STUDIES EARLY HISTORY OF INSTITUTIONS. BY DENMAN W. ROSS. I. THE THEORY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON AND SON. 1880. 7,13 *PQ -rr 1 M ► \ S’ NW o C| "'tv y l t~T r & J ■o It i/ 5 321-2 /03 THE THEORY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. The idea prevails that the earliest form of ownership in land was corporate, collective, or joint ownership ; that separate owner¬ ship arose in consequence of the disentanglement of individual from collective rights; of the rights of the family from those of the tribe; of the rights of the individual from those of the family. The theory of village communities is based upon this idea. It is now universally accepted. The theory has arisen in somewhat the following manner. Cer¬ tain passages of Caesar’s Commentarii De Bello Gallico and the twenty-sixth chapter of Tacitus’ Germania were read. The insti¬ tution of joint tenure in the land communities of the middle ages was studied. It was then assumed that Caesar and Tacitus describe joint ownership of land ; and the problem arose, how was joint ownership changed to joint tenure. This problem, now of many years’ standing, has not been solved. Its conditions, however, are accepted without hesitation or doubt. Men were free in the time of Caesar and Tacitus, and held land in joint ownership. The same men were unfree in the tenth century and held land in joint tenure. How, therefore, was joint ownership changed to joint tenure ? Then there was a discovery in the East, in India, of free village communities like those of the West among the Germans in Tacitus’ time. To be sure the land of the Indian villages is not held in joint ownership, but in ancestral shares. In early times, however, it must have been held in joint ownership; for what was an insti¬ tution among the Germans in Tacitus’ time must have been an institution among their kindred in India. So it has been argued; 4 and who can deny the force of the argument of evolution as applied to the growth ; of'/nS'tltiitions ? * < C { * f ' c c* ^ L 1 1 Then there wa r s a discovery in the West. There were village communities i*l Ttfeland in, early times. They are described in early laws and' other Tecpi'ds. To be sure the land in these com¬ munities' w^G‘l^ld f 5A , tuh^estral shares. In so far as it was held in ownership at all, it was held in absolute and separate ownership. But what was an institution among the Germans in Tacitus’ time, what was an institution not long ago among Aryan peoples in India, must have been an institution among the ancient Irish, their kin¬ dred. So it has been argued. Then was discovered at last the very thing itself, the real village community, the community of Tacitus’ Germany, of pre-present India, of prehistoric Ireland; a village community in which the land is periodically redistributed among the members, — the Rus¬ sian mir. To be- sure all the historians agree that the mir is an institution dating from the end of the sixteenth century (1592) ; that it was in its origin a community of tenants, adscripti glebce , not a community of owners. But is not the argument of evolution as applied to the growth of institutions strong enough to contradict and silence the historians of Russia, the students of a few and doubtful facts ? When the general truth has been ascertained, particulars of truths may be disregarded. So it has been argued. Then followed a general and conclusive consideration. The cultivation and use of land in open fields upon co-operative prin¬ ciples is a fact sufficient in itself to show that land was held in joint ownership in early times; for now in the nineteenth century men are not educated up to the point of understanding and for¬ bearance which is a condition of successful co-operation with abso¬ lute property. Can we believe for a moment that the archaic intellect was capable of seeing the advantages and understanding the principles of co-operation which have been discovered and laid down by modern economists with so much wisdom and learning ? So it has been argued, and the force of the argument has not been denied. However, there is that primary assumption that Caesar and Tacitus describe joint ownership of land: and there are those facts; 1, that the land of the Indian villages is held in ancestral shares; 2, that the land of the ancient Irish communities was held in ances- 5 tral shares; 3, that the origin of the Russian mir has been placed by competent historians in the sixteenth century of our era. The force and significance of these facts has not been denied, except by the argument of evolution as applied to the growth of institutions ; which argument, in this case, is based upon the above primary assumption that Caesar and Tacitus describe joint ownership of land. The following argument is calculated to show: 1, that joint ownership of land was unknown among the Germans in the fifth and following centuries; 2, that it must have been unknown in the time of Caesar and Ta«itus ; that it is not described by them ; 3, that the law of allodial inheritance, equal division of land among sons, is common to all branches of the Teutonic race ; 4, that it must have been the law of that race before it was separated into branches ; 5, that the law of equal division of land among sons con¬ tradicts the theorj r of village communities with joint ownership of land. The argument will consist of extracts from and references to the original sources, early laws, formulae, and documents; inter¬ spersed with such brief comment or explanation as seems needed. The law of allodial inheritance among the Salian Franks. 1. Lex Salica. LIX. 5. De terra vero nulla in muliere hereditas non pertinebit sed ad virilem sexurn qui fratres fuerint, tota terra perteneat. Division among brothers and co-heirs. 2. Formula (Rosielre, CXXVI). Pactum divisiones inter fratres, id sunt illi et illi, heredes illui et illei quondam, qualiter se de alote eorum dividere vel exequare deberent, quod ita et fecerunt. 