i*fv,^.. . \-i6ffit^*yi, ?l///;;^« ^ :V//^»V^^;lfft'*y "'/i^JJW THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the collection of Julius Doerner, Chicago Purchased, 1918. 3IO Sct3w CENTRAL ClfiCUUTION BOOKSTACKS TO RENEW CAll TELEPHONE CENTER, 333 »4oo JUN 13 1994 p'^'rr/ufi.^ ^""-^ -- -w due da,e be W L162 y /JLi , ,^ '^"A./*//^ 5» "■^o ■ V T^ . £ /r,... / € y: .« ■/ r' * ♦ f^-ti^,j^ ^.ei' tk. ^ n I < ..-,• .^ V. ^"-(r- jh>- THE WO RLD GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL, AND STATISTICAL; CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OF THE SEYEEAL CONTINENTS, EMPIRES, REPUBLICS, KLN^GDOMS, AND ISLANDS ON THE GLOBE, EXHIBITING THE PECULIARITIES OF THEIR PHYSICAL ASPECT, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, LAKES, CLIMATE, PRODUCTIVE AND MANUFACTURING RESOURCES, COMMERCE, CHIEF TOWNS, GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, GEN:ERAL HISTORY, ETC. By CHARLES C. SAVAGE, AUTHOR OF "PICTORIAL BIOGRAPHY, OR MEMOIRS OF THE GREAT AND THE GOOD," ETG ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS OF COUNTRIES, STATES, AND CITIES. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY PHELPS, FANNING & CO., 195 BROADWAY. 1853. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, By H. PHELPS & CO. in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the Southern District of New York. 316 PREFACE. Five and a half centuries since, the remarkable properties of the magnetic needle" were discovered. Slight and unimportant as this event seemed when abstractly viewed, it was fraught with most momentous results in the world's history. Till then, a knowledge of the earth had been limited to imperfect and crude ideas of portions of the eastern hemisphere ; while beyond this all was conjectural or wildly speculative. In 1302, however, a new era — second only to that which in the succeeding century followed the invention of printing — dawned upon mankind. A spirit of geographical and scientific research had been, it is true, already excited by the Crusades, but it needed this discovery to give it scope and practical direction. With the Mariner's Compass as an unerring guide, the hitherto timid navigator was enabled to push his bark with confidence beyond the sight of land, and into unknown seas. The rays of truth began to dissipate the mists of error and prejudice — the slumber t)f ages was broken, and mankind awoke to the contemplation of the earth— to the importance of learning its true nature and extent. But for nearly two centuries their explorations were confined to the eastern hemisphere. The existence of another continent lying far beyond the reach of the hitherto most adventurous navigator, had not yet entered the thoughts of any. That conception was reserved for the philosophic, far-reaching mind of Christopher Columbus, who, in 1492, in spite of the most formidable objec- tions that could be arrayed against his theory, boldly launched his vessels upon the ocean, and set sail with a perfect confidence upon the voyage, which re- sulted in the discovery of a New World — where now, though scarce three and a half centuries have elapsed since the illustrious Genoese first set foot upon its borders, exists one of the freest, most enlightened, enterprising and power- ful nations on the earth — whose territory extends from ocean to ocean, and the sails of whose commerce whiten every sea. When Columbus had led the way, other adventurers emulously entered on the career of exploration and discovery, the earth was circumnavigated, new islands, and bays, and seas, were made known, until, fromthe accumulated results of national and individual effort, there remains scarce a nook or corner on the entire globe which has not been pene- trated, its history obtained, and its resources developed and appropriated to the service of mankind and the benefit of science. 