ECONOMIC IMPACT OF EXISTING AMMONIA 
 
 NITROGEN WATER QUALITY STANDARD, 
 
 IPCB CHAPTER 3, RULE 203 (F) 
 
 DOCUMENT NO. 81/23 
 
 DEPCSlTORiyi 
 
 DEC :^'i9Si 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 AT urbana-cham?a;gn 
 
 Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois 
 
^Ponsibif. r" ^^arg-in fh; 
 
 FEB 1 3 
 
 Ll6I_ 
 
 0-1096 
 
DOC. NO. 81/23 
 July, 1981 
 
 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF EXISTING 
 
 AMMONIA NITROGEN WATER QUALITY STANDARD, 
 
 IPCB CHAPTER 3 RULE 203(f) 
 
 Dr. Charles B. Muchmore, P.E. 
 Department of Thermal and Environmental Engineering 
 
 Drs. William M. Lewis and Roy C. Heidinger 
 Principal Investigators 
 
 Michael H. Paller and Lawrence J. Wawronowicz 
 
 Researchers 
 
 Fisheries Research Laboratory 
 
 Southern Illinois University 
 Carbondale, Illinois 62901 
 
 Project. Nos. 80.137, 80.138 and 80.153 
 
 Frank Real, Director 
 State of Illinois 
 Institute of Natural Resources 
 309 West Washington Street 
 Chicago, IL 60606 
 
NOTE 
 
 This report has been reviewed by the Institute of 
 Natural Resources and approved for publication. 
 With the exception of the Opinion of the Institute's 
 Economic Technical Advisory Committee, views expressed 
 are those of the contractor and do not necessarily 
 reflect the position of the IINR. 
 
 Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois 
 
 Date Printed: July, 1981 
 Quantity Printed: 500 
 
 Illinois Institute of Natural Resources 
 309 West Washington Street 
 Chicago, IL 60606 
 (312) 793-3870 
 
 11 
 
Q2d.l<o9 
 
 l^'oi Opinion of the Economic Technical Advisory 
 
 Committee of the Illinois Institute of Natural Resources 
 
 The Economic Technical Advisory Committee of the Illinois 
 Institute of Natural Resources has reviewed and approved a study 
 entitled: Economic Impact of Existing Ammonia Nitrogen Water Quality 
 Standards, IPCB Chapter 3, Rule 203 (f) . The study addresses an 
 existing regulation prior to the enactment of Public Act 80-1218 (formerly 
 P. A. 79-790). Viewed as such, it constitutes the second economic impact 
 study of an existing rule thought to have an adverse economic impact. 
 
 In accordance with its mandate, the ETAC has finalized its opinion 
 
 based on the information contained in the report. By submitting its 
 
 recommendation to the Illinois Pollution Control Board (IPCB), an 
 
 important facet of its statutory obligation is being fulfilled. Says 
 
 the Act: 
 
 The Economic Technical Advisory Committee shall propose, 
 for the economic study provided for in this amendatory 
 Act, such rules and regulations of the Pollution Control 
 Board in effect on the effective date of this amendatory 
 Act as the Committee has reasonable cause to believe may, 
 as applied, have an adverse economic impact, based upon 
 the standards set forth in this sub-section. 
 
 The Act further states that: 
 
 The Institute shall publish its findings and conclusions 
 with the supporting data used to reach said findings and 
 conclusions, and the Institute shall file said studies 
 with the Board. 
 
 The opinion contained herein accompanied by the economic study 
 
 fulfills the above-referenced mandate. 
 
 1X1 
 
The Committee notes that the present standard is inextricably 
 linked to the previously published INR economic impact studies. 
 These include: The Economic Analysis of Health Risks and the 
 Environmental Assessment of Revised Fecal Coliform Effluent and 
 Water Quality Standards , (INR Document No. 81/15), The Economic 
 Impact of Combined Sewer Overflow Regulation (Rule 602) in 
 Illinois, ( INR Document No. 81/18). We note that any amendment 
 to the existing standard examined by the attached impact study 
 would increase the overall level of ammonia effluent, assuming 
 that the Board (IPCB) relaxed the other water quality parameters 
 studied in INR Doc. No's 81/15 and 81/18. Therefore, the 
 Committee is hesitant to recommend specific changes to Bulej. • 
 203(f), due to these interrelationships. Moreover, the decisions 
 on the proposed rule changes are still pending before the Board 
 at the time of this writing (May 4, 1981). 
 
 However, the Committee believes that the Board should re- 
 examine the entire water quality classification scheme in light 
 of the alternatives illuminated in this report. The Committee 
 notes that the cost of compliance with rule 203 (f) in its 
 current form rests on the municipalities throughout the State. 
 The latter is estimated at $180.9 million in capital costs and 
 $12.2 million in annual operating costs. The total estimated 
 benefits of the existing standard are estimated at $20.9 million. 
 Enforcement of the existing ammonia nitrogen standard (Rule 203 f) 
 cannot be justified on absolute economic criteria alone. However, 
 we caution that there are many unquant i f i abl e factors that must 
 be taken into account in determining the efficacy of an existing 
 rule, or the available alternatives. 
 
 iv 
 
Of particular concern to the ETAC is the value of inter- 
 mittant streams in Illinois with regard to fishing and recreational 
 opportunities. As the study author notes: "No clear answer to 
 this question has been established." 
 
 Given the foregoing evidence on the interrelationships 
 between other water quality parameters and the proposed changes 
 suggested by previously published economic impact studies, the 
 ETAC recommends that the Board direct the Illinois Environmental 
 Protection Agency (lEPA) to re-examine the water quality classi- 
 fication scheme. We also recommend that a regional or site- 
 specific standard(s) be considered as viable alternatives. 
 
 The ETAC is aware that the Board may have other information 
 pertinent to the water quality parameters. The latter may have 
 been unknown to ETAC during the course of its deliberations. We 
 also recognize that the substantial information may be generated 
 during the public hearing process currently being held on the 
 previously mentioned impact studies. The ETAC notes that the 
 potential for developing cost-effective alternatives to Rule 
 203 (f) is great, especially if site-specific standards could be 
 developed and adopted. 
 
 In order to facilitate the information that would be per- 
 tinent to site-specific or regional standards, the INR and the 
 ETAC request that the Board schedule public hearings as required 
 by the Act. We hope that the information generated during th-" 
 hearing process will facilitate the adoption of an environmentally 
 sound standard, where the economic impact would be lessened. 
 
Says the Act: 
 
 Within a reasonable time but not longer 
 than 120 days after each study has been 
 filed with the Pollution Control Board 
 and provided herein, the Pollution Control 
 Board shall conduct public hearings 
 throughout the State and to receive comments 
 from the public regarding the study... The 
 Pollution Control Board shall also 
 specifically determine, whether as a result 
 of their findings and conclusions, any 
 regulations of the Pollution Control 
 Board shall be modified or eliminated. 
 
 The Institute and the Economic Technical Advisory Committee 
 
 are pleased to note that this important statutory obligation is 
 
 being ful f i 1 led. 
 
 VI 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 List of Tables vi 
 
 List of Figures ix 
 
 Acknowledgments xiii 
 
 Chapter 
 
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 
 
 I . INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 II. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES: SELECTION OF 
 
 STUDY SITES 9 
 
 III . BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 20 
 
 Introduction 20 
 
 Methods and Materials 25 
 
 Results 30 
 
 Discussion 79 
 
 IV. COMPARISON OF OBSERVED AND PREDICTED 
 
 OXYGEN DEPLETION 124 
 
 V. BENEFITS OF OBTAINING COMPLIANCE WITH 1.5 mg/l 
 
 AMMONIA NITROGEN STANDARD 152 
 
 VI. COST OF OBTAINING COMPLIANCE WITH 1.5 mg/l 
 
 AMMONIA NITROGEN STANDARD 176 
 
 VII . COMPARISON OF BENEFITS AND COSTS 190 
 
 REFERENCES 197 
 
 Appendix 
 
 A. Illinois Pollution Control Board Chapter 3 
 
 Water Pollution 203 
 
 B. Station at which mean unionized ammonia 
 
 exceeds 20 ug/1 206 
 
 Vll 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) 
 
 C. Total ammonia nitrogen, molecular ammonia nitrogen, 
 
 and total residual chlorine concentrations 
 measured at sample sites above the sewage out- 
 fall, in the outfall, and downstream from the 
 outfall in all streams studied 207 
 
 D. Values used for oxygen depletion predictions 212 
 
 E. Summary and economic response to Scenario A 214 
 
 F. Chemical parameters at the ten study sites 216 
 
 G. Fish samples and numbers of fish collected in 15 
 
 minutes of electrof ishing at each sample station 
 
 for 12 selected streams receiving secondary sewage 
 
 effluents 226 
 
 H. Bluegill toxicity index values for ten study sites 
 (calculated by R.E. Sparks and K.S. Lubinski, 
 Illinois Natural History Survey) 246 
 
 Vlll 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
 Number Page 
 
 1 Characteristics of the ten treatment plants chosen 
 
 for evaluation of effects of ammonia and chlorine 
 
 in sewage discharge to fish 18 
 
 2 Twelve Illinois streams selected to be used in a study 
 
 of the effects of secondary municipal sewage on 
 
 fish populations 23 
 
 3 A comparison between mean number of fish species at 
 
 ambient sites and number of species at the first 
 
 fish sample site downstream from the sewage outfall 
 
 based on 15-minute electroshocking samples 31 
 
 4 A comparison between the two samples taken from each 
 
 stream illustrating the effects of chloramines in 
 
 secondary sewage effluents on number of fish 
 
 species occurring at the first fish sample station 
 
 below the outfall 36 
 
 5 The effects of chloramines on the number of fish 
 
 species and number of individual fish found at the 
 first fish sample site below the outfall in streams 
 , receiving chlorinated secondary sewage 38 
 
 6 Midday oxygen concentration (mg/1) above and below 
 
 sewage outfall in 12 Illinois streams receiving 
 
 secondary sewage effluent 50 
 
 7 Weight of fish in kilograms collected at each sample 
 
 station by 15 minutes of electroshocking 53 
 
 8 A comparison between mean fish sample weights upstream 
 
 from the sewage outfall and peak fish sample weight 
 downstream from the sewage outfall 57 
 
 9 Total ammonia and chloramine concentration in sewage 
 
 effluents from 11 Illinois municipal treatment 
 
 plants 61 
 
 10 The effects of chloramines in secondary sewage efflu- 
 ents on nitrification of ammonia as indicated by 
 a comparison between chloramine concentrations 
 and ammonia reduction rates within the same stream 
 on two different dates 73 
 
 IX 
 
LIST OF TABLES (cont.) 
 
 11 A comparison between stream flow rate and reduction 
 
 in ammonia nitrogen concentration per kilometer 76 
 
 12 Numbers of planktonic algae (cells/ml x 10^) above 
 
 and below the sewage outfall in 12 Illinois streams 
 receiving secondary sewage effluents 77 
 
 13 Toxicity index data summary 120 
 
 14 Observed value of K^^ , flow rate, and stream conditions.. lAl 
 
 15 Violation rates: Percent of samples exceeding 1.5 
 
 mg/1 total ammonia nitrogen, based on lEPA data 154 
 
 16 Frequencies that several values of total NH3-N and 
 
 un-ionized ammonia nitrogen were exceeded, based 
 
 on average values of water quality samples 156 
 
 17 Location of lEPA water quality monitoring stations 
 
 in regions of the ten study sites 158 
 
 18 Actual ammonia concentrations (mg/1) observed during 
 
 1972-77 at water quality stations from study sites 
 
 and the violation rates with various ammonia 
 
 standards 160 
 
 19 Characteristics of streams studied. County basis 168 
 
 20 Maximum distance downstream from effluent discharge 
 
 that ammonia nitrogen concentration exceeded 
 
 1.5 mg/1, and estimate of maximum economic 
 
 recreational value of stream reach 171 
 
 21 Comparison of streams included in study with respect 
 
 to length, by width categories, to State totals 173 
 
 22 Frequencies that several values of total NH3-N and 
 
 un-ionized ammonia nitrogen were exceeded, based 
 
 on average values of point source dischargers 179 
 
 23 Percent of analyses exceeding various concentrations 
 
 of total ammonia nitrogen from point source dis- 
 charge data: lEPA data, 1976-1977 180 
 
 24 Nitrification performance of MSD Hanover Plant, 
 
 January-December 1979 182 
 
LIST OF TABLES (cont.) 
 
 25 Size distribution of ten affected municipal 
 
 discharges 185 
 
 Summary of costs estimated for compliance with 1.5 
 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen water quality standard, for 
 various processes at Springfield Sugar Creek Plant.... 187 
 
 27 Summary of estimated costs to provide nitrification 
 
 facilities at four of the study sites 188 
 
 28 Population and fishing license purchases in 1970 in 
 
 counties included in study 194 
 
 XI 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
 Number Page 
 
 1 Basin and segment boundaries; site locations 
 
 numbered as given in Table 1 10 
 
 2 Reaches of Crab Orchard Creek, Beaucoup Creek, and 
 
 Casey Fork Creek evaluated 11 
 
 3 Reach of Saline Branch evaluated 12 
 
 4 Reach of Phinney Branch evaluated 13 
 
 5 Reaches of Sugar Creek and Sangamon River evaluated 14 
 
 6 Reach of Mauvaise Terre Creek evaluated 15 
 
 7 Reaches of Cedar Creek and Markham Creek evaluated 16 
 
 Total ammonia nitrogen concentrations, concentrations of 
 chloramines , species of fishes, and biomass below the 
 sewage outfall: 
 
 8 Sugar Creek II 41 
 
 9 Phinney Branch 1 42 
 
 10 Phinney Branch II 43 
 
 11 Mauvaise Terre 1 44 
 
 12 Mauvaise Terre II 45 
 
 13 Casey Fork 1 46 
 
 14 Casey Fork II 47 
 
 15 Typical examples of the increase in fish sample weight 
 
 obtained below the sewage outfall 54 
 
 16 Sangamon River I and Cedar Creek II show a curvilinear 
 
 reduction in chloramines with increasing distance 
 
 from the outfall 63 
 
 17 Saline Branch II and Phinney Branch II show a linear 
 
 reduction in chloramines with increasing distance 
 
 from the outfall 65 
 
 Xll 
 
LIST OF FIGURES (cont.) 
 
 18 Streams showing a rapid curvilinear reduction of 
 
 total ammonia nitrogen immediately below the 
 
 sewage outfall 68 
 
 19 Streams showing evidence of the effects of chloramines 
 
 on nitrification 70 
 
 20 Streams showing an initial increase in total ammonia 
 
 nitrogen in the presence and absence of chloramines... 71 
 
 21 Model 1: A stream with a relatively low initial total 
 
 residual chlorine concentration (0.5 mg/1) 105 
 
 22 Model 2: A stream with a relatively high initial 
 
 total residual chloramine concentration (l.O mg/1).... 107 
 
 23 Model 3: A stream with relatively fast flow and 
 
 relatively high species variety 109 
 
 24 Model 4: A stream with negligible flow and relatively 
 
 low species variety 110 
 
 25 Radial diagram of bluegill toxicity components 121 
 
 Comparison of calculated and observed dissolved oxygen 
 concentrations; calculated and observed total ammonia 
 nitrogen concentrations below the sewage outfall: 
 
 26 Crab Orchard Creek I , Carbondale SE 125 
 
 27 Crab Orchard Creek II, Carbondale SE 126 
 
 28 Casey Fork I , Mt . Vernon 127 
 
 29 Casey Fork II , Mt . Vernon 128 
 
 30 Saline Branch I , Urbana-Champaign NE 129 
 
 31 Saline Branch II , Urbana-Champaign NE 130 
 
 32 Phinney Branch I and II, Urbana-Champaign Ijx 
 
 33 Sugar Creek I, Springfield 132 
 
 Xlll 
 
LIST OF FIGURES (cont.) 
 
 34 Sugar Creek II , Springfield 133 
 
 35 Sangamon River I , Decatur 134 
 
 36 Sangamon River II , Decatur 135 
 
 37 Cedar Creek I, Galesburg and Monmouth 136 
 
 38 Cedar Creek II , Galesburg and Monmouth 137 
 
 39 Saline Branch I and II, Urbana-Champaign NE 
 
 Comparison of 1968 total ammonia nitrogen data 
 
 to 1978 calculated and observed values below the 
 
 sewage outfall 144 
 
 40 Violation rates observed during 1978, based on 1.5 
 
 mg/1 NH3-N water quality standard 153 
 
 41 Frequency distribution of mean values of total NH3-N 
 
 in water quality samples in Illinois 155 
 
 42 Frequency distribution of mean values of total NH3-N 
 
 and un-ionized NH3 in point source discharges in 
 
 Illinois ; lEPA data through 1976 178 
 
 xiv 
 
XV 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 During the course of this study many individuals con- 
 tributed, in time and effort, toward the completeness of the work. 
 Personnel at the sanitary districts and treatment plants involved 
 in the study furnished plant operating data and other relavent 
 information. Engineering firms that had performed the plant de- 
 signs furnished additional information; their data on stream 
 reaeration characteristics were utilized for the dissolved oxygen 
 behavior calculations. R. Sparks and K. Lubinski of the Illinois 
 State Natural History Survey performed toxicity index calculations, 
 based on sample analyses performed in Illinois Environmental Pro- 
 tection Agency Laboratories; J. Park, J. Anderson, and R. Frazier 
 coordinated this effort. Several reviewers of the draft document 
 provided valuable suggestions that were taken into consideration; 
 in particular the efforts of L. Huff are acknowledged. The authors 
 also wish to express appreciation to L. Hardin, who contributed 
 significantly to formulation of the original experimental plan. 
 
 XVI 
 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
 Background of Existing Regulations 
 
 The 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen water quality standard was adopted by 
 the Illinois Pollution Control Board on March 7, 1972. If a discharger 
 is located on a low flow or intermittent stream, this water quality 
 standard becomes, in effect, an effluent standard. Because of the techno- 
 logical and economic hardship rigorous enforcement of this standard would 
 bring to many dischargers, both municipal and private, the Illinois EPA 
 proposed and the Illinois Pollution Control Board adopted with minor 
 modification, certain exemptions to Rule 402 that would ease the hardships 
 for many affected dischargers. The exemptions were adopted on June 22, 
 1978, but will terminate on July 1, 1982. 
 
 The objective of this study was to obtain additional data which would 
 aid the Board in determination of appropriate action to be taken after the 
 July 1, 1982 termination date of the current exemptions. 
 
 Previous investigations have identified the major environmental con- 
 cern of ammonia nitrogen to be toxicity toward fish. Most of the toxicity 
 data available were based on laboratory studies. The present study was 
 designed to observe the effects of ammonia under field conditions in 
 Illinois streams. The study included a consideration of both variety and 
 number of fishes. Ten sites were selected for the study; site selection 
 was based on criteria felt to represent typical dischargers in Illinois who 
 would likely be affected by enforcement of the ammonia nitrogen water 
 quality standard. Electroshocking data above and below the effluent dis- 
 charge points at the study sites , together with chemical analyses of stream 
 and effluent samples, provided the basis for the following conclusions. 
 
Environmental Benefits and Costs 
 
 The principal anticipated benefit of enforcing a standard of 1.5 mg/1 
 total ammonia nitrogen (mixed value in streams) is that where higher values 
 occur the reductions in ammonia will favor fish communities of greater 
 variety including an increase in the representation of some of the more 
 valuable sport species. It should be recognized that the contribution of 
 the small and of the intermittent streams involved is their possible function 
 as spawning and nursery areas. Ammonia nitrogen levels acutally observed 
 during this study decreased rapidly below the sewage discharges. The annual 
 economic value of those ten stream reaches currently exceeding the 1.5 mg/1 
 ammonia nitrogen standard was estimated to be about $140,000. This should 
 be viewed as a maximum figure; the actual observations of fish populations 
 above and below the discharges on some streams indicated the major discern- 
 able effect to be an increase in average fish size. On other streams a 
 drop in species variety occurred, primarily due to fewer game fish. However, 
 the toxic effect of chloramines resulting from the disinfection of the 
 treatment plant effluents overshadowed any observable influence of ammonia 
 toxicity in most streams. 
 
 The results of the study support the importance of considering concen- 
 tration of un-ionized ammonia, rather than total ammonia, in establishing 
 allowable levels for Illinois streams. The previously suggested value of 
 0.04 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia (45) is consistent with the results of this 
 study for the higher diversity streams studied. For those streams that are 
 not capable, for other reasons, of supporting a diverse fish population, 
 somewhat higher ammonia levels would not likely produce adverse effects. 
 
 A more precise evaluation of the effect of ammonia on fish populations 
 in low flow and intermittent streams receiving secondary effluent is not 
 
possible as long as chloramines, resulting from current disinfection 
 practices, are present in the discharge. A study currently being conducted 
 at both of the Champaign-Urbana Sanitary District Plants, where a variance 
 was granted to cease chlorination and where nitrification facilities are 
 being installed, should provide a firmer basis for judging ammonia toxicity 
 in Illinois streams. 
 
 Economic Impact 
 
 The major economic impact of attaining the current 1.5 mg/1 ammonia 
 nitrogen water quality standard would be on local government, and thus 
 reflect either an increase in taxes or a corresponding reduction in social 
 services to the municipalities affected. The current evaluation confirmed 
 the estimate of a previous study (30) that municipal facilities would require 
 about 180 million dollars for capital investment, and 12 million dollars 
 in annual costs. Private dischargers would require 100 million dollars in 
 capital investment and 6 million dollars in annual operating costs. 
 
 Available cost estimates to provide nitrification facilities for some 
 of the treatment plants chosen for this study indicated annual operating 
 costs alone to be in the range of $0.83 to $2.00 per person. A cost/benefit 
 ratio calculated on annual operating costs alone, and utilizing the maximum 
 annual increase of $140,000 for potential improvements in the sport fishery 
 for the sites evaluated, gives a cost /benefit ratio of about 5.7:1. 
 
 The economic impact of enforcement of the existing standard on industry 
 was estimated to be 33.6 million dollars in capital investment and 1.8 
 million dollars in annual operating costs (30). The economic burden to 
 agriculture is estimated to be small, but could be locally severe at some 
 feedlot operations. 
 
Alternative Approaches 
 When the current exemptions to rule 402 (with respect to ammonia 
 nitrogen) terminate on July 1, 1982, the Board will have to determine which 
 of several alternatives to adopt. Possible approaches would be: 
 
 A. No action. This would result in a significant economic impact, 
 primarily to municipal dischargers located on low or zero flow streams. 
 
 B. Extension of the existing exemptions. This would continue to 
 defer the economic impact of the current regulation, but would not provide 
 protection in some streams in the state where the aquatic life may be 
 suffering from excessive levels of un-ionized ammonia. 
 
 C. Adopt a regulatory change that would include one or more of the 
 following: 
 
 1. Recognize in the regulation that the toxic form of ammonia 
 nitrogen is un-ionized ammonia. This would require setting total ammonia 
 limits (effluent or water quality) based on pH and temperature. The 0.04 
 mg/1 concentration of un-ionized ammonia nitrogen previously suggested may 
 be justifiable for those streams in Illinois possessing a highly diversified 
 fish population. However, it should be recognized that at higher values 
 
 of temperature and pH a value of 0.04 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia is more strin- 
 gent than the current 1.5 mg/1 total ammonia nitrogen standard. The 0.057 
 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia nitrogen concentration suggested by the Consulting 
 Engineers Council of Illinois (13) coincides with 1.5 mg/1 total ammonia 
 nitrogen at 20°C and pH of 8; at lower values of temperature and pH a 
 0.057 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia standard would be less stringent than the 
 current standard. 
 
 2. Recognize that for many low flow streams in Illinois not 
 capable of supporting a diverse fish population, an un-ionized ammonia 
 
nitrogen level in excess of 0.04 mg/1 may do no harm in terms of reduction 
 of species diversity and, in fact, might be expected to increase individual 
 fish size. This supports a classification of low flow and/or intermittent 
 streams in Illinois according to: 
 
 a. Their ability to support a high or low diversity fish 
 population. 
 
 b. The stream's importance with respect to the life cycle of 
 fish populations present in the larger stream to which the intermittent 
 stream is tributary. 
 
 c. The intermittent stream's true behavior during low flow 
 conditions. That is, if the stream truly exists naturally as a dry or 
 nearly dry ravine in summer months , or if a series of large isolated pools 
 exist that may support diverse and unique fish faunas. 
 
 Although the above characteristics might be estimated based on physical 
 parameters, it may be more practical to perform an actual survey of the 
 fish community by the electroshocking technique. By following guidelines 
 that would involve species composition as well as number, comparative eval- 
 uations could be made. This would permit establishment of stream and/or 
 effluent standards on a regional and/or stream segment basis. Recognizing 
 the difficulty in implementation of such an approach, the benefits to the 
 people of Illinois in terms of most effective application of pollution 
 control dollars might be well worth the effort. 
 
 When interpreting toxicity studies of un-ionized (molecular) ammonia, 
 as well as un-ionized ammonia values reported for water quality monitoring 
 stations and wastewater treatment plant effluents, care must be taken to 
 ascertain whether the un-ionized ammonia values represent NH3 or NH3-N. 
 Confusion can result, since the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 
 
6 
 
 document "Quality Criteria for Water" (EPA Red Book) suggests a value of 
 0.02 mg/1 un-lonlzed ammonia, although the tabulated values giving the 
 effects of pH and temperature imply the intent of the recommendation is to 
 be 0.02 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia nitrogen (62). The review of the EPA Red 
 Book by the Water Quality Section of the American Fisheries Society inter- 
 prets the 0.02 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia criteria to mean 0.016 mg/1 NH3-N 
 (57); Flemal's work is also based on this assumption (24). 
 
 To be consistent with accepted means of expressing other nitrogen 
 forms, such as nitrite and nitrate, it would seem desirable to adopt the 
 practice of expressing un-ionized ammonia concentrations as nitrogen 
 (un-ionized NH3-N) . 
 
CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The Illinois Pollution Control Board adopted on March 7, 1972 
 a water quality standard for aounonia nitrogen of 1.5 mg/1, as 
 given in Rule 203 of the Chapter 3 Water Pollution Regulations (33). 
 Since that time, it has become increasingly evident that the strict 
 enforcement of that regulation would force technological and econ- 
 omic hardship on many dischargers, primarily municipalities, 
 throughout the state. In recognition of these concerns the Illinois 
 Environmental Protection Agency ( lEPA ) proposed «v- relaxation of the 
 ammonia nitrogen standard; that proposal published in the Environ- 
 mental Register #145 on April 11, 1977, included a recommendation 
 that the proposed exemptions terminate June 30, 1981. Following 
 considerable testimony at several hearings, including presentation 
 of an economic impact study by Huff ( 30), the Board adopted the Agency 
 proposal with minor modifications but extended the termination date 
 of the exemptions to July 1, 1982. The Board's final order, adopted 
 June 22, 1978, states (32): 
 
 FINAL ORDER 
 
 Proposed Rule 402.1 Exceptions to Rule 402 (Ammonia Nitrogen) 
 
 a) Rule 402 shall not apply to that portion of Rule 
 
 203(f) pertaining to ammonia nitrogen for any effluent 
 from a source in existence on April 1, 1977, having 
 an untreated ammonia influent loading not exceeding 
 60 pounds per day and not otherwise needing upgrading 
 to meet the requirements of this Chapter. 
 
8 
 
 b) Rule 402 shall not apply to that portion of Rule 
 203(f) pertaining to ammonia nitrogen for any 
 source during the months of November through 
 March; except that during the months of November 
 through March no source, not exempt under 402.1(a), 
 shall discharge an effluent containing a concentra- 
 tion of ammonia nitrogen greater than 4.0 mg/1 if 
 the discharge, alone or in combination with other 
 discharges, causes or contributes to a violation of 
 that portion of Rule 203(f) pertaining to ammonia 
 nitrogen. 
 
 c) Compliance with the provisions of Rule 402.1(b) 
 shall be achieved by March 31, 1979, or such 
 other date as required by NPDES permit, or as 
 ordered by the Board under Title VIII of Title 
 IX of the Environmental Protection Act. 
 
 d) After July 1, 1982, the exemptions provided in 
 this Rule 402.1 shall terminate. 
 