3. Formula (Rosi^re, CXXY). In Dei nomen. placuit adque convenit inter illus et illus germanus ut inter se de res eorum dividere debuerunt, quod ita et fecerunt. Accipit illi, hoc est casa cum omni circumcincto ilia, seu et mancipia, vel mobile et inmobile quern in ipsa casa esse viditur, vel vinias, silvas et prata quantum- cumque in ipsa casa aspicere viditur, totum et ad integrum. Et in contra accipit germanus suos illi alio locello illo cum omne rem ad se pertinentis . . . et hec paccio divisionis omni tempore firma permaneat. 4. Formula (Rosiere, CXXVII). Dum et divisio vel exsequatio 6 inter ilium et ilium seu consortes eorum de alode lui aut de agro illo caelebrare debetur . . . The inheritance consists of villas or portions of villas. 5. Formula (Rosiere, CCXII).villam juris mei nuncu- pantem illam, sitam in pago illo, in condita ilia, cum terris, aedifi- ciis, accolabus, mancipiis, libertis, viniis, silvis, pratis, pascuis, aquis aquarumve decursibus, mobilibus et ininobilibus, cum omni¬ bus appendicuis suisque adiecentiis, sicut a me praesenti tempore videtur esse possessum. 6. Formula (Rosidre, COXIII). . . . portionem meam in villa nuncupante ilia in pago illo, quicquid* ibidem ad praesens tarn de alode parentum vel de qualibet adtractu possidere videor, totum et ad integrum .... 7. Formula (Rosiere, CCIII). . . . porciones meas in loco nuncupantes illo, sitas in pago illo, que mild tain de alode quam de conparato vel de quacumquelibet adtracto advenit vel ad venire potest legibus in supra memorata loca, tarn terris, domibus, edifi- ciis, mancipiis, libertis, acolabus, merita acolanorum, vineis, silvis, pratis, pascuis, campis, cultis et incultis, aquis aquarumve decursi¬ bus, movilibus et immovilibus, cum omnis adgecentiis et adpendiciis vel colonicis ad se pertinentibus, cum omni integritate vel super- posito, quicquid dici aut nominare potest, in supra memoratus pagos vel ubiquae de supradictas porcionibus tenere visus sum, totum et ad integrum. These villas are manors under allodial lordship, subject to di¬ vision and subdivision according to the law of allodial inheritance. 8. Lex Salica. XLII. 5. . . . villam alienam. 9. Lex Salica. Capitula VII. 9. . . . villam alterius. 10. Lex Salica. XXVII. 6. . . . orto alieno. . . . 8. . . . campo alieno. . . . 10.prato alieno. . . . 18. . . . silva aliena. . . . Documents describing allodial property. 11. Gu^rard. Cartulaire de St. Bertin. III. . . . dono vobis omnem rem portionis hereditatis meae in pago Toroanense . . . villam proprietatis meae nuncupante Sitdiu, supra fluvium Agnio- na, cum omni merito suo, vel adjacentiis seu aspicientiis ipsius villae. Haec sunt: villa Magnigeleca, Wiciaco, Tatinga villa, Amneio, Masto, Fabricinio, Losantanas, et Ad Fundenis seu Mal- ros, Alciaco, Laudardiaca villa, Franciliaco, cum omni merito 7 eorum ; cum domibus, asdificiis, terris cultis et incultis ; mansiones cum silvis, pratis, pascuis, aquis aquarumve decursibus. . . . XIV. . . . villas ipsius monasterii quicquid praesenti tempore posside- bant, aut adhuc inantea, ex munere regum, vel collato populi [note collato populi]. . . . XVIII. . . . Constat me non imaginario jure, sed plenissima voluntate, vobis vendidisse, et ita vendidi, tradi- disse, et ita tradidi, de prsesente, hoc est omnem rem portionis mese in loco nuncupante Bumliaco, in pago Taruanense, quam de parte filii mei Chardeberti quondam, ex luctuosa hereditate mihi obvenit: id est cum terris, domibus, edificiis, mancipiis, silvis, pratis, pas¬ cuis, aquis aquarumve decursibus. . . . The theory of joint ownership of land is not consistent with the law of allodial inheritance, because joint ownership involves periodic or occasional redistribution, and every redistribution would involve a breach of the law. For example, if two brothers had three sons, the inheritance of one of them would be double that of either of the other two. N By redistribution, the larger in¬ heritance would be diminished, and the law of inheritance by which it was acquired would be broken. If it had been the custom in prehistoric time to redistribute the land of the villa once in ten, twenty, or thirty years, or even within the period of a lifetime ; how could the law of allodial inheritance, which we find in the earliest records, have arisen ? Bight of the allodial proprietor to remove himself from his kindred, taking his allodial property with him ; so that his kindred have no further right of inheritance from him nor he from them. 12. Lex Salica. LX. De eum qui se de parentilla tollere vult. 1. In mallo ante thunginum ambulare debet et ibi tres fustis alninus super caput suum frangere debet. Et illos per quattuor partes in malo jactare debet et ibi dicere debet, quod juramento et de hereditatem et totam rationem illorum se tollat. 2. Et sic postea aliquis de suis parentibus aut occidatur aut moriatur, nulla ad eum nec hereditas nec compositio perteneat sed heredi¬ tatem ipsius fiscus adquirat. 13. The Laws of Athelstan. 8. ... If any landless man should become a follower in another shire and again seek his kinsfolk, they may harbor him if they will be responsible for him. In the Lex Salica it is assumed that he who withdraws from his kinsfolk has land, hereditas . But compare 8 14. Domesday 1. p. 172. ... si ita liber homo est ut habeat socam suam et sacam et cum terra sua possit ire quo voluerit. Right of the allodial proprietor to alienate the whole or part of his allodial property to a stranger; Jiominem qui ei non perteneat. 15. Lex Salica XLVI. De hac famirem. 