468983 4 PREFACE. Much of the knowledge thus obtained, from being published in too volumi- nous and costly forms, has remained a dead letter to the mass of readers. To obviate this difficulty — to abridge from these more expensive works — to con- dense and bring the choicest and most interesting facts, connected with the history and geography of all nations, within the covers of a single volume and its cost within the means of the humblest citizen — has been the controlling motive in the preparation of this volume. To do this, to reconcile conflicting statements in works which were referred to for information — and to seize upon those prominent points which should best present the characteristics of each country, and daguerreotype for the reader's eye their past and present condition —and to give full descriptions of the localities, boundaries, areas, fetitude and longitude, physical aspect, mountains, seas, rivers, lakes, bays, islands, soil, climate, chief towns, mineral, agricultural, and manufacturing resources, rail- roads and canals, commerce, state of education, population, form and details of government, history, and rulers, of each nation of the globe, without swelling the volume to an unwieldy size, has been a laborious task, and one requiring the most patient investigation. In illustrating the volume, regard has been had to utility, the editor deeming his space too valuable to be appropriated to engravings that possessed no higher merit than the ad-captandum one of mere ornament. The Maps of Continents, States, Cities, &c., which have been inserted, will be found extremely service- able in facilitating a proper understanding of the letter-press descriptions. And it may not be deemed improper here to add that they have been prepared at far greater expense than would have attended the insertion of twice their number of the common pictorial embellishments. It will be perceived that a large space has been appropriated to the geo- graphical and historical details of the United States, both as a nation and as individual states. For this no apology is deemed necessary. For while ignorance of the leading historical incidents and geographical features of his own country, is utterly unpardonable in an American, whose facilities for in- formation in that respect are so great — the paramount interest attaching to everything relating to one's native land, would alone vindicate the room devoted to that portion of the work — " The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone Proudly proclaims the happiest land his own; The naked negro, panting on the line, Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine; Such is the patriot's boast where'er we roam, His first, best country ever is his own." New York, April 20th, 1863, to INDEX, Note. — It will be observed that this Index is so arranged that each continent is complete in itself, this plan being deemed more convenient for reference. THE EARTH, Page. African Race 25 Age of the World 19 American Race 24 AncientB, their Ideas of the Earth's Form 15 Animal Kingdom 23 Atmosphere, Composition of the 18 Barbarous State, Man in the 25 Caucasian Race 23 Civilized Nations 26 Climate 19 Continents, Respective Areas of. 22 Divisions of the Earth 15 Earth's Crust, Supposed Thickness of • 19 Earth's Motion around the Sun 18 Eastern Hemisphere ■ 17 Equinoxes 18 Form of the Earth 15 Geological Structure of the Earth 19 Governments 26 Half-Civilized Nations 26 Hemispheres 15 Lakes 22 Land, its Divisions into