks later. The eggs are laid singly on the twigs, which they resemble in color, and are therefore hard to detect. Here they remain until spring, there being but one brood a year. It thus happens that the sale of plants affords a ready means for the spread of the insect. Bemedies. — This is commonly not a serious enemy, but when it does become numerous, is more difficult to destroy than the ordi- nary currant worm. Hellebore, if used, must be much stronger than for the imported currant worm, Paris green will prove more effective whenever the fruit does not prevent its use. Disturbing the bushes and gathering up the worms as they hang suspended from their webs, is sometimes recommended. Several parasites prey upon them and do good service in thinning out their ranks. The Currant Fruit-worm Eupithecia implicata, Walk. Yar. inteirupto fasciata,Fack. Order Lepidoptera, Family Geometridae, Fupithecia interrupto-fasciata, Pack. Thomas, 111. Rep. 11 : 23. Saimders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 352. This is a span-worm which attacks the fruit of the currant by eating a hole into the side of the berry, and devouring a portion of the interior, spoiling more fruit than it actually consumes. It is easily distinguished from the gooseberry fruit-worm by having only ten legs, while the latter has sixteen. Bemedies. — While seldom causing serious injury, it may, under favorable conditions, develop sufficient numbers to work much harm. It appears at the same time as the common currant worm, and the ordinary treatment with hellebore may also keep it in check. Pyrethrum, and probably air- slaked lime, applied when the dew is on, would doubtless prove effective. The GrOOSEBERRY Midge Cecidomyia grossularice , Fitch. — Order Diptera. Family Ceei- domyiidae. Fitcli, N. Y. Rep. 1:176.-3:150. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 359. This insect is a small, yellowish fly, scarcely one-tenth of an THE CUBE ANT FLY 421 inch in length. The eggs, which are deposited beneath the skin of the young fruit, hatch and develop into small, bright yellow, oval maggots, resembling those of the wheat midge. These change to pupa3 within the fruit, and emerge as perfect flies in midsummer. Further than this the life history seems to be un- known. Their presence causes the fruit to turn prematurely red and become soft and putrid within. Remedies. — The only remedy thus far known to be effective is to pick and destroy all fruit which turns prematurely. The Currant Fly Epoclira Canadensis (Loew.). — Order Diptera. Family Muscidae. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 352. Harvey, Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept. 1895 : 111. — Also Bull. 35. Trypeta Canadensis, Loew, Mon. Dip. N. Am., 3 : 235. GiUette, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta., 19 :18. This insect is a yellow or orange -colored fly, about the size of the common house-fly, with greenish iridescent eyes and smoky patches or bands across its wings. It punctures the skin of the young currant or gooseberry, depositing its egg, just beneath. This soon develops into a small white grub which measures about one- third of an inch in length. Its presence causes the fruit to turn red and fall to the ground prematurely. After becoming full grown, the maggots leave the fruit and enter the ground, where they change to pupae, emerging as perfect flies early the following summer. Although not usually considered a serious enemy, it has been found very destructive in Colorado, and also in Maine, causing the loss of 75 per cent of the fruit at times. Remedies. — No very practicable remedy seems yet to have been found. The insect spends about eleven months of the year safely buried in the ground. No way of destroying the mature flies seems feasible, and the egg is deposited beneath the skin of the fruit beyond the reach of insecticides. The only weak point in its campaign appears to be that part of the infested fruit drops pre- maturely and the larvae remain in it for a time after it falls. Hence, frequently gathering and burning the fallen fruit will de- stroy many. If all the insects thus fell with the fruit, this would 422 BUSH-FBUITS be an effective, though somewhat expensive remedy, but unfortu- nately some larvae escape from the fruit before it drops. One grower thinks that allowing young chickens among the bushes till picking time, and older fowls later, proved effective. The pupse transform within an inch of the surface, so that thorough culti- vation would disturb many of them, and might expose them to subsequent injury during winter, or favor their being picked up by birds. Eemoving an inch of soil would carry them with it. The flies are thought to be so weak that a heavy mulch placed about the plants while the pupae are in the ground, and allowed to re- main, would prevent many of them from emerging. The American Currant Borer Psenocerus supernotatus (Say). — Order Coleoptera. Family Ce- rambycidse. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3 : 416. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 337. Cook, Rep. Mich. Hort. Soc. 1890 : 106. This insect, though very similar in its habits to the imported currant borer, belongs to an entirely different order. When ma- ture, instead of being a moth, it is a small, narrow, brownish beetle, nearly cylindrical, and varying in length from one -eighth to one -fourth of an inch. The larva is a small, white, round and wrinkled grub without feet. The life history is practically the same as that of the imported insect, and larvse of both are some- times found together in the same stalk. Remedies. — Cutting out and burning infested stalks will prove effective . The Imported Currant Worm Pteronus rihesii (Scop.). — Order Hymenoptera. Family Tenthre- dinidae. Marlatt Revis. Nematinas of North Amer., 61. Nematus ventricosus, Klug. Riley, Mo. Rep. 9 : 7. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 339. Weed, Ins. and Insds-,97. Nematus trimaculatus, St. Fargeau. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 12 : 909. For full bibliography, see Marlatt, 1. c. This most familiar inhabitant of the currant and gooseberry bushes is a four- winged saw-fly, about the size of the common house fly. It first appeared in the United States in the vicinity of THE CUBJRANT WOBM 423 Rochester, N. Y., about 1857, being mentioned in '^The Rural New-Yorker'' of July 24, 1858, p. 239. The male is black, with some yellow spots, glossy wings and yellow legs. The female is larger than the male, bright honey yellow, with a black head. It is not in this dress, however, that we best know the insect. Its eggs are deposited in rows on the under side of the leaves, along the principal veins (Fig. 76) , in early spring. Dr. Lint- ner observed a female de- posit thirty eggs on a single currant leaf within one hour. These hatch in a few days, and open the season's campaign by eating small holes in the leaf. The eggs are laid in rows, and the young lai-vae at first feed in companies (Fig 77), but later, as size and appetite increase, they scatter to all parts of the bush. The insect is fastidious in its dress during the larval stage. It first appears in a modest garb of dull white, which it soon exchanges for green, to which many black spots are added later, these in turn giving place to a plain green tinged with yellow, as it approaches ma- turity. When full grown, it measures about three-quarters of an inch in length. It then forms a silken cocoon, hidden by rub- bish on the ground, just beneath the surface, or occasionally attached to stems and leaves above ground. The winged insect emerges the last of June or first of July, to repeat the same cycle, there being two broods a year, the last one passing the winter in the pupa state. The separate broods do not emerge all at once, hence there is a practical continuation of hostilities throughout the season. Fig. 76. Eggs of the currant worui. 424 BUSH-FBUITS Remedies. — A history of the remedies which have been em- ployed against this insect since its advent in this country would afford spicy reading, with no lack of variety. It is interesting to note that the use of kerosene emulsion seems to have had its be- ginning in fighting this insect, about 1870.* The following brief mention will show something of the range of ammunition brought into play against this enemy. Salt and water, Gardener's Monthly, 1881:17. Tobacco water, Ibid, 1881:241. Sulphur sprinkled on the bushes when wet, Ibid, 1882 : 148. Smudge with burning leather and sulphur under the bushes, Ibid, 1862 : 213. Red currants untouched if black currants are planted among them, Tilton's Journal, 8 : 35. Copperas dissolved in water. Ibid, 8 : 23. Carbolate of lime, Ibid, 9 : 149. Tansy decoction. Ibid 9 : 246. Wood ashes applied when leaves are wet, Ibid 9 : 309; also "Ru- ral New-Yorker," 1897 : 375. Carbolic acid. Horticulturist, 1870 : 221. Picking off leaves at base of bushes where most eggs are deposited before they hatch, or immediately after. Coal tar dissolved in turpen- tine, with slaked lime and water added, IlDid, 1870 : 222, Knocking off the worms to let them fall on the hot ground when the sun is bright Ibid, 1871 : 159. Howe Cave fertilizer, Grafton mineral fertilizer and Colburn's cur- rant-worm exterminator men- tioned as ineffectual. Ibid, 1873 :172. Mixing wood ashes with the soil, Ibid, 1873 : 192. Mulching with tobacco stems, "Popular Gardening," 2:129. Mulching with coal ashes. Ibid, 6 : 220. Air-slaked lime and tobacco dust. Insect Life, 1 : 17. Alum, Ibid, 1:229. Decoction of foxglove, Gar. Month., 1874: Fig. 77. First work of currant worm. *Tilton's Journal, 8: 23, 176.