1. Hoc convenit ob- servare ut tunginus aut centenarius malo indicant et scutum in illo mallo habere debent et tres homines [? sacebarones, sacam et socam Jiabentes] tres causas demandare debent. Postea requirent hominem qui ei non perteneat et sic fistucam in laisum jactet. Et ipse in cui laisum fistucam jactavit, de fortuna sua dicat verbum quantum voluerit aut totam fortunam suam cui voluerit dare. Ipse in cujus laisum fistucam jactavit, In casa ipsius manere debet. Et hospites tres vel amplius collegere debet et de facultatem quantum ei creditum est in potestatem suam habere debet. Et postea ipse cui isto creditum est, ista omnia cum testibus collectis agere debet. Postea aut ante rege aut in mallo iili cui fortuna sna deportavit redere debet et accipiat fistucam in mallo ipso. Ante XII. menses quos heredes appelavit in laisum jactet; nee minus, nec majus, nisi quantum ei creditum est. This is alienation by adoption. Compare 16. Lex Ripuaria. XLVIII. . . . adoptare in hereditatem vel adfatimi per scripturarum seriem seu per traditionem et testibus adliibitis. We have the traditio et testibus adliibitis described in the above passage of Lex Salica (15). In the following formula (17) we have the traditio per scripturarum seriem. 17. Formula (Rosiere, CXVIII). Si quis in loco filii aliquem adoptare voluerit. . . . Dono igitur tibi omnes res proprietatis mese quascumque de parte praterna seu de materna adquisisse visus sum, in pago illo, in loco nuncupante illo, hoc est mansos tantos cum aedificiis super positis, curtiferis cum aquarum ausibus, cum terris, silvis, campis, pratis, pascuis, adiacentiis seu et man- cipiis ibidem commanentibus. . . . Right of the allodial proprietor to give- land to his vassal or slave. This would be a grant of tenure. 18. Formula (Rosiere, CLXI). Quia si aliquis servo suo, ga- sindo suo, aliquid concedere voluerit. . . . manso illo, infra ter- mino villa nostra ilia, cum omni adjacentia ad ipso locelio aut mansello aspicientem, terris, domibus, mancipiis, vineis, pratella, 9 silvola vel reliquis- beneficiis ibidem aspicientibus: ita ut ab hoc die ipso jure proprietario, si ita convenit, aut sub reditus terrae, in tua revoces potestate. . . . Compare 19. Edictum Rotharis (Lombard law) CCXXYIII. . . . Nam quantum de rebus benefactoris sui per donum habuerit, si eas non obligaverit, ad ipsum patronum aut heredes revertantur. Et si aliquid in gasindio Ducis, aut privatorum hominum obsequio donum vel munus conquisierit, res ad donatorem revertantyir. In alias vero res [res obligatas] sicut dictum est, si heredes non dereliquerit, aut se vivo non judicaverit, patronus succedat, sicut parenti suo. The vassal or slave might hold land with right of inheritance and alienation, but it was always a tenure of land, not ownership of it, jus in re, not dominium. The vassal gave up all rights of ownership, dominium, by the act of commendation. The slave lost his with his liberty, or his progenitors lost it. Acquisition of allodial property by occupation and undisputed possession during one year. 20. Dronke. Codex Diplomaticus Euldensis. 266. . . . unam capturam cum terris, pratis, campis, silvis, aquis, aquarumue de- cursibus. . . . 21. Lex Salica. XLV. De migrantibus. 1. Si quis super al- terum in villa migrare voluerit, si unus vel aliqui de ipsis qui in villa consistunt, eum suscipere voluerit, si vel unus exteterit qui contradic&t migranti ibidem, licentiam non habebit. ... 3. Si vero quis migraverit et infra XII. menses nullus testatus fuerit, securus sicut et alii vicini maneat. The right of the vicini to prevent the occupation and acquisition of allodial property in the villa by the migrans is no indication that the vicini held the land of the villa in joint ownership. Ac¬ cording to the law of allodial inheritance (equal division of paternal land among sons) neighbors were regularly kinsmen, and might, as such, become heirs one of another. It was in view of this fact that the vicini could prevent the stranger from acquiring allodial property in the villa by adverse possession. They could not, however, prevent the adoption of the migrans by any one of their number (compare 15, 16, and 17), nor could they prevent the mi¬ grans, as vassal or slave of one of their number, from receiving a tenure of allodial property in the villa (compare 18 and 19), nor 10 could they prevent any one of their number from selling some or all of his land to the migrans if he chose to do so (compare XVIII under 11). 22. Formula (Rosiere, CCLXVIII). Vinditio de villa. 23. Formula (Rosiere, CCLXXIV). . . . Constat me, non inmagenario jure nec nullo coagente imperium, sed propria volunta¬ tis mei arbitrio, tibi vendere, quod ita et vendidi tibi, a die prsesente, bunuarja tanta de terra arabili, in loco noncupante illo, quod est in pago illo, quern de parte parentum meorum, tarn de alote quam et de comparato, vel de qualibet atracto ad me legibus obvenit; hoc est de uno latus terra illui et de alio latus illui, et de uno vero fronte terrae illui et de alio vero fronte pervio publico. Et accipi a tibi in precio taxato pro hoc, iuxta *quod milii bene conplacuit vel conventum fuit, solidos tantos. . . . Fancy any one acquiring land by gift or purchase, and finding it next day merged with that of neighboring proprietors for re¬ distribution ! We must not forget that joint ownership involves periodic or occasional redistribution. The opening phrase of the law de migrantibus (21) shows that every part of the village domain had its proprietor. What did not belong to one of the vicini belonged to another. The law of allodial inheritance among the Ripuarian Franks. 24. Lex Ripuaria. LVI. 4. Sed cum virilis sexus extiterit, femina in hereditatem aviaticam non succedat. A woman being under tutelage, in mundeburde vel defensione , could only hold a tenure of land jus in re. She could not hold dominium. With respect to property she stood in the same posi¬ tion as the vassal. He had jus in re, no dominium. The hereditas aviatica refers to dominium. Compare Festus; Heres apud anti- quos pro domino ponebatur. The right of allodial inheritance vindicated by battle of two. This indicates dominium of course. 25. Lex Ripuaria. LXVII. 