 This economic impact study was designed to provide additional 
 information on which the Board might base decisions on this matter, 
 prior to the July 1, 1982 termination date of the current exemptions. 
 
 During the previous hearings, the major impact of ammonia 
 nitrogen on the environment was identified as toxicity toward fish, 
 although literature data cited was for the most part based on 
 laboratory studies. This study was designed to determine the actual 
 effect of ammonia nitrogen on fish diversity and number based on 
 measurements at ten appropriately selected sites in Illinois. In 
 addition, cost data were desired to augment that presented in the 
 earlier study. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 ENVIROMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 
 SECTION OF STUDY SITES 
 
 The major environmental consequences of ammonia nitrogen in 
 wastewater effluents have been previously identified (30) as direct 
 toxicity toward aquatic life, primarily fish, and indirect toxicity 
 caused by oxygen depletion when the ammonia undergoes nitrification 
 in the stream. This study was designed to determine the magnitudes 
 of these effects on Illinois streams, by examining in some detail the 
 characteristics of ten sites within the State. 
 
 Un-ionized ammonia has been identified as the toxic form of 
 ammonia toward fish. The U.S. EPA document "Quality Criteria for 
 Water" (Red Book) (62) recommends a maximum level of 0.02 mg/1 un- 
 ionized ammonia; the laboratory studies of Roseboom and Richey (45) 
 indicate a level of 0.04 mg/1 may be suitable for protection of those 
 fish species common to many Illinois waters. High pH and elevated 
 temperatures favor the equilibrium toward formation of the un-ionized 
 form. 
 
 When interpreting toxicity studies of un-ionized (molecular) 
 ammonia, as well as un-ionized ammonia values reported for water 
 quality monitoring stations and wastewater treatment plant effluents, 
 care must be taken to ascertain whether the un-ionized ammonia values 
 represent NHo or NH3-N. Confusion can result, since the U.S. Environment- 
 al Protection Agency document "Quality Criteria for Water" (EPA Red 
 Book) suggests a value of 0.02 rag/1 un-ionized ammonia, although the 
 tabulated values giving the effects of pH and temperature imply the 
 intent of the recommendation is to be 0.02 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia 
 
10 
 
 '*'/ x^vv^ 
 
 (-^ 
 
 
 ' / .., , .-' <» 8 02 -at 
 
 *03 
 
 Figure 1. Basin and segment boundaries, 
 as given in Table 1. 
 
 Site locations numbered 
 
11 
 
 H I W G T O N 
 
 
 \^ r / hi. Vernorxi .' 
 
 1 ■ .t^\ Tamaroa / ' — 4 ^..' 
 
 >- 
 
 a/ 
 
 Yy, ...^ 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ^ (PiAckneyvt^l/j o.oe^ 
 
 Ou Quoin (J ,^f7"^; "(*K.... 
 
 V v;? 30 
 
 5-5960 
 
 •J'JO , \ . x \ y " "n '9 c; ^^u^ ■'.<-„ 
 
 R— Ji A^,- N 
 
 (■>'.;■ Chr istopher ^^l^fX 
 
 5-5965 
 
 ^X-M2 1^H ■ ^ftO.26 '^ ( s^ 
 
 D ~V^j^0.62 y I Johnston City '^■.., /^ \ 
 
 ORCHARD. ^Rfe^K ^^ . 
 
 iittiagt«^ 1 L l"m A M S 0/ 
 
 Marion jj/*' 
 
 Ucrainville /( 1 .cVV 
 
 ■ I U O' /'^x 
 
 _ Corham ^^ V«>r^. i ■' -^ I .>°/ ^ 7" 
 
 / 
 
 5-5975 
 
 
 1.4 ,^^s^. 
 
 0.8( 
 
 Figure 2. Reaches of Crab Orchard Creek (Carbondale SE Plant, 
 site 1), Beaucoup Creek (Pinckneyville, site 2), and Casey Fork 
 Creek (Mt. Vernon, site 3) evaluated. All are in the Big Muddy 
 River Basin. 
 
C H A V " f 
 
 G N 
 
 
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 Figure 3. Reach of Saline Branch (Urbana-Champaign NE Plant, 
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13 
 
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 (Chanpaign-Urbana 
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 PUMPING WELL WATER INTO RIVER 
 BY U S,Ls!c HAS NOT BEEN SHOWN 
 
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 Figure 4. Reach of Phinney Branch (Urbana-Chan^aign SW Plant, 
 site 5) evaluated. Site is in the Kaskaskia River Basin. 
 
14 
 
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 Figure 5. Reaches of Sugar Creek (Springfield SE Plant, site 6) 
 and Sangamon River (Decatur, site 8) evaluated. Both are in 
 the Sangamon River Basin. 
 
15 
 
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 Figure 6. Reach of Mauvaise Terre Creek (Jacksonville, site 7) 
 evaluated. Site is in the Illinois River Basin. 
 
16 
 
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 Figure 7. Reaches of Cedar Creek (Galesburg, site 9, and 
 Monmouth, site 10) and Markham Creek (Monmouth) evaluated, 
 Both are in the Mississippi North Central River Basin. 
 
17 
 
 nitrogen (62) . The review of the EPA Red Book by the Water Quality 
 Section of the American Fisheries Society interprets the 0.02 mg/1 
 un-ionized annnonia criteria to mean 0.016 mg/1 NHo-N (57); Flemal's 
 work is also based on this assumption (24) . 
 
 Figure 1 presents the site locations chosen on a statewide map. 
 Areas of the state were chosen where there were high un-ionized 
 ammonia concentrations, based on lEPA Water Quality data for the 
 1976-78 period, provided by Dr. R. Flemal. Flemal's summary of 
 those water quality monitoring stations at which mean un-ionized 
 ammonia values exceed 0.02 mg/1 is given in Appendix B (24). 
 
 Figures 2 through 7 indicate the reach of streams studied, 
 on appropriate sections of the Illinois State Water Survey 10-yr, 
 7-day low flow maps (48) . 
 
 Table 1 gives the ten treatment plants chose for this evaluation, 
 and summarizes their major design and performance characteristics. 
 The sites selected were chosen based on the following criteria: 
 
 1. Violation of the 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen water 
 quality standard was known, or was reasonably expected to exist in the 
 receiving stream. 
 
 2. A range of treatment plant capacities was desired. 
 
 3. Several drainage basins should be represented. 
 
 4. No known major toxic water quality parameters were 
 known to be present, other than ammonia nitrogen and chloramines. 
 
 5. The locations chosen should be representative of 
 conditions on a statewide basis, and yet permit reasonable effi- 
 ciency of on-site data collection and delivery of water samples to 
 lEPA laboratories for chemical analysis. 
 
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20 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 Introduction 
 
 In the near future, Illinois sewage treatment plants will have to 
 be modified to include expensive advanced treatment facilities to satisfy 
 stringent stream ammonia standards. Recent laws specify that stream 
 total ammonia concentrations must remain below 1.5 mg/1 to protect 
 aquatic life. The validity of these regulations is questionable since 
 much of the information concerning ammonia toxicity is contradictory. 
 The bulk of this information, moreover, is based on laboratory 
 bioassays which some feel do not represent field conditions. Con- 
 sequentially, there is a need for field studies to evaluate the impact 
 of present sewage treatment practices (secondary treatment) on stream 
 environments. In lieu of a complete ecological survey, which is both 
 expensive and time consuming, the present analysis is restricted to fish 
 communities. Fishes occupy the top of the aquatic food chain and thus 
 represent the integration of all biotic and abiotic factors within the 
 environment. Moreover, fishes probably provide a more meaningful 
 measure of pollution to the layman than other organisms, since the 
 occurrence of certain species is a criterion by which many citizens 
 evaluate the pollutional status of streams. 
 
 Ammonia is a constitutent of sewage which can be toxic to fishes 
 under certain conditions. Concentrations are usually expressed in terms 
 of ammonia nitrogen. Ammonia exists as an equilibrium between two 
 species: NHo and NH/ . The proportion of molecular ammonia, NH^, in- 
 creases with pH and temperature. Bioassays indicate that molecular 
 
21 
 
 ammonia nitrogen is acutely toxic to fishes at concentrations varying 
 between 0.4 and 0.7 mg/1 (45), and exerts sublethal effects at levels 
 as low as 0.12 mg/1 (43). The ammonium ion is relatively harmless even 
 at high concentrations. Based on bioassay data, Roseboom and Richey 
 (45) contend that molecular ammonia nitrogen levels in Illinois streams 
 should not exceed 0.04 mg/1 if sensitive species are to be protected. 
 
 There is a lack of agreement among researchers who have studied 
 ammonia toxicity in the field. Several authors (52,19) indicate that 
 ammonia is detrimental to fishes even at relatively low concentrations. 
 Ellis (19) found that desirable fish populations were not conmionly found 
 in association with total ammonia nitrogen levels exceeding 2 mg/1. 
 In contrast, Tsai (59) found that fish communities are not appreciably 
 affected by total ammonia nitrogen levels as high as 10 mg/1. 
 
 Some variations in the impact of sewage ammonia could be related 
 to differences in the capacity of various streams to eliminate ammonia 
 from the water column. Ammonia is a product of organic decomposition 
 and is produced by the action of ammonifying bacteria on proteinaceous 
 matter. Ammonia is further oxidized by nitrifying bacteria to nitrite 
 and subsequently nitrate, a non-toxic plant nutrient. This process, 
 termed nitrification, is oxygen consuming and generates hydrogen ions i 
 Bacteria within the stream play an indispensable part in this cycle, 
 although algae may also be important since they represent a final step 
 in the recycling of inorganic nitrogen and may utilize ammonia directly. 
 Therefore, ammonia is an intermediate in the naturally occurring 
 biological cycle and occurs at low ambient levels in most streams. The 
 high levels bound below sewage outfalls indicate an overloading of the 
 
22 
 streams 's natural biological purification capacity. It is evident 
 that any factors affecting the ability of streams to assimilate and 
 convert ammonia could also affect the impact of sewage effluents 
 on aquatic life. It should also be recognized that nitrate may cause 
 eutrophlcation with potentially deleterious or beneficial effects 
 depending upon a number of factors. 
 
 Chloramines are another constituent of secondary sewage which are 
 potentially toxic to fishes. Unlike ammonia, chloramines occur in 
 natural waters only as a consequence of human activities. Most 
 municipalities chlorinate treated sewage to achieve disinfection. 
 Chlorine reacts with the ammonia in sewage to form chloramines which 
 are more stable than free chlorine and hence potentially more detri- 
 mental to aquatic life. Free chlorine is usually absent from sewage 
 ef f leunts (1) . Bioassays have shown that chloramine concentrations as 
 low as 43 v^/1 can have chronic effects on warm water fishes (3) . 
 
 This preliminary study was designed to assess the effects of ammonia 
 and chloramines in municipal secondary sewage on fishes in 12 Illinois 
 streams (Table 2). The following were the principal objectives: 
 
 1. To obtain data on ammonia and chloramine levels and fish 
 populations below sewage outfalls as a basis for comments on decrease in 
 water quality, with particular reference to the environmental require- 
 ments of indigenous species of fishes. 
 
 2. To estimate the segment of a receiving stream in which fishes 
 are significantly affected by the discharge. 
 
 3. To consider the significance of excluding small streams and 
 ditches from general water quality standards. 
 
23 
 
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25 
 
 Methods and Materials 
 
 Twelve streams throughout the State of Illinois were moni- 
 tored (Table 2). Two of these, Cedar Creek (at Monmouth) and 
 the Kaskaskia Ditch, received sewage via tributary streams. Sew- 
 age plants discharged directly into the remaining streams. Cedar 
 Creek received an effluent from both the Galesburg and Monmouth 
 plants, which were separated by approximately 40 km as measured 
 along the stream channel. Therefore, for the purposes of this 
 study, Cedar Creek is treated as two streams: Cedar Creek (Gales- 
 burg) and Cedar Creek (Monmouth) . All streams were selected so 
 that the sewage discharge constituted the only known point- 
 source of pollution in the area under study. 
 
 An attempt was made to sample each stream twice between 
 July and November 1978; samples were classified as I and II re- 
 spectively. Each stream was divided into sampling stations; 
 samples from two stations above the outfall determined ambient 
 levels of the variables monitored, and numerous downstream stations 
 were sampled to indicate the trend in recovery of the stream to 
 upstream levels. Total ammonia nitrogen, residual chlorine con- 
 centrations, pH, water and air temperature, dissolved oxygen, 
 and volume of flow were determined by standard methods at each 
 station. Sampling of the biota was limited to fish and phyto- 
 plankton. In each stream on each sample date a water sample was 
 collected from an upstream station, the sewage effluent, and a 
 
26 
 
 downstream station, and sent to the Illinois Environmental Pro- 
 tection Agency laboratories for the following analyses: arsenic, 
 barium, cadmium, copper, chromium (hex), iron (total), lead, 
 manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, zinc, ammonia, 
 nitrate and nitrite, phosphorous, fluoride, cyanide, phenol, and 
 hardness (Appendix C) . 
 
 Total ammonia nitrogen concentrations (mg/1) were determined 
 by using an Orion ammonia electrode 95-10 coupled with an Orion 
 Model 901 Microprocessor lonalyzer (nitrogen ammonia selective ion 
 electrode method) (61). A 500-ml water sample was collected, 
 preserved by adding 0.25 ml of 1.0 M HCl, placed on ice and analyzed 
 within several hours. Water temperature and pH were recorded 
 when the sample was collected to permit calculations of molecular 
 ammonia nitrogen levels. The concentration of molecular ammonia 
 was calculated as follows: 
 
 Molecular Ammonia Nitrogen = Total ammonia nitrogen (mg/1) ; 
 
 Antilog (pKa - pH) + 1 
 
 pK^ equals the dlsassociatlon constant appropriate to the water 
 
 temperature (20). All ammonia concentrations are reported as ammonia 
 
 nitrogen. Ammonia nitrogen concentrations can be converted to 
 
 ammonia concentrations by multiplying by 1.21. 
 
 Total residual chlorine concentrations were ascertained in situ 
 
 using Standard Method's iodoroetric method II 409B (l). A 200-ml 
 
 sample was collected and added to 5 ml 0.00564 N phenylarsine oxide. 
 
27 
 
 approximately 1 g of potassium iodine, and 4 ml acetate buffer 
 
 solution. Titration was accomplished by adding 0.0282 N iodine 
 
 titrant to the solution with a 0.02 ml micropipette. The end point 
 
 was reached when the needle of the microarameter deflected upscale 
 
 and did not promptly return to the baseline. The volume of the 
 
 titrant was recorded and used to calculate the concentration of 
 
 residual chlorine. The amount of residual chlorine may be calculated 
 
 by the following formula: 
 
 mg/1 CI = (A - 5B) X 200 , 
 C 
 
 where A equals ml phenylarsine oxide, B equals ml iodine, and C 
 
 equals ml of sample. This method, coupled with good technique, 
 
 appeared to be precise with concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/1. It 
 
 is important to recognize that chloramines are the principal or only 
 
 form of residual chlorine typically found in secondary sewage 
 
 effluents (1, 15, 67). 
 
 A YSI Model 54A polarograph was used to obtain dissolved oxygen 
 concentrations. pH was determined by using a Fisher pH electrode 
 coupled with an Orion 407A specific ion meter. 
 
 The volume of effluent discharged into the stream was obtained 
 from sewage treatment plant personnel and recorded in liters per 
 day. Since volume of stream flow is a function of stream flow rate, 
 width and depth, these variables were measured at an upstream and/ 
 or downstream station where it was possible to obtain an accurate 
 
28 
 
 flow rate measurement. A Gurley current meter was used to measure 
 flow rate. Total volume of stream flow and a dilution factor could 
 thus be calculated. 
 
 Fish samples were obtained after the chemical and physical 
 parameters had been determined. The method of sampling was electro- 
 shocking, using a 3-phase, 230-volt, 3,000-watt Homelite generator. 
 Each station was sampled for 15 minutes. The fish were identified, 
 weighed, measured in total length, and externally examined for 
 abnormalities . 
 
 Changes in the number of fish species taken at each sample 
 site was an important criterion used in evaluating the impact of 
 sewage effluents. This was predicated on the assumption that 
 secondary sewage may impose deleterious changes on stream environ- 
 ments causing the loss of pollution sensitive species. An average 
 value derived from the two samples taken upstream from the sewage 
 outfall was usually used to indicate the number of species naturally 
 present in the stream. At Mauvaise Terre Creek (I), however, the 
 number of species observed at the last downstream site was used in 
 lieu of the number observed at the second upstream site, where 
 equipment problems interfered with sampling. Since the last down- 
 stream site was well into the zone of complete stream recovery, it 
 was felt that a more accurate representation of the number of species 
 naturally occurring in the stream could be obtained in this manner. 
 
29 
 
 Only the last downstream site was used to establish ambient species 
 number at Cedar Creek (Galesburg) , since the sewage outfall effectively 
 represented the beginning of the stream. Fish samples could not be 
 taken in Markham Creek because of its small size. 
 
 Total sample weight and cumulative weights of individual species 
 and groups of species were also recorded at each sample site. 
 Changes in weights were assumed to reflect changes in fish biomass. 
 It should be recognized that true biomass measurements are an ex- 
 pression of weight per unit area or volume. Although our samples 
 were restricted to 15-minute periods, they did not necessarily cover 
 exactly the same areas. Therefore, sample weights (catch per unit 
 effort) can be considered as a relative index to changes in biomass, 
 but not actual measures of biomass. 
 
 A 200-ml phytoplankton sample was collected, preserved in Lugol's 
 solution and brought back to the laboratory for qualitative and 
 quantitative analysis. Each sample was allowed to settle, then 
 concentrated. Knowing the total volume of the sample and the volume 
 of the concentrated solution, a concentration factor could be cal- 
 culated. The samples were quantified by using a modified version 
 of Edmonson's method (18), which employs a concentration factor. 
 The following formula was used: 
 
 Ns 
 
 Cells /ml = (Vd) (Nd) (Df) (Lc) (Cf) , 
 Ac 
 
 Where Ns equals the number of cells counted per microscopic sweep 
 
30 
 
 across the drop; Vd the volume of the drop; Nd the number of drops; 
 Df the diameter of the field; Lc the length of sweep (cover slip); 
 Cf the concentration factor; and Ac the area of cover slip. To 
 obtain accuracy, four drops per sample were counted and the mean 
 number of cells per milliliter was calculated. The algae were 
 identified to class at a magnification of 560X. 
 
 Results 
 Community Specific Responses to Secondary Sewage Pollution 
 
 Fish communities were classified as "low variety" (40) when 
 samples above the outfall yielded an average of 9 or fewer species 
 (Table 3, Appendix C). Mean species number in low variety commu- 
 nities was 7.2 (standard deviation = 1.2). The carp ( Cyprinus 
 carpio ) was dominant, comprising 65% of the average sample by weight 
 (standard deviation = 14) . Other dominant species in low variety 
 communities included gizzard shad ( Dorosoma cepedianum ), green sun- 
 fish ( Lepomis cyanellus ) , drum ( Aplodinotus grunniens ) and buffaloes 
 (Ictiobus spp.). Game species (principally centrarchids) averaged 
 7% (standard deviation = 5) of the community by weight. Streams 
 containing low variety communities were usually characterized by 
 high turbidity, ambient oxygen levels below 6.0 mg/1, negligible 
 flow, abundant sunken timber, and mud bottoms. Low variety 
 communities were found in three streams — Beaucoup Creek, Crab 
 Orchard Creek, and Sugar Creek. 
 
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33 
 
 Fish coiranunities were designated as high variety when samples 
 from unpolluted areas yielded 10 or more species (Table 3) ; the 
 average number was 12.2 (standard deviation = 2.8). On the average, 
 the carp comprised only 38% (standard deviation = 29) of each sample 
 by weight, game fishes 18% (standard deviation = 26). Many other 
 species were present including various cyprinids, catostomids, 
 percicthyids, and occasionally percids and esocids. High variety 
 communities inhabited streams of moderate to low flow with turbid 
 to very clear water, oxygen levels above 6.0 mg/1, and sand, gravel 
 and mud bottoms. High variety fish communities were found in eight 
 streams — Phinney Branch, Saline Branch, Kaskaskia Ditch, Sangamon 
 River, Mauvaise Terre Creek, Cedar Creek (Monmouth), Cedar Creek 
 (Galesburg) , and Casey Fork Creek. 
 
 Most streams having high variety fish communities offered 
 reduction in species number below the outfall (Table 3). This 
 occurred in six of the eight streams sampled — Casey Fork Creek, 
 Mauvaise Terre Creek, Sangamon River, Cedar Creek (Galesburg), 
 Phinney Branch, and Saline Branch. Reduced species number extended 
 from 0.16 to 24.1 km downstream, the mean being 11.1 km (standard 
 deviation = 9.5). (These distances are based only on those streams 
 sampled downstream far enough to show a complete recovery of the 
 fish population. Additionally, these distances should not be 
 regarded as the greatest downstream distance at which reduced species 
 number occurred, they only represent the point at which the last 
 
34 
 
 sample showing reduced species number was taken. Actually, harmful 
 effects extended somewhat further downstream. 
 
 In total, 23 sample stations showed evidence of degradation 
 based on a reduction in species number from upstream levels. Certain 
 fish species were typically found in these degraded communities. 
 The occurrence of these species was a result of both their widespread 
 distribution in small Illinois streams and their pollution tolerance. 
 The carp was found at 61% of the degraded sites and at 77% of the 
 22 upstream sites in the pollution damaged streams; the green sun- 
 fish at 61% of the degraded sites and at 86% of the upstream sites; 
 the white sucker ( Catostomus commersoni ) at 43% of the degraded sites 
 and at 68% of the upstream sites; the bluegill ( Lepomis macrochirus ) 
 at 39% of the degraded sites and at 59% of the upstream sites; the 
 creekchub ( Semotllus atromaculatus ) at 22% of the degraded sites 
 and at 41% of the upstream sites; and the gizzard shad at 22% of 
 the degraded sites and at 50% of the upstream sites. Other species 
 including the common shiner ( Notropis cornutus ) , golden shiner 
 (Notemigonus crysoleucas ) , drum, buffaloes and carpsuckers ( Carpiodes 
 spp.) were abundant at polluted sites in one or two streams, but 
 lacked widespread distribution. Cedar Creek (Monmouth) and the 
 Kaskaskia Ditch contained high variety fish communities, but species 
 number was not reduced since the effluent was greatly diluted in 
 both streams. 
 
35 
 
 In the three streams containing low variety conmunities — Crab 
 Orchard Creek, Sugar Creek and Beaucoup Creek — species number 
 was not significantly decreased despite chloramine and molecular 
 ammonia nitrogen levels which were damaging to high variety commu- 
 nities in other streams. It is important to recognize that the low 
 variety fish communities were quite similar, in terms of species 
 composition, to the degraded fish communities present below the 
 sewage outfall in streams which contained high variety communities 
 above the outfall. 
 Chloramine Toxicity 
 
 A comparison between the two samples from each stream (Table 4) 
 indicates that fewer species were consistently found at the first 
 downstream site on the sampling date when the chloramine concen- 
 trations were higher (Dependent t = 2.95, 1 tailed, significant at 
 P = 0.05). In contrast, total ammonia concentration, if evaluated 
 similarly, did not affect species number (Dependent t = 0.61); 
 neither did the molecular ammonia concentration (Dependent t = 0.42). 
 Additionally, the mean number of species found at first sites below 
 the outfall with detectable chloramine concentrations was 5 (standard 
 deviation = 4.1) (Table 5). On the average, this represented a 
 53% reduction from upstream species number. In contrast, species 
 number averaged 11 (standard deviation = 7.4) at first downstream 
 sites without chloramines, representing a 9% increase over upstream 
 species number. Similarly, numbers of individuals were also reduced 
 

 
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37 
 
 at sites where chloramines were measurable. The average number of 
 fish found at first downstream sites without chloramines was 85, 
 at sites with chloramines, 32 (Table 5). In several cases there 
 was a complete or nearly complete absence of fish close to the out- 
 fall. 
 
 Although there was a strong inverse correlation between species 
 number and chloramine concentration within the stream, there was only weak 
 correlation between species number and chloramine concentration 
 among the streams (Table 5). For example, in Sugar Creek species 
 number was greater below the outfall than above the outfall despite 
 the presence of 0.4 mg/1 of chloramines. In contrast, 0.5 and 
 0.6 mg/1 of chloramines were associated with the elimination of 
 most fishes at Phinney Branch and Saline Branch respectively. These 
 creeks contained high variety communities. In several cases fishes 
 in apparently good health were found in the presence of surprisingly 
 high chloramine concentrations. Carp were found in the presence 
 of 11.0 mg/1 of chloramines in Mauvaise Terre Creek. In Casey Fork 
 Creek bluegill ( Lepomis macrochirus ) and green sunf ish were found 
 in a pool immediately below the outfall containing 2.7 mg/1 of 
 chloramines. 
 
 There was no factor consistently associated with chloramines 
 in areas where chloramines were associated with the greatest re- 
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 copper toxicity could have been implicated at Saline Branch and 
 
38 
 
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40 
 
 Phinney Branch, since copper concentrations were relatively high 
 at the first dovmstream site in some cases (Saline (I) 0.06 mg/1 Cu; 
 Saline (II) 0.2 mg/1 Cu; Phinney (I) 0.2 mg/1 Cu; Phinney (II) 0.02 
 mg/1 Cu) . Concentrations of 0.2 mg/1 could be detrimental to 
 sensitive cyprinids at the hardness levels observed in these creeks 
 (163-233 mg/1) (62). However, changes in variety did not appear 
 to be related to changes in copper concentration. The greatest re- 
 duction in variety observed at Phinney Branch occurred at chloramine 
 levels of 0.4 mg/1 and copper levels of 0.02 mg/1; 0.02 mg/1 repre- 
 sents a theoretically safe concentration for all warm water fishes 
 (62). Therefore, reduction in variety in this instance was not 
 associated with the occurrence of copper. 
 Molecular Ammonia Toxicity 
 
 Eight of twelve samples showing a significant reduction in 
 variety below the outfall exhibited a quick recovery of species 
 number as chloramines were eliminated. Such was the case at the 
 Sangamon River (II), Phinney Branch (I, II), Saline Branch (I, II), 
 Sugar Creek (II), and Cedar Creek (Galesburg) (I, II). This trend 
 was best observed at Sugar Creek (II) (Figure 8) and Phinney 
 Branch (I, II) (Figures 9 and 10), where samples were closely 
 spaced and thus clearly indicated a progressive recovery. However, 
 in Mauvaise Terre Creek (Figures 11 and 12) and Casey Fork Creek 
 (Figures 13 and 14) species number remained depressed for many 
 kilometers past the point of chloramine disappearance, indicating 
 
41 
 
 WEIGHT OF 
 FISH SAMPLE (Kg) 
 
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42 
 
 WEIGHT OF FISH SAMPLE 
 
 (Kg) 
 
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 KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 10. Total ammonia nitrogen concentrations ( A. ) » concentrations 
 of chloramines ( # )> and species of fishes ( ■ ) below the sewage 
 outfall (— — — ) in Phinney Branch II (concentrations of molecular 
 ammonia nitrogen are given in parenthesis; Roman numerals indicate 
 sample number) . 
 
44 
 
 SPECIES NUMBER 
 
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47 
 
 CASEY FORK CREEK H 
 
 LU 
 
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 KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 14. Total ammonia nitrogen concentrations ( A )» concen- 
 trations of chloramlnes ( # ) , and species of fishes ( |i ) below 
 
 the sewage outfall ( ) In Casey Fork Creek II (concentrations of 
 
 molecular ammonia nitrogen are given in parenthesis; Roman numerals 
 indicate sample number) . 
 
48 
 
 that reduced variety was probably associated with other factors 
 besides the presence of chloramlnes . Both streams contained high 
 variety fish communities, and in both streams communities in 
 polluted areas were radically different in terms of composition and 
 species number from natural communities at ambient sites. 
 