Continents 21 Malay Race 25 Man 23 Mineralogy 20 Mongolian Race 24 Monsoons 19 Mosaic Account of the Creation 19 Mountains 22 Mountains, Height of. 35 Ocean, its Capacity and Vitality 20 Population 26 Rehgious Creeds ' 26 Rivers 22 Rivers, General View of 27 Savage State, Man in the 25 Seasons 18 Social Divisions 25 Solstices 18 Sovereigns of all Nations 26 Table-Lands 22 Tides 21 Tropics 18 Vegetable Kingdom 23 Water 20 Western Hemisphere 16 Winds 19 Zodiac 18 Zones 18 NORTH AMERICA. Page. Agriculture in Iceland 44 Alabama 157 Allegany or Appalachian Mountains .57 Anguilla 2.53 Animal Kingdom 42, 2.37 Antigua 253 Area : America, .37 ; Greenland, 42 ; Iceland, 43 ; Rus- sian America. 45; British America, 46; New Britain, 47; Canada, 49 ; New Brunswick, 52; Nova .Scotia, .^3 ; Cape Breton, 54 ; United States, 5? : Maim-, 71 ; New Hampshire, 74 ; Vermont, 78 : Massachusetts, 82 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 97 ; New Jersey, 107 ; Pennsylvania, 111 ; Delaware, 119; Maryland. 123 ; District of Columbia, 127 ; Vir- ginia, 133 ; North Carolina, 139 ; South Carolina, 143 ; Georgia, 148 ; Florida, 153 ; Alabama, 1.57; Mis- sissippi, 161 ; Louisiana, 164 ; Texas, 169 ; Arkansas, 173; Tennessee, 176; Kentucky, 180; Ohio, 185; Michigan, 191 ; Indiana, 196 ; Illinois, 199 ; Missouri, 205; Iowa, 210; Wisconsin, 213 ; California, 218; Oregon Territory, 225; Utah Territory, 227; New Mexico, 229 ; Minnesota Territory, 231 ; Indian Ter- ritory, 233 ; Northwest Territory, 234 ; Mexico. 235, 239 ; Central America, 243 ; West Indies, 246 ; Trin- idad, 250 ; The Bermudas, 259 ; Madeira, 259. Arkansas 173 Azores 261 Baffin's Bay 40 Bahamas 251 Baltimore, Md 123 Barbadoes 252 Barbuda 253 Battles of the Revolution, Record of 65 Bays : North America, 40 ; United States, 58 ; Maine, 71 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 78 ; Massachu- setts, 82 ; Rhode Island, 89; Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 99 : New Jersey, 109 ; Delaware, 119 ; Mary- land, 123 ; Virginia. 134 ; North Carolina, 139 ; South Carolina, 143 ; Georgia, 150 ; Florida, 155 ; Alabama, 157; Mississippi, 161 ;. Louisiana, 166; Texas, 171 ; Ohio. 185; Michigan, 193 ; Wisconsin, 215 ; Califor nia. 218; Minnesota Territory, 231; Mexico, 235 Central America, 244. Bermudas 259 Boston, Mass 82 Boundaries : North America, 39 ; Greenland, 42 Russian America, 45 ; British America, 46 ; New Britain, 47 ; New Brunswick, 52 ; Nova Scotia, 53 United States, 57 ; Maine, 71 ; New Hampshire, 74 Vermont, 78 ; Massachusetts, 82 ; Rhode Island, 89 Connecticut, 92 ; New Y'ork, 97 ; New Jersey, 107 Pennsylvania, 111 ; Delaware, 119 ; Maryland, 123 District of Columbia, 127 ; Virginia. 133 ; North Carolina, 139 ; South Carolina, 143 ; Georgia, 148 Florida, 153; Alabama, 157; Mississippi, 161 ; Louis Sana, 164 ; Texas, 169 ; Arkansas, 173 ; Tennessee, 176; Kentucky, 180; Ohio, 185; Michigan, 191; In diana, 196; Illinois, 199; Missouri, 205 ; Iowa, 210 Wisconsin, 213 ; California, 218 ; Oregon Territory. 225 ; Utah Territory, 227 ; New Mexico, 229 ; Minne^ sota Territory, 231 ; Indian Territory, 233 ; North west Territory, 234 ; Mexico, 234 ; Central America 243. British Possessions 46 British West Indies 248 Brooklyn, N. Y 103 Butlalo, N. Y 103 Bunker Hill Monument 84 California 218 California. Gulf of 40 Campius Martius, Marietta, O 190 Canada 49 Canals : Canada, 50 : United States, 60 ; Maine, 73 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 80 ; Massachusetts, 85 ; Khodr Island, 89 : Connecticut, 94 ; New York, 103 ; New Jersey, 109; Pennsylvania, 117 ; Delaware, 121 : Maryland, 125 ; Virginia, 136 ; North Carolina, 141; South Carolina, 145; Georgia, 