5. Si quis pro liereditate vel pro in- genuitate certare coeperit. . . . Documents describing allodial property. 26. Lacomblet. Niederrheinisches Urkundenbuch. 2. . . . de medietatem ei tradidi hereditatis mee eadem ratione in silva que dicitur Secewald siue Sujfterbant, exceptis agris qui inibi ante extir- pati sunt a patribus aut ab hominibus nostris. . . . 3 . . . unum 11 modicum curtile cum agris III in eadem villa et cum waterscapis, perviis, communiis pascuis [? undivided inheritance], et dedi ei po- testatem habere in silva que dicitur Sitroth [? undivided inherit¬ ance]. ... 4 , terram pro^rif jiiriBi^’i V‘. « id est totam ter- ram illam quam Landulfus litus metis incolebat et proserviebat et unum agrum quern Hildegerus’iit^ehueis Ijiapto in-meo beneficio ante habuit, cum omnibus que ad ipsam terrain respitiunt, id est silvis, pratis, pascuis, perviis, aquis aquarpmqtr^ decqinibps, piscationibus. . . . 5 . . . particulam hereditatis'idee, Id est, ipsum locum qui dicitur Ad Crucem cum pratis, qui ibi jacent in ripa fluvii Arnapi, ubi quondam avus meus Erminfridus casam habebat cum duobus agris qui separati sunt non longe ab eodem loco, dominationemque in silvain que dicitur Sitroth [? undivided inheritance. Compare document 3 above] . . . 8 . . . portionem hereditatis mee, id est, omne quod mihi jure hereditario legibus obvenit ... in terra aratoria seu in pratis et in pascuis et omnem communionem mecum [? undivided inheritance] in silvam que dicitur Suiftarbant [com¬ pare document 2 abovb], excepta una particula in ilia prata que dicitur Blidgeringmad , quam mihi reservavi pro necessitatibus meis. . . . 16 . . . nos coheredes et conparticipes et consan- guinei . . . tradidimus agrum hereditarii juris nostri [undivided inheritance]. . . . 17 . . . Idcirco placuit nobis coheredibus et conparticipibus in uno patrimonio . . . tradere . . . aliquam particulam hereditatis nostre. ... 21 Dum omnibus vicinis suis non habetur incognitum qualiter Hembaldus filius Heri- baldi tradidit . . . suam comprehensionem illam quam ipse Hem¬ baldus in propria liereditate in communionem proximorum suorum [this is conclusive] proprio labore et adiutorio amicorum suorum legibus [by right of allodial inheritance] comprehendit et stir- pavit. . . . 22 . . . curtile unum et duodecimam partem in sil¬ vam [perhaps the donor’s grandfather owned the whole and had four sons and the donor had two brothers]]" qui dicitur Braclog cum pascuis et plena dominatione. . . . 29 . . . vendidi pro- prietatis mee ... in terra aribili terra et silva quasi jornales VI. et accepi a te pretio. . . . 33 . . . duas partes de ilia foreste, . . . quicquid pater noster Amalricus nobis dimisit in hereditatem et in aliis duobus locis terra aratoria . . . unum ante ilia porta orientale, alterum prope de ipsa foreste et inter ilia dua loca liabent jornales X. . . . 34 . . . vendidi res meas proprias . . . jornales 12 IIII. et liabent de ambos latus terra Frithuric de uno fronte terra Lantbert, de alio fronte vero, terra ipsius emptore. . . . 89 . . . jornale uno de terra in villa nuncupante Witi et cum eo medietatem de silva,; quicquid, mihi in ipsa villa, jure paterno ad- venit. . . . 61 t . terram XXv»animalium -et dimidiam unius [amusing issue "of the ; l$iw of allodial Inheritance]. . . . 64 . . . vendidimus, id est comprehensionem nostram in silva que vocatur Witherowald quaui Cpipprehepsionem homines tui una nobis cum circuierunt et novis signis obfirmaverunt et accepimus a te pretium pro ea. . . . I will refer the reader to the following documents. 27. Beyer. Urkundenbuch der mittelrlieinischen Territorien. 6. 8. 18. 14. 19. 25. 30. 32. 39. 41. 28. Hontheim. Historia Trevirensis. XXVII. XXIX. XXXII. XXXV. XXXIX. XLI. XLVII. 29. Codex Laureshamensis. X. XI. XII. XIII. XV. XXXIII. XXXIV. A few more extracts may be made from — 30. Dronke. Traditiones Fuldenses. Cap. 6. Discriptiones eorum qui de Hassia et Loganahe, Angergowe et Lutringia et Vestfalia, sco. Bonifacio tradiderunt bona sua. 2 . . . . quicquid proprie- tatis habuit in pratis, agris, silvis domibus, familiis et prolibus suis. 21 ... . lidum unum cum omnibus que ad eum spectant et cum LXX jugeribus terre culte . . . 25 . . . unam cap- turam . . . 33 . . . proprietates suas in Teggenbach, idem par¬ tem capture et silvam cum agris, pratis, campis, domibus . . . 38 . . . mansum unum et XL jugera de terra arabili et prata ad XX carradas de feno . . . 58 . . . quicquid in ipsa marca proprietatis habuerunt. 67 . . . unam holzmarcham et prata ad III carradas feni. 81 . . . unam videlicet capturam qua.m fluvius Feltcruccha transmeat. 94 . . . hubam I et areas II et de prato XXX porcorum valens. 104 . . . XII jugera et ambitum unum [compare document 64 under 26] de silva cum agris et pratis. 112 . . . XXX jugera in singulis locis . . . 124 . . . aream in latitudine X virgarum et in longitudine CXXVIII. It must be remembered that the above alienations of allodial property to St. Boniface were in many, if not in most cases, made by converts to Christianity. It appears from these documents that the hereditas aviatica con¬ sisted of villas or portions of villas . Compare — 13 31. Lex Ripuaria. LX. 1. Si quis villam aut vineam vel quam- libet possessiunculam ab alio comparavit efc testamentum accipere non potuerit, si mediocris res est cum sex testibus, et si parva cum tribus, quod si magna cum duodecem ad locum traditionis, cum totidem numero pueris accedat, et sic eis prsesentibus pretium tradat et possessionem accipiat et unicuique de parvulis alapas douet et torqueat auriculas, ut ei in post modum testimonium prsebeant. . . . The law of allodial inheritance among the Alamanni. 32. Lex Alamannorum. LXXXVIII. Ut fratres post mortem patris eorum hereditatem non dissipent antequam dividant earn. Documents describing allodial property. 33. Wartmann. Urkundenbucli der Abtei Sanct Gallen. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. 