 Molecular ammonia nitrogen in areas of reduced species number 
 without chloramlnes averaged 0.06 mg/1 (standard deviation = 0.05) 
 in Mauvalse Terre Creek, and 0.09 mg/1 (standard deviation = 0.08) 
 in Casey Fork Creek. Although tolerant fish characteristic of 
 low variety communities occurred at such ammonia nitrogen concen- 
 trations, high variety communities were not found in association 
 with molecular ammonia nitrogen levels above 0.03 mg/1. Molecular 
 aimnonla nitrogen concentrations exceeded 0.03 mg/1 at one sample 
 site below the outfall on at least one sample date in 5 of the 12 
 sampled streams (Appendix C) , three of which contained high variety 
 fish communities. However, only Mauvalse Terre Creek and Casey 
 Fork Creek showed sustained high molecular ammonia (N) levels over 
 many kilometers (24 and 10 km, respectively) on both sample dates. 
 The Sangamon River also showed sustained high molecular ammonia (N) 
 levels (mean concentration = 0.05 mg/1 for 15 km) on the first 
 sample date, but a fish sample was not taken due to an equipment 
 malfunction. It is worth noting that both Mauvalse Terre Creek and 
 Casey Fork Creek were turbid, with mud bottoms and low flow rates 
 In both areas. Dissolved oxygen at both creeks remained above 5.0 
 
49 
 
 mg/1 at all sample sites except for the first site below the 
 outfall at Mauvaise Terre Creek (2.8 mg/1) (Table 6). 
 Dissolved Oxygen 
 
 Dissolved oxygen levels varied between a low of 2.0 mg/1 (27% 
 saturation) measured upstream from the outfall in Beaucoup Creek to 
 11.2 mg/1 (106% saturation) measured in the Kaskaskia Ditch down- 
 stream from its confluence with the Phinney Branch (Table 6) . Oxy- 
 gen levels above 5.0 mg/1 were found both above and below the outfall 
 in more turbulent streams with higher flow rates; these include the 
 Sangamon River, Phinney Branch, Saline Branch, Casey Fork Creek, 
 Kaskaskia Ditch, Cedar Creek (Monmouth) and Markham Creek. High 
 variety fish communities were not found in any area with less than 
 4.7 mg/1 (61% saturation) of dissolved oxygen, while low variety 
 fish communities were often associated with lower concentrations. 
 Generally there was a reduction in dissolved oxygen downstream 
 from the discharge and then a gradual return to upstream levels. 
 Low variety fish communities were not affected by this change. In 
 high variety fish communities, the possible effects of dissolved 
 oxygen reduction could not be separated from the effects of chlora- 
 mines and ammonia. However, since most high variety fish 
 communities were found in flowing streams where oxygen levels 
 stayed above 6.0 mg/1 it is doubtful if oxygen depletion was im- 
 portant. Mauvaise Terre Creek was the only stream containing a 
 high variety fish community which showed dissolved oxygen 
 
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52 
 
 concentrations below the outfall (2.8 mg/1) which could have been 
 
 limiting (Table 6). 
 
 Community Structure Below the Sewage Discharge 
 
 Despite considerable fluctuations, fish biomass (i.e., catch 
 per unit effort) showed a general tendency to Increase below the 
 sewage outfall (Table 7, Figure 15). Additionally, when samples 
 were taken well into the recovery zone catch per unit effort 
 eventually returned to ambient levels. Several streams did not 
 show this phenomenon, but they were atypical in several respects. 
 Cedar Creek (Monmouth) received an effluent which was to some 
 extent altered and purified after passing through Markham Creek 
 which was 4.3 km long. Additionally, the effluent was diluted 
 by a factor of approximately 4.5:1 when Markham Creek joined Cedar 
 Creek. This degree of dilution was not observed in any of the other 
 streams examined in this study. Cedar Creek (Galesburg) was 
 suffering from problems other than sewage pollution which reduced 
 its ability to support fish life above and below the sewage discharge. 
 Mauvaise Terre Creek received an extremely strong effluent (Table 3) 
 which may have suppressed the development of a biomass increase or 
 altered its form. Phinney Branch may simply have been too short 
 (1.9 km) to permit both the elimination of sewage toxicants and 
 the development of a region of increased biomass. 
 
 The average fish biomass at upstream stations for all streams 
 was 7.4 kg (standard deviation = 7.1). The mean sample weight at 
 
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 10 10 20 30 40 
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 numerals indicate sample number) . 
 
55 
 
 peak downstream stations for all streams was 16.3 kg (standard 
 deviation = 10.2) (Table 7). Peak downstream sample weights aver- 
 aged 3.0 (standard deviation = 2.0) times higher than upstream 
 weights in slow flowing (less than 2.7 cm/sec) streams (Crab 
 Orchard, Beaucoup Creek and Mauvaise Terre Creek) and 2.2 (standard 
 deviation = 1.3) times higher in the more swiftly flowing streams. 
 This difference may also be related to the fact that Crab Orchard 
 and Beaucoup Creeks contained low variety fish communities while 
 most of the swiftly flowing streams contained high variety communi- 
 ties. Sample weights below the outfall did not correlate well 
 with any of the measured chemical parameters, but peak biomass 
 always occurred where ammonia concentrations were above ambient. 
 Additionally, sites of peak biomass were found further downstream 
 on dates when chloramines were discharged at a higher concentration 
 and thus persisted further downstream. Three streams — Casey Fork, 
 Sugar Creek and Saline Branch — presented an opportunity to observe 
 this phenomenon (Tables 3 and 7). 
 
 Most of the increase in sample weight was due to an increase 
 in the size of individual fish from a mean of 0.15 kg (standard 
 deviation = 0.11) at upstream sites to 0.35 kg (standard deviation = 
 0.23) at downstream sites. When samples were taken well into the 
 recovery zone (Mauvaise Terre I, II; Saline I; Casey I; Beaucoup I, 
 II; Crab Orchard II) it was observed that fish size again returned 
 to ambient levels (mean = 0.14 kg) (standard deviation = 0.12 kg). 
 
56 
 
 The increase in size was due both to the presence of large individ- 
 uals of the same species that were found at upstream sites, and to 
 a shift towards large species. By weight, carp comprised 59% of 
 the average sample taken at peak sites, but only 47% of the average 
 sample taken at upstream sites. In contrast, small minnows ( Notropis 
 spp. , Pimephales spp.) were less common at peak sites. Game fish 
 (primarily centrarchids) were also less abundant, averaging 11.6% 
 of the community by weight at upstream sites and 2.2% at peak sites. 
 Total number of individual fish was slightly lower at sites of 
 peak biomass (mean 99.8, standard deviation = 109.3) than at up- 
 stream sites (mean 116.6, standard deviation = 125.7). Additionally, 
 mean species number at peak sites (9.6), standard deviation = 5.4) 
 was only slightly lower than at upstream sites (10.6, standard 
 deviation = 3.6). 
 
 Further information can be gained by arbitrarily dividing peak 
 biomass sites into two types: polluted, chloramines present and/or 
 molecular ammonia nitrogen equal to or greater than 0.02 mg/1 (10 
 sites); and unpolluted, chloramines absent and molecular ammonia 
 less than 0.02 mg/1 (8 sites) (Table 8). The average sample weight 
 at unpolluted sites (20.6 kg, standard deviation = 13.8) (excluding 
 Cedar Creek (Galesburg)) was higher than at polluted sites (15.1 kg, 
 standard deviation = 4.5). Mean species number at unpolluted sites 
 (11.1, standard deviation = 5.5) was also higher than at polluted 
 sites (7.5, standard deviation = 4.4). Additionally, carp comprised 
 
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58 
 
 71% by weight of the average sample taken at polluted sites, but 
 only 46% at unpolluted sites. Since carp were less abundant, 
 mean size at unpolluted sites (0.28 kg, standard deviation = 0.21) 
 was less than at polluted sites (0.44 kg, standard deviation = 0.25). 
 Game fish were poorly represented at both polluted and unpolluted 
 sites, comprising 2% and 2.2% of each community type, respectively. 
 
 Species composition at unpolluted sites of peak biomass was 
 fairly similar to that at upstream sites. Communities at both types 
 of sites included pollution sensitive species which were eliminated 
 at polluted sites. In fact, mean species number at unpolluted 
 sites of peak biomass (11.1, standard deviation = 5.5) was higher 
 than at upstream sites (9.8, standard deviation =4.3). In terms 
 of species composition, the principal difference between upstream 
 sites and polluted sites of peak fish biomass was that small minnow 
 species and game fish were less abundant at unpolluted peak sites. 
 Percentage wise, game fish were approximately 5 times more abundant 
 at upstream sites; in terms of actual weight, about 2.5 times more 
 abundant . 
 
 The designation of sites of peak biomass as polluted or un- 
 polluted based on chloramine and ammonia levels is artificial, but 
 it helps explain the relationship between increased fish biomass 
 and the presence of these substances. Below the outfall of most 
 streams there was a zone of increased biomass which began close to 
 the outfall when sewage toxicity was low and further from the 
 
59 
 
 outfall when toxicity was high. This zone began in areas where 
 chloramine and relatively high molecular ammonia levels were pre- 
 sent, and extended into areas where these toxic materials were 
 largely absent. Actually, the categories polluted sites of peak 
 biomass and unpolluted sites of peak biomass represent extreme 
 conditions in a continuous zone of increased biomass extending 
 many kilometers in most streams. Although biomass remained high 
 throughout this zone, species composition gradually changed from a 
 few pollution tolerant species close to the outfall to a relatively 
 diverse community containing sensitive species at greater distances. 
 We saw direct evidence of this continuum at Sugar Creek (II) and 
 Phinney Branch (I and II) where the sample sites were spaced rather 
 closely. Further evidence was provided by comparing the two samples 
 from the other streams. The phenomenon described above does not 
 occur if the effluent is extremely toxic or if the stream is non- 
 supportive of fish life for other reasons. In this case the biomass 
 peak is comprised solely of carp or other rough fish (Mauvaise Terre 
 I and II, Casey Fork I and II), thus resembling polluted sites of 
 peak biomass, or if conditions are extreme, the increase in biomass 
 may be completely suppressed (Galesburg I and II) . 
 Stream Purification of Chloramines 
 
 The chemical components of treated sewage were eliminated in 
 the receiving streams at varying rates. The distance from the out- 
 fall reached by sewage materials (Appendix C) appeared to depend on 
 
60 
 
 the chemical and physical characteristics of both the sewage 
 effluents and the streams. 
 
 Chloramine concentrations in sewage plant effluents (Table 9) 
 varied between 0.0 and 15.0 mg/1, averaging 1.8 mg/1 (standard 
 deviation = 3.4). Concentrations as high as 11.0 mg/1 were measured 
 at downstream stations. A comparison made between samples taken 
 from the same stream indicated that chloramines persisted further 
 downstream on days when initial chloramine concentrations were 
 higher. This effect, however, was overshadowed by differences in 
 the rate of chloramine elimination noted in different streams. There 
 appeared to be two basic patterns of chloramine concentration re- 
 duction with increasing distance from the outfall — curvilinear 
 and linear. A curvilinear pattern was observed in the Sangamon River 
 (I) and Cedar Creek (II) , where chloramines persisted much further 
 downstream (20.5 km and 15.4 km, respectively) than in the other 
 streams. Initial concentrations, which were not particularly high, 
 dropped rapidly; but the rate of decline lessened as concentration 
 became lower (Figure 16). Logarithmic regression (r = -0.99 and 
 r = -0.99) defines this relationship better than linear regression 
 (r = -0.90 and r = -0.87). 
 
 In the remaining streams, chloramines were eliminated much 
 closer to the outfall (maximum distance = 8.8 km). In three of 
 these streams — Saline Branch, Phinney Branch, and Mauvaise Terre 
 Creek — there were sufficient data (3 points) to regress chloramine 
 
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64 
 
 concentration against distance from the outfall. Chloramlne con- 
 centration was related to the distance from the outfall linearly 
 (r = -0.99, standard deviation = 0.00) rather than logarithmically 
 (mean r = -0.89, standard deviation 0.12). Examples of this linear 
 relationship are graphically Illustrated In Figures 11 and 17. 
 Such a relationship suggests that chloramlne concentration declined 
 at a constant rate In these three streams. This trend was assumed 
 In the remaining 7 streams where chloramlnes were also eliminated 
 close to the outfall, but where sufficient data were not available 
 to calculate regressions. 
 
 Assuming a linear relationship, chloramlne concentration can 
 be regressed against distance from the outfall to give a line with 
 a characteristic slope. This slope is an Index of the rate at which 
 chloramlne concentrations decline with increasing distance from 
 the discharge. Slopes from each of the stream samples showing 
 linear chloramlne reduction were regressed against various stream 
 parameters, including pH, temperature, and flow rate, to determine 
 whether these factors affected chloramlne persistence. Flow rate 
 was found to be negatively correlated (r = -0.73) with the rate at 
 which chloramlne concentrations decline with distance from the 
 outfall. (Flow rates were moderate in the Sangamon River and Cedar 
 Creek.) Temperature and pH showed insignificant correlations. 
 
 The linear equations used to index the rate of chloramlne 
 decline can also be used to determine the distance from the outfall 
 
65 
 
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66 
 
 at which chloramine concentrations reach zero. Chloramlnes were 
 completely eliminated 3.7 km (standard deviation = 2. A) downstream 
 from the outfall, as indicated by the average stream sample showing 
 a linear rate of chloramine concentration decrease. These calcula- 
 tions could only be made in the 7 stream samples which contained 2 
 or more nonzero data points below the mixing zone. Additionally, 
 in two very low gradient streams — Crab Orchard Creek and Beaucoup 
 Creek — chloramines disappeared before reaching the first down- 
 stream stations (0.15 and 1.2 km from the outfall respectively). 
 These values can be contrasted with the distance reached by chlora- 
 mines in the Sangamon River and Cedar Creek (Galesburg) (20.5 km 
 and 15.4 km, respectively). 
 Stream Purification of Ammonia 
 
 Total ammonia nitrogen levels at upstream stations averaged 
 0.46 mg/1 (standard deviation = 0.96) and ranged from 0.0 to 3.40 
 mg/1 (Appendix C) . Total ammonia in secondary sewage plant effluents 
 ranged from 0.62 to 31.0 mg/1, averaging 7.43 mg/1 (standard devia- 
 tion = 7.09) (Table 9). In several cases ammonia concentrations 
 increased downstream from the outfall. The highest total ammonia 
 concentration measured at a downstream station was 36.2 mg/1, the 
 highest molecular ammonia, 0.19 mg/1. Sewage ammonia persisted 
 further downstream than chloramines, reaching a maximum distance 
 of 33.9 km in Mauvaise Terre Creek. 
 
67 
 
 Certain patterns of anunonia elimination were apparent in 
 the thirteen cases where streams were sampled extensively enough 
 to trace the return of ammonia concentration to normal or near 
 normal levels. Nine of these samples indicated a longitudinal 
 zone where ammonia concentrations declined curvilinearly with distance 
 (Figures 18, 19, and 20). Regression analysis calculated with the 
 data from this zone in each stream indicated that concentration 
 decline with distance was logarithmic (mean r = -0.91, standard 
 deviation = 0.13) rather than linear (mean r = -0.83, standard 
 deviation = 0.12), although this relationship was partially obscured 
 by a lack of data points. Only the Sangamon River lacked a zone 
 of logarithmic decrease; however, the Sangamon River was atypical 
 in respect to ammonia, as indicated by ambient levels which were 16 
 times higher than the average for the other streams. Additionally, 
 the curvilinear phase of ammonia decline was not observed when 
 effluent ammonia concentrations were low and approached normal levels 
 after mixing in the stream (Cedar Creek (Monmouth) I, Cedar Creek 
 (Galesburg) II) . 
 
 Five samples showed that the logarithmic phase of ammonia decline 
 began as soon as the effluent entered the stream (Figure 18) . In 
 two others ammonia concentrations appeared to plateau first and then 
 decline rapidly (Figure 19); in the two remaining samples ammonia 
 concentrations increased within the receiving stream before the 
 logarithmic phase of decrease began (Figure 20) . 
 
8 
 
 - ^1 
 a 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 CRAB 
 ORCHARD 
 
 s CREEK n 
 o) 44.\^ 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 I >- 
 
 2-- 
 
 e 
 
 68 
 
 15-T BEAUCOUP 
 CREEK I 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 
 10 20 30 40 
 KILOMETERS 
 
 4 
 3 
 2 + 
 
 I BEAUCOUP 
 ] CREEK H 
 
 O) 
 
 E 
 
 5 10 15 20 
 KILOMETERS 
 
 4-4 SALINE 
 I BRANCH I 
 
 2-1 
 
 T r*i- 
 
 
 5 10 15 20 
 
 KILOMETERS 
 4-r 
 
 5 10 15 20 
 KILOMETERS 
 
 E 
 
 3-. CEDAR CREEK D 
 
 (MONMOUTH) 
 2-- 
 
 1-^ 
 
 ^+^ 
 
 +— I 
 
 5 10 15 20 
 KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 18. Streams showing a rapid curvilinear reduction of total 
 
 ammonia nitrogen ( A ) immediately below the sewage outfall ( — ) 
 
 Chloramines ( # ) were eliminated before the first downstream 
 station except for Saline Branch I. In the case of Saline Branch 
 and Cedar Creek the curves begin with the first station below the 
 mixing zone. The curves begin with the effluent concentrations in 
 the other streams where dilution was negligible. (Roman numerals 
 indicate sample number.) 
 
69 
 
 The plateau zone ended at roughly the same point at which 
 chloramines disappeared in the two samples in which ammonia concen- 
 trations plateaued before entering the curvilinear decrease phase 
 (Figure 19) . This suggests that the presence of chloramines may 
 retard the elimination of ammonia. Since the chloramine concen- 
 tration discharged by each plant varied between sample dates, 
 effluent chloramine samples taken on different dates from the same 
 plant can be compared to the corresponding rate of ammonia decline 
 on each date to determine the effect of chloramines on ammonia 
 oxidation rate. The rate of ammonia decline was determined by 
 expressing the ammonia concentration at a particular downstream 
 station as a percentage of the initial ammonia concentration below 
 the sewage outfall. In most cases the last downstream station 
 was chosen for this comparison where the effects of differences in 
 the rate of ammonia oxidation were most pronounced. However, the 
 last downstream station was not used in streams where this station 
 was well into the zone of complete stream recovery on both sample 
 dates. Instead, the station which showed the greatest difference 
 in rate of ammonia reduction between the two sample dates was 
 chosen. 
 
 There were eight streams with sufficient data to permit this 
 type of analysis. However, Mauvaise Terre Creek was not used in 
 this comparison due to the aberrant nature of the ammonia curve 
 (Figure 20). In six of the seven remaining streams, ammonia 
 
70 
 
 SALINE 
 
 5 15 25 
 
 KILOMETERS 
 
 f— +— 
 
 DlatLnL ?f i? I\"^ '""™'"*^ nitrogen concentrations ( A ) 
 plateaued (Indicated by solid Una) before curvilinear redu«lo„ 
 (indicated by broken line). The plateau zone roughly ends wh 
 Lst ^'^''^"^v"=? °^ '^flora^lnes ( . ). Curves begin "ith the 
 sample"!':" ^'°" '"^ "'''"" ''"''■ ^^™- --"^^ ^""^ « 
 
71 
 
 Cf) 
 
 Z 
 
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 < 
 
 2 
 
 LU 
 U 
 
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 o 
 
 u 
 
 MX 
 
 < 
 
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 < 
 
 < 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 .J 
 
 < 
 
 I— 
 
 o 
 
 MAUVAISE TERRE CREEK H 
 
 35 
 
 \ 
 
 25--" 
 
 _- \ 
 
 15-- 
 
 5-- 
 
 \ 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 MAUVAISE TERRE CREEK I 
 
 15-- 
 
 15 
 KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 20. Streams showing an initial increase in total ammonia 
 nitrogen ( A ) In the presence and absence of chloramines ( • ) 
 Curves begin with the effluent concentrations since dilution was 
 negligible. (Roman numerals indicate sample number.) 
 
72 
 
 concentrations decreased at a lesser rate on the day when the 
 effluent chloramine concentration was higher (Dependent t = 2.49, 
 1 tailed, significant at P = 0.025) (Table 10). Conclusions from 
 this comparison are somewhat weakened since temperature was not 
 the same on each sampling date. 
 
 There were two streams — Crab Orchard Creek and Beaucoup 
 Creek — which lacked chloramine data from the first sample; how- 
 ever, as observed from the second sample, both streams showed 
 rapid chloramine elimination and correspondingly rapid reduction 
 of ammonia concentrations close to the outfall (Figure 18) . 
 Additionally, with the exception of the second sample at Saline 
 Branch, all streams showing rapid reduction of ammonia immediately 
 below the outfall (Figure 18) also showed rapid elimination of 
 chloramines before the first downstream station. 
 
 Mauvaise Terre Creek (Figure 20) showed an increase in ammonia 
 concentration below the outfall before the zone of rapid ammonia 
 oxidation began. On the first sample date, ammonia levels in- 
 creased over 600% (2.4 to 16.0 mg/1) within the first 0.6 km. An 
 11% increase (32 to 36 mg/1) was noted in the second sample. A slight 
 increase was also noted in Markhara Creek, which conveyed sewage 
 from the Monmouth treatment plant to Cedar Creek. The effluents 
 entering Markham Creek and Mauvaise Terre Creek on the first sample 
 date contained large amounts of suspended matter. 
 
 Ammonia concentrations returned to ambient levels closer to 
 
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75 
 
 the outfall in low flow rate streams. The correlation between flow 
 rate and reduction in ammonia concentration (mg/1) per kilometer 
 was -0.62. Additionally, the streams can be separated into two 
 categories: low flow rate (less than 2.7 cm/sec, 3 streams) and 
 high flow rate (mean flow rate = 32.8 cm/sec, standard deviation = 
 11.47 cm/sec, 8 streams). The mean reduction in ammonia concen- 
 tration per kilometer in low flow rate streams was 2.09 mg/1 
 (standard deviation = 1.45) but only 0.17 mg/1 (standard deviation 
 = 0.12 mg/1) in high flow rate streams. However, since the rate 
 of ammonia concentration decrease is correlated with the initial 
 ammonia concentration and is affected by the presence of chloramines, 
 we conducted a second analysis after selecting data from chloramine 
 free stream segments where initial ammonia concentrations were 
 comparable. This analysis indicated that the average ammonia nitro- 
 gen reduction per kilometer in low flow rate streams (n = 5) was 
 0.39 mg/1 (standard deviation = 0.18) but only 0.19 mg/1 (standard 
 deviation = 0.11) in high flow rate streams (n = 4) (independent t 
 = 1.94, 1 tailed, significant at P = 0.05). 
 Factors Affecting Dissolved Oxygen Depletion 
 
 There was typically a reduction in dissolved oxygen below the 
 outfall and then a gradual return to upstream levels. On the 
 average, oxygen levels below the outfall were 1.8 mg/1 (standard 
 deviation = 1.9) lower than levels above the outfall. The range of 
 change was 1.2 to -5.2 mg/1. The lowest dissolved oxygen levels 
 
76 
 
 Table 11 
 
 A comparison between stream flow rate and reduction in ammonia nitrogen concentration 
 per kilometer. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Initial 
 
 Initial 
 
 
 Stream 
 
 Sample 
 
 Flow rate 
 
 ammonia nitrogen 
 
 chloramine 
 
 Ammonia nitroj 
 
 
 
 (cm/sec) 
 
 concentration 
 
 concentration 
 
 reduction per 
 
 
 
 
 
 (mg/1) 
 
 (mg/1) 
 
 (mg/1) 
 
 
 
 Slow flowii 
 
 ig 
 
 streams^ 
 
 
 
 Mauvaise Terre 
 
 I 
 
 2.74 
 
 
 3.26 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.41 
 
 Mauvaise Terre 
 
 II 
 
 2.74 
 
 
 6.54 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.34 
 
 Crab Orchard 
 
 II 
 
 2.74 
 
 
 6.64 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.28 
 
 Beaucoup 
 
 I 
 
 2.74 
 
 
 3.36 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.22 
 
 Beaucoup 
 
 II 
 
 2.74 
 
 
 5.25 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.68 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.39 
 
 
 
 Rapidly flowing 
 
 streams 
 
 
 
 Saline 
 
 I 
 
 51.82 
 
 
 4.79 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.34 
 
 Cedar (Galesburg) 
 
 I 
 
 21.95 
 
 
 2.91 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.17 
 
 Cedar (Monmouth) 
 
 II 
 
 21.03 
 
 
 1.18 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.09 
 
 Sangamon 
 
 II 
 
 35.53 
 
 
 8.34 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.15 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.19 
 
 Flow rate less than 2.7 
 
 cm/sec. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flow rate greater 
 
 than 2 
 
 .7 cm/sec. 
 
 
 
 
 
77 
 
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78 
 
 were usually observed some distance downstream from the outfall as 
 opposed to immediately below it. However, dissolved oxygen was 
 lowest immediately below the outfall in streams receiving an 
 effluent low in dissolved oxygen. Reduction in dissolved oxygen 
 was not strongly correlated with any parameter measured in this 
 study, but the best correlations were found with ammonia concen- 
 tration below the mixing zone (r = 0.43) and dissolved oxygen 
 concentration in the effluent expressed as a percentage of upstream 
 dissolved oxygen levels (r = -0.41). Although reduction appeared 
 to occur to the same extent in both quick and slow flowing streams, 
 the lowest levels were found in slow flowing streams since normal 
 oxygen concentrations were often low to begin with. 
 Effects of the Sewage Discharge on Volume of Stream Flow 
 
 Most of the late summer flow in the small streams examined in 
 this study was due to the sewage discharge. The mean volume of flow 
 upstream from the sewage outfall was 13,800,000 liters per day. 
 Six streams had little or no flow upstream from the outfall. The 
 mean volume of effluent discharged was 23,200,000 liters per day 
 (Table 9). For the average stream, the addition of the sewage 
 effluent represented a 170% increase in the downstream flow rate. 
 Although not measured in all cases, flow rates above the outfall 
 were usually negligible, while flow rates averaged 8.2 cm/sec 
 downstream from the outfall. 
 
79 
 
 Effects of the Sewage Discharge on Stream Phytoplankton Populations 
 
 Analysis of water samples indicated that number of planktonic 
 algae was not strongly correlated with any parameter measured in 
 this study. There was only one consistent trend In algae number 
 observed below sewage outfalls. Sewage plants employing lagoons 
 as a final part of the treatment process discharged an effluent 
 rich in algae; this phenomenon was observed at Casey Fork Creek 
 (I and II), Cedar Creek (Monmouth) (I), Markham Creek (II), and 
 Sugar Creek (I and II) (Table 12). As a result, algae number was 
 very high below the outfall but gradually decreased further down- 
 stream. (In these cases, when chloramine concentrations were low, 
 large numbers of rough fish congregated immediately below the out- 
 fall.) Number of algae did not appear to increase below the outfall 
 in the majority of the remaining stream samples (11 of 16). A con- 
 spicuous increase was observed in five stream samples — Mauvalse 
 Terre (I and II) , Cedar Creek (Galesburg) (I) , Sangamon (I) , and 
 Cedar Creek (Monmouth) (II). 
 
 Discussion 
 The occurrence of a particular fish species is a function of 
 the suitability of the biotic and abiotic factors which comprise 
 the environment in which it must survive. Tsal (59) stated: "In 
 general, the absence of fish typical of the stream can be taken 
 to indicate pollution." Moreover, since fishes are a valuable 
 resource, providing food and recreation, it is reasonable, in some 
 
80 
 
 cases, to define water pollution in terms of damage to fishes. In 
 this sense fishes can be considered a measure of water pollution 
 rather than simply an indicator, since damage to fish communities 
 may constitute a principal effect of pollution. Chemical and 
 invertebrate indicators, in contrast, are not so important in them- 
 selves; rather, their importance lies in what they imply about the 
 suitability of water for other uses. In this study, fish communities 
 were used to evaluate the environmental effects caused by releasing 
 secondary sewage effluents into 12 Illinois streams. 
 