150; Alabama, 159; Louisiana, 166; Ohio, 188 ; Indiana, 198 ; Illi- nois, 203 ; Wisconsin, 217 ; Central America, 244. INDEX TO NORTH AMERICA. Canary Islands page 260 Cape Breton 54 Cupe de Verde Islands 261 Capitol ot the United States 129 Cataract of Niagara 99 Cathedral ol Mexico 240 Cayman Islands 249 Central America 243 Census of United States in 1850 61 Charleston, S. C 146 Chicago, 111 201 CiTiKS AND Chief Towns : Iceland, 44 ; Russian America, 45 ; Canada, 50 ; New Brunswick, 53 ; No- va Scotia, 54 ; Maine, 71 : New Hampshire, 76 ; Ver- mont, 78; Massachusetts, 82; Rhode Island, 89; Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 99 ; New Jersey, 109 ; Pennsylvania, 113; Delaware, 119 ; Maryland, 123 ; Virginia, 134 ; North Carolina, 141 ; South Carolina, 145; Georgia, 150; Florida, 155; Alabama, 157; Mississippi. 161 ; Louisiana, 166 ; Texas, 171 ; Arkan- sas, 175 ; Tennessee, 178 ; Kentucky, 182; Ohio, 186 ; Michigan, 193 ; Indiana, 196 ; Illinois, 201 ; Missouri, 207; Iowa, 210; Wisconsin* 215 ; California, 220; Oregon Territory, 226 ; Utah Territory, 227 ; New Mexico 229 ; Minnesota Territory, 231 ; Mexico, 238, 239 ; Central America, 243, 244 ; We^t Indies, 246 ; Hayti, 248 ; Jamaica, 249 ; Trinidad, 250 ; Cuba, 254 ; I'orto Rico, 255. Cincinnati, Ohio 186 City Hall, New York City 101 City of the Great Salt Lake, Utah 227 Cleveland, Ohio 185 Climatk : North America, 40; Greenland, 42; Ice- land, 44 ; Russian Possessions, 45 ; Canada, 50 ; Uni- • ted States, 59 ; Maine, 71 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 78 ; Massachusetts, 82 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 99 ; New jrrsey, 109 ; Pennsylvania, 113 ; Delaware, 119 ; Maryland, 123 ; District of Columbia, 127 ; Virginia, 134 ; North Carolina, 1.39; South Carolina, 145 ; Georgia, 150; Florida, 155 ; Alabama, 157 ; Mississippi, 161 ; Lou- isiana, 166 ; Texas, 171 ; Arkansas, 175 ; Tennessee, 176 ; Kentucky, 182 ; Ohio, 186 ; Michigan, 193 ; In- diana, 196; Illinois, 201 ; Missouri, 295; Iowa. 210 ; Wisconsin, 215 ; California. 218 ; Oregon Territory, S25 ; Utah Territory. 227 ; New Mexico, 229 ; Minne- sota Territory, 231 ; Indian Territory, 233 ; North- west Territory, 2.34 ; Centrafl America, 244 ; West Indies, 245; Hayti, 248; Jamaica, 249; Trinidad, 250 ; The Bahamas, 251 ; Cuba, 254 ; Porto Rico, 255; The Bermudas, 259; Madeira, 260. Coast Range of Muuntains 58 Colleges, (See Education). Colonial History of the United States 62-67 Commerce : Russian America, 45 ; British America, 46; Canada, 52 ; United States, 60; Maine, 73 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 80 ; Massachusetts, 85 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 94 ; New York. 104 ; New Jersey, 109 ; Pennsylvania, 117 ; Delaware, 121; Maryland. 125; Virginia, 136; North Carolina, 142 ; South Carolina, 145 ; Georgia, 150 ; Florida, 156 ; Alabama, 159: Mississippi, 161; Louisiana, 166; Texas, 171 ; Arkan.^as, 175 ; Tennessee, 178 ; Ken- tucky, 182 ; Ohio, 188 ; Michigan, 194 ; Indiana, 198; Illinois, 203 ; Missouri, 207 ; Iowa, 212 ; Wiscon- sin, 217 ; California, 223 ; Oregon Territory, 226 ; Mexico, 237 ; West Indies. 246; Jamaica, 249 ; The Bahamas, 251 ; Cuba, 254 ; Porto Rico, 255. Connecticut 92 Costa Rica 243 Croton Aqueduct, New York 101 Cuba 254 Curagoa 257 Customhouse, New York 101 Danish Possessions 42 Danish West Indies 257 Davis's Straits 40 Declaration of Independence 67 Delaware _ 119 Detroit, Mich 193 District of Columbia 123 Dominica 252 Dutch West Indies 257 Education : Iceland, 44 ; United States, 60 ; Maine, 73; New Hampshire, 77; Vermont, 80 ; Massachu- setts, 85 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 94 ; New York, 104; New Jersey, 110; Pennsylvania, 117; Delaware, 121 ; Maryland, 125 ; Virginia, 137 ; North Carolina, 142 ; South Carolina, 145 ; Georgia, 150 ; Florida, 156; Alabama, 159; Mississippi, 161 ; Louis- iana, 168; Texas. 