12.13. 14. 21. 24. 38. 49.' 59. 60. 64. 67. 69. 72. 73. 83. 88. 107. 108. 110. 126. 142. 146. 214. ' As these Sanct Gallen documents resemble many already quoted, and are rather formal in character, I will give references simply. I will make some extracts, however, from the early and very inter¬ esting records of the monastery Weissenburg in Alsace. 34. Zeuss. Traditiones Wizenburgenses. I . . . liobas III et mancipia super commanentes . . . homines qui super ipsam terrain videntur deservire ; hoc est, tarn mansis, domibus, edificiis, mancipiis, acolabus, campis, pratis, vineis, silvis, pascuis, aquis aquarumve decursibus, quicquid in ipsa fine visus sum habere . . . IV. . . . silva ibidem mihi aspicientem ad porcos crassare plus minus XY. ... Y. ... X jornales de terra aratoria et prato ubi potest annis singulis plus minus Y carra de feno colligere .... YII. . . . de terra culturali XX jornales in campum unum juntos et est terminata ab uno latere habet Suaidemundus et ab alio latere habet Ratwino. . . . X. . . . res meas quod in villa Burghaime pater meus Adalbertus condam mihi moriens dereliquid et ego contra germano meo Hebrohardo in porcionem recipi et ad me pervenit,casis, casalibus,terris, pratis, silvis pascuis. . . . XIV. . . . villas [nine of them] . . . de genitore meo . . . XVII. .... villas juris nostri [four of them] . . . XXI. . . . silva sicut ego ibidem liabui . . . XXXVII. . . . quantumcumque genitor meus Raginliodus mihi moriens dereliquid, mea portiohe, tarn terris, mansis, casis, campis, pratis, pascuis, silvis, aquis. . . LII. . . . haec omnia sicut jam diximus tarn de aviatico, quam de paterno, sive de materno, sive de comparato, vel de quacurtique libet adtractu. . . . LIII . . . excepto ilia silva quod ego mea uxore in lib. dote condonavi. . „ . LXIX. . . . tres partes de ilia marca silvatica, portione videlicit sua. . . . LXXX. . . . midieta- tem de ilia silva. . . . C. . . . omnia quicquid conquirere potui, aut conquestum visus sum habere [acquisition of allodial property by adverse possession]. . . . CIIL . . . quicquid filius meus Radolphus mihi moriens dereliquid, vel quicquid ibidem ad prae- sens possidere videor, tarn de alode parentum vel de qualibet adtractu. . . . CLIX. . . . villas juris nostri . . . una cum basil¬ ica ad illas villas aspicientes, cum terris. . . . CLXYII. . . . in Reni fluminis locum ad molinam legitimam, et in eodem loco molinam paratam. . . . CCYIII. . . . jornales XYI, forastum unum et portionem meam de ilia liarde. . . . CCXX1II. . . . porcione ilia in Johannevillare quern nobis de avunculi nostri Cuhnchyrino ligybus obvenit. . . . CCXXX. . . . res meas in pago Faroinse, terra araturia in Cotinea Marca, campo uno; ipse campus de uno latus Frodoldus et sui consorte [? colieredes, con- participes in patrimonio, compare numbers 16, 17, under 26], de alio latus et de ambas frontus Thudonius tenet. . . . CCXXXYI. . . . hoba una cum casa et scuria et cum terris, pratis, pascuis silvis, aquis aquarumque decursibus, sicut ad ipsa hoba pertinet et tres mensuras supra ad arare. . . . Dispute between two families about the boundaries of their re¬ spective lands. 85. Lex Alamannorum. LXXXIY. Si qua contentio orta fuerit inter duas genealogias de termino terrae eorum, et unus dicit: Hie est noster terminus, alius revadit in alium locum, et dicit: Hie est noster terminus, ibi praesens sit Comes de plebe ilia et ponet signum ubi iste voluerit, et ubi ille alius voluerit terminum, et girent ipsam contentionem. Postquam girata fuerit, veniant in medium et prsesente Comite, tollant de ipsa terra quod Alamanni curfifodi dicunt, et ramos de ipsis arboribus infigant in ipsam ter- ram quam tollunt, et illae genealogiae quae contendunt levent illam terrain praesente Comite et commendent in sua manu : ille involvat in fanone et ponat sigillum, et commendet fideli manu usque ad statutum placitum. Tunc spondeant inter se pugnam duorum. Quando parati sunt ad pugnam, tunc ponant ipsam terram in medio et tangant ipsam cum spatis suis, cum quibus pugnare debent, 15 et testificentur Deum creatorem ut cujus sit justitia ipsius sit et victoria ; et pugnent. Qualis de ipsis vicerit ipse possideat illam contentionem, et illi allii praesumptiosi quia proprietatem eontra- dixerunt duodecim solidos componant. This passage has been quoted as evidence of joint ownership of land ; but it must be remembered that, according to the law of alo¬ dial inheritance above quoted (32), the land of the family, gene- alogia , would be the sum of the land owned % by the members individually. If any of the land of the family was undivided, it was an undivided inheritance, not joint property. 36. Fontes Rerum Austriacarum. XXXI. 20. . . . confinium coheredum. . . . As undivided inheritance, the confinium coheredum was divisi¬ ble at any time among the coheredes ; and the share of each was determined by the number of his father’s sons, of his grandfather’s sons, of his great-grandfather’s sons, and so on back to the sons of the common progenitor. It was necessary simply to make exocquationes for each generation, beginning with the first. The enjoyment of undivided lands was in theory at least limited by the relative proportion of individual rights of inheritance and property. Compare 37. Lex Burgundionum. Additamentum Primum. I. 5. Agri- quoque communis nullis terminis limitati, exaequationem inter consortes nullo tempore denegandam [between Frodoldus et sui con- sorte (CCXXX under 34). Compare also 4]. 6. Silvarum, mon- tium et pascuorum unicuique pro rata suppetit esse communionem [pro rata refers to individual rights of inheritance or property]. 38. Mohr. Codex Diplomaticus Cur-Rastiens. 35 (in Wartmann 680). . . . Talem usum habuimus, qualem unus quisque liber homo de sua proprietate juste et legaliter decet habere, in campis, pascuis, silvis lignorumque succissionibus, atque porcorum pastu, pratis, viis, aquis aquarumque decursibus, piscationibus, exitibus et reditibus. Read the following document, and imagine the undivided land of the two brothers remaining an undivided inheritance among their descendants for six generations. 