-9:213. Gardener's Monthly, 1874: 149. CURB ANT WORMS 425 254. Soot, also rue and chamomile planted among the bushes, Tilton's Jour., 4:233. Decoction of elder leaves and tobacco water, Ibid, 7:187. Young chickens, Hovey's Mag., 1854:527. In 1869, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society offered a prize of twenty-five dollars for "a safe, certain and economical method, better than any now known, of destroying the currant worm, or preventing its ravages." It is easily controlled by the application of white hellebore, half an ounce or a teaspoonful to a gallon of water, as soon as the worms appear. The eggs of the first brood are laid chiefly on the tufts of leaves at the base of the plant, and Paris green or London purple may be used for the first application, while the larvae are yet on these leaves. The work should be thorough, for if the bushes are defoliated, even after the fruit is off, the crop of the succeeding year suffers in consequence. At the Ohio Experiment Station, the cost of spraying twice and completely protecting the plants was found to be but $5 per acre. The Native Currant Worm Pristiphora grossularice, Walsh. — Order Hymenoptera. Family Tenthredinidae. Walsh, Pract. Ent., 1 : 123. Riley, Mo. Rep., 9 : 23. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 343. Walsh and Riley, Amer. Ent., 2 : 22. Pristiphora rufipes, St. Fargeau. Fitch, N. Y. Rep., 12 : 908. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts., 344. This is a saw-fly closely related to the imported currant worm, though smaller in size, and belonging to a different genus. The larva is solid green in color, never having black spots like the other. The life history is much the same, except that the second brood emerges from the pupal stage in autumn, and deposits its eggs upon the branches, where they remain during the winter, hatching the following spring. The young larvae do not feed in groups. This insect seldom causes serious injury. It is men- tioned chiefly on account of its relationship to its European cousin, by whom it is so far outstripped in the work of life set apart for a currant worm to do. Bemedij. — The same remedy employed against the other insect is effective against this one. 426 B USE-FB HITS The Currant Stem-girdler Janus integer (Norton). — Order Hymenoptera. Family Uroceridse. Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta., 126 : 41. Cephus integer. Nor ton, Proe. Bost. See. Nat. Hist., 8 : 224. Janus fiaviventris , Fitch- N. Y. Rept., 7 : 12. Lintner, N. Y. Rept., 4 : 47.-8 : 166. Phyllcecus Jlaviventris (Fitch). Marlatt, Ins. Life, 6 : 296.-7 : 387. This, too, is a native saw-fly, but the larvae, instead of feeding on the leaves, like the others, burrow in the pith of the currant stems. The egg is laid within the pith of the young shoots a few inches from the tips. After depositing the egg the female fly moves upward and proceeds to girdle the stem at a point from half an inch to an inch above where the egg was placed. The cane may be entirely severed by this girdling, or may still cling by a small portion, but quickly wilts, and generally soon falls away. The larva, which is nearly half an inch long at maturity, burrows downward, eating out the pith as it goes, and leaving its channel filled with dark brownish refuse. Toward autumn it eats a pas- sage way to the outer bark, wraps itself in a thin silken cocoon and passes the winter in the lower end of its burrow. In the spring it changes to a pupa, and thence emerges as a perfect in- sect in May. It is then a shining black fly, with the hind part of the body and front of the abdomen yellow, measuring about half an inch in length by three-fourths of an inch in breadth, with the wings extended. Remedies. — Cutting out and burning all injured tips is an effi- cient and practical remedy. The larvse rarely get more than six inches below where the egg is laid, and this being only an inch or so below the girdle, cutting away eight inches of the stem at any time during the summer or winter, will destroy the insect. If done soon after the girdle is made two or three inches will suffice. The larvae may readily be found by splitting open the cane. Many eggs fail to develop, and