 Secondary sewage is a complex mixture of many components 
 including ammonia, chlorides, phosphates, detergents, nitrates, 
 sludge particles (sometimes), algae, bacteria, protozoans, and 
 chloramines, to name a few. This study is concerned primarily 
 with ammonia and chloramines. Total residual chlorine may be 
 damaging to warm water fishes at concentrations as low as 0.002 
 mg/1 (8 ). Likewise, molecular ammonia is acutely toxic at concen- 
 trations of 0.29 mg/1 (4, 26) and exerts chronic effects at con- 
 centrations as low as 0.12 mg/1 (43). There are, however, important 
 differences between these materials. Chloramines are a potent 
 biocide and only occur in streams as a consequence of human activi- 
 ties. Airanonia, in contrast, occurs naturally in streams and is 
 biologically oxidized to nitrate, a plant nutrient. Thus, ammonia 
 can act both as a toxic substance and as an agent of stream enrich- 
 ment. Similarly, the other components of secondary sewage can be 
 
81 
 
 categorized as either nutrients (nitrates, phosphates, algae) or 
 toxic materials (phenols, heavy metals). Therefore, sewage can 
 act as a toxicant, limiting the abundance of some species and 
 precluding the appearance of others, and as a fertilizer, enhancing 
 the production of fish food which may benefit some fishes. The 
 predominant effect varies both longitudinally with a stream and 
 between streams due to a complex of factors including: (1) the 
 strength of the effluent; (2) interactions between effluent com- 
 ponents; (3) the type of fish present in the stream (i.e., tolerant 
 or not) ; and (4) physical and chemical factors within the stream 
 which affect the rate of sewage purification. As a result, the 
 effects of secondary sewage of a particular composition cannot be 
 adequately predicted without some knowledge of the stream into 
 which it will be released. 
 
 The effluent from some treatment plants may contain high con- 
 centrations of toxic materials even after dilution by the receiving 
 stream. This can cause the virtual elimination of all fishes for 
 miles below the outfall. This was observed in Mauvaise Terre 
 Creek, where total ammonia levels as high as 36 mg/1 and chloramine 
 levels as high as 11 mg/1 were detected downstream from the outfall. 
 Dissolved oxygen levels were also low in some areas. In such cases 
 the effluent acts primarily as a toxicant and enriching effects 
 are comparatively unimportant. However, most streams in this study 
 received an effluent of lesser strength and showed considerably 
 
82 
 
 lower ammonia and chloramlne levels below the outfall. Excluding 
 Mauvalse Terra Creek, ammonia levels at the first site below the 
 outfall averaged 3.1 mg/1, chloramlne concentrations 0.5 mg/1. At 
 such concentrations environmental factors within the receiving 
 stream and the types of fishes present are just as important as 
 effluent strength in determining the effects on pre-existing fish 
 communities. 
 Chloramlne Toxicity 
 
 In most of the streams investigated in this study the damage 
 to fish communities associated with secondary sewage is caused by 
 chloramines. There is also considerable evidence in the literature 
 that chloramines are highly toxic to fishes. After studying fish 
 communities below the outfall of 149 secondary sewage treatment 
 plants, Tsai (59) concluded that an inverse curvilinear relation- 
 ship existed between chloramlne concentration and species diversity. 
 
 At the chloramlne levels found in most streams in this study 
 the expected damage to fish communities could not be adequately 
 predicted from the chloramlne concentration alone. Environmental 
 factors, including the composition of the fish community in the 
 receiving stream, were as important as the chloramlne concentration 
 in determining the reduction in species number. A fish community 
 can be considered to have a certain community tolerance to chlora- 
 mines derived from the individual tolerances of the species com- 
 prising the community. Communities rich in species sensitive to 
 
83 
 
 chloramine pollution are likely to suffer greater reduction in 
 variety than connnunities composed of more tolerant fishes. More- 
 over, communities with large numbers of species are more likely to 
 include some species which are intolerant to chloramines. We found 
 that chloramines (and molecular ammonia) had a greater impact on 
 variety in streams containing high variety fish communities with 
 many sensitive species. Sensitive species were lost. If habitat 
 conditions within the stream were not suitable for pollution toler- 
 ant varieties the end result was a virtual lack of fishes. However, 
 the communities usually found below the outfall in high variety 
 streams consisted of a relatively small number of tolerant species. 
 These communities resembled the communities occurring naturally in 
 low variety streams in areas upstream from the sewage outfall. 
 Therefore, in low variety streams there was little difference in 
 species composition between upstream areas and areas downstream from 
 the outfall. 
 
 It is likely that variations in the effect of chloramines on 
 species variety were due to environmental factors influencing 
 chloramine toxicity such as pH or temperature, although our data 
 showed no clear evidence of this. However, when large amounts of 
 chlorine are added to the effluent (as at Mauvaise Terre Creek, 
 where the effluent chloramine concentration was 15 mg/1) stoichiometric 
 ratios favor the formation of more highly substituted chlorine 
 derivatives (67), rather than the monochloramines typically present 
 
84 
 
 In sewage effluents (50, 67). Trlchloramines may differ in 
 toxicity from monochloramines, although the literature is in dis- 
 agreement on this question. 
 
 A third explanation for seeming variations in chloramine 
 toxicity pertains to the use of a small number of grab samples. 
 Grab samples may not represent an equilibrium situation between 
 varying chloramine concentrations and the presence or absence of 
 fishes. This may explain some variance in the data, but higher 
 chloramine concentrations were invariably associated with reduced 
 variety within a stream. Inconsistencies were only found between 
 streams due to the unique environmental characteristics of each 
 stream. If grab samples were significantly inaccurate, one would 
 expect to see inconsistencies between samples within a stream as 
 well as between streams. 
 
 Other factors within the stream environment affect the amount 
 of damage caused by chloramines. Flow rate was positively correlated 
 with the downstream persistence of chloramines. This results in a 
 more extensive zone of reduced variety in high flow rate streams, 
 especially if sensitive species are present. The relationship be- 
 tween flow rate and chloramine persistence probably stems from the 
 fact that chloramines are moved further downstream before being 
 eliminated at higher flow rates. However, the fact that there 
 were two basic patterns of chloramine reduction with distance — 
 linear and curvilinear — suggests that other environmental factors 
 
85 
 
 could be important in determining the rate of chloramine elimin- 
 ation. It is also possible that chemical factors in the sewage 
 effluent may affect chloramine elimination. Conversely, the 
 curvilinear relationship noted above may have been an artifact 
 caused by variations in the effluent chloramine concentration. 
 
 In general, the data from this study indicate that fishes are 
 considerably more resistant to chloramines than the literature 
 suggests. Although there are many possible explanations, this 
 discrepancy is probably related to the method chosen to measure 
 chloramines. Snoeynik and Markus (50) used the DPD ferrous titri- 
 metric technique to measure the chloramine concentration in the 
 effluent of a number of Illinois treatment plants. Their figures 
 were considerably higher than those of the plant operators, who 
 employed the commonly used orthotoluidine technique. This was 
 attributed to the inaccuracy of the orthotoluidine technique 
 which consistently gave low results. We used an amperometric 
 titration method (iodometric method II) ( 1), which also tended to 
 generate higher values than those obtained by plant personnel, some 
 of whom used the orthotoluidine technique . The method chosen to 
 analyze chloramine concentrations in sewage effluents is of 
 critical importance, due to the presence of numerous sources of 
 potential interference. The American Public Health Association ( 1) 
 reports that the iodometric method II is the best technique for 
 evaluating chloramine concentrations in wastewater effluents con- 
 taining abundant organic matter. 
 
86 
 
 Aimnonla Toxicity 
 
 Although chloramines are the principal toxicant in municipal 
 secondary sewage, ammonia toxicity can be important under some 
 circumstances. Several authors (l9, 52) have suggested that ammonia 
 is one of the primary toxicants in sewage. In contrast, Tsai (59), 
 who observed the effects of secondary sewage effluents without 
 chloramines, concluded that diversity was not significantly reduced 
 when chloramines were absent. Our study demonstrates that the 
 impact of chloramines is predominant; however, it also suggests 
 that molecular ammonia nitrogen levels above 0.03 to 0.05 mg/1 can 
 preclude the appearance of certain species. Many fish — buffalo, 
 carp, and some centrarchids — were found at comparable or higher 
 levels, but other cyprinid species, good centrarchid populations, 
 and percids were not. More importantly, fish communities containing 
 
 a wide variety of species including pollution sensitive varieties 
 were not found in association with molecular ammonia concentrations 
 exceeding the aforementioned values. In contrast, total ammonia 
 concentrations as high as 7 mg/1 were not limiting as long as 
 molecular ammonia concentrations remained relatively low. 
 
 The principal evidence of molecular ammonia toxicity comes 
 from Mauvaise Terre Creek and Casey Fork Creek, in which variety 
 continued to be depressed far past the point of complete chloramine 
 elimination. Since variety quickly recovered as chloramines were 
 eliminated in other streams, it was apparent that other factors 
 
87 
 
 were reducing variety. Molecular ammonia appeared to be responsible, 
 since concentrations were relatively high and since the elimination 
 of sewage ammonia coincided with the recovery of species number in 
 Mauvaise Terre Creek. However, Tsai (59, 60) states that turbidity 
 caused by suspended sludge particles can reduce fish diversity in 
 receiving streams. Turbidity was not measured in this study. Sludge 
 deposits were found on the bottom immediately below the outfall in 
 both streams in question. At least in Casey Fork Creek, which is 
 relatively shallow, these deposits appeared to be restricted to an 
 area close to the outfall. A similar determination could not be 
 made in Mauvaise Terre Creek because of its depth. Since flow rate 
 was too low to measure in Mauvaise Terre Creek (2.7 cm/sec), it is 
 questionable if sludge could remain suspended 24 km downstream, as 
 it would need to be to explain reduced diversity at downstream 
 stations. Tsai's data appear to indicate that turbidity due to 
 sludge peaks immediately below the outfall and is eliminated within 
 3 km. Reduced variety was observed at 10 km in Casey Fork Creek 
 and 24 km in Mauvaise Terre Creek. However, the possible toxicity 
 of suspended sludge should be investigated further. 
 
 Molecular ammonia nitrogen concentrations above 0.03 to 0.05 
 mg/1, which we found associated with damage to high variety fish 
 communities, appear to support the contention of Roseboom and 
 Richey (45) that molecular airanonia nitrogen should not exceed 0.04 
 mg/1 in Illinois streams. However, we would qualify this by adding 
 
88 
 
 that these standards need only apply to streams containing quality 
 fish communities. Four-hundredths of a mg/1 is considerably lower 
 than the 0.12 mg/1 at which Robinette (4 3) noted depressed growth 
 and feeding in channel catfish. Channel catfish, however, are 
 fairly hardy, as testified by their success as a cultured species. 
 More importantly, it is possible that loss of sensitive species 
 is not due to the direct toxic action of molecular ammonia but to 
 an imperceptible shift in the ecological balance favoring fish 
 tolerant of more polluted waters. Sensitive species may be capable 
 of living and growing at the molecular ammonia concentrations in 
 question, but cannot compete with more tolerant varieties under 
 such conditions. This may be the most subtle type of sublethal 
 effect caused primarily by ammonia toxicity but also involving the 
 cumulative effects of dissolved oxygen reduction, ammonia toxicity 
 to forage organisms, and general enrichment, to mention several 
 factors. 
 
 These ecological interactions may suggest an important synergism 
 involving ammonia toxicity. Some stream environments may marginally 
 support high quality fish communities. The discharge of sewage 
 effluents containing relatively high molecular ammonia concentrations 
 may represent an additional stress of sufficient magnitude to tip 
 the balance in favor of undesirable species characteristic of poll- 
 uted water. In contrast, environments highly supportive of high 
 variety communities may be able to sustain the stress of a comparable 
 
89 
 
 degree of ammonia toxicity without an appreciable species shift. 
 Ellis (19) stated: "It must be noted that without exception those 
 waters carrying 2 to 3 mg/1 ammonia and at the same time supporting 
 the good fish fauna were high in dissolved oxygen; that is 5.5 to 
 7 mg/1; were of low turbidity, and were flowing over good bottoms. 
 Toleration of dissolved ammonia above 2 mg/1 under field conditions 
 was always associated with otherwise good to exceptionally favorable 
 conditions." Mauvaise Terre Creek and Casey Fork Creek were quite 
 turbid with mud bottoms and low flow in most areas. They bore the 
 essential characteristics of streams containing low variety fish 
 communities. It is possible that comparable levels of molecular 
 ammonia would have less impact on high variety communities in 
 streams with superior environmental characteristics. 
 
 Ideally, molecular aimnonia rather than total ammonia should 
 be emphasized in monitoring programs, since ionized ammonia is 
 relatively harmless to fishes. One practical difficulty concerns 
 the fact that molecular ammonia concentrations may change dramatic- 
 ally with relatively slight pH changes, while total ammonia levels 
 remain fairly constant. Twelve-hundredths of a mg/1 of molecular 
 ammonia nitrogen was found in association with 3.77 mg/1 of total 
 ammonia nitrogen in Mauvaise Terre Creek. The total ammonia nitro- 
 gen concentration was 6.54 mg/1 on the second sample date, but the 
 molecular ammonia nitrogen concentration was only 0.02 mg/1. This 
 difference was due to a relatively slight change in pH (0.6). Short 
 
90 
 
 term pH changes may necessitate more extensive monitoring to deter- 
 mine the complete picture with respect to molecular ammonia, even 
 though total ammonia levels remain within specified levels. 
 Purification of Ammonia 
 
 There is considerable evidence indicating that the nitrification 
 of ammonia is retarded by the presence of chloramines. Thus, 
 chloramines affect fish communities directly by their toxicity and 
 indirectly by retarding the rate of elimination of ammonia. Chlora- 
 mines, being bactericidal, probably retard ammonia oxidation by 
 killing or inhibiting nitrifying bacteria. Chlorine added at the 
 point of discharge may eliminate nitrifying bacteria already present 
 in the sewage effluent. Within the receiving stream, chloramines 
 may prevent the return of nitrifying bacteria to the water column, 
 and, more importantly, inhibit the nitrifiers present on the bottom 
 substrate. Attached nitrifying bacteria could be inhibited by 
 chloramines without their destruction as a functional community 
 since populations of substrate-attached nitrifiers in streams re- 
 spond very rapidly to environmental changes (22) . This could 
 partially account for relatively short-term changes in stream 
 nitrification rates with changes in chloramine concentrations. 
 
 Benthic nitrifiers may be very important in small, shallow 
 streams since the ratio of bottom area to water volume is rela- 
 tively large. The importance of attached nitrifiers in streams has 
 been empirically shown by Finstein and Matuleivich (22). Streams 
 
91 
 
 with a rock or gravel bottom offer a very extensive area for the 
 attachment of nitrlfiers. Since there is often an extensive under- 
 gravel flow, conditions may approximate those found in a trickling 
 filter, especially in riffle streams where most of the flow is 
 hyporheic and oxygen levels approach saturation. The abundant 
 vegetable detritus (decomposing leaves, twigs, branches, etc.) 
 found in some slow flowing, soft bottomed streams also provides 
 attachment sites for nitrifiers. The importance of attached nitrl- 
 fiers is emphasized by researchers investigating ammonia oxidation 
 in recirculated fish culture systems employing submerged gravel 
 bed filters. Kawai et al. (34) have demonstrated that 99% of the 
 nitrifiers in such streams are attached. Furthermore, approx- 
 imately 25% of these are attached to detritus particles (46). The 
 presence of a stable substrate of some sort may be essential. In 
 the Sangamon River, nitrification rates were very low. The sub- 
 strate, in most areas, was composed of fine sand with riffle marks 
 caused by the current, indicating the unstable nature of the bottom. 
 Since nitrification is an aerobic process occurring primarily on 
 the bottom surface, constant shifting of the substrate may preclude 
 the buildup of good nitrifier populations. The situation may be 
 reversed in large rivers where the bottom surface area to water 
 volume ratio is relatively low. In this case, the contribution of 
 nitrifying bacteria in the water column may be more important than 
 that of attached nitrifiers. Planktonic algae may also contribute 
 
92 
 
 to stream purification by utilizing ammonia directly, but our data 
 showed no evidence of this in small streams. 
 
 Biofilter research also indicates that nitrification rates are 
 concentration dependent; that is, nitrification takes place more 
 rapidly at high ammonia concentrations (37). Likewise, when stream 
 nitrification proceeds uninterrupted by chloramines, a curvilinear 
 relationship exists between declining ammonia concentrations and 
 distance from the outfall. This indicates that nitrification rates 
 are positively correlated with ammonia concentrations. It also 
 suggests that, within limits, a stream's nitrification capacity is 
 more efficient at higher ammonia concentrations. Moreover, if 
 chlorination were eliminated ammonia concentrations would be reduced 
 to ambient levels at a rapid, logarithmic rate. In fact, this was 
 observed in streams where chloramines disappeared very rapidly. 
 Pursuing this reasoning, a possible benefit of chlorination is the 
 "spreading out" of the oxygen demand associated with nitrification. 
 
 Low flow rate streams showed greater ammonia reduction per 
 kilometer than high flow rate streams. This was partially because 
 chloramines were found further from the outfall in rapidly flowing 
 streams, and, as previously noted, chloramines retard nitrification. 
 However, slow flowing streams appear to approximate the function of 
 sewage lagoons by compressing stream purification processes into a 
 relatively short distance. Since time is a factor in sewage puri- 
 fication, the longer residence time in slow flowing streams means 
 
93 
 
 that the effects of ammonia and other sewage materials do not 
 extend downstream as far as in rapidly flowing streams. However, 
 there is also greater enrichment per kilometer of stream in slow 
 flowing streams with greater attendant potential for oxygen 
 depletion. 
 Oxygen 
 
 It did not appear that secondary sewage reduces stream oxygen 
 levels enough to critically affect fish variety, although the grab 
 samples employed in this study do not give a complete picture with 
 respect to minimum oxygen concentrations. There was generally a 
 sag in dissolved oxygen levels below the outfall, but species we 
 considered pollution sensitive occurred in streams which were 
 turbulent enough to maintain dissolved oxygen at acceptable levels 
 (greater than 6 mg/1). In some cases, dilution of the effluent 
 with upstream flow also helped to maintain oxygen levels. In con- 
 trast, lower oxygen levels (below 3 mg/1 in some cases) were found 
 in very slow flowing streams where reaeration was comparatively 
 slight. However, the fish communities in these streams were com- 
 posed of tolerant species which appeared quite healthy at the 
 prevailing oxygen levels. Additionally, ambient dissolved oxygen 
 levels were often low in these streams. It is possible that oxygen 
 levels may occasionally become limiting in sections of these streams, 
 Additionally, relatively low dissolved oxygen concentrations, while 
 not being directly lethal, could act together with other factors 
 to exclude highly sensitive species from some areas. 
 
94 
 
 There was a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.43) between 
 dissolved oxygen reduction within the receiving stream and ammonia 
 concentration, indicating that the oxygen demand associated with 
 nitrification may be a significant component of total sewage oxy- 
 gen demand. Additionally, oxygen levels below the outfall were 
 related to effluent dissolved oxygen levels (r = -O.Al), suggesting 
 that the amount of aeration received by the final effluent before 
 release has an impact on stream oxygen levels. Sewage plants also 
 influence stream oxygen levels in another way. Most of the midsum- 
 mer flow in the small streams we investigated was due to the sewage 
 discharge. Flow rates, and therefore turbulence, were considerably 
 higher below the outfall. The aerating effects of increased tur- 
 bulence may serve to partially mitigate the effects of the sewage 
 oxygen demand. 
 
 The greatest reduction in dissolved oxygen was observed in 
 Mauvalse Terre Creek, which was also characterized by very high 
 ammonia levels below the outfall. More importantly, ammonia con- 
 centrations Increased at downstream stations. A somewhat similar, 
 though less severe, situation was observed at Markham Creek. The 
 sewage plants discharging into both creeks appeared to be over- 
 loaded. It is possible that overloaded plants do not complete 
 the biological treatment of sewage, as indicated by the release of 
 particulate matter. This matter is deposited on the stream bed; 
 therefore, ammonif ication of proteinaceous materials, which usually 
 
95 
 
 occurs in the trickling filter or activated sludge bed, instead 
 occurs in the stream, causing increasing ammonia concentrations 
 and low dissolved oxygen at downstream sites. Biological treatment 
 appeared to be more complete in other plants and the effluent less 
 detrimental. Conversely, it is possible that the ammonia curves 
 observed in these two streams were an artifact caused by the initial 
 discharge of high ammonia concentrations followed by the subsequent 
 discharge of much lower ammonia levels. This explanation is lent 
 credence by the presence of an industrial plant which periodically 
 discharged high ammonia concentrations into the Jacksonville sewage 
 system. 
 Relative Fish Biomass 
 
 Enrichment was expressed as an increase in the catch per unit 
 effort at sample sites downstream from the outfall. This was one 
 of the most commonly observed effects of secondary sewage. The 
 increase was due to a roughly threefold increase in the average 
 size of individual fish. It appeared that endemic species, in- 
 cluding fairly sensitive varieties, could benefit from sewage enrich- 
 ment. At many sites, where chloramines were absent and ammonia 
 levels low, increased sample weight was associated with a greater 
 number of species than found at upstream sites. This could be 
 caused by the creation of new niches due to an Increase in the 
 variety and abundance of invertebrate forage, or to the temporary 
 migration of fishes into enriched areas for feeding purposes, or 
 to other factors. 
 
96 
 
 Fish biomass as indicated by increased sample weight re- 
 mained elevated for many miles below the outfall. Sampling was 
 not thorough enough to delineate the actual distances involved in 
 all cases. Fish biomass began to increase immediately below the 
 outfall when chloramine concentrations were low and decreased 
 rapidly. When chloramine concentrations were high, biomass did 
 not increase until further downstream. In either case, biomass 
 initially increased in areas where toxic materials were present 
 and climbed only slightly higher further downstream with the 
 elimination of sewage toxicity. As a result, there was a long 
 zone of elevated biomass. Due to the progressive reduction of 
 sewage toxicity, species composition within this zone changed 
 radically with increasing distance from the outfall. Only a few 
 species, predominantly carp, were found immediately below the out- 
 fall. As toxic materials were eliminated, carp became less dom- 
 inant and native species increasingly benefitted from sewage 
 nutrients. At enriched sites where toxic substances were largely 
 eliminated, species number was often higher than at upstream sites. 
 Additionally, total weight of endemic fishes at these sites was 
 several times higher than at upstream sites. 
 
 The effect of sewage on low variety communities inhabiting low 
 gradient streams was primarily beneficial, presumably due to enrich- 
 ment. Biomass rose rapidly very close to the outfall and was often 
 accompanied by an increase in species number. Variety was not 
 
97 
 
 depressed except for perhaps in a very localized area immediately 
 below the outfall. Additionally, in the slow flowing streams 
 (Crab Orchard and Beaucoup Creeks) biomass peaked at higher levels 
 than in the more rapidly flowing streams, perhaps because sewage 
 materials were retained closer to the outfall, resulting in 
 greater enrichment per unit area. Conversely, in moderate gradient 
 streams sewage nutrients were carried further downstream and 
 thus spread more thinly. 
 
 Centrarchids — green sunfish, longears, bluegill, and small 
 largemouth bass — were the dominant or only game fish in most of 
 the streams included in this study. Although green sunfish and 
 bluegill were among the most chloramine tolerant species observed, 
 the centrarchids were less abundant in areas with measurable 
 chloramines or high molecular ammonia concentrations. Additionally, 
 they failed to increase in numbers or weight at sites where sewage 
 toxicity was insignificant and many other species were clearly 
 benefitting from sewage enrichment. 
 Effects of Sewage Effluents on Stream Flow 
 
 The addition of sewage effluents to small streams in midsummer 
 causes a large increase in volume of flow which may be partially 
 responsible for some of the changes in community structure des- 
 cribed above. We observed that sewage effluents increased volume 
 of flow by 170% in the average stream. As a result, cross-sectional 
 area was also increased by variable amounts, depending upon the 
 
98 
 
 size and shape of the channel, effluent volume, and stream flow 
 rate. When stream size increased, new potential habitat was 
 created for aquatic organisms. Additionally, increased flow pro- 
 duced riffle areas in streams otherwise comprised only of sluggish 
 pools. Increased habitat variety may have been responsible for 
 the increase in species number observed in some streams. Thompson 
 and Hunt (56) have indicated that a natural increase in number of 
 fish species and size of individual fish occurs as streams increase 
 in size. Increased stream size and flow rate may have contributed 
 to the consistent increase in size of individual fish and frequent 
 increase in species number observed below sewage outfall. However, 
 increase in stream size does not, of itself, account for an in- 
 crease in fish biomass per unit area (56). 
 Algae 
 
 Secondary sewage contains large amounts of nitrogen, phos- 
 phorus, and potassium which are essential nutrients capable of 
 stimulating primary production. These nutrients could enter the 
 aquatic food chain in several ways. We found that planktonic algae 
 may not be important in this respect except possibly in some deeper, 
 slow flowing, turbid streams. In more rapidly flowing streams of 
 higher quality, it appeared that nearly all production was benthic, 
 consisting of attached algae and possibly bacteria. A bacteria- 
 protozoa-arthropod food chain may be the most important trophic 
 relationship in streams receiving secondary sewage, since some 
 
99 
 
 streams showed a large increase in fish biomass yet little in- 
 crease in planktonic or benthic plant life. Algae were locally 
 important below the outfall of sewage plants which retained 
 treated sewage within a lagoon before release. The effluents from 
 these plants were rich in planktonic algae; but since the effluent 
 was chlorinated and the algae were not stream varieties, most were 
 rapidly eliminated within the receiving stream. However, when 
 chloramine levels were not high, large aggregations of fish were 
 found in these areas of "green water" presumably feeding on the 
 smaller organisms nurtured by the algae or on the algae itself. 
 
 Ammonia can be used directly by bacteria and by some plants. 
 The fact that areas of increased biomass were always associated 
 with ammonia concentrations at least slightly higher than ambient 
 suggests that ammonia may have been an important nutrient stimu- 
 lating basic productivity. However, ammonia is converted to 
 nitrate, an important plant nutrient which was not measured. Nor 
 were phosphates or potassium levels measured; both are essential 
 nutrients found in sewage effluents. According to the "law of the 
 minimum" (40) , the nutrient most important in stimulating product- 
 ivity is the one present in the smallest quantity relative to the 
 amount required. Therefore, any nutrient could cause enrichment 
 at any particular time although phosphates are frequently the 
 limiting factor in freshwater ecosystems (66). 
 
100 
 
 Biological Models 
 
 After making allowances for the unique characteristics of each 
 stream and effluent and for the natural variability associated with 
 different stream segments, it appeared that enriching effects, toxic 
 effects, and factors associated with stream purification interacted 
 to affect fishes in a fairly characteristic manner. The following 
 generalizations, derived from our data, describe the phenomena 
 which underlie these interactions: 
 
 1. Chloramines are usually the over-riding toxicant in 
 municipal secondary sewage. Bioassay studies (21,64) 
 support this contention. Field studies by Tsai (59) also 
 show that chloramines are a major toxicant in secondary 
 sewage . 
 
 2. There is a positive correlation between stream flow rate 
 and the downstream persistence of chloramines and ammonia. 
 
 3. The relationship between chloramine concentration and 
 distance from the outfall is essentially linear. 
 
 4. Although not as toxic as chloramines, sewage ammonia can 
 have a significant Impact if molecular ammonia levels are 
 high. Our study suggests that high quality fish communi- 
 ties containing pollution sensitive species may be 
 eliminated by unionized ammonia nitrogen concentrations 
 
 in excess of approximately 0.05 mg/1. Similarly, Roseboom 
 and Richey (45) determined from bioassay data that unionized 
 
101 
 
 ammonia nitrogen levels exceeding 0.04 mg/1 are potentially 
 inimical to desirable Illinois fish communities. We feel 
 that more field work is needed to fully elucidate the 
 effects of sewage ammonia on fishes. Seasonal effects 
 and the possible influence of other toxicants need to be 
 investigated. Additionally, environmental factors in- 
 cluding oxygen concentration, turbidity and bottom sub- 
 strate type may significantly moderate ammonia toxicity 
 
 (19). 
 
 5. The rate of nitrification is directly related to the 
 ammonia concentration, i.e., the higher the ammonia 
 concentration, the higher the nitrification rate. The 
 relationship is logarithmic. Biofilter research also 
 Indicates that nitrification rates are coneentration 
 dependent (37). 
 
 6. Nitrification of ammonia is retarded by the TRC in 
 disinfected sewage effluents. The finding has also 
 
 been reported by Young and McCallion (68). Similarly, 
 TRC reduces the uptake of ammonia and nitrate by 
 phytoplankton (58). Chlorination can also result in 
 the conversion of formerly biodegradable materials into 
 less biodegradable and sometimes toxic chlorinated 
 compounds (12,51,68). 
 