39. Wartmann. 186. Nos vero in Dei nomine Wago et Chada- loh, filii Perahtoldi. . . . tradimus . . . quedam loca . . . sicut in hodierna die a nobis possessa noscuntur, tarn divisa inter nos, quam etiam ea que in commune adhuc habere videmur. . . . 16 Suppose that the amount of undivided land was one thousand jurnales. Devise a genealogical table, and divide and subdivide the thousandaccording to the law of allodial inheritance. ( It will be seen that the problem of excequatio inter consortes or com - munio pro rata was a very easy one so long as the knowledge of genealogical relationship was preserved. A mass of evidence might be given to show that such knowledge was valued very highly and preserved very carefully by the Germans in early times. To be sure, appropriations of undivided land were con¬ stantly made, capturce or conquesta in the documents (compare 25 and 33 under 30, and 2, 21, and 64 under 26, and C under 34). In these cases, if the'right of possession was not contradicted by neighbors or kinsmen, coheredes , conparticipes in patrimonio , it was assumed that no more land had been appropriated than would have been acquired in a general division, di'bisio vel excequatio. Indeed, it was unlawful to appropriate more than one’s due share (share by right of allodial inheritance) of undivided land. Com¬ pare 40. Lex Ripuaria. LX. 2. Si quis consortem suum quantu- lumcunque superpriserit, cum quindecim solidis restituat. \ The consortes were regularly coheredes (compare the formula 4). The law of allodial inheritance among the Bavarians. 41. Lex Baiuvariorum. XIV. 8. Ut fratres hereditatem patris sequaliter dividant. . . . Items of allodial property mentioned in the law. 42. Lex Baiuvariorum. I. 1. ... villas, terram. . . . VIII. 12. . . . hortum alicuius. . . . XI. 3. , . . fines fundorum. . . . terminos alienos. . . . XII. 6. . . . messem vel pratum alterius. . . . XV. 2. Si quis vendiderit possessionem suam alicui, terram cultam, non cultam, prata, vel silvas. . . . XVI. 1. . . . agrum aut pratum vel exartum. . . . XXL . . . alienum pomarium. . . . aliena nemora. . . . alterius silva. . . . Concerning boundaries of allodial inheritance and property we must read — 43. Lex Baiuvariorum. XI. 5. Quotiens de commarchanis [note this word] contentio nascitur, ubi evidentia signa non appa¬ rent in arboribus, aut in montibus, nec in fiuminibus, et iste dicit: Hucusque antecessores mei tenuerunt, et in alodem mihi reliquerunt, et ostendit secundum proprium arbitrium locum; 17 alter vero nihilominus in istius partem ingreditur, alium ostendit locum, secundum prioris verba, suum et suorum antecesso- rum semper fuisse usque in prsesens asserit. Et si alia pro- batio nusquam invenire denoscitur, nec utriusque invasionem compensare voluerit, tunc spondeant invicem wehadinc quod dicimus, et in campiones non sorteantur, sed cui Deus fortiam dederit et victoriam ad ipsius partem designata pars, ut quserit, pertineat. No stronger evidence can be given against joint ownership of land. The dominium de terra of the allodial proprietor cannot be more completely established. Compare 44. Lex Baiuvariorum. XVI. 45. Lex Baiuvariorum. XVII. In both cases, as in 43, we have the right of allodial inheritance and property vindicated by battle of two (compare 25). Documents describing allodial property. 46. Meichelbeck. Historia Frisingensis. I. p. 52. . . . rem propriam, quam genitor meus Swarzoth mihi in hereditatem reli¬ quid. . . . casas, cortes, mancipias, servos, liberos, tributales, omnem cultam, incultam, campis, silvis, pratis, aquis, aquarum decurrentibus, mulinos, vineas, greges, jumenta vel^ quicquid ad ipsum confinium pertinebat ... I will refer the reader to the Instrumenta. IV. V. VII. X. XII. XIII. XVIII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXXV. 47. Monumenta Boica. VII. Monumenta Sclieftlarensia. III. X. XI. All these documents have the same general character. The quantity of them is very great and their testimony perfectly concurrent. The law of allodial inheritance among the Angli, Werini, and Thuringians. 48. Lex Angliorum.et Werinorum, hoc est Thuringorum VI. 1. Hereditatem defuncti filius non filia suscipiat. Si filium non habuit qui defunctus est, ad filiam pecunia et mancipia, terra vero ad proximum paternse generationis consanguineum pertineat. ... 8. Usque ad quintam generationem paterna generatio suc- cedat. Post quintam autem, filia ex toto, sive de patris, sive matris parte, in hereditatem succedat, et tunc, demum liereditas ad fusum a lancea transeat. 18 When the inheritance comes at last to the woman, it is no longer associated with the spear. That is to say, it is no longer dominium , only jus in re. The dominium would be held by the man who held the woman in tutelage, in mundeburde vel de- fensione. Documents describing allodial property among the Thuringians and Werini. 49. Dronke. Traditiones Fuldenses. Cap. 38 and Cap. 5. Compare 50. Jaffe. Monumenta Moguntina. Ex Othloni vita S. Boni- fatii. p. 490. Exinde septum carpens iter et Thuringiam para- grans [sanctus Bonifacius, praedicando et baptizando], diligenter investigavit cujus ille locus esset, ubi visio tanta sibi apparuit. Compertoque, quod Hugo, qui dicebatur senior, illius loci pos¬ sessor esset, petiit ab eo, ut sibi dare dignaretur. At ille, petita annuens, primus omnium Thuringorum hereditatem ^uam tradidit venerando prsesuli. Deinde vero Albolt aliique plures con- tigua praedicto loco praedia tradiderunt. In the same way St. Gall, when he found a place for his mon¬ astery, discovered that the land he wanted was owned by several persons. They made donation severally. (Compare the Ratperti Casus and Otmari Yita. Monumenta Germaniae. Scriptores. II. pp. 61, 62, 92.) The law of allodial inheritance among the Saxons. 