the young larvae often perish before attaining their growth. This cheeks their increase, but does not affect the injury for the current year. The larvae are subject to attack from hymenopterous parasites. In one case Professor Slingerland (loc. cit.) saw five tiny parasites (Bracon apicatus, Prov.) emerge from a single cocoon. OROSELLE INSECTS 427 THE LESS IMPORTANT ENEMIES The foregoing list includes those species which have either proved themselves, or which promise to be, seriously injurious. Many other species have been found upon these plants which seldom do harm. Many of these are general feeders, and in other cases the work is of such a nature as to affect the plant but little. No sharp line can be drawn between those which do much and those which do little injury, for under special con- ditions the ones which are normally of little impor- tance may become unusually destructive. Class Arachnida (Spiders and their relatives) Order Acarina Tetranychus telaritis (Linn.), Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 355. The Red Spider, which occasionally attacks the black currant in dry weather, Bryohia pratensis, Garman, The Clover Mite. Riley and Marlatt Ins, Life, 3:45, Observed on wild gooseberry, Rihes gracile, at Lincoln, Nebr. Tyroglyphus ribis, Fitch, N, Y. Rep. 3:424. On diseased currant stems. Class Hexapoda (Insects) Order Ortlioptera Family Acrididje. Melanoplus femur-rubrnm (DeG,), [Caloptenus femur-ruhruni (DeG,). Ill, Ent. Rep. 14 (Gen. Ind, Supplement).] The com- mon red-legged grasshopper. A general feeder. Family Locustid^. Amhlycoryplia oblongifolia (DeG,), [Phylloptera ohlongifoUa, DeG. Riley, Amer. Ent. 2:182.] Eggs occur on currant and other woody stems. 428 BUSH-FBUITS Order Hemiptera Family Coreid^. Leptoglossus phyllopus, Linn. Ins, Life 4:79. On currant leaves; normally predaceous. Family PENTATOMiD^aE. Cosmopepla carnifex (Fabr. ). Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 2:144. Attacking currant fruit. Family Fulgorid^. Poeciloptera prumosa, Say. Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:436. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 357. Riley, Mo. Rep. 5:122. On leaves and young shoots of many plants. Family Jassidje. Typhlocyha obliqua (Say). [Erythronetcra obliqua (Say). Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 435.] On currant leaves. Typhlocyha tricincta (Fitch). Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:115. [Erythro- neura tricincta, Fitch. N. Y. Rep. 3: 392.] On leaves of currant, raspberry, grape and elm. Empoasca albopicta (Forbes). [Empoa albopicta, Forbes, 111. Rep. 13:181.-14:117. Weed, Rep. O. Exp. Sta. 1888: 152. -Ins. and Insecticides 99.] On leaves of apple, currant, gooseberry and other plants. Remedy, pyrethrum. Family APHiDiD-a;. If ectarophora lactucce {Kalt.) . [Siphonophora lactuccB, Jjinn. Thomas 111. rep. 8: 60.] On lettuce, Ribes and many other plants. Family Coccid^. Pulvinaria innumerabilis (Rathvon). Comstock, Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:137. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 6:141. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 241. Piper, Bull. Wash. Exp. Sta. 7:123. [Cocc^is innu- merabilis (Rathvon). For complete synonomy, see Comstock, 1. c] On many plants, including currant,* Lecanitim cynosbati, Fitch. N. Y, Rep, 3: 436, Comstock, Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp, Sta, 2:133. On wild gooseberry stems. Lecaniiim ribis, Fitch. N. Y. Rep. 3: 427. Comstock, Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2: 135. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 338. On currant stems. Aspidiotus ancyhis, Putnam. Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1880:292. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:58. Beckwith, Rep. Del. Exp. Sta. 7: 168. On currant. *A western form of this species has proved quite destnietive to currants in Washington state. Prof. Cockerel! proposes the variety-name occidentalis for this form. It is referred to in Meehan's Monthly, 1896:37, under the erroneous name P. ribis. GBOSELLE INSECTS 429 Aspidiotus nerii, Bouch^. Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agr, 1880: 301. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:63. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 5: 279. On oleander and a great variety of other plants. Mytilaspis pomoriiyn (Bouche). Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1880:325. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2:118. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 40. On apple, occasionally elsewhere. Chionaspis furfurus (Fitch). Comstock. Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880: 315. Matlack, Ins. Life 1: 324. [Aspidiotus furfurus, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:352. Aspidiotus cerasi, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:368.] On apple, pear, currant and others. Diaspis ostrec^formis (Curtis). Comstock, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1880: 311. Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 2: 94. {Aspidiotus circu- laris, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 426. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 338.1 On apple, pear and currant. Order Lepidoptera Family Eucleid^e. Empretia stimulea, Clemens. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 113 and 353. Packard, For. Ins. 146. Comstock, Man. Ins. 225. A general feeder. Family Grapholithid^. Exarfema exoleta (Zeller). [Eccopsis exoletum, Zell. Forbes, 111. Rep. 14:117.] On currant and gooseberry. Family Tortricid^. Cacoecia rosana, Linn. Comstock and Slingerland, Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. 23:119. Comstock, Man. Ins. 244. On currant. Cacoecia argyrospila, Walk. Packard, For. Ins. 192. Gillette, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta. 19: 3. A general feeder. Cacoecia rosaceana (Harris). Packard, For. Ins. 505. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 90. A general feeder. Family Sesiid-s:. Alcathoe candattim (Harris). Jack, Gar. and For. 1891:496. [^geria caudata, Harris. French, 111. Rep. 7:172. Trochilium caudatiim (Harris). Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3:424.] On the root of black currant and clematis. Family Liparid^. Orgyia antiqua, Linn. Perkins, Vt. Agr. Rep. 1877: 148. Packard, For. Ins. 447. Family Geometrid^. Angerona crocataria (Fabr. ). Thomas, 111. Rep. 7: 243. Forbes, 111. Rep. 13: 81. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 348. On currant, gooseberry and strawberry leaves. 430 BUSH-FBUITS Endropea armataria (H. Sch.). Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 354. Pack- ard, For. Ins. 501 — Mon. Geom. 510. On leaves of maple, birch, black and red currant. Biston cognataria (Guen.). Comstock, Man. Ins. 280. [Amphidasys cognataria, Guen. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 2:97. Bowles, Canad. Ent. 3:11. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 349. Packard, For. Ins. 405.] A somewhat general feeder. Microgonia limbaria, Haw. [Nematocampa filamentaria, Guen. French, 111. Rep. 7:242. Packard, For. Ins. 182. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 167.] On leaves of currant, strawberry, oak and maple. Bustroma priinata, Linn. [Petrophora jyrunata, Linn. Edwards, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 35:109.] On Ribes in Europe. Introduced in America. Prochoerodes transversata (Drury). [Eutrapela transversata (Drury). Packard, For. Ins. 181.] On maple, currant, oak and a few others. Tetrads trianguliferata, Pack. French, Canad. Ent. 18:105. On Bibes aureum. Thamnonoma qtiadrilinearia , Pack. Gillette, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta. 19: 23. On currant and gooseberry leaves. Thamyionoma flavicaria, Pack. Gillette, Bull. Colo. Exp. Sta. 19:23. On currant and gooseberry leaves. Family Noctuid^s:. Hydrcecia cataphracta (Grt. ). [Gortyna catap7iracta, Grt. Fletcher, Ins. Life 5:125.] On gooseberry fruit; unusual. Hydrcecia nitela (Guen.). [Gortyna nitella, Guen. Smith, 111. Rep. 7:112. Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 1:110. Boring in the stems of many plants. 3famestra picta, Harris, Lintner, N. Y. Rep. 4:10.-5:206. [Ce- ramica picta (Harris). French, 111. Rep. 7: 226. J A general feeder; reported on currant. Noctiia clandestina (Harris). [Agrotis clandestina, Harris. French, 111. Rep. 7:95, 213. Riley, Rep. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1884:293. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 108.] A general feeder. Xylopliasia arctica (Boisd.). Smith, Bull U. S. Mus. 44: 137. [Ba- dena arctica, Boisd. French, 111, Rep. 7:96, 217, Hadena ampu- tatrix, Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 425. J A general feeder. Family Arctiid^. Byphantria cunea, Drury. Packard, For. Ins. 244. [Byphantria textor, Harris. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 71.] The Fall Web-worm. A general feeder. Spilosoma virginica (Fabr.). French, 111. Rep. 7:80. Packard, For. Ins. 340, 489. Saunders, Ins. Inj. Frts. 271. A general feeder. Family Sphingid^, DeilepMla lineata (Fabr.), Pack:a-d, For. Ins. 271. A general feeder. GROSE LLE INSECTS 431 Family Bombtcid^. Euprnctis chrysorrh*ei