102 
 
 7. Fish connnunities having a large number of species 
 including pollution sensitive types suffer greater loss 
 
 of species to sewage toxicity than low quality populations 
 composed of seven or eight pollution tolerant species. 
 The concept of a net community tolerance to sewage tox- 
 icity is lent credence by the well known fact that 
 different fish species vary greatly in their sensitivity 
 to chloramines ( 8, 9 ) and molecular ammonia (60). 
 
 8. Fish biomass increases to a peak below the outfall, while 
 still further downstream it returns to upstream levels. 
 On the average, peak downstream biomass is approximately 
 twice as high as mean upstream biomass. This phenomenon 
 may be caused by the enriching effects of sewage nutrients. 
 Similarly, Brinley (7) stated that, "The fish population 
 is increased in regions where stream fertilization by 
 sewage occurs." Brinley (6) described a "fertile zone" 
 followed by a "biologically poor" zone where fishes were 
 scarce. Increases in fish biomass due to sewage nutrients 
 have also been reported by Hubbs (29), Swingle (54) and 
 Tebo (55), among others. 
 
 9. There is a long zone of increased fish biomass below the 
 sewage outfall. Species composition within this zone 
 changes radically due to the progressive elimination of 
 toxic sewage materials. Close to the outfall only a few 
 pollution tolerant species are found; carp predominate. 
 
103 
 
 Further downstream, more sensitive species appear until 
 a point is reached where species number is the same or 
 greater than at upstream sites. We believe that this 
 phenomenon is caused by the interaction of the nutrients 
 and toxicants in chlorinated secondary sewage. However, 
 it is also possible that some changes in community 
 structure results from the large increase in volume of 
 flow caused by the addition of sewage effluents to small 
 streams which have little natural midsummer flow. Thompson 
 and Hunt (56) indicated that a natural increase in number 
 of fish species and size of individual fishes occurs as 
 streams increase in size. 
 
 10. Peak biomass levels in slow flowing (less than 2.7 cm/sec) 
 streams are higher than in relatively fast flowing (greater 
 than 2.7 cm/sec, mean = 32.8 cm/sec) streams. This may 
 
 be due to the fact that sewage materials are retained 
 closer to the outfall in slow flowing streams, thus re- 
 sulting in greater enrichment per unit volume of water, or 
 to the fact that the slow flowing streams we studied con- 
 tained a preponderance of relatively pollution tolerant 
 fishes (i.e., carp, buffalo, shad) which feed rather low 
 on the food chain. 
 
 11. Centrarchids, the principal game fish in the streams we 
 studied, do not appear to benefit from sewage enrichment. 
 
104 
 
 In terms of both numbers and biomass, centrarchlds 
 are less abundant in all areas where sewage materials 
 are present despite the fact that green sunfish are 
 among the first fish to appear below sewage outfalls. 
 Four conceptual models were constructed to illustrate the 
 interaction of these variables. Model 1 (Figure 21) depicts, 
 in a general way, the effects of chlorinated secondary sewage 
 on the fish community in a small Illinois stream in mid and 
 late summer. This model, like the others, was constructed 
 by synthesizing and abstracting our findings and does not de- 
 pict any particular stream. Stream flow rate above the out- 
 fall is low, approximately 9 cm/sec. A 15-minute electrof ishing 
 sample yields about 13 species. Below the outfall the ammonia 
 concentration Is 5 mg/1 and the TRC concentration 0.5 mg/1. 
 Addition of the effluent increases flow rate to 20 cm/sec. 
 As the model shows, there are no fish immediately below the 
 outfall, mainly because of the presence of chloramines. The 
 carp and the green sunfish are the first fish to appear as 
 chloramine concentrations drop. Next, the white sucker 
 appears along with other relatively tolerant endemic forms 
 such as the creek chub, common shiner and bluegill. Biomass 
 begins to increase rapidly with the carp comprising the majority 
 of the community by weight. Water in this area is still polluted 
 by TRC and ammonia (which has dropped little in concentration 
 from initial levels) . It should be re-emphasized that ammonia 
 
105 
 
 
 O) 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 < 
 g 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 A. Sewage outfall 
 
 B. Ambient fish biomass 
 
 C. Total ammonia-nitrogen 
 
 D. Total residual chlorine 
 
 E. Centrarchids 
 
 F. Other species 
 G. Carp 
 
 FLOW 
 
 2 3 4 5 
 
 STREAM KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 21: Model 1: A stream with a relatively low initial total 
 
 residual chlorine concentration (0.5 mg/l). Fifteen-minute electro- 
 fishing samples above the outfall yield an average of 13 species of 
 fish; initial total ammonia nitrogen concentration after mixing 
 5.0 mg/1/flow 20 cm/sec below the outfall, 9 cm/sec above the out- 
 fall. 
 
106 
 toxicity is only important where pH and temperature lead to 
 the formation of high molecular ammonia levels. As chloramlnes 
 are eliminated the rapid nitrification of ammonia begins. 
 Sewage toxicity is reduced. As a result, the proportion of 
 endemic species increases while carp comprise proportionally 
 less of the population. Large aggregations of more sensitive 
 species including the stoneroller ( Campostoma anomalum) , shiners 
 ( Notropls spp.), chub ( Hybopsis biguttata ) , and suckers ( Erimyzon 
 oblongus and Moxostoma spp.) are found further downstream where 
 ammonia toxicity is negligible. Often more species are found 
 in this area than at upstream sites. In fact, it is possible 
 that this increased standing crop of endemic fishes compensates, 
 in terms of weight and numbers, for those lost below the out- 
 fall. Additionally, these fish are considerably larger Individuals 
 of the same species found at upstream sites. There is, however, 
 a net loss of centrarchlds both in terms of biomass and numbers. 
 Biomass declines to upstream levels at greater distances from 
 the outfall, sometimes in roughly the same area in which the 
 ammonia concentration returns to ambient levels. 
 
 If the chloramlne concentration In the effluent is in- 
 creased to 1.5 mg/1 (Model 2, Figure 22), there is greater 
 damage to the stream. Since chloramlnes extend approximately 
 twice as far downstream, there is a much longer flshless zone. 
 Concomitantly, nitrification is also reduced, causing the 
 effects of sewage pollution to persist further downstream. The 
 
107 
 
 jC 
 
 O) 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 CQ 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 A. Sewage outfall 
 
 B. Ambient fish biomass 
 
 C. Total ammonia-nitrogenn 
 
 D. Total residual chlorine 
 
 E. Centrarchids 
 
 F. Other species 
 G. Carp 
 
 FLOW 
 
 2 3 4 5 
 
 STREAM KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 22: Model 2: A stream with a relatively high initial total 
 
 residual chlorine concentration (1,5 mg/l). Fif teen^minute electro- 
 fishing samples above the outfall yield an average of 13 species of 
 fish; initial total ammonia-nitrogen concentration after mixing 
 5.0 mg/l; flow 20 cm/ sec below the outfall, 9 cm/sec above the out-«- 
 fall. 
 
108 
 
 Increased toxic zone causes the entire blomass curve to be 
 pushed further downstream, although it maintains essentially 
 the same characteristics. However, the curve is flattened 
 somewhat due to increased loss of nutrients by sedimentation 
 or other processes in the fishless zone. The effects of 
 sewage enrichment are largely negated if the toxicity zone 
 is extensive enough. 
 
 Model 3 (Figure23) describes an increase in flow rate 
 presupposing the other conditions previously described for 
 the original hypothetical stream. Chloramines and ammonia 
 are carried further downstream creating a larger fishless 
 zone; likewise, nitrification is retarded for a greater 
 distance. Further downstream where nitrification is not af- 
 fected by chloramines there is still less decrease in ammonia 
 concentration per kilometer than in slow flowing streams. 
 Since sewage nutrients are distributed over a greater area, 
 there is proportionally less enrichment per unit area causing 
 biomass to peak at a lower level. 
 
 Model 4 (Figure 24) illustrates the effects of the hypo- 
 thetical effluent on the fish population in a typical low 
 quality stream. Flow rate above and below the outfall is 
 negligible. A 15-minute electrof ishing sample above the out- 
 fall yields seven or eight species, mainly pollution tolerant 
 fish such as green sunfish, gizzard shad, carp and buffalo. 
 Carp comprise about 60% of the population by weight. Variety 
 
109 
 
 
 to 
 to 
 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 I 
 
 A. Sewage outfall 
 
 B. Ambient fish biomass 
 
 C. Total ammonia-nitrogen 
 
 D. Total residual chlorine 
 
 E. Centrarchids 
 
 F. Other species 
 
 G. Carp PLOW 
 
 2 3 4 5 6 
 
 STREAM KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 23: Model 3: A stream with relatively fast flow and relatively 
 high species variety. Initial total residual chlorine concentration 
 0.5 mg/l. Fifteen-minute electrof ishing samples above the outfall 
 yelld an average of 13 species of fish; initial total ammonia-nitrogen 
 concentration after mixing 5.0 mg/1; flow 30 cm/sec below the outfall, 
 18 cm/sec above the outfall. 
 
110 
 
 
 -C 
 
 o> 
 
 'o 
 
 to 
 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 CD 
 
 A. Sewage outfall 
 
 B. Ambient fish biomass 
 
 C. Total ammonia-nitrogen 
 Total residual chlorine 
 Centrorchids 
 Other species 
 
 STREAM KILOMETERS 
 
 Figure 24: Model 4: A stream with negligible flow and relatively low 
 species variety. Initial total residual chlorine concentration 0.5 
 mg/1. Fifteen-minute electrofishing samples above the outfall yelld 
 an average of 8 species of fish; initial total ammonia -nitrogen 
 concentration after mixing 5.0 mg/1. 
 
Ill 
 
 reduction below the outfall is slight or nonexistent due to 
 the high tolerance of the species present and the rapid elimin- 
 ation of chloramine and anunonia. Biomass climbs rapidly and 
 peaks at a high level due to the concentration of sewage nu- 
 trients and possibly to the predominance of fishes which are 
 pollution tolerant and likely to benefit from sewage fertili- 
 zation. Carp predominate in enriched areas as they do through- 
 out the stream. 
 
 A fifth model could have been constructed to illustrate 
 the effects of secondary sewage effluents containing very 
 high ammonia and/or chloramine concentrations. Such a model 
 would simply depict a long fishless zone below the outfall. 
 Biomass peaks would either be completely suppressed or consist 
 solely of carp or other very tolerant fishes. This might 
 also be a suitable model of streams which receive an effluent 
 containing highly toxic components derived from industrial 
 sources. Additionally, it might aptly describe winter con- 
 ditions in streams which receive an effluent of moderate 
 strength, since low temperatures would tend to reduce the 
 rate of sewage purification. 
 General Considerations 
 
 Prior studies have emphasized the division of streams 
 into pollutional zones to describe the effects of sewage upon 
 fishes. Streams receiving untreated or primary treated sewage 
 were divided into five zones: recent pollution, degradation. 
 
112 
 
 septic, recovery, and clean water, each zone characterized 
 by, among other things, certain types of fishes. As other 
 authors (5,7 ) have indicated, the recent pollution, degrada- 
 tion and septic zones are integrated into the secondary sew- 
 age treatment plant. In terms of fishes, this study suggests 
 that the recovery zone can be further divided into a "toxic 
 zone" and an "enriched zone." However, although zones are 
 conceptually appealing, they actually have limited biological 
 significance. Reality is better represented by a continuum. 
 
 Ecological studies can determine the effects of secondary 
 sewage upon fishes. Considering the cost of advanced treat- 
 ment facilities, this information is essential if fish com- 
 munities are to be protected at minimal cost to the public. 
 When such knowledge is available, it is possible to design 
 rational management plans based on biological realities and 
 thus avoid unnecessary expense. The information generated 
 by this study suggests several ways to mitigate the effects 
 of secondary sewage upon fishes. 
 
 The environmental characteristics of the receiving stream 
 play a very important role in determining the impact of sew- 
 age effluents. In fact, the stream environment is just as 
 important as the effluent chloramine and ammonia concentrations 
 at the levels typically observed in this study. The stream 
 environment encompasses factors affecting toxicity such as pH 
 and temperature, factors affecting stream purification such 
 
113 
 
 as flow rate, and also the nature of the fish community — 
 that is, pollution tolerant or pollution sensitive. These 
 factors are combined in some streams to produce an environ- 
 ment which is damaged but very little by secondary sewage. 
 Such streams contain low variety, rough fish communities and 
 are often characterized by high turbidity and little or no 
 flow into late summer. These characteristics prevail upstream 
 from the sewage outfall, below the outfall where sewage ma- 
 terials are present, and downstream past the point of complete 
 disappearance of these materials. Poor environmental conditions 
 in such streams are probably due to large-scale disturbances 
 of the aquatic environment caused by land use practices en- 
 couraging erosion and siltation (49). These problems are not 
 amenable to easy correction. The effects of secondary sew- 
 age in such streams are mainly beneficial in the summer, as 
 reflected by a large downstream increase in fish biomass. 
 Species number is not reduced (except immediately below the 
 outfall) and may increase slightly. Fishes are larger and 
 more numerous in sewage enriched areas. Although many people 
 consider species such as carp and buffalo undesirable, they 
 are recognized as having an economic value by commercial fish- 
 einnen. Additionally, there is a growing number of people who 
 enjoy angling for these fish. Most importantly, environmental 
 conditions in these streams probably preclude the establish- 
 ment of any other type of fishery even if effluent quality 
 
114 
 
 was improved. Based on the response of the fish during the 
 summer and fall, there is no need to institute advanced treat- 
 ment to remove ammonia in such cases. Furthermore, this study 
 suggests that low variety fish communities frequently inhabit 
 low gradient streams where sewage materials are eliminated 
 comparatively close to the outfall. Thus, due to the fish 
 communities they contain and to environmental conditions which 
 compress sewage purification processes into a relatively short 
 distance, these streams appear to be capable of absorbing 
 secondary sewage materials with minimal environmental damage 
 during the warmer months. Additional research is needed to 
 determine if this is also true during the winter. 
 
 Three of the nine streams sampled in this study (Crab 
 Orchard Creek, Beaucoup Creek, and Sugar Creek) fit into the 
 category described above. It may be profitable to identify 
 such streams if one accepts the proposition that they do not 
 require tertiary treatment. Assuming that damage to fish 
 communities is the principal effect of secondary sewage, any 
 stream classification should be based on the predicted impact 
 of secondary sewage on fishes. Additionally, to be of practical 
 use, any system for classifying streams must employ character- 
 istics which are reliable and easily measured. Unfortunately, 
 there are no simple chemical or physical parameters which 
 correlate well with the occurrence of particular fish communities, 
 Exceptions to the previously described association between 
 
115 
 
 flow rate and fish variety were observed even within this 
 study. Particular fish communities appear in response to 
 the integration of a wide variety of biotic and abiotic fac- 
 tors. Additionally, the chemical and physical characteristics 
 of streams vary greatly with the season. Therefore, it is 
 probably easier to directly survey the fish community than 
 to develop a system of abiotic indicators. A survey could 
 be done quickly and easily if guidelines were established. 
 A practical operating system would involve species composi- 
 tion as well as species number. Data gathered in the present 
 study could be used to initiate such a classification scheme, 
 but more field work would be required to establish its pre- 
 dictive power and account for other types of fish communities 
 not yet examined. 
 
 Unlike the low variety fish coiranunities described above, 
 the high variety communities found in many streams were damaged 
 by secondary sewage. Sampling was not thorough enough to 
 determine the complete extent of this damage. The relationships 
 described in the previously presented models could be delineated 
 with actual data points if sampling were more complete. This 
 would permit calculation of the areas beneath the various curves 
 and provide an actual measure of the loss of fish in some areas 
 and gain in others. Additionally, such information could per- 
 mit the assignment of more precise economic values to changes 
 in fish populations caused by sewage effluents. 
 
116 
 
 Improvements in effluent quality will undoubtedly be 
 required to protect the high variety communities inhabiting 
 some streams. Both this and other studies have established 
 that chloramines are the over-riding toxicant in municipal 
 secondary sewage. Additionally, this study indicates that 
 chloramines reduce nitrification rates, thus prolonging any 
 detrimental effects caused by ammonia. Damage to fish com- 
 munities in most streams would be significantly reduced if 
 chloramines were eliminated from the effluent. Conversely, 
 in many cases effluent ammonia levels could be reduced with- 
 out producing noticeable improvements if current chlorination 
 practices were continued. Any attempts to mitigate the im- 
 pact of secondary sewage on fishes should address this problem. 
 
 If disinfection of sewage effluents is essential to 
 safeguard public health, there are alternatives to chlorination 
 as presently practiced. Dechlorination with sulfur dioxide 
 is expensive, but would protect aquatic life (50). If land 
 is available, dechlorination can be achieved by constructing 
 a lagoon to hold chlorinated sewage prior to discharge (59) . 
 Chloramines would be naturally eliminated before release if 
 the residence time were long enough. This could be accomplished 
 in plants currently employing a lagoon if the effluent was 
 chlorinated before entering the lagoon rather than after leaving 
 it. A third option is to employ an alternative method of 
 effluent disinfection. Ozone is desirable, since it is a 
 
117 
 
 powerful germicide yet does not produce persistent toxic 
 residues. Also, when used as a disinfectant ozone improves 
 effluent quality by reducing oxygen demand, odor, color, and 
 levels of detergents and other potentially toxic substances. 
 
 Sewage ammonia appeared to be causing significant damage 
 to fish communities in 2 of the 12 streams we sampled. High 
 variety communities were replaced by low quality rough fish 
 communities in areas of high molecular ammonia concentration. 
 Additional treatment might be required to protect fish communi- 
 ties in these two streams. However, based on the results of 
 this study, it appeared that ammonia toxicity is either un- 
 important or at least over-ridden by chloramine toxicity in 
 most streams. This suggests that tertiary treatment is fre- 
 quently not required to protect fish communities. It should 
 be recognized, however, that ammonia toxicity may become 
 the principal limiting factor in some streams if effluent 
 chloramines are eliminated. Ammonia toxicity may also be 
 important during the winter when stream purification rates 
 are reduced due to low temperatures. 
 
 This study indicates that streams have a natural capacity 
 to purify sewage effluents. As a result, there are certain 
 temporary streams which can be considered a natural filter to 
 further improve effluent quality before discharge into the 
 principal receiving stream. It may be reasonable to relax 
 water quality standards in such streams, since they cannot 
 
118 
 normally support permanent fish communities. This is biologi- 
 cally sound, however, only if the stream is temporary in the sense 
 that it exists naturally as a dry or nearly dry ravine in summer 
 months. Such streams should be distinguished from streams of in- 
 termittent summer flow which are composed of a series of large 
 Isolated pools. These pools often support diverse and unique fish 
 faunas. Caution is needed even with truly intermittent streams, 
 since they may plan an important role in the life cycles of some 
 fish. 
 Toxicity Index Determination 
 
 During the evaluation of fish populations at each of the ten 
 sites, water samples were taken upstream of the effluent discharge 
 point and at the first point downstream past the mixing zone. 
 Chemical analyses were performed on these samples in the lEPA 
 laboratories. These data, together with the ammonia, total residual 
 chlorine, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH parameters that 
 were evaluated onsite, were used by R.E. Sparks and K.S, Lubinski of 
 the Illinois Natural History Survey to calculate a Bluegill Toxicity 
 Index for each sample. 
 
 The Bluegill Toxicity Index relates the environmental concentrations 
 of 20 toxicants to their lethal effects on bluegills, Lepomis 
 macrochirus (Raf.). Each toxicant is expressed as a fraction of its 
 bluegill 96-hr LC50, adjusted when possible for varying conditions 
 of temprature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and hardness. The sum of the 
 individual component toxicities provide a total Bluegill Toxic Unit 
 (BGTU) for a given sample. As a general rule, a value of 0.2 - 0.3 
 BGTU is considered a separation point above which it becomes difficult 
 
119 
 to maintain a quality fishery resource. 
 
 Table 13 summarizes the values of BGTU's obtained. In addition 
 to the total for each upstream and downstream site, individual values 
 for ammonia and total residual chlorine are given. Comparison of 
 downstream average values to upstream average values clearly in- 
 dicates that the total residual chlorine (TRC) accounts for the 
 major portion (5.007 of 5.283) of the downstream BGTU average total. 
 
 The relative contribution of NH3 and TRC toward the total for 
 each sample is also given, expressed as a percent of each total. Averages 
 of these percent contributions indicate that 11.42% of the total 
 index is attributable to ammonia at the downstream sites, compared 
 to 5.78% at the upstream sites. By comparison, there was no con- 
 tribution by TRC at the upstream sites, but downstream an average 
 contribution of 60.3% is indicated. If the TRC values are subtracted 
 from the total, the average contribution of ammonia expressed as a per 
 cent of this net toxicity was calculated to be 30.9%. 
 
 Clearly, the presence of chlorine in streams resulting from dis- 
 charge of chlorinated effluents is a major factor in presenting an in- 
 hospitable aquatic environment in a stream reach immediately below the 
 discharge point. 
 
 Appendix H contains the BGTU data sheets provided by K. Lubinski, 
 as well as numerical tabulation of the raw data and component BGTU's 
 A log radial diagram of component toxicities presents at a glance those 
 components contributing most to the total toxicity. The circular rings 
 on these plots indicate 1.0 BGTU. A -9 on the data sheet indicates 
 missing data. Figure 25 presents the log radial diagram for the down- 
 stream sample taken at Casey Fork Creek in September, 1978. Inspection 
 
120 
 
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 of the radial diagram shows that the major toxic factor is total 
 
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124 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 COMPARISON OF OBSERVED AND PREDICTED OXYGEN DEPLETION 
 One objective of this study was to compare the observed oxygen 
 depletion below the wastewater treatment plant discharge at the ten study 
 sites with predicted values, utilizing reaeration constants as given in 
 the construction and/or operating permit applications available from the 
 lEPA files. Figures 26 through 38 present these comparisons. Calculated 
 values were performed utilizing the following relation, as given in lEPA 
 document WPC-1 (31) and ISWS Circular 110 (11). 
 
 K2-Kc K2-Kn 
 
 Two dissolved oxygen curves are given on each figure. One is based 
 on a nitrogenous decay constant, Kvi/onV value of 0.29 day"-^, the value 
 currently utilized, and the second utilizes the value of Kjj calculated from 
 the observed rate of decrease of NH3-N concentration below the outfall. 
 Observed and calculated concentrations of NH3-N are also plotted. 
 
 The general procedures used for determining the appropriate values 
 for the other constants and independent variables, required for solution 
 of the oxygen deficit equation, are summarized below. 
 
 K„ (carbonaceous decay constant) =0.15 day at 20°C. 
 This was used for all calculations, correcting for temperature according 
 to the relation: 
 
 Kc(T) = Kc X 1.047^'^"^°^ 
 
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138 
 
 Effluent BOD 
 
 L . .(ultimate carbonaceous demand at 20*^0) = — 
 
 1 - e ^ 
 
 where K is the value at 20°C. Effluent BOD^ was obtained from 
 c 5 
 
 plant operating data at the time of the site evaluations. Depending 
 on data availability and time of travel over the reach evaluated, 
 one to three values were averaged to obtain a representative value. 
 Lacking actual BOD data upstream from the plant discharges, the 
 assumption was made that the upstream value was equal to that of 
 the effluent. 
 Lgj, f20^ ^^^ corrected for temperature according to the relation: 
 
 ^=.r.tT\ ~ L /^^x ^ (0.02T + 0.6) 
 ac(T) ac(20) ^ ' 
 
 K2 (stream reaeration constant), day' 
 Values used were obtained from the lEPA Permit files. Where different 
 values were given for different reaches of a stream, these were 
 utilized in the calculations, resulting in discontinuities in the 
 dissolved oxygen-distance plots. The presentation of Saline Branch 
 data is an exception to this procedure; an average value of two 
 reaches presented in the permit was used to permit direct comparison 
 with K2 values obtained in a 1968 study ( 3 ). K2 values were 
 corrected for temperature by the relation: 
 
 ^2(T) = ^2(20) "" 1-024^^-20) 
 
 The K2 values given in the lEPA Permit files were based on 
 calculation procedures as given in Technical Policy WPC-1, which 
 are based on 10-year 7-day low flow conditions. Recognizing that, 
 at some of the study sites, actual flow was in excess of this amount, 
 the Kg values reported for low flow conditions were used for all 
 calculations to permit more straightforward comparison of the effect 
 
139 
 
 of different K and K^ values. This may, in some cases, be the 
 major reason for differences between observed and calculated oxygen 
 behavior. 
 
 t = time, days 
 
 Distance downstream from the discharge was converted to time 
 of travel, based on the observed flow rate below the discharge. 
 The flow rate was assumed constant throughout the reach of the 
 study, to permit more direct comparison of different K2 and Kj^ 
 values. Although the usual procedure is to re-evaluate the rate 
 of flow for each reach, inspection of the lEPA permit values for 
 the stream segments involved in this study showed relatively smmll 
 changes for the reaches studied at each site. Thus, error intro- 
 duced by this approach should be minimal for most sites. 
 
 Kj^ (nitrogenous decay constant), day"^ 
 
 As mentioned previously, dissolved oxygen behavior was calcu- 
 lated at two values of K-, for each site evaluation: Kjyj/20) = 0,29 day , 
 adjusted for temperature when temperature exceeded 22°C, and K^ 
 calculated from the rate of ammonia nitrogen disappearance observed 
 during the site evaluation. 
 
 ^(T) = ^N(20) "" ^'^^^ "" 0.877(^-22) (22 to 30°C) 
 
 L (ultimate nitrogenous demand), mg/1, = 4.57 x (NHo-N con- 
 centration in mg/1) 
 
 t (nitrogenous lag time), days 
 
 According to Technical Bulletin WPC-1, typical values vary 
 from 0-10 days. The calculations performed here generally used 
 the time of travel corresponding to the first downstream sample 
 site, or the one below which a drop in NH3-N concentration was noted. 
 
 ^a = ^'^' saturation " D.O.;,ctual 
 
 The initial oxygen deficit was evaluated from dissolved oxygen 
 
140 
 
 levels at sampling points immediately below the discharge or, if 
 there was no flow upstream, from the effluent value. 
 
 The values of parameters used for all calculations are given 
 in Appendix D. 
 Nitrification Rates 
 
 A significant finding of this study was the relatively rapid 
 reduction in ammonia nitrogen concentration below the outfall th^t 
 was observed at several of the sites. Table 14 suromariaes the 
 values the nitrogenous decay coefficient (Kj^), calculated from 
 the observed ammonia concentrations below the outfall at all study 
 sites (Appendix E). Assuming nitrification follows first order 
 kinetics with respect to ammonia nitrogen concentration: 
 
 C = C^ e 
 
 where : 
 
 C = NH3-N concentration at time t 
 
 Cq = initial NH~-N concentration 
 
 e = the Naperian logorithm base; dimension less; 
 e = 2.71828 .... 
 
 ICj = nitrogenous decay coefficient, day 
 
 t = time, days 
 Generally, C© was taken as the first sample below the discharge 
 point. For those occasions where upstream flow was negligible, 
 the effluent NH3-N concentration was used. Time of travel was 
 calculated from the observed downstream flow rate at time of 
 sampling. 
 
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143 
 
 The Kfsj values obtained were all greater than the average value 
 of 0.29 day"^ suggested in lEPA Technical Policy WPC-1. A range 
 of 0.31 to 25.8 day'^ was obtained; the average value being 2.27 day" , 
 Apparently the large bottom surface/volume ratio of small streams 
 results in a significant contribution by attached nitrifiers toward 
 
 the total nitrification capacity of the stream. 
 
 Inspection of Table 14 gives some insight into the factors 
 affecting the magnitude of Kj^. Generally clear streams with sand, 
 rock bottoms having rooted aquatic vegetation exhibited the high- 
 er Kj, values: Saline Branch, Phinney Branch, and Cedar Creek. 
 A notable exception was the Sangamon River at Decatur, the largest 
 of the streams studied with considerably smaller bottom surface/ 
 volume ratio; Kj^ values of 0.63 and 0.57 were obtained. The turbid 
 streams with mud bottoms tended to have lower values, presumably 
 due to the less hospitable substrates for attached growth. Dis- 
 counting the values obtained for Mauvaise Terre Creek, which 
 exhibited atypically high NH_-N values during the sampling period 
 due to an industrial discharge to the treatment plant, even the 
 mud bottom streams exhibited Kj. values several times the previously 
 mentioned literature average value of 0.29 day^ . 
 