51. Lex Saxonum. VII. 5. Qui defunctus non filios, sed Alias reliquerit, ad eas omnis hereditas pertineat, tutela vero earum, fratri vel proximo paterni generis deputetur. The dominium would lie with the frater or proximus paternoe generis (compare above 48). Vindication of allodial inheritance and property in land by battle of two, pugna duorum. 52. Lex Saxonum. XYI. Qui terram suam occupatam ab altero dixerit, adhibitis idoneis testibus, probat earn suam fuisse ; si occupator contradixerit, campo dijudicetur. Documents describing allodial property among the Frisians and Saxons. 53. Dronke. Traditiones Fuldenses. Cap. 41. Descriptiones eorum qui de Saxonia et Fresia sancto Bonifacio sua predia obtu- lerunt. 4. . . . XX villulis . . . 16 . . . XXX jugera et unum 19 lidum nomine Cuteo et silvam sicut alii lidi liabere videntur XL jugerum. 29 . . . dimidiam partem capture que est circa fontem qui dicitur Magedobrunno . . . 31 . . . villas IIII. . . . 72 . . . predium meum terram scil. XXIIII bourn arandam . . . 113 . . . proprietatem meam in‘loco Hericgibruhusen et in ceteris villis quicquid mihi amicus meus Gozleib dare commendavit tarn in hubis quam in areis, silvis, pratis, domibus, familiis . . . man- cipiorum cum prolibus eorum fere centum . . . Cap. 7. De- scriptiones eorum qui de Fresia bona sco. Bonifacio tradiderunt. 20 . . . terram XXX duorum pecorum pascualem. Et in alio loco . . . terram XXVIII pecudum pascualem, in tercio loco . . . X pecudum pascua et insuper terram arature suficientem ad bee, cum mancipiis et cultoribus agrorum XXX numero. 22. . . . quicquid in locis istis hereditatis vel proprietatis habeo . . . XX virgas de terra arabili . . . pascua XIII bourn . . . 27 . . . XV bourn terram . . . 28 . . . XXX bourn terram. 29 . . . terram X bourn sicut apud illos mos dicendi est, apud nos vero X jugera [this is interesting]. The law of allodial inheritance is wanting in the Lex Frisio- num. Compare however Tit. XIX. De parricidiis. The law of allodial inheritance among the Lombards. 54. Edictum Rotharis CLIII. Omnis parentela usque in sep- timum genuculum numeretur, ut parens parenti per gradum et parentelam heres succedat. Sic tamen ut ille qui succedere vult, nominatim uniuscuiusque nomina parentum suorum antecessorum dicat. . . . 55. Formula. -Petre te appelat Martinus, quod tu tenes sibi malo ordine terram quse jacet in loco tali. Ipsa terra de qua tu dicis, mea propria est de parte Dominicis parentis mei. Et tibi quid pertinet ad requirendum ? De parte ipsius. Tunc interoga ipsum qui tenet, quomodo fuit suus parens. Marcoardus proavus suus fuit, consobrinus de proavo meo, et fuerunt in tertio gradu. Avus meus et avus illius in quarto. Pater meus et pater illius in quinto. Ego et ille in sexto. Interroga similiter ilium qui pulsat. Avus meus et avus suus fuerunt fratres et fuerunt secundo gradu. Pater meus et mater sua in tertio. Ego et ille in quinto. Et cum fuerit nominata haec parentela, interroga eum qui tenet,-si potest probare quod plus proximus sit. Si non potest probare, probet ipse qui appellat. Et si ipse non protuerit, juret ipse qui ap- 20 pelatus est cum suis sacramentalibus, quod plus proximus sit, et habeat ipsam terram. We have now learned what the law of allodial inheritance was, and we have learned that the inheritaifce conferred by this law consisted of property in land, dominium de terra. We have learned that the law of allodial inheritance was common to the Salian and Ripuarian Franks, the Alamanni, the Bavarians, the Angli, Wer- ini, Thuringians, Saxons, and Lombards, in the earliest period of their recorded history. May we not then infer that it was the law of the Teutonic race before it had separated into branches, that is to say in prehistoric time ? But it is said that Caesar and Tacitus, in their account of the Germans, describe the institu¬ tion of joint ownership of land which, as we have seen, is not con¬ sistent with the law of allodial inheritance. If this is so, we shall have to weigh the testimony of Caesar and Tacitus against that of all the laws, formulae, and documents we have been reading; and I am afraid that the testimony of Caesar and Tacitus would count for very little. But first let us see what they say, — whether, in¬ deed, they do describe the institution of joint ownership of land as is maintained. We will first read 56. Caesar. De Bello Gallico. VI. 22 . . . magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt, quantum, et quo loco visum est, agri attribuunt, atque anno post alio transire cogunt. 57. Caesar. De Bello Gallico. IV. 1. . . . neque longius anno re- manere uno in loco incolendi caussa licet. 58. Horace. Carmina. III. XXIV. 14. Nec cultura placet longior annua [of the Getae], So far we have no evidence of joint ownership of land. Read¬ ing- 59. Caesar. De Bello Gallico. VI. 22. . . . neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios [sed privati ac separati agri apud eos nihil est, in IV. 1]. We should say that there was no ownership at all, only adverse possession for a short time by groups of kinsmen. But let us read — 60. Tacitus. Germania. 26. Agri pro numero cultorum ab uni- versis in vices occupantur, quos mox inter se.secundum dignationem partiuntur ; facilitatem partiendi camporum spatia praebent. Arva per annos mutant et superest ager. 21 Ab universis in vices is explained in — 61. Caesar. De Bello Gallico. IV. 1. Hi [Suevi] centum pagos habere dicuntur, ex quibus quotannis singula milia armatorum bellandi caussa ex finibus educunt. Reliqui qui domi manserint, se atque illos alunt. Hi rursus invicem anno post in armis sunt; illi domi remanent. Sic neque agricultura, neque ratio atque usus belli intermittitur. Compare — 62. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A. 894. King Alfred divided his forces, so that one half was constantly at home, the other half in the field. There is no evidence of joint ownership of land in the phrase ab universis in vices . It remains for us to consider the meaning of agros inter se secundum dignationem partiuntur. Joint ownership implies equality; a divisio secundum dignationem implies inequality. Can we say that there is any evidence here of the institution of joint ownership of land ? It does not seem to me reasonable to base any theory of owner¬ ship or tenure of land upon the evidence either of the twenty-sixth chapter of the Germania or the above passages from Caesar. The most we can infer is : 1, the temporary occupation of tracts of land by groups of kinsmen ; 2, division of land among the members of these groups, secundum dignationem ; 3, adverse possession by the individual of the land thus acquired. Fortunately, however, we are not left in doubt as to the nature of the divisio secundum dignationem. The following passages occur in the law of the Visigoths. 63. Lex Wisigothorum. X. 1.1. Valeat semel facta divisio justa, ut nulla in post modum immutandi admittatur occasio. 2. Divi- sionem factam inter fratres, etiamsi sine scriptura, inter eos con- venerit permanere jubemus ; dummodo a testibus idoneis compro- betur et divisio ipsa plenam habeat firmitatem. 3. Si plures fuerint in divisione consortes, quod a multis vel a melioribus juste constitutum est, a paucis vel deterioribus non convenit aliquatenus immutari. . . . 5 . . . Qui placitum divisionis irru- perit, et quamlibet partem aliens© portionis invaserit, tantum de suo quantum de alieno occupavit, amittat. . . . 8 . . . Sed quod a parentibus vel vicinis divisum est posteritas immutare non tenet. 22 Read again 56. The conclusion is inevitable. The gentibus cognationibusque hominum , qui una coierunt are the consortes and the parentes vel vicini of 63, and the territory assigned to them is their allodial inheritance. It is the conjinium coheredum (com¬ pare 36). Compare — 64. Praeceptum Bosonis Regis Burgundii. A. 887. (Du Cange, under Genealogia).alodium de nostris genealogiis pro- priis. Reread 37, and in connection with it the following from a docu¬ ment among the records of Freising. 65. Meichelbeck. I. p. 49. . . . appetivi [Josephus episcopus] locum ad proprios heredes, quo vocatur Erichinga, et ibidem pro necessitate domos construxi, quia antea jam temporibus plurimis in- culta atque deserta remansit, omnes autem possessores hujus loci prumptis viribus donantes atque tradentes. . . . Tasillo Dux Bajoa- rorum quicquid ad Feringas pertinebat pariter ipsis consentienti- bus, Alfrid cum fratribus suis et participibus eorum atque consortiis. Reliquas autem partes quicquid ad genealogiarn quae vocatur Fagana [compare Lex Baiuvariorum. II. 20] pertinebat, tradiderunt ipsi, id sunt: Ragino, Anulo, Wetti et Wurmhart et cuncti par- ticipes eorum, donantes .... The alodium de genealogia Fagana would be a family inheritance divided or divisible among all the members according to the law of allodial inheritance. By reference to 54, the reader will see how easy it was at any time to determine the amount of land due to any member of a genealogia or parentela , by simple reference to the sons of common progenitors and the number of them, making excequationes accordingly (compare remarks under 36). If any doubt remains in the reader’s mind whether secundum dignationem , which seems to refer to social rank, can refer to rights of inheritance and property, it will be removed by the fol¬ lowing extracts from Anglo-Saxon sources: — 66. Anglo-Saxon Law of Wergilds. 9. If a ceorl be enriched so that he has five hides of his own land and any one slay him, let him be paid for with II. M. thrimsas. 10. If he be enriched so that he has a coat of mail, a helmet, and a gilded sword, and yet has not that land, he is sithcund. 67. Anglo-Saxon Law of Ranks. 2. If a ceorl thrive so that he has fully five hides of his own land, church and kitchen, bell-house 23 and buhr-gate-seat, and duty in the king’s hall, then he is of thane- right worthy. 5. And if a thane thrive so that he becomes an eorl. then is he of eorl-rigXti worthy. 68. Historia Eliensis. II. 40. (Gale. Scriptores. XV. I). Habuit enim [^bbas Wlfricus] fratrem Gudmundum vocabulo, qui filiam praepotentis viri in matrimonium conjungi paraverat. Sed quo- niam ille quadraginta hidarum terrae dominium minime obtineret, licet nobilis esset, inter proceres tunc numerari non potuit, eum puella repudiavit .... The divisio inter se secundum dignationem described by Tacitus was the division of an alodium de genealogia among the members of a genealogia according to their several rights of allodial inheritance or property. The alodium was alotted to the genealogia (jgentibus cognationibusque hominum qui una coierunt') quantum et quo loco visum est by the magistratus ac principes ; and thus the law of allodial inheritance was fulfilled. This brings me to the end of my labor. It has been shown : 1, that joint ownership of land was unknown among the Germans in the fifth and following centuries ; 2, that it must have been unknown among them in the time of Caesar and Tacitus ; that it is not de¬ scribed by these writers ; 3, that the law of allodial inheritance, equal division of land among sons, is common to all branches of the Teu¬ tonic race; 4, that it must have been the law of that race before it was separated into branches ; 5, that the law of equal division of land among sons contradicts the theory of village communities with joint ownership of land. The result of further investigation will be given hereafter. NOTE OF ERROR. The reading ceteri , for ceteris , in Germania, Cap. 13, is, I discover, an emendation. The MSS. reading is ceteris ; which fact, of course, weakens my argument, as stated. The classification of the freemen (p. 12) holds good, however, which is the main point. D. W. R. Cambridge, October 8, 1880.