 Since Kj^ appears in the exponent of the nitrogenous demand 
 term of the modified Streeter-Phelps equation, the predicted oxygen 
 depletion in small streams will occur sooner and be more severe, 
 the higher the value of Kjq. This effect is illustrated in Figures 26-38 
 On the positive side, however, is the greatly reduced reach of 
 stream that is subjected to potentially toxic concentrations of 
 NHg-N, as shown in Figure 39 , which compares data on Saline Branch 
 
]44 
 
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145 
 
 obtained during this study with that reported by Austin and Sollo 
 on a 1967-68 study (3 ). 
 
 The latter study indicated negligible reduction in ammonia 
 nitrogen over the 13 km reach below the treatment plant on the 
 July 17, 1968 sampling date. The major thrust of that study was 
 evaluation of sediment dissolved oxygen demand. The authors stated, 
 however, that unusually heavy rainfall earlier in the summer re- 
 sulted in scouring of the stream bottom and removal of sediments, 
 preventing occurrence of the oxygen depletion previously 
 observed in Saline Branch. Apparently nitrification was also 
 suppressed due to the loss of the attached nitrifiers, during 
 the July 17, 1968 sampling period. 
 
 Although additional nitrogen data were not reported 
 over the 13 km reach, there were three intensive sampling periods 
 
 Aug. 14, 15, Aug. 21, 22 and Sept. 4, 5, 1968 when hourly samples 
 
 were taken during a 24 hour period over a 1.93 km reach of the 
 stream, starting 8.23 km below the treatment plant discharge. 
 Based on the average concentrations of ammonia nitrogen over the 
 24 hour period at the start and at the end of the reach, values 
 of Kjj may be calculated from the reported data. These were de- 
 termined to be 2.86, 0.79, and 0.58 day"^, respectively, for the 
 three sampling periods. This suggests regrowth of attached nitri- 
 fiers occurred after the early summer scouring occurance. 
 
 Another aspect of the 1968 study was determination of the 
 reaeration constant, K2 , by a sodium sulfite oxidation technique. 
 The observed value was twice that obtained by the predictive 
 
146 
 
 equations currently utilized in WPC- 1 . 
 
 The very large value IC^ = 25.8 day~^ calculated from the data 
 obtained at the first site visit to Saline Branch I is, however, 
 suspect because of poor agreement between the ammonia nitrogen 
 values obtained on the grab sample of the effluent (7.40 mg/1 
 NHo-N) and the 2.1 mg/1 on the 24 hour effluent composite sample 
 for the same date reported by the treatment plant laboratory. 
 The high (4.79 mg/1 NH--N) ammonia value observed at the first 
 sampling point below the discharge may represent a short term 
 condition resulting from effluent quality fluctuations, thus 
 inflating the value of Kjj obtained. 
 
 Oxygen Depletion 
 Interpretation of Figures 26 through 38 must recognize the 
 limitations imposed by the limited amount of data taken at each 
 site, necessitated by the limited scope of the study. Each site 
 was visited twice during the late summer and fall of 1978; dis- 
 solved oxygen and ammonia nitrogen meausurements were performed 
 at two points above the discharge, on the discharge, and at two 
 to five points below the outfall. Sampling at a given, site evalu- 
 ation was performed over a one to two day period, with the travel 
 time over the reach evaluated ranging from 0.1 to 13.5 days. 
 
 Calculation procedures for predicting the dissolved oxygen 
 behavior in a stream below the outfall assume steady state conditions 
 during the period of sampling and time of travel through the reach. 
 All biological (and roost physical- chemical ) treatment processes 
 exhibit some degree of variability of effluent flow rate and 
 
147 
 
 quality, influenced by changes in characteristics of raw sewage 
 input and various operating factors. Thus, the assumption of steady 
 state with respect to effluent flow rate and quality character- 
 istics can be a major source of error in attempting to describe 
 real systems with the simplifying steady-state assumption. Lacking 
 a comprehensive diurnal sampling program, however, a non steady- 
 state analysis is not warrented. 
 
 In spite of the above limitations, a comparison of the actual 
 and predicted dissolved oxygen behavior at each site does give in- 
 site into the factors affecting dissolved oxygen behavior in a 
 s'tream below an effluent discharge . A site by site discussion of 
 the results follows. 
 
 Crab Orchard Creek I (Figure 26) Use of K^/pQ^ = 0.29 day" pro- 
 vides a reasonable fit to the observed oxygen behavior. The 
 calculated dissolved oxygen vs. distance plot for Kj^ = 4.95, the 
 value calculated from the observed ammonia decrease below the 
 outfall, indicated zero dissolved oxygen should have been observed 
 for nearly 1.5 km below the discharge point. The fact that this 
 did not occur suggests that the actual reaeration constant Kp is 
 much larger than that used for the calculation. 
 
 Crab Orchard Crgek II (Figure 27) The lower than predicted dissolved 
 oxygen observed 23 km below the effluent discharge is likely the 
 result of the additional effluent from the Carbondale NW Plant 
 which was not included in this study and therefore not reflected 
 in the calculations. 
 
148 
 
 Casey Fork I (Figure 28) The standard value of K^ provides a good 
 fit at the 5 km sample point; the calculated value fits better at 
 the 10 km point. Perhaps a higher value of reaeration constant K2 , 
 with the calculated IC, would give the best fit. 
 
 Casey Fork II (Figure 29) The standard value of Kjy^ provides an 
 excellent fit; however, a higher reaeration constant with cal- 
 culated Kj^ would also give a good fit. 
 
 Saline Branch I (Figure 30) The standard value of IC, does not 
 predict the lower dissolved oxygen level observed about 2 km below 
 the outfall. A IL, value of 3.31 which was calculated from data 
 obtained during the second observation at this site, used in con- 
 junction with the higher K2 value reported in the 1968 study (3) 
 fits the 2 km data point well, but recovery is not rapid enough 
 to approach the 13 km sample observation. That data point indicates 
 supersaturation, suggesting substantial photosynthetic activity 
 of the rooted and/or suspended plant growths. 
 
 A calculation utilizing K = 25.8, the value determined from 
 the observed ammonia depletion during the initial site evaluation, 
 indicated a dissolved oxygen of zero would exist for several kilom- 
 eters. Since the observed oxygen levels did not substantiate this, 
 and the very high Kj^ value is suspect for reasons previously dis- 
 cussed, it was not used to calculate the oxygen behavior indicated 
 in Figure 30. 
 
 Saline Branch II (Figure 31) Oxygen behavior is presented here 
 for three different combinations of Kp and Kj^ values. Although the 
 standard K2 with standard Kj^ gives the best fit, this could be the 
 
149 
 
 result of photosynthetic activity, as suggested from the data of 
 
 Saline Branch I. 
 
 Phinney Branch I (Figure 32) The standard Kj^ value gives the best 
 
 fit. Assuming the calculated IC. value is more nearly correct, a 
 
 higher Kp value is indicated. 
 
 Phinney Branch II (Figure 32) There was very little difference 
 
 between standard and observed K^. values; both provide a good fit 
 
 to the observed oxygen behavior. 
 
 Sugar Creek I (Figure 33) Supersaturation of oxygen observed below 
 
 the effluent discharge is likely the result of photosynthetic acti- 
 vity of algae formed in the tertiary lagoon. If the assumption 
 is made that the supersaturation is rapidly lost, thus lowering 
 the dissolved oxygen level to saturation rapidly below the outfall, 
 then both curves provide reasonable fits to the observed data. 
 Sugar Creek II (Figure 34) The standard K value gives the best 
 fit, although a higher value of reaeration constant together with 
 the observed Kj^ would also provide a good fit. Another possibility 
 Sangamon River I (Figure 35) The calculated K value provides a 
 better fit for the observed oxygen level 2 km downstream from the 
 discharge. Neither plot, however, predicts the rapid recovery of 
 oxygen downstream. Apparently the reaeration constant, Kp, is 
 actually greater than that used (actual flow was 33% greater than 
 that predicted for lO-yr-7-day low flow conditions) and/or photo- 
 synthetic activity was significant, as indicated by the oxygen 
 saturation values observed downstream. 
 
150 
 
 Sangamon River II (Figure 36) The same comments given for Sangamon 
 River I are applicable here. 
 
 Cedar Creek I (Figure 37) The calculated value of K^ provides a 
 better fit than the standard value, but does not predict the dis- 
 solved oxygen drop to the 3-4 mg/1 range observed 8-18 km below 
 
 the outfall. The t value of 0.4 days used for the calculation 
 
 o 
 
 may be high; a lower t value provides a much better fit. Note 
 that decreased temperature observed in the Monmouth area results 
 in a change in oxygen saturation value. The Monmouth discharge 
 enters Cedar Creek about 43 km below the Galesburg discharge. 
 Little effect on dissolved oxygen behavior was predicted or observ- 
 ed from this discharge. Supersaturation, suggestive of photosyn- 
 thetic activity, was observed in the Monmouth region of Cedar Creek. 
 Cedar Creek II (Figure 38) The same comments given for Cedar 
 Creek I are applicable here. 
 
 Generali nations 
 Overall, the comparison of observed dissolved oxygen and ammonia 
 nitrogen levels compared to predicted values lead to the following 
 generalizations. 
 
 1. Ammonia disappears from the stream below an effluent 
 discharge at a much faster rate than would be predicted based on 
 the 0.29 day"^( C) value commonly assumed for the first order 
 decay constant. An average value of 2.27 day" was calculated 
 from the ammonia values observed in this study. 
 
 2. Assuming the observed reduction of ammonia below 
 an effluent discharge represents an oxygen demand in terms of 
 
151 
 
 nitrate production, it is difficult to explain the fact that 
 dissolved oxygen levels were not severely depressed at several 
 of the study sites. Possible reasons may include one or more 
 of the following: 
 
 a. Actual reaeration constants appreciably 
 greater than calculated values. 
 
 b. A high degree of photosynthetic activity. If 
 this were a major factor, severe oxygen depletion would be expected 
 to occur during nighttime hours. 
 
 c. Loss of ammonia through evaporation. At the pH 
 levels observed, little ammonia is present in the un-ionized form 
 and available for vaporization. 
 
 d. Adsorption of ammonia by soil particles on the 
 stream bottom and by suspended material. One would anticipate 
 that the surface bottom soils would be rapidly saturated with 
 ammonium ions, and therefore could not function in a continuing 
 removal process. Suspended soil could be a factor in the more 
 turbid streams, but certainly not in the clear ones. 
 
 e. Direct uptake by phytoplankton. Insufficient 
 levels were observed to account for appreciable removal by this means 
 
 f. Denitrif ication of the nitrate formed, occurring 
 
 in anaerobic regions of stream bottom, could re-introduce the oxygen 
 from the nitrate ion to the stream system. This could account for 
 dissolved oxygen levels observed being greater than calculated. 
 Additional studies should include nitrate analyses, to permit es- 
 timation of the significance of this effect. 
 
152 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 BENEFITS OF OBTAINING COMPLIANCE WITH 
 1.5 mg/1 AMMONIA NITROGEN STANDARD 
 
 To provide a basis for evaluation of potential benefits to be 
 gained by attaining the 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen water quality 
 standard, or alternative standards, it is necessary to examine the 
 levels of ammonia nitrogen currently existing within Illinois streams 
 and, in particular, in waters affected by the ten dischargers studied. 
 Statewide Ammonia Levels - Water Quality 
 
 Based on 1979 lEPA records, Figure 40 indicates the relative 
 violation rates (% of samples that exceed 1.5 mg/1 NHq-N ) observed 
 in each of the major river basins in Illinois. The rate exceeded 
 10% in the Des Plaines (50.5%), Des Plaines Added (28.6%), and 
 Mississippi South Central (26.1%) River Basins. 
 
 Table 15 gives the violation rates by basin for the period 
 1974-1979. No distinct trend is observed over the 6 year period 
 represented by the data. 
 
 Figure 41 presents the cumulative frequency of mean values 
 of total and un-ionized ammonia (as NHo) concentrations observed 
 in the streams of Illinois, based on lEPA records. The total 
 ammonia nitrogen plot represents 712 water quality monitoring 
 locations; un-ionized ammonia represents 704 stations. The data 
 includes all lEPA ammonia records through December 1976. The 
 frequencies that 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen and several values of 
 un-ionized ammonia nitrogen were exceeded are given in Table 16. 
 
153 
 
 violation rate 
 '^ 
 
 not marked n 
 
 s \ \ "" 
 
 6-0 /// '' 
 
 >io ,>6<V^ 
 
 Figure 40. Violation rates observed during 1978, based on 1.5 mg/1 
 NH3-N water quality standard. 
 
154 
 
 Table 15 
 
 Violation rates: % of samples exceeding 1.5 mg/1 total ammonia 
 nitrogen, based on IE PA data^^. 
 
 Basin 
 
 Basin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 code 
 
 name 
 
 
 1974 
 
 1975 
 
 1976 
 
 1977 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 A 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.3 
 
 B 
 
 Wabash 
 
 
 3.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 11.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 9.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 C 
 
 Little Wabash 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 9.4 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 Illinoi s 
 
 
 4.6 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 14.2 
 
 12.2 
 
 5.6 
 
 E 
 
 Sangamon 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 0.8 
 
 10.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 F 
 
 Kankakee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 Des Plaines 
 
 
 34.7 
 
 37.5 
 
 40.0 
 
 72.3 
 
 50.5 
 
 28.9 
 
 H 
 
 Des Plaines 
 Added 
 
 
 58.9 
 
 62.9 
 
 55.4 
 
 71.9 
 
 28.6 
 
 27.9 
 
 I 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 S 
 
 8.3 
 
 15.7 
 
 5.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 SC 
 
 2.4 
 
 7.1 
 
 11.4 
 
 15.1 
 
 26.1 
 
 17.9 
 
 K 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 C 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 L 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 NC 
 
 6.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 
 
 16.7 
 
 M 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 N 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.7 
 
 3.1 
 
 N 
 
 Big Muddy 
 
 
 6.3 
 
 4.5 
 
 6.4 
 
 14.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 
 
 Kaskaskia 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 6.2 
 
 7.8 
 
 6.3 
 
 8.2 
 
 P 
 
 Rock 
 
 
 5.8 
 
 2.9 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 
 Data provided by R.C, Flemal, Northern Illinois University, 
 
155 
 
 Total NH -N, mg/1 
 3 
 
 O Total NHg-N 
 
 A Un-ionized NH 
 
 J 
 
 "T 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.0 
 
 Un-ionized NH (as NH^ ) , mg/1 
 
 Figure 41. Frequency distribution of mean values of total NH3-N 
 and un-ionized NHq in water quality samples in Illinois. lEPA 
 data through 1976^. 
 
 Data provided by R.C. Flemal, Northern Illinois University. 
 
156 
 
 Table 16 
 
 Frequencies that several values of total NH3-N and un-ionized ammonia 
 nitrogen were exceeded, based on average values of water quality 
 samples. lEPA data through December 1976^. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 NH3-N 
 
 
 Un-ionized 
 
 ammonia, as N 
 
 
 
 Frequency 
 
 that 
 
 
 Frequency that 
 
 Concentration 
 
 value was 
 
 Concentration 
 
 value was 
 
 (mg/l) 
 
 
 exceeded 
 
 (%) 
 
 (mg/l) 
 
 exceeded (%) 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 18.3 
 
 
 0.02 
 
 26.7 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 14.2 
 
 
 0.04 
 
 17.6 
 
 A.O 
 
 
 9.8 
 
 
 0.05 
 
 15.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 
 5.6 
 
 
 0.057 
 
 14.6 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 0.10 
 0.20 
 
 8.3 
 3.9 
 
 Data provided by R.C. Flemal, Northern Illinois University. 
 
157 
 
 Ammonid Levels Observed at Water Quality Monitoring Stations in 
 Regions of the Ten Study Sites 
 
 Table 17 gives the locations of lEPA water quality monitoring 
 stations, where they exist, that are in regions potentially affect- 
 ed by the effluent discharges of the 10 treatment plants studied. 
 The station locations are indicated in Figures 2 through 6. Table 
 18 presents the violation rates, based on 1972-1977 data, that 
 occurred at those monitoring points. The current standard of 1.5 mg/1 
 NH3-N and four levels (0.02, 0.04, 0.05, and 0.057 mg/1) of un-ion- 
 ized ammonia, expressed as NH3, were utilized for determining the 
 violation rates. Inspection of Table 18 indicates that violation 
 rates that would result at the 0.04 mg/1 NHo value are generally 
 comparable to those of the current 1.5 mg/1 NH^-N standard, although 
 considerable variations exist. due to the effect of pH and tempera- 
 ture on the ionization of ammonia. 
 
158 
 
 Table 17 
 
 Locations of lEPA water quality monitoring stations in regions 
 of the ten study sites (42). 
 
 Di scharge 
 Stream 
 Station 
 
 Locat ion 
 
 Cflrbondale 
 Crab Orchard 
 Creek 
 
 ND 02 
 Big Muddy 
 River 
 
 N 04 
 
 N 02 
 
 Pinckneyville 
 
 Beaucoup Creek 
 
 NC 05 
 
 NC 02 
 
 NC 03 
 
 Mt. Vernon 
 
 Casey Fork Creek 
 NJ 07 
 
 County Line Road bridge near Crab Orchard Dam 
 
 Route 148 bridge 4 miles NNW of Herrin 
 Murphysboro Water Intake at east edge of town 
 
 Route 154 bridge at east edge of Pinckneyville 
 Route 149 bridge 1.5 miles east of Route 13 
 Rt 13-127 bridge 5 miles north of Vergennes 
 
 Route 37 bridge 3 miles south of Mount Vernon 
 
 Champaign -Urb an a -NE 
 
 Saline Branch 
 
 BPJC 04 Off bank at NW corner of Urbana STW grounds 
 BPJC 01 Middle of 1-74 bridge 1 mile NE of Urbana STW 
 BPJC 03 East of 1-74 bridge 1 mile NW of Saint Joseph 
 
 Salt Fork Vermillion 
 
 BPJ 04 US 150 bridge 0.5 miles west of Saint Joseph 
 
 BPJ 05 County road 1 mile north of Sidney 
 
 BPJ 03 County road bridge 3 miles south of Oakwood 
 
 Champa ign-Urbana-SW 
 Phinney Branch 
 Kaskaskia River 
 
 O 16 
 
 O 13 
 
 O 15 
 
 Champaign-Douglas County Line Road bridge 
 Tounship Rd bridge 1.5 miles north of Bourbon 
 Route 121 bridge 1 mile north of Allenville 
 
159 
 Table 17 (continued) 
 
 Discharge 
 Stream 
 Station 
 
 Location 
 
 Springfield 
 Sugar Creek 
 Sangamon River 
 
 E 04 Route 29 bridge 4 miles north of Springfield 
 
 E 21 Township road bridge 4 miles WSW of Athens 
 
 E 03 County road bridge 5 miles west of Greenview 
 
 Jacksonville 
 Mauvaise Terre 
 DD 02 
 DD 03 
 DD 01 
 
 Decatur 
 
 Sangamon River 
 E 06 
 E 09 
 E 05 
 
 US 35 bridge at southeast edge of Jacksonville 
 Route 104 bridge 5 miles west of Jacksonville 
 Route 100 bridge 4 miles south of Bluffs 
 
 City Water Intake at Lake Decatur 
 
 Route 48 bridge at southwest edge of Decatur 
 
 Lincoln Trail bridge 5 miles SE of Niantic 
 
 Galesburg & Monmouth 
 Cedar Creek 
 
 LDD 01 
 Henderson River 
 LD 02 
 LD 01 
 
 Route 135 bridge at Little York 
 
 Route 94 bridge 1 mile south of Bald River 
 Route 164 bridge 3 miles south of Oquawka 
 
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163 
 Benefit Categories 
 
 The previous study by Huff (30) listed eleven potential uses 
 
 of water that might be affected by changes in the quantity of 
 
 aninionia discharged: aesthetics, agriculture, commercial fishing, 
 
 domestic water use, human health, industrial water supply, municipal. 
 
 water supply, navigation, power generation, recreation (water 
 
 contact) and recreation (non-water contact). That study 
 
 concluded that the only uses that would be benefitted significantly 
 
 by reduced ammonia loadings from point sources were : 
 
 1) Water treatment plants for municipal and 
 industrial uses, due to reduced chlorine demand. 
 
 2) Aesthetics, with respect to reduced dissolved oxygen 
 in the stream resulting from the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate. 
 
 3) Recreation (non-water contact). The factor for con- 
 sideration here is the potential reduction in fishing opportunity 
 due to the toxic effect of un-ionized ammonia toward aquatic life. 
 
 The information gained from this current study provides a 
 data base for re-evaluation of the magnitude of benefits previously 
 projected for these three areas of use. 
 1 . Water treatment plants for municipal and industrial use . 
 
 The maximum potential benefits to be attained by enforcement 
 of the current 1.5 rag/1 NH3-N standard was previously estimated 
 at 4.1 to 5.2 million dollars annually. The calculation method 
 employed assumed that all of the ammonia in effluent discharges 
 would eventually be found in water supply intakes, adjusted by a 
 factor representing relative volumes of withdrawal for industrial 
 and municipal use compared to total surface water flows in the 
 state (30). 
 
16A 
 In view of the rapid degradation of ammonia that was observed 
 downstream of the ten dischargers studied, it is unlikely that 
 actual increases in chlorine costs would appcoach the maximum 
 estimated. In addition, most surface supplies in the state (except for 
 the Illinois River, and communities utilizing the Mississippi and 
 Ohio rivers for their water supply source) rely on surface impound- 
 ments, rather than direct withdrawal from flowing streams. Thus 
 it seems reasonable that point source contribution to ammonia 
 concentrations observed in water supplies is minimal. A study by 
 Flemel and Wilkin (25) of the water quality in the upper Sangamon 
 Basin indicated the potential for non-point sources to be a major 
 factor in contributing to ammonia nitrogen in Lake Decatur. Ammonia 
 levels in stratified impoundments would be expected to be influ- 
 enced greatly by factors peculiar to such water bodies, such as 
 anaerobic processes characteristic of the bottom waters, which 
 would be related to the organic content of the bottom sediments. 
 
 Gne additional consideration relates to the growing concern 
 over the presence of trace quantities of halogenated hydrocarbons 
 that have been identified in many public water supplies. Much 
 controversy exists over the dose-response relationship of these 
 compounds with respect to human health; most direct evidence of 
 increased cancer rates is based on laboratory animal studies (47). 
 Regulations have been enacted, however, to monitor these materials 
 and to require treatment for removal from some water supplies 
 where trihalomethane ( THM ) levels are found to be excessive. 
 Since much of the THM content of finished potable water may be 
 
165 
 
 attributed to the chlorine added for disinfection purposes, with THM 
 formation occurring in the distribution system, alternative disinfection 
 methods should be considered (10) . 
 
 In the past, chloramines (combined chlorine residual) have been 
 used for disinfection of some water supplies. The justification for 
 use of chloramines has generally been based on the need to avoid taste 
 and odor problems resulting from chlorination of phenolic compounds and/ 
 or the desire to provide a longer lasting chlorine residual than that 
 obtained with free chlorine. When chloramine disinfection is practiced, 
 ammonia may be added to the water, together with chlorine, for chloramine 
 formation (14). The disadvantage of using chloramines for disinfection 
 is their inferior disinfection properties when compared with a free chlorine 
 residual, especially at neutral and low pH where the equilibrium favors 
 formation of the more effective HOCL form of chlorine. The advantage of 
 chloramines for disinfection, in addition to those noted above, is the 
 fact that chloramines do not react with THM precursors to produce halogenated 
 compounds. Thus, consideration might be given in the future to utilize 
 chloramines for disinfection in place of uncombined chlorine, especially 
 for high pH waters where the effectiveness of free chlorine as a disinfectant 
 is reduced, but THM formation rates are greatly increased (53). 
 
 Should chloramines be used in the futute for disinfection of water 
 supplies, the presence of ammonia in the raw water would become an 
 economic benefit, rather than a cost, for potable water production. 
 
166 
 
 2. Aesthetics 
 
 The concern that reduced dissolved oxygen results in streams 
 due to the demand exerted by oxid^Ttion of ammonia to nitrate was 
 discounted in the previous study due to inadequate documentation 
 that this was a significant problem. In general, dissolved oxygen 
 was not found to be a limiting factor for support of fish life at 
 the ten sites evaluated in this current study, thus substantiating 
 the previous conclusion. 
 
 One consideration that bears mentioning with respect to 
 dissolved oxygen in streams receiving nutrient loads is the result- 
 ing larger algal populations that could produce diurnal dissolved oxyge 
 fluctuations in the streams. Although beyond the scope of this 
 current study, such fluctuations would be expected to occur where 
 significant algal populations exist. It should also be noted, 
 however, that a nitrified effluent would be expected to result in 
 at least as great an effect on algal growth as one containing 
 nitrogen primarily as ammonia. 
 
 3. Recreation (non-water contact) 
 
 The maximum incremental annual recreational benefits that 
 would result from enforcement of the current NH^-N standard of 
 1.5 mg/1 were estimated by Huff (30) to be 15.7 million dollars. The 
 findings of the current study indicate that this estimate may be 
 high. 
 
 The 15.7 million value was estimated based onr-tlie fact that 
 35% of the water quality stations (190 of 540 stations) exhibited 
 at least one wasfeer quality violation. The assumption was made that 
 
167 
 
 if all stations were brought into compliance, the maximum increase 
 in recreational fishing over existing conditions would be 35%. 
 Based on an Illinois Department of Business and Economic Development 
 document, the number of river fishing trips in Illinois, projected 
 to 1980, are 3,517,000, valued at 46 million dollars. Thus, a maxi- 
 mum of $46 X 10 X 35%, or about 16 million dollars annual recrea- 
 tional benefit was estimated. 
 
 An alternative procedure for estimation of recreational benefits 
 of Illinois streams is based on estimation of water area adversely 
 affected by ammonia, and utilizing that area to estimate the num- 
 ber of recreational days on which to base the dollar value of the 
 affected sport fishery. A detailed examination of the stream 
 fishing potential of the regions selected for the ten study sites 
 will be used as a basis for estimation of state-wide impacts. 
 Since angling surveys had not been performed at the ten study sites, an 
 estimation procedure must be used. 
 
 Table 19 summarizes maximum depth, average width, stream 
 lengths and areas, on a county basis, for the ten study site regions. 
 Illinois Department of Conservation documents provided the infor- 
 mation summarized in the table (35, 36). Examination of Tables 
 19 and 20 indicates the affected reaches of the streams ( i.e., 
 regions where total ammenia nitrogen remains above 1.5 mg/1 ) 
 receiving the discharges were less than 100 ft. in width. Util- 
 izing the approach employed in a recent study by Hey (17), it may 
 be estimated that a stream with a width in the range of 21-100 ft 
 would be expected to annually support approximately 45 angling 
 
168 
 Table 19 
 
 Characteristics of streams studiecJ, county basis (35,36). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Average 
 
 Stream 
 
 area in 
 
 
 Stream 
 
 depth 
 
 width 
 
 miles 
 
 county 
 
 Boat 
 
 County 
 
 (ft) 
 
 (ft) 
 
 in county 
 
 (acres ) 
 
 fishing 
 
 Carboncjale 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crab Orchard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Creek 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jackson 
 
 NL^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 _-- 
 
 
 
 Big Muddy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 River 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jackson 
 
 10 
 
 121 
 
 (47)*^ 
 
 696 
 
 yes 
 
 
 
 
 (76) 
 
 
 Pinckneyville 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beaucoup Creek 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perry 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 (36) 
 
 74 
 (50) 
 
 no 
 
 Jackson 
 
 8 
 
 48 
 
 22 
 (22) 
 
 126 
 (14) 
 
 no 
 
 Mt . Vernon 
 
 Casey Fork Creek 
 Jefferson 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 (46) 
 
 Champaign -Urban a -SW 
 Phinney Branch 
 
 Champaign NL 
 Kaskaskia River 
 
 50 
 
 (34) 
 
 lampaign-Urbana 
 
 -NE 
 
 
 
 
 Saline Branch 
 
 
 
 
 
 Champaign 
 
 NL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salt Fork 
 
 
 
 
 
 Champaign 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 (24) 
 
 127 
 (34) 
 
 Vermillion 
 
 8 
 
 53 
 
 24 
 (15) 
 
 165 
 (16) 
 
 no 
 
 yes 
 
 Champaign 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 (14) 
 
 26 
 (7) 
 
 no 
 
 Douglas 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 20 
 (23) 
 
 103 
 (34) 
 
 no 
 
 Coles 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 15 
 (14) 
 
 89 
 (18) 
 
 yes 
 
 Moultrie 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 (25) 
 
 27 
 (35) 
 
 no 
 
169 
 
 Table 19 (continued ) 
 
 Discharge 
 Stream 
 County 
 
 Maximum Average 
 depth width 
 (ft ) (ft ) 
 
 Springfield 
 Sugar Creek 
 
 Sangamon 4 
 
 Sangamon River 
 Sangamon 12 
 
 19 
 
 115 
 
 Stream 
 
 miles 
 
 in county 
 
 23 
 (9) 
 
 50 
 (20) 
 
 Approximate 
 area in 
 county 
 (acres ) 
 
 54 
 (5) 
 
 694 
 (60) 
 
 Boat 
 fishing 
 
 no 
 
 yes 
 
 Jacksonville 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mauvaise Terre 
 Morgan 3 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 (22) 
 
 71 
 (25) 
 
 no 
 
 Scott 3 
 
 38 
 
 18 
 (19) 
 
 82 
 (31) 
 
 no 
 
 Decatur 
 
 Sangamon River 
 Macon 12 
 
 62 
 
 33 
 (34) 
 
 243 
 (75) 
 
 yes 
 
 Galesburg & Monmouth 
 Cedar Creek 
 
 Knox 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 (1) 
 
 9 
 (2) 
 
 ... 
 
 Warren 7 
 
 48 
 
 33 
 (24) 
 
 189 
 (33) 
 
 no 
 
 Henderson 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 (2) 
 
 10 
 (2) 
 
 
 Henderson Creek 
 Warren 7 
 
 37 
 
 26 
 (19) 
 
 115 
 (20) 
 
 yes 
 
 Henderson 8 
 
 60 
 
 23 
 
 (24) 
 
 168 
 (40) 
 
 no 
 
 ^ Not listed in either of Illinois Department of Conservation 
 document? . 
 
 Number in parenthesis is % of county total. 
 
170 
 
 days per acre. Using a value of $10 for an angling and/or recrea- 
 tion day gives an annual dollar value of $450/acrc of stream area. 
 Table 20 summarizes the estimated maximum annual recrea t i on;< 1 
 benefit for the stream segments affected by the ten dischargers 
 studied; the total annual benefit for the ten study sites is 
 $139,800. 
 
 The assignment of ten dollars as the value of a recreation 
 day is somewhat arbitrary; Dwyer e^ aJL discuss various approaches 
 to estimation of a recreation day (17). In 1973 the Water Resources 
 Council suggested a range of $0.50 - $6.00 per day, depending upon 
 the relative degree of specialization and substitution for the 
 recreation activities being valued (65). Walsh (63) presents 
 arguments that the Water Resources Council suggested range is likely 
 on the low side of reality for most situations, due to the inelas- 
 ticity in the slope of the demand curve. In the 1970 National 
 Survey of Fishing and Hunting conducted by the Bureau of Sport 
 Fisheries and Wildlife of the United States Department of Interior, 
 a value of $6.30 spent on each recreation day for fresh-water 
 fishing is reported (23). A value of $13.44 per day for expenditures 
 by Illinois residents for warmwater fishing in 1975 is given by 
 Dwyer (16); 71% of that activity took place in Illinois. Horvath 
 (28) reports a value of $42.93 per day as an average monetary 
 benefit, based on a 1971 survey representing 23,577 persons (9,322 
 actual interviews) in southeastern United States households. 
 
171 
 
 Table 20 
 
 Maximum distance downstream from effluent discharge that ammonia 
 nitrogen concentration exceeded 1.5 mg/1, and estimate of maximum 
 economic recreational value of stream reach. 
 
 Site 
 
 Distance downstream 
 that total NH3-N 
 exceeds 1.5 mg/1 
 (km) (miles) 
 
 Estimated maximum 
 annual recreational 
 value (3 $450/acre 
 
 Carbondale 
 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 3.1 
 
 Pinckneyville 
 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 4.4 
 
 Mt . Vernon 
 
 
 
 11.7 
 
 7.2 
 
 Urbana-Champaign 
 
 NE 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 3.1 
 
 Urbana-Champaign 
 
 SW 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 3.8 
 
 Springfield Sugai 
 
 r Creek 
 
 6.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 Jacksonville 
 
 
 
 30.0 
 
 18.6 
 
 Decatur 
 
 
 
 30.3 
 
 18.8 
 
 Galesburg 
 
 
 
 12.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 Monmouth (Cedar ( 
 
 Dree 
 
 k) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 113.3 
 
 70.5 
 
 $ 6,800 
 
 6,700 
 
 5,500 
 
 5,900 
 
 3,500 
 
 4,100 
 
 27,400 
 
 63,500 
 
 16,400 
 
 
 
 $139,800 
 
172 
 
 Table 21 presents the total length of streams, by wirith 
 category, potentially affected by the ten study site discharges. 
 A comparison is made to the total stream lengths in the State of 
 Illinois. If it is assumed the study sites chosen are representa- 
 tive of the entire state, an estimate may be made of maximum state- 
 wide recreational benefits to be gained by attainment of the 1.5 
 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen standard. Since most of the affected streams 
 at the ten study sites are in the 21 to 100 ft width category, 
 representing 5.2% of the state total length in that category, the 
 estimated $139,800 annual recreational benefit for the ten study 
 sites would scale to $139,800 divided by 0.052 or $2,688,000 on 
 a statewide basis. This value is considerably less than the 15.7 
 million dollar original estimate, and reflects the rapid degrada- 
 tion rate of ammonia nitrogen that was observed to occur in the 
 small and medium size streams studied. 
 
 As another point for comparison, the recent Illinois Department 
 of Conservation sport fishing survey (44) provides a basis for 
 estimation of recreational value of streams in Illinois. Based 
 on the 1978 survey, stream fishing represented 9.77 million angling 
 days of the 36.9 million total angling days within the state. 
 Small stream (creek) fishing consisted of 2.17 million angling 
 days, representing 22% of the total stream fishing activity. At 
 ten dollars per angling day, the total monetary evaluation of small 
 stream fishing in Illinois would be 20 million dollars. Projections 
 of increased angling in all Illinois waters to 1995 forecast a 43% 
 increase, compared to 1978 values. 
 
173 
 
 Table 21 
 
 Comparison of streams included in study with respect to length, 
 by width categories, to state totals. 
 
 Total length 
 Width categories in state (36) Total length in study sites 
 (ft) (miles) (miles) (% of total) 
 
 Not over 20 
 21 to 100 
 101 to 300 
 Over 300 
 
 4,915 
 
 09 
 
 1.4 
 
 5,806 
 
 300 
 
 5.2 
 
 807 
 
 98 
 
 12.1 
 
 387 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 11,915 467 3.9 
 
174 
 
 The above analysis is likely to overestimate the increased 
 direct value of streams receiving point source ammonia discharges 
 that might accrue if the total ammonia nitrogen levels were to be 
 reduced to the current 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen water quality 
 standard. Factors that could contribute to an overestimate are: 
 
 1. The analysis assumes no sport fishery currently exists 
 in the affected stream reaches. 
 
 2. If chlorination of all effluents continues to be 
 required, the toxic effects of chloramines in the region below the 
 effluent discharge may preclude development of significant fish 
 populations. 
 
 3. This current biological study has demonstrated the 
 positive effect of nutrients in sewage treatment plant effluents 
 toward increasing fish weight and numbers in regions below the 
 effluent outfall, and beyond the point of toxic levels of chlora- 
 mines. Although the major increases are not in the major sport 
 fish categories, some increased recreational benefits should be 
 recognized; a recent Illinois Department of Conservation study 
 provides some insight into this effect (44). Carp represented 9% 
 of the total number of fish caught in Illinois streams in 1978, 
 and statewide ranked l3th of 17 species in terms of preferred 
 species to fish for. However, considerable variation in preference 
 (6-14 of 17 species) existed between the seven regions of the 
 state identified for the survey. The region indicating the 
 
 "6 of 17" preference included the Springfield and Jacksonville 
 study sites. 
 
175 
 The most significant factor that could influence the above 
 analysis such that the recreational benefits are underestimated 
 relates to the value of intermittant streams. Only one of the 
 ten dischargers studied (Decatur STW, on the Sangamon River) does 
 not discharge to a watercourse classified by the Illinois State 
 Water Survey (48) as an intermittant stream. The significance of 
 the intermittant streams of Illinois with respect to support of 
 downstream fisheries is, at this point in time, largely an un- 
 answered question. 
 
176 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 COSTS OF OBTAINING COMPLIANCE WITH 
 1.5 mg/1 NH3-N STANDARD 
 
 The major costs associated with providing compliance with the 
 1.5 mg/1 NH3-N water quality standard fall on point source discharg- 
 ers, both private and municipal. If discharge occurs to a water- 
 course where the 7-day 10-year low flow is zero, the maximum total 
 ammonia nitrogen allowed in the effluent during times of zero 
 stream flow would be equal to the 1.5 mg/1 water quality standard. 
 Where stream flows above zero exist, and background ammonia nitrogen 
 levels are below the 1.5 mg/1 standard, proportionately greater 
 ammonia levels are permitted. Prior to enactment of the current 
 exemption to Rule 402 (which ends July 1, 1982), only dischargers 
 to the Illinois River System whose population equivalent is greater 
 than 50,000 have been required to meet specific effluent limitations 
 on ammonia. That requirement, which became effective December 31, 
 1977 requires those dischargers to limit total NHo-N values in their 
 effluents to 2.5 mg/1 from April through October, and 4.0 mg/1 
 November through March. 
 
 Huff (30) identified 647 municipalities and 842 private dis- 
 chargers who would be required to install ammonia removal facilities 
 to meet the 1.5 mg/1 NH3-N standard. To provide a basis for eval- 
 uating current and proposed regulatory changes with respect to the 
 ammonia standard, it is helpful to examine current levels of 
 ammonia nitrogen present in point source discharges throughout 
 Illinois. 
 
177 
 Statewide Ammonia Levels - Point Source Discharges 
 
 Figure 42 presents the cumulative frequency of mean values 
 of ammonia nitrogen and un-ionized ammonia (as NH^) CDncEfttrations 
 observed in the point source discharges occurring in Illinois, based 
 on all lEPA records through December 1976 . A total of 2168 
 point sources are represented by the NH^-N frequency distribution 
 plot; 415 for the un-ionized ammonia. the lesser number for un-ion- 
 ized ammonia reflects the lack of temperature and pH data reported 
 at the time of sampling for the ammonia determination; these param- 
 eters are necessary to permit calculation of un-ionized ammonia. 
 The frequencies that several values of total NHo-N and un-ionized 
 ammonia nitrogen were exceeded are given in Table 22. Note that 
 the average value of 1.5 mg/1 NH^-N was exceeded by 72.8% of the 
 dischargers; 67.9% exceeded 0.02 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia, as N. 
 
 More recent lEPA data (1976-77) on point source discharger 
 performance with respect to ammonia nitrogen is given in Table 23. 
 The violation rate occurring with respect to several values of 
 total NHo-N is presented by category of discharger, with the April- 
 October period given separately from the November -March period. 
 This data represents individual sample results, rather than average 
 values for individual dischargers. 
 
 ^Data provided by R.C. Flemal, Northern Illinois University 
 
178 
 
 100 
 
 50 - 
 
 30 _ 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 Qi 
 3 
 fT 
 Q) 
 M 
 «H 
 
 Q) 
 
 •H 10 
 
 ■t-» 
 
 (0 
 
 r-< 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 Total NH3-N, mg/I 
 
 0.5 
 I 
 
 1.0 1.5 
 J |_ 
 
 10 
 J_ 
 
 ^^' 
 
 .^ A 
 
 50 
 
 i 
 
 O Total NH -N 
 '-' 3 
 
 % cumulative frequency = 21.9(NH3-N) 
 A Un-ionized NH3 
 
 % cumulative frequency = 133.6(NH2) 
 
 0.536 
 
 0.383 
 
 0J005 
 
 0.01 
 
 ^1 
 
 0.05 
 
 I 
 
 0.1 
 
 Unr^ionized NH (as NH^), mg/1 
 
 -1 
 0.5 
 
 Figure 42. Frequency distribution of mean values of total NH3-N 
 and un-ionized NH- in point source discharges in Illinois; 
 lEPA data through 1976^. 
 
 Data provided by R.C. Flemal, Northern Illinois University. 
 
179 
 
 Table 22 
 
 Frequencies that several values of total NH^-N and un-ionized ammonia 
 nitrogen were exceeded, based on average values of point source 
 dischargers. lEPA data through December 1976^. 
 
 Total NHo-N 
 
 Frequency that 
 
 Un-ionized ammonia, as N 
 
 Krequency that 
 
 Concentration value was exceeded Concentration value was exceeded 
 
 (■g/1) 
 
 (%) 
 
 (mg/1) 
 
 i%) 
 
 1.5 
 2.5 
 4.0 
 6.0 
 10. 
 
 72.8 
 64.2 
 54.0 
 42.8 
 24.8 
 
 0.02 
 
 67.9 
 
 0.04 
 
 58.1 
 
 0.05 
 
 54.4 
 
 0.057 
 
 52.0 
 
 0.10 
 
 40.5 
 
 0.20 
 
 22.4 
 
 Data provided by R.C. Flemal, Northern Illinois University. 
 
180 
 Table 23 
 
 Per cent of analyses exceeding various concentrations of total 
 ammonia nitrogen from point source discharges; lEPA data, 1976-1977^. 
 
 i 
 
 Category of 
 d ischarger 
 
 Number of Ammonia nitrogen, rag/1 
 
 analyses i. 5 2.5 3.0 7.5 12.5 15.0 
 
 April-October 
 
 Minor industrial 683 
 
 Minor municipal 4,405 
 
 Major industrial 287 
 
 Major municipal 1,061 
 
 6,436 
 Overall % exceeding 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 65 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 33 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 85 
 
 78 
 
 76 
 
 51 
 
 33 
 
 27 
 
 64 
 
 56 
 
 53 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 November -March 
 
 Minor industrial 426 
 
 Minor municipal 3,004 
 
 Major industrial 201 
 
 Major municipal 
 Overall % exceeding 
 
 718 
 
 4,349 
 
 4.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 69 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 79 
 
 20 
 
 65 
 
 19 
 
 Data provided by D.J. Schaeffer, lEPA. 
 
181 
 
 Performance of Nitrification Facilities 
 The only economically viable process for removal of ammonia 
 from most wastewater effluents is through biological nitrification. 
 Although considerable data has been reported on laboratory and 
 pilot scale processes, few full scale nitrification facilities have 
 been in operation long enough to fully evaluate long term per- 
 formance. A November 1979 review of five Illinois wastewater 
 treatment plants that employed nitrification processes was per- 
 formed by lEPA personnel . Three of the five were substan- 
 tially meeting their ammonia effluent limits of 1.5 mg/1 total 
 NH3-N; however loadings were reported at only 60-75% of design 
 values . 
 
 A detailed analysis was performed on operating data supplied 
 by the Chicago Metropolitan Sanitary District on three of their 
 plants where nitrification processes have been operative. Of the 
 three (Egan, Southwest, and Hanover), the Hanover Park plant 
 provided the most consistent removal of ammonia nitrogen during 
 1979. The MSDGC Hanover Park plant is a single stage activated 
 sludge unit operated to achieve both secondary treatment and ni- 
 trification in the same stage. Current average daily loading is 
 about 75% of its design capacity of 8.5 mgd. The 1.5 mg/1 total 
 NHo-N stream standard applies to the effluent from this plant. 
 Table 24 summarizes the nitrification performance of the Hanover 
 plant during 1979. For the period July through December, 1979, 
 the number of days each month that several values of un-ionized 
 ammonia nitrogen was exceeded are given; daily values of pH and 
 temperature were available for that period. 
 
 Data provided by W.H. Busch, lEPA . 
 
182 
 Table 24 
 
 Nitrification performance of MSD Hanover Plant, January - December 
 1979. Number of days/month indicated values of ammonia concentra- 
 tion were exceeded^. 
 
 Total NH_-N Un- ionized ammonia as N 
 3 
 
 n»g/l 1.5 4.0 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.057 0.10 
 
 January 19 10 
 (2.88)^ 
 
 February 3 2 
 (0.90) 
 
 March 
 
 (0.18) 
 
 April 
 
 (0.09) 
 
 May 
 
 (0.13) 
 
 June 
 
 (0.21) 
 
 July 
 
 (0.22) (0.009) 
 
 August 4 
 
 (0.28) (0.009) 
 
 September 1 8 3 2 2 
 (0.53) (0.013) 
 
 October 2 4 2 110 
 (0.47) (0.013) 
 
 November 2 4 3 
 (0.55) (0.012) 
 
 December 2 2 2 2 10 
 (0.39) (0.007) 
 
 ^ Data for calculation of un-ionized ammonia provided by C. Lue-Hing, 
 Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago. 
 
 The numbers in parenthesis are the average mg/1 of total NH_-N^ 
 and un-ionized ammonia as N. 
 
183 
 
 Nitrification Costs 
 
 The previous study by Huff (30) identified 647 municipal 
 dischargers and 842 private dischargers that would require nitri- 
 fication facilities to roeet the current ammonia standard. 
 Capital and annual operating costs for the municipal facilities 
 were estimated at 180.9 million dollars and 12.2 million dollars, 
 respectively. Private facility capital investment was estimated 
 at 100.4 million dollars, with annual operating cost of 6 million. 
 If the facilities under 2500 population equivalent are excluded, 
 the capital investment required for the municipal dischargers is 
 reduced to 126.3 million dollars; annual operating costs are re- 
 duced to 8 million. Private dischargers would require 7.3 million 
 dollars in capital investment and 0.4 million for annual opera- 
 ting costs. Table 2-1 of the previous study, which summarizes the 
 economic response of the current regulation, is reproduced in 
 Appendix E(30). 
 
 The economic impact of compliance for the smaller dischargers 
 to meet the 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen standard will not be further 
 addressed in this report, other than mention of an alternative 
 treatment technology that could be utilized by some dischargers. 
 Where suitable land is available near the treatment site, a high 
 rate overland flow system of tertiary treatment could provide a 
 reliable and economical method for ammonia reduction. An investi- 
 gation by Muchmore, Asaturians, and Kumar (38) demonstrated the 
 potential to consistently meet the 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen 
 
18A 
 standard during spring, summer and fall months. Lower removal 
 efficiencies have been observed during winter operation. The 
 system studied treats effluent from a single stage lagoon that 
 treats domestic waste from a trailer park that serves a population 
 of 135, and utilizes a 30' x 200' area of hillside. 
 
 Clearly, the impact on municipalities, in terms of providing 
 capital and operating expenses for nitrification facilities, is 
 the major economic impact of the existing ammonia regulations. 
 
 Table 25 presents the size distribution of affected municipal 
 dischargers, as given in the previous study (30). The ten sites 
 chosen for the current study are categorized accordingly. Cost 
 estimates to provide nitrification were available for several of 
 these facilities, and are summarized below. 
 
 Urbana-Champaign SW Cost data supplied by the Urbana & Champaign 
 Sanitary District estimates a capital expense for equipment and 
 structures of 1.16 million, and annual operating costs of $49,000, 
 of which 70% represents power costs for pumping to the planned 
 nitrification tower system. 
 
 Urbana-Champaign NE The estimates provided by the Urbana & Cham- 
 paign Sanitary District for the nitrification tower system currently 
 under construction indicates a 3.84 million dollar capital 
 investment, and annual operating costs of $143,000, of which 84% 
 represents power costs for pumping. 
 
 Springfield SE Plant (Sugar Creek) A detailed cost analysis 
 performed by Crawford, Murphy & Tilly, Inc. Consulting Engineers 
 evaluated four alternative nitrification processes, and a fifth 
 alternative of pumping the effluent directly to the Sangamon River 
 
185 
 Table 25 
 Size distribution of ten affected municipal dischargers. 
 
 Plant size Ten sites 
 
 by design capacity in Number of listed by Design PE^ 
 
 population equivalents municipalities category x 10^ 
 
 Less than 1000 179 
 
 1,000 - 2,499 196 
 
 2,500 - 4,999 100 Pinckneyville 3 
 
 5,000 - 9,999 70 
 
 10,000 - 99,999 86 Monmouth 16.8 
 
 Carbondale SE 50 
 
 Mt. Vernon 38 
 
 Urbana- 59 
 
 Champaign SW 
 
 Jacksonville 70 
 
 100,000 16 Urbana- 173 
 
 Champaign NE 
 
 Springfield 100 
 Sugar Creek 
 
 Decatur 400 
 
 Galesburg 107.3 
 
 Population equivalent. 
 
186 
 
 rather than discharge to Sugar Creek. A summary of these costs 
 is given in Table 26. It is of interest that the effluent pumping 
 alternative would cost less than half as much as any of the other 
 alternatives on an average annual equivalent cost basis. 
 Galesburg Previous testimony stated an estimated 4.75 million 
 dollar capital expense would be required (32). 
 
 Table 27 summarises the estimated cost figures to provide 
 nitrification at the sites given above, and compares the capital 
 and annual operating expenses on a population equivalent (PE) basis. 
 Although design of optimum nitrification facilities is, of course, 
 site specific, the capital investments required at the four sites 
 range between $22.50 to $48.94 per PE for the alternatives considered. 
 Annual operating costs (excluding the effluent pumping alterna- 
 tive for the Springfield SE plant) range between $0.80 to $2.09 per PE. 
 
 These values are within the range utilized in the previous 
 study. On a PE basis, EPA cost data utilized for that study (30) 
 indicate capital requirements of $50 per PE for a 1 mgd plant, 
 and $15 per PE for a 10 mgd facility. Annual operating costs for 
 1 mgd and 10 mgd plants were given as $3.30 per PE and $1.02 per 
 PE, respectively. 
 
 Additional verification of the validity of the costs utilized 
 
 for the previous estimate was accomplished by examining the 
 
 nutrient removal (nitrification) capital costs (projected 1977 
 
 costs) given in the 1978 MSDGC Annual Report of Operations^. 
 
 These values calculated to be $23.68 per PE for the 1358 mgd West- 
 Southwest Plant, $52.18 for the 354 mgd Calumet plant, and $21.62 
 
 ^ Personal communication, L.L. Huff. 
 
187 
 
 Table 26 
 
 Summary of costs estimated for compliance with 1.5 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen 
 water quality standard, for various processes at the Springfield Sugar 
 Creek Plant. ^ 
 
 Capital Salvage Average annual 
 
 Alternate cost value O&M equivalent cost 
 
 1. Effluent pumping $2,528,500 $1,127,300 $ 35,200 $238,285 
 
 2. Packed towers 4,092,000 978,800 119,700 469,790 
 
 3. Rotating con- 
 tactors 4,894,000 1,159,600 79,700 498,743 
 
 4. 1-stage nitri- 
 fication 3,622,000 1,173,700 199,700 501,685 
 
 5. 2-stage nitri- 
 fication 4,135,500 1,228,800 208,900 556,543 
 
 ^ From engineering report prepared by Crawford, Murphy and Tilly, Inc., 
 Consulting Engineers. 
 
188 
 
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189 
 
 for the 333 mgd Northside Plant. The high value for the Calumet 
 plant represents the heavy industrial load processed by the plant; 
 flowrate rather than BCD was used to convert to population equiva- 
 lent. Recently, detailed cost data was provided by Milano & 
 Grunloh Engineers, Inc., on a Biodisc nitrification facility 
 for the city of Effingham. This data indicates a construction 
 cost of $27.34 per PE and annual O & M costs of $0.61 per PE 
 for the 2.5 mgd plant. 
 
190 
 
 CHAPTER VI T 
 COMPA»^TSON OF BENEFITS AND COSTS 
 Economic Impact on Local Government; Services 
 
 The major cost of compliance with the existing total NH^-N 
 standard of 1.5 mg/1 rests on municipalities throughout the state, 
 and is borne by the population served either in terms of increased 
 taxes or reduced public services. This study verifies the cost 
 estimates given in the previous study by Huff ( 30) , where capital 
 costs were estimated to be 180.9 million dollars; annual operating 
 costs 12.2 million dollars. The previous study estimated benefits 
 to accrue in two categories: (1) Reduced chlorine cost for munici- 
 pal water supplies due to lowered ammonia content of the raw water 
 and (2) Increased recreational benefits due to increased sport 
 fishing opportunities. The maximum value of these benefits were 
 estimated to be 5.2 million dollars and 15.7 million dollars, res- 
 pectively. The findings of the current study indicate that the 
 degradation rate of ammonia in the streams receiving effluents from 
 the ten treatment plants studied is much greater than would be 
 predicted, based on the widely accepted value of Kf^(20) ~ 0*29 day" 
 for the nitrogen decay constant. 
 
 This and other considerations indicate that benefits 
 for the above mentioned categories would be much less (approach- 
 ing an order of magnitude) than the maximum estimated values. 
 If a statewide value of 0.5 million dollars is taken for increased 
 annual chlorine cost, and 2.7 million for increased annual value of 
 the sport fishery, a cost/benefit ratio of 3.8 is indicated, 
 
191 
 
 based on annual operating costs, as estimated by Huff (30). 
 
 Similar calculations for the ten study sites, whose total 
 population equivalent is about 1 million, indicates a cost/bene- 
 fit ratio of 5.7 . For this calculation, an approximate annual 
 operating cost for nitrification facilities is taken at $0.80 per 
 population equivalent. 
 
 Note the above estimates are based only on annual operating 
 costs, which must be borne entirely by the population in the 
 region served. To the extent that grant monies would not be 
 available to defray capital investment, these costA)enefit ratios 
 would increase. Clearly, enforcement of the existing ammonia 
 nitrogen standard cannot be Justified on strictly direct economic 
 considerations. 
 
 As is frequently the case, however, non-quantifiable consider- 
 ations must be taken into account when weighing the merits of the 
 current or alternative ammonia standards. The major additional 
 factor to be considered is the potential value of intermittant 
 streams in Illinois with respect to support of downstream fisher- 
 ies. No clear answer to this question has been established. 
 Although documentation does not exist at this time to support the 
 position that wnter quality of some intermittant streams is a 
 significant factor in support of downstream fisheries, it is 
 reasonable to assume that this is the case. Similarly, one would 
 
192 
 
 expect that many intermittant streams would play a negligible 
 part in support of downstream fisheries. Given that the above 
 statements reflect the true situation with respect to the inter- 
 mittant streams of Illinois, a need is evident for standards to 
 be established on a regional, or even stream segment basis. The 
 basis for establishment of such a system has been presented to 
 the Pollution Control Board by the lEPA (41). Although the 
 methodology of this approach is still in the development and 
 demonstration phase, the potential to maximize the effectiveness 
 of pollution control dollars is great, particularly with respect 
 to establishment of ammonia removal requirements. 
 
 Economic Impact on Industry; 
 Costs of Manufactured Goods 
 
 Examination of Table 23 indicates high levels of total NH3-N 
 for industrial effluents. It must be recognized, however, that 
 many of these dischargers are located on larger streams, where 
 dilution prevents violation of the 1.5 mg/1 NH^-N standard. The 
 maximum impact on 130 industrial discharges was estimated previously 
 to be $33.6 million dollars in capital investment, with 1.8 million 
 annual operating costs (30). 
 
 Economic Impact on Agriculture 
 
 The major inputs of ammonia nitrogen to Illinois waters from 
 agricultural activities are in the non-point source category, i.e., 
 ammonia held by soil particles eroded from farmland. Another 
 significant source with respect to local impact is runoff from 
 
193 
 
 feedlot operations. Both of these sources exist only during 
 high rainfall events, and thus dilution in the stream helps to 
 mitigate the effects. 
 
 The more significant inputs, particularly from the feedlot 
 sources, will have to inplement control strategies or be forced 
 to move or close operations, if there is strict enforcement of 
 the 1.5 mg/1 water quality standard. 
 
 Distributional Effects 
 
 Inspection of Table 28, which summarizes population and 
 fishing license sales in the counties included in the ten study 
 site areas, indicates that costs incurred in improved treatment 
 plant facilities and the segment of the population receiving the 
 greatest benefit, in terms of improved sport fisheries, does not 
 vary appreciably from one region of the state to another, with 
 the exception of the Chicago metropolitan area. This suggests 
 that local input should be recognized in determining appropriate 
 control strategies. 
 
 Alternative Control Strategies 
 
 In determination of appropriate action to implement when 
 the current exemption to Rule 402 terminates after July 1, 1982, 
 several factors must be considered. This study has addressed, in- 
 sofar as data was available, potential environmental benefits and 
 economic burdens of strict enforcement of the 1.5 mg/1 total NH3-N 
 water quality standard. Studies are currently in progress that 
 should add significantly to the information base on which to 
 
19A 
 
 Table 28 
 
 Population and fishing license purchases in 1970 in 
 counties included in study. 
 
 Total Number % of county 
 County population purchased population^ 
 
 Jackson 
 
 55,008 
 
 9,081 
 
 16.5 
 
 Perry 
 
 19,757 
 
 3,596 
 
 18.2 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 31,446 
 
 4,684 
 
 14.8 
 
 Champaign 
 
 163,281 
 
 10,811 
 
 6.6 
 
 Vermillion 
 
 97,047 
 
 11,898 
 
 12.2 
 
 Douglas 
 
 18,997 
 
 3.156 
 
 16.6 
 
 Coles 
 
 47,815 
 
 7,694 
 
 16.0 
 
 Moultrie 
 
 13,263 
 
 1,987 
 
 14.9 
 
 Sangamon 
 
 161,335 
 
 19,512 
 
 12.0 
 
 Morgan 
 
 36,174 
 
 4,986 
 
 13.7 
 
 Scott 
 
 6,096 
 
 757 
 
 12.4 
 
 Knox 
 
 61,280 
 
 8,291 
 
 13.5 
 
 Warren 
 
 21,698 
 
 2,698 
 
 12.5 
 
 Henderson 
 
 8,451 
 
 1,551 
 
 18.3 
 
 
 741,545 
 
 90,702 
 
 12.2 
 
 Cook County 
 
 5,492,369 
 
 152,110 
 
 2.8 
 
 ^ Percent of total state population represented by 
 study counties = 6.7; excluding Cook County 13.2 
 
195 
 
 determine appropriate regulations for ammonia nitrogen. A biolo- 
 gical evaluation of the relative effects of chlorine and ammonia 
 on fish populations of the receiving streams at the two Champaign- 
 Urbana treatment plants is in progress. Nitrification facilities 
 are being constructed at these plants, and a variance has been granted 
 to cease chlorination for a period during the study. Changes in 
 fish populations are being monitored. 
 
 The question of significance of intermittent streams with 
 respect to downstream fisheries is being addressed by lEPA fishery 
 biologists, and further refinement of the proposed stream classi- 
 fication system would provide a mechanism for tailoring standards 
 to regional or stream segment (41). 
 
 Regulatory options available to the Board would include: 
 
 1. Maintain the existing 1.5 mg/1 NH„-N water quality 
 standard. Costs of this are considerable; the probability of 
 comparable benefits are slight. 
 
 2. Adopt the prevision of the current exemption, due to 
 expire July 1, 1982, as a permanent regulation. This would provide 
 for economic relief for the small discharger. In some locations 
 
 in the state, significant environmental damage could result; i.e., 
 the question of the importance of the intermittant stream. 
 
 3. Enact effluent limitations, such as was done for dis- 
 chargers to the Illinois River system. In consideration of effluent 
 limits, the method of evaluation must be addressed. There is 
 currently before the Board a rule change that would interpret most 
 parameters given in the Chapter 3 regulations on the basis of 
 
196 
 
 30 day average values, rather than the current 24 hr composite 
 sample basis (39). Inspection of Table 24 permits evaluation of 
 the effect of alternative effluent limitations, and methods of 
 evaluation, on one discharger that should be representative of 
 the best state-of-the-art performance in biological nitrification. 
 
 4. Establishment of stream and/or effluent standards on 
 a regional and/or stream segment basis. Recognizing the difficulty 
 in implementation of such an approach, the benefits to the people 
 of Illinois in terms of most effective application of pollution 
 control dollars may be well worth the effort. 
 
 . 
 
197 
 
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200 
 
 37. Meade, T.L. 1974. The technology of closed system culture of 
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 43. Robinette, H.R. 1976. Effects of selected sublethal levels of 
 ammonia on the growth of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) . 
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 44. Rogers, Richard A. 1980. FY 1978 Illinois sport fishing survey. 
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 45. Roseboom, D.P., and D.L. Richey. 1977. Acute toxicity of residual 
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 46. Saeki, A. 1958. Studies on fish culture in filtered closed cir- 
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 48. Singh, K.P. and J.B. Stall. 1973. The 7-day 10-year low flows of 
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201 
 
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202 
 
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 62. . 1976. Quality criteria for water. U.S. 
 
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APPENDICES 
 
203 
 APPENDIX A 
 Illinois Pollution Control Board, Chapter 3 - Water Pollution (3 3) . 
 
 The water quality standards in this Part shall apply at all times 
 except during periods when flows are less than the average minimum seven 
 day low flow which occurs once in ten years. 
 203 General Standards 
 
 The General Standards listed below will protect the State's water 
 for aquatic life, agricultural use, primary and secondary contact use, 
 and most industrial uses, and ensure the aesthetic quality of the State's 
 aquatic environment. Except as otherwise provided in this Chapter, all 
 waters of the State shall meet the following standards; 
 
 (a) Freedom from unnatural sludge or bottom deposits, floating debris, 
 visible oil, odor, unnatural plant or algal growth, unnatural 
 color or turbidity, or matter in concentrations or combinations 
 toxic or harmful to human, animal, plant or aquatic life of 
 other than natural origin. 
 
 (b) pH (STORET number - 00400) shall be within the range of 6.5 to 
 9.0 except for natural causes. 
 
 (c) Phosphorus (STORET number - 00665) : Phosphorus as P shall not 
 exceed 0.05 mg/1 in any reservoir or lake, or in any stream at 
 the point where it enters any reservoir or lake. 
 
 (d) Dissolved oxygen (STORET number - 00300) shall not be less than 
 6.0 mg/1 during at least 16 hours of any 24 hour period, nor less 
 than 5.0 mg/1 at any time. 
 
 (e) Radioactivity: 
 
 (1) Gross beta (STORET number - 03501) concentration shall not 
 exceed 100 pico curies per liter (pCi/1) . 
 
 (2) Concentrations of radium 226 (STORET number - 09501) and 
 strontium 90 (STORET number - 13501) shall not exceed 1 and 
 2 pico curies per liter respectively. 
 
204 
 
 (f) The following levels of chemical constituents shall not be 
 exceeded : 
 
 
 
 Storet 
 
 Concentration 
 
 Constituent 
 
 
 number 
 
 (mg/l) 
 
 Ammonia nitroger 
 
 1 (as N) 
 
 00610 
 
 1.5 
 
 Arsenic (total) 
 
 
 01000 
 
 1.0 
 
 Barium (total) 
 
 
 01005 
 
 5.0 
 
 Boron (total) 
 
 
 01020 
 
 1.0 
 
 Cadmium (total) 
 
 - 
 
 01025 
 
 0.05 
 
 Chloride 
 
 
 00940 
 
 500.0 
 
 Chromium (total 
 
 hexavalent) 
 
 01032 
 
 0.05 
 
 Chromium (total 
 
 trivalent) 
 
 01033 
 
 1.0 
 
 Copper (total) 
 
 
 01040 
 
 0.02 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 
 00720 
 
 0.025 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 
 00950 
 
 1.4 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 
 01045 
 
 1.0 
 
 Lead (total) 
 
 
 01049 
 
 0.1 
 
 Manganese (total) 
 
 01055 
 
 1.0 
 
 Mercury (total) 
 
 
 71900 
 
 0.0005 
 
 Nickel (total) 
 
 
 01065 
 
 1.0 
 
 Phenols 
 
 
 32730 
 
 0.1 
 
 Selenium (total) 
 
 
 01145 
 
 1.0 
 
 Silver (total) 
 
 
 01075 
 
 0.005 
 
 Sulfate 
 
 
 00945 
 
 500.0 
 
 Total dissolved 
 
 solids 
 
 00515 
 
 1000.0 
 
 Zinc 
 
 
 01090 
 
 1.0 
 
 402 Violation of Water Quality Standards 
 
 In addition to the other requirements of this Part, no effluent 
 shall, alone or in combination with other sources, cause a violation 
 of any applicable water quality standard. When the Agency finds 
 that a discharge that would comply with effluent standards contained 
 in this Chapter would cause or is causing a violation of water quality 
 standards, the Agency shall take appropriate action under Section 31 
 or Section 39 of the Act to require the discharge to meet whatever 
 effluent limits are necessary to ensure compliance with the water 
 quality standards. When such a violation is caused by the cumulative 
 effect of more than one source, several sources may be joined in an 
 
205 
 
 enforcement or variance proceeding, and measures for necessary effluent 
 reductions will be determined on the basis of technical feasibility, 
 economic reasonableness, and fairness to all dischargers. 
 
2U6 
 
 APPENDIX B 
 
 Stations at which mean un-ionized ammonia exceeds 20 ug/1. Numbers in brackets 
 are total number of samples and mean un-ionized ammonia respectively (24) . 
 
 lEPA 
 
 Basin name 
 
 Station 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 Ohio 
 Wabash 
 
 ATGX 01 (64/44) 
 
 BEN 01 (45/28) 
 
 BP 01 (45/44) 
 
 BPJ 04 (41/35) 
 
 BPJC 03 (50/50) 
 
 BF 01 (61/76) 
 
 BPG 07 (39/27) 
 
 BPJ 05 (43/28) 
 
 BPK 04 (41/24) 
 
 BM 01 (40/33) 
 BPJ 03 (41/20) 
 BPJC 01 (43/41) 
 
 C 
 D 
 
 Little Wabash 
 
 CP 
 
 01 
 
 (61/41) 
 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 D 
 
 05 
 
 (59/23) 
 
 D 
 
 09 (50/22) 
 
 
 D 
 
 14 
 
 (46/30) 
 
 D 
 
 15 (15/50) 
 
 
 D 
 
 18 
 
 (48/74) 
 
 D 
 
 20 (48/48) 
 
 
 D 
 
 27 
 
 (47/40) 
 
 D 
 
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 15 
 
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 08 (46/25) 
 
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 Kaskaskia 
 
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214 
 APPENDIX E 
 
 Summary of economic response to scenario A (30) 
 
 Impacted group 
 
 Number 
 
 Total impact 
 
 Schools & colleges 
 
 Gasoline stations 
 
 Trailer parks 
 
 Recreational & restaurant 
 facilities 
 
 Motels 
 
 Residential 
 (apartments, homes 
 developments) 
 
 State highways & parks 
 
 Campgrounds 
 Nursing homes 
 
 Commercial businesses 
 
 221 Loss of services or funds obtained 
 through tuition or tax increase. 
 Represents approximately $38 million 
 in capital investment and $2 million 
 operating cost. 
 
 11 Closure with a loss of $0.55 million 
 in rental fees per year. 
 
 142 Closure of 138 parks with a loss of 
 $4.2 million revenue per year. 
 
 Possible closure of all facilities 
 101 with a loss of $19.5 dollars revenue. 
 
 19 Possible closure of some facilities 
 with a loss of up to $3.3 million 
 revenue. 
 
 58 Increase in fees charged to cover 
 treatment. Capital investment of 
 $11.1 million and operating cost of 
 $0.6 million per year. 
 
 37 Funding from state budgets availa- 
 able. Approximately $7.0 million 
 in capital required. 
 
 44 Possible closure of 42 camps with 
 loss of $2.3 million revenue. 
 
 34 Increase in fees charged to cover 
 $5.9 million capital and $0.3 
 million operating expense per year. 
 
 45 Increase prices to cover capital and 
 operating expenses or close facilities^ 
 at a loss of $4.5 million. 
 
215 
 
 APPENDIX E (cont) 
 
 Municipal facilities 
 (other than treatment 
 plants) 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 55 Funds taken from city revenues will 
 result in loss of municipal services 
 or increased taxes. Total capital 
 investment and operating costs of 
 $17.3 and $0.91 million, respectively. 
 
 71 Many of the miscellaneous dischargers 
 will probably close due to the large 
 capital investment of $170,000 each 
 or $12.1 million and $0.65 million 
 in operating expenses per year. 
 
 Impact summary 
 
 Municipal sewage 
 treatment plants 
 
 Private discharger 
 impact 
 
 647 Loss of federal and state funding 
 for the capital investment of $228 
 million. In addition, operating 
 expenses of $13.2 million and capital 
 costs of $25.2 million are paid 
 yearly by municipality. 
 
 Potential loss of 371 private 
 facilities and $38.1 million revenue. 
 
216 
 
 APPENDIX F 
 Chemical parameters ac the ten study sites. 
 
 Chemical parameters for Casey Fork Creek, Mt. Vernon, Illinois, in proximity Co secondary 
 sewage discharge (Sample I taken 13 Aug 1973, Sample II taken 27 Sepc 1978).^ 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Disc! 
 
 iars;e 
 
 Downstream 
 
 station 
 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.A6)b 
 (mg/DC 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.46) 
 (mfi;/l) 
 
 Sample I 
 (O.O)b 
 
 (ms?/l) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.0) 
 
 Sample I 
 
 (0.005)'" 
 
 (ni?/l) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.005) 
 
 ^2U?/1) 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.005 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Boron 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.14 
 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.012 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.004 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.012 
 
 Manganese 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.73 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.98 
 
 Mercury (\\/l) 
 
 40.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 <:o.02 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 4 0.02 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 40.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 Selenium 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 40.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 40.001 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.05 
 
 9.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 7.5 
 
 6.7 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 7.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 Phosphorous (?) 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.13 
 
 
 9.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 7.0 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 Phenol (u/1) 
 
 0.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 120.0 
 
 130.1 
 
 160.0 
 
 150.0 
 
 170.0 
 
 150.0 
 
 * Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 b Distanca (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge 
 
 c Concentrations are expressed in mg/l unless ochervise noted. 
 
217 
 
 Chemical paramecers for Crab Orchard Creek, Carbondale, Illinois, in proximity co secondary 
 sewage discharge (Sample I taken 8 Aug 1978, Sample II taken 13 Sept 1978).^ 
 
 
 Upstream 
 
 
 
 Downstream 
 
 Parameter 
 
 station 
 
 Disc 
 
 harge 
 
 station 
 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.25)^ 
 (mg/1)^ 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.23) 
 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.0)'= 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 
 (0.0) 
 
 (mz/l) 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.01)'' 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.4) 
 (mg/1) 
 
 .Arsenic 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 .<0.001 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 3oron 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.0 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.52 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.79 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.004 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.005 
 
 Manganese 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.75 
 
 Mercury (u/1) 
 
 <0.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 <:o.03 
 
 <0.02 
 
 <0.01 
 
 <iO.C2 
 
 Sic-kel 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Selenium 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 <:0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.001 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.04 
 
 Ammonia (N) 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.05 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.3 
 
 6.1 
 
 Sitrate + Nitrite (N) 0.3 
 
 0.45 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.45 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 Phosphorous (?) 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.07 
 
 9.5 
 
 7.3 
 
 9.5 
 
 5.9 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.006 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.005 
 
 Phenol (i^/l) 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 170.0 
 
 150.0 
 
 135.0 
 
 135.0 
 
 130.0 
 
 130.0 
 
 * -Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 Distance (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 *- Concentrations are expressed in mg/1 unless otherwise noted. 
 
218 
 
 Chemical parameters for Cedar Creek, Monmouth, Illinois, In proximity to secondary 
 sewage discharge (Sample I taken 21 Sept 1978, Sample II taken 2 Nov 1978).^ 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Downs t 
 
 stati 
 
 iream 
 .en 
 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.92)'' 
 (mK/l)= 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.23) 
 (as^/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (O.O)l' 
 (me/l) 
 
 Samole II 
 (0.0) 
 (a;?/l) 
 
 Samole I 
 (0.27)'' 
 (ai?/l) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.46) 
 (mit/1) 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.005 
 
 0.001 
 
 0.008 
 
 0.001 
 
 0.004 
 
 0.001 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 Boron 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 <D.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.05 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 1.25 
 
 0.37 
 
 12.31 
 
 0.63 
 
 4.54 
 
 0.67 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.012 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.082 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.043 
 
 0.0 
 
 Manganese 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.12 
 
 1.09 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.19 
 
 Mercury (u/1) 
 
 CO. 02 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.08 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.08 
 
 ^0.02 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 CO. 05 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.05 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.05 
 
 Selenium 
 
 ^0.001 
 
 CO.OOI 
 
 <0.001 
 
 <0.001 
 
 <0.001 
 
 CO. 001 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 4.0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 40.005 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.06 
 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.25 
 
 4.6 
 
 7.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 2.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 23.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 11.0 
 
 Phosphorous (P) 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.1 
 
 5.3 
 
 10.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.8 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0- 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Phenol (n/1) 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 280.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 285.0 
 
 360.0 
 
 190.0 
 
 230.0 
 
 ^ Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency 
 
 ° Distance (loa) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 
 "^ Concentrations are expressed in ng/1 unless otherwise noted. 
 
219 
 
 Chemical parameters for the Sangamon River, Decatur, Illinois, in proximity to secondary 
 sewage discharge (Sample I taken 7 Sept 1978, Sample II taken 18 Oct 1978).^ 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Downstream 
 station 
 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.8)'' 
 (mg/l)= 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.4) 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.0)'' 
 (mg/l) 
 
 Samole II 
 (0.0) 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (2.5)'' 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.2) 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 3arium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 Boron 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 ^0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 ^0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.36 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.0 
 
 <.0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 Manganese 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.26 
 
 Mercury (u/1) 
 
 CO. 01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 ^■0.02 
 
 <0.01 
 
 <ro.02 
 
 Mickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.05 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.05 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.05 
 
 Selenium 
 
 0.0 
 
 CO. 001 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.001 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.005 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.09 
 
 Amnonia (N) 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 7.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 6.6 
 
 8.0 
 
 Mitrace + Nitrite (N) 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.7 
 
 Phosphorous (?) 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.39 
 
 2.3 
 
 4,6 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.8 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 • 
 
 Phenol (u/1) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 304.0 
 
 370.0 
 
 277.0 
 
 280.0 
 
 280.0 
 
 330.0 
 
 * Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 Distance (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 ■^ Concentrations are expressed in mg/1 unless otherwise noted. 
 
220 
 
 Chemical parameters for Sugar Creek, Springfield, Illinois, In proxlmlcy :o secondary 
 sewage discharge (Sample I Caken 30 Aug 1978, Sample II caken 16 Oct 1978).^ 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Sample I Samole I] 
 (0.24)b (0.02) 
 (mg/l). (mg/l) 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Sample I Saoole I^ 
 (O.O)b (0.0) 
 
 (ag/1) (mg/l) 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.029 
 
 0.016 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 Boron 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.8 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.01 
 
 ^0.005 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.97 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.005 
 
 CO. 02 
 
 Manganese 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.14 
 
 Mercury (u/1) 
 
 CO. 02 
 
 <^0.02 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 <.0.05 
 
 Selenium 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.003 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.005 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.07 
 
 Ammonia (N) 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 Phosphorous (?) 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.07 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Phenol (u/1) 
 
 5.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 235.0 
 
 230.0 
 
 0.013 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 0.01 
 0.0 
 1.37 
 0.01 
 0.16 
 <0.02 
 0.0 
 0.001 
 0.0 
 0.04 
 
 0.008 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.4 
 < 0.005 
 < 0.005 
 <0.005 
 
 0.61 
 <0.02 
 
 0.1 
 <.0.02 
 <0.05 
 
 0.002 
 <0.005 
 
 0.04 
 
 5.10 
 
 1.4 
 
 5.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.01 
 
 7.0 
 170.0 
 
 Oownatrean 
 station 
 
 Sample I 
 (1.3)'> 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.1) 
 (a«/l) 
 
 0.013 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 — 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.01 
 
 CO. 005 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 1.32 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.011 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 <0.02 
 
 CO. 02 
 
 0.0 
 
 CO. 05 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 CO. 005 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.06 
 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 
 3.3 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 
 210.0 
 
 * i^alysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection .\gency. 
 
 ° Distance (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 
 ^ Concentrations are expressed in mg/l unless otherwise noted. 
 
221 
 
 Chemical parameters for Beaucoup Creek, Plnckneyville , Illinois, in proximity to secondary 
 sewage discharge (Sample I taken 10 Aug 1978, Sample II taken 25 Sept 1978).^ 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Downstream 
 station 
 
 
 Sample I 
 C0.46)b 
 
 (m?/l)*= 
 
 Sample II 
 (1.8) 
 (m«;/l) 
 
 Sample I 
 (O.O)b 
 (ms?/l) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.0) 
 
 (mK/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (1.2)'' 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (1.2) 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.002 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 Boron 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.0 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 10.0 
 
 2.04 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.14 
 
 5.4 
 
 1.46 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.008 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.006 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.006 
 
 Manganese 
 
 1.5 . 
 
 1.24 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.59 
 
 0.62 
 
 Mercury (u/1) 
 
 <0.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 ^0.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 <0.01 
 
 40.01 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Selenium 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 4 0.001 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 Ammonia (N) 
 
 2.6 
 
 
 19.0 
 
 7.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.38 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 0.6 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.25 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.95 
 
 Phosphorous (P) 
 
 0.28 
 
 ' 
 
 8.7 
 
 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 
 1.1 
 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.01 
 
 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 Phenol (u/1) 
 
 5.0 
 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 98.0 
 
 
 280.0 
 
 230.0 
 
 170.0 
 
 135.0 
 
 ^ Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 '' Distance (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 
 ■^ Concentrations are expressed in mg/1 unless otherwise noted. 
 
222 
 
 Chemical parameters for Cedar Creek, Galesburg, Illlaols, in proxlmltr to secondary 
 sewage discharge (Sample I taken 19 Sept 1978, Sample II taken 1 Nov 1978).* 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Downsi 
 Stat: 
 
 cream 
 ion 
 
 
 Sample I 
 
 CO. a)'' 
 
 Cmg/l)': 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.46) 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (O.O)b 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Samole II 
 (0.0) 
 (mg/l) 
 
 Sample I 
 (O.l)b 
 (ag/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.1) 
 <'mg/l) 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.003 
 
 ■CO. 01 
 
 0.002 
 
 ("O.OOl 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.008 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.2 
 
 <0.05 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 Boron 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.005 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.02 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.11 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 1.56 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.22 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.0A4 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.021 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.021 
 
 0.1 
 
 Manganese 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.24 
 
 0,24 
 
 Mercury (VD 
 
 <*0.02 
 
 <0.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.05 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.05 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 40.05 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 Selenium 
 
 < 0.001 
 
 0.001 
 
 <.0.001 
 
 0.001 
 
 <0.001 
 
 0.001 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 ^0.005 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.13 
 
 Ammonia (N) 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.35 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.6 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.65 
 
 6.2 
 
 12.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 Phosphorous (?) 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.25 
 
 5.2 
 
 7.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 5.7 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.1 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.11 
 
 Phenol (iVl) 
 
 7.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 17.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 260.0 
 
 305.0 
 
 260.0 
 
 255.0 
 
 270.0 
 
 280.0 
 
 * .Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 " Distance (<aa) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 
 '^ Concentrations are expressed in mg/l unless otherwise noted. 
 
223 
 
 Chemical parameters for Mauvaise Terre Creek, Jacksonville, Illinois, in proximity to 
 secondary sewage discharge (Sample I taken 5 Sept 1978, Sample II taken 24 Oct 1978).^ 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Downstream 
 station 
 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.15)b 
 (m«/l)c 
 
 Sample II 
 (2.0) 
 CmR/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (O.O)'' 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Samole II 
 (0".0) 
 (ing/l) 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.62)b 
 (ms/l) 
 
 Sample II 
 (1.5) 
 (m?/l) 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.003 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.006 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.004 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 Boron 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 <Q.0Q5 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.005 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.02 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 -< 0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 3.15 
 
 1.43 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.47 
 
 1.02 
 
 0.3 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.01 
 
 <.0.01 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.01 
 
 -CO.Ol 
 
 Manganese 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.24 
 
 Mercury (n/g) 
 
 0.09 
 
 <0.02 
 
 40.01 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.04 
 
 Mickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.05 
 
 0.1 
 
 <0.05 
 
 0.0 
 
 <.0.05 
 
 Selenium 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 iO.OOl 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 <:o.0O5 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.005 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.06 
 
 Ammonia (N) 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.15 
 
 2.3 
 
 41.0 
 
 9.3 
 
 29.0 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 0.3 
 
 5.85 
 
 11.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 9.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 Phosphorous (P) 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.26 
 
 12.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 8.8 
 
 17.0 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 Phenol Ch/1) 
 
 0.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 255.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 245.0 
 
 215.0 
 
 239.0 
 
 235.0 
 
 * Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 Distance (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 "^ Concentrations are expressed in mg/1 unless otherwise noted. 
 
224 
 
 Chemical parameters for Phlnney Branch, Champaign-Urbana, Illinois (S.W.), in proximity to 
 secondary sewage discharge (Sample I taken 18 Aug 1978, Sample II taken 5 Oct 1978).* 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Disc 
 
 harge 
 
 DcTwna 
 Stat 
 
 tream 
 Ion 
 
 
 Sample I 
 (0.4)'' 
 (mg/l)<: 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.3) 
 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 (O.O)b 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.0) 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Samole I 
 (0'.3)b 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.3) 
 '•mg/D 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 Barium 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 Boron 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.2 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.14 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.004 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.005 
 
 Manganese 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.05 
 
 Mercury (q/1) 
 
 <.0.01 
 
 <:0.03 
 
 <0.01 
 
 <0.03 
 
 <0.02 
 
 0.14 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Selenium 
 
 0.0 
 
 ^0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 < 0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.001 
 
 Silver 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.03 
 
 Ammonia (N) 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 5.5 
 
 5.3 
 
 Phosphorous (P) 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.31 
 
 2.5 
 
 7.7 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 Phenol (iVD 
 
 10.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 223.0 
 
 231.0 
 
 232.0 
 
 204.0 
 
 233.0 
 
 210.0 
 
 ^ Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 ^ Distance (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 
 '- Concentrations are expressed in ng/l unless otherwise noted. 
 
225 
 
 Chemical parameters for Saline Branch, Champaign-fTrbana, Illinois (N.E.), in proximity to 
 secondary sewage discharge (Sample I taken 17 Aug 1978, Sample II taken 4 Oct 1978).^ 
 
 Parameter 
 
 Upstream 
 station 
 
 Disc 
 
 harge 
 
 Downstream 
 station 
 
 
 Sample I 
 C9.5)'' 
 Cing/l)c 
 
 Sample II 
 (9.7) 
 Cmg/1) 
 
 Sample I 
 C0.0)b 
 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
 (0.0) 
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 Sample I 
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 (mg/1) 
 
 Sample II 
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 (mg/1) 
 
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 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.002 
 
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 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
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 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Copper 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.2 
 
 Chromium (hex) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Iron (total) 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.56 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.19 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.24 
 
 Lead 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.011 
 
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 0.21 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.07 
 
 Merciiry (i\/l) 
 
 <0.01 
 
 <:0.02 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.06 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
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 0.0 
 
 410.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 <0.001 
 
 0.0 
 
 C 0.001 
 
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 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Zinc 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.06 
 
 Ammonia (N) 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 7.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 Nitrate + Nitrite (N) 
 
 0.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 5.8 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.7 
 
 Phosphorous (P) 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.02 
 
 14.0 
 
 9.6 
 
 6.7 
 
 7.6 
 
 Fluoride 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 Cyanide 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.01 
 
 0.03 
 
 Phenol (u/1) 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 Hardness 
 
 248.0 
 
 306.0 
 
 161.0 
 
 138.0 
 
 182.0 
 
 163.0 
 
 ^ Analysis done by Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 
 
 ° Distance (km) upstream or downstream from the sewage discharge. 
 
 ^ Concentrations are expressed in mg/l unless otherwise noted. 
 
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 APPENDIX H 
 
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