171; Arkansas. 175; Tennessee, 178; Kentucky, 182; Ohio, 189; Michigan, 194; In- diana, 198 ; Illinois, 203 ; Missouri, 209; Iowa, 212; Wisconsin, 217 ; California, 223 ; Oregon Territory, 226 ; Minnesota Territory, 232 ; Mexico, 240 ; Cen- tral America, 244. , Everglades of Florida 153 Exports, (See Commerce). Faneuil Hall, Boston 84 Farms in Cultivation in the United States 60 Federal History of the United States 68-70 Fisheries of the United States 60 Florida 153 Fort Victoria, Vancouver's Island 48 Free Colored Population in the United States fil French North American Possessions 55 French West Indies 256 Geology of Canada 50 Geology of the Bermudas 259 Georgetown, D. C 132 Georgia 148 Girard College, Philadelphia 113 Gold Mines of California 222 Government : Canada, 52 ; Nova Scotia, &c.. 54 ; United States. 62 ; Maine, 73 ; New Hampshire, 77 ; Vermont, 80; Massachusetts, 85; Rhode Island, 91 ; Connecticut, 95 ; New York, 104 ; New Jersey, 110; Pennsylvania, 117 ; Delaware, 121 ; Maryland. 125 ; District of Columbia, 127 ; Virginia, 137, North Car olina. 143 ; South Carolina, 146 ; Heorgia, 151 ; Flor- ida, 156; Alabama, 160; Mississippi, 161 ; Louisiana, 168; Texas, 172; Arkansas, 175; Tennes.see, 179; Kentucky, .182; Ohio, 189 ; Michigan, 194 ; Indiana, 198; Ulinois, 203; Missouri. 209 ; lovKa, 212; Wis- consin, 217 ; California, 223 ; Utah Territory, 228 ; New Mexico, 2.30; Minnesota Territory, 232 ; Indian Territory, 233 ; Mexico, 241 ; Jamaica, 249 ; Trini- dad, 250 ; Porto Rico, 255. Governors : Maine, 74 ; New Hampshire, 77 ; Ver- mont, 80 ; Massachusetts, 88 ; Rhode Island, 91 : Connecticut, 95 ; New York, 107 ; New Jersey, 110; Pennsylvania, 118 ; Delaware, 121; Maryland, 126 ; Virginia, 138 ; North Carolina, 142 ; South Carolina, 146; Georgia, 152; Florida. 157; Alabama, 160 ; Mis sissippi, 163; Louisiana, 169; Texas, 173 ; Arkansas, 176; Tennessee, 179; Kentucky, 163; Ohio. 190; Michigan, 195 ; Indiana, 199 ; Illinois, 204 ; Missouri, 210; Iowa, 212; Wisconsin, 217; California, 224, Oregon Territory, 226 ; Utah Territory, 228 ; New Mexico, 230. Greenland 42 Grenada 256 Guadaloupe 256 Guatimala 243 Halifax 54 " Halls of the Montezumas," City of Mexico 240 Harbors : Nova Scotia. 54 ; Connecticut, 92 ; Florida, 155 ; California, 218 ; Oregon Territory, 225 ; Jamai- ca, 249; Trinidad, 250. Hayti 247 History : America, 37 ; Greenland, 43 ; Iceland, 44 ; Spitzbergen, 45 ; British America, 46 ; New Britain, 47; New Brunswick, 53; Nova Scotia, 53 ; Cape Breton, 54 ; Newfoundland, 55 ; United States, 62, 70 ; Maine, 73 ; New Hampshire, 77 ; Vermont, 80 : Massachusetts, 86 ; Rhode Island, 91 ; Connecticut, 94 ; New York, 105 : New Jersey, 110 ; Pennsylvania, 118; Delaware, 121; Maryland. 126 ; District of Co- lumbia, 127; Virginia, 137; North Carolina, 142; South Carolina, 145; Georgia, 151; Florida, 156 ; Alabama, 160; Mississippi, 163; Louisiana. 168; Tex- as, 172 ; Arkansas, 175 ; Tennessee, 179 ; Kentucky, 1^83; Ohio, 189; Michigan, 195; Indiana, 199 ; Illi- nois, 204 ; Missouri, 209 ; Iowa, 212 ; Wisconsin, 217: California, 224; Oregon Territory, 226; Utah Territory, 228 ; New Mexico, 230 ; Minnesota Ter- ritory, 232; Northwest Territory, 234 ; Mexico. 242, Central America, 244 ; West Indies, 246 ; Hayti. 248 ; Jamaica, 249 ; Trinidad, 250 ; The Bahamas, 251 : Cuba, 254 ; Porto Rico, 255; The Bermudas, 259; Madeira, -260. Honduras 243 Hot Springs of Arkansas 173 Hull's Surrender • 195 Illinois ..............199 Imports, (See Commerce). INDEX TO NORTH AMERICA. Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa page 113 Indiana 196 Indian Population of New Britain 48 Indian Territory 233 Iowa 210 Islands : The Aleutian, 45 ; Maine, 71 ; New Hamp- shire, 76 ; Vermont, 78 ; Mnesachusetts, 82 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; New York, 99 ; Pqpnsylvania, 113 ; Vir- ginia, 134 ; North Carolina, 139 ; South Carolina, 145; Georgia, 150; Florida, 155; Alabama, 157; Texas, 171 ; Michigan, 193 ; Wisconsin. 215 : The West Indies, 245 ; Bahamas, 251 ; Porto Rico, 255. Jamaica 248 Kentucky 180 Lakes : North America, 40 ; Nova Scotin, 53 ; United States, 58 ; Maine, 71 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Ver- mont, 78 ; New York, 97; Pennsylvania, 113 ; Vir- ginia. 134 ; North Carolina, 139 ; Florida, 155 ; Lou- isiana, 164 ; Texas, 171 ; Ohio, 185 ; Michigan, 193 ; Indiana, 196 ; Illinois, 201 ; Missouri, 205 ; Iowa, 210 ; Wisconsin, 215 : California, 218 ; Utah Terri- tory, 227 ; New Mexico. 229 ; Minnesota Territory, 231 ; Mexico, 235 ; Central America, 243 ; Hayti, 247. Latitude and Longitude : Iceland, 43 ; Rueaian America, 45 ; British America, 46 ; New Britain, 47 ; Vancouver's Island. 48 ; Northwestern Ar- chipelago, 48 ; Prince Edward Island, 48 ; Canada, 49 ; New Brunswick, 52 ; Nova Scotia, 53 ; Cape Breton, 54 ; Newfoundland, 55 : United States, 57 : Maine, 71; New Hampshire, 74; Vermont, 78; Massachusitts, 82; Rhode Island, 89; Connecti- cut, 92 ; New York, 97 ; New Jersey, 107 ; Penn- sylvania, 111; Delaware, 119; Maryland. 123; District of Columbia. 127 ; Virgniia. 133 ; North Carolina, 139 ; South Carolina, 143 ; Georgia, 148 ; Florida, 153; Alabama, 157; J^Iississippi, 161 ; Lou- isiana, 164; Texas, 169 ; Arkansas, 173 ; Tennessee, 176 ; Kentucky, 180 ; Ohio, 185; Michigan, 191 ; Indi- ana, 196 ; Illinois, 199 ; Missouri, 205 ; Iowa, 210 ; Wis- consin, 213 ; California. 218 ; Oregon Territory, 225 ; Utah Territory, 227 ; New Mexico, 229 ; Minnesota Territory, 231; Indian Territory, 233; Northwest- ern Territory, 234 ; Mexico, 235 : Central America, 213 ; West Indies, 245 ; Hayti, 247 ; Jamaica, 248 ; Trinidad, 250 ; The Bahamas, 251 ; Cuba, 254 ; Porto Rico, 255 ; Bermudas, 259 ; Madeiras, 259 ; Canaries, 260 ; Azores, 261 ; Cape de Verde Islands, 261. Literary Institutions, (See Education). Louisiana 164 Lowell, Mass 84 Lunatic Asylum, Columbus, O 189 Madeira Islands 259 Maine , 71 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky 180 Manufactures : United States, 60, 61 ; Maine, 73 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 78 ; Massachusetts, 85 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 94 ; New York, 103 ; New Jersey, 109 ; Pennsylvania, 115 ; Delaware, 119: Maryland, 125; Virginia, 130; North Caro- lina, 141 ; South Carolina, 145; Georgia, 150; Flor- ida, 155; Alabama, 159 ; Mississippi, 161; Louisiana, 166; Texas, 171; Arkansas, 175; Tennessee, 178; Kentucky, 182; Ohio, 188 ; Michigan, 194 ; Indiana, 198; Illinois, 203 ; Missouri, 207; Iowa, 21? ; Wis- consin, 215 ; Mexico, 237. Margarita 258 Martinique 256 Maryland 123 Massachusetts 82 Merchants' Exchange, New York City 101 Mexico 235 Mexico, City of 239 Mexico, Gulf of 40 Michigan 191 Mil waukie. Wis 215 Minerals: North America, 42 ; Greenland, 43: Ice- land, 44 ; United States, 59 ; Vermont, 78 ; Massa- chusetts, 85 ; Rhode Island, 89 : Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 103; New Jersey, 109; Pennsylvania, 115; Delaware, 119; Maryland. 125 ; Virginia, 136 ; North Carolina, 141 ; South Carolina. 145 ; Georgia, 150; Florida, 155; Alabama, 1.59; Texas, 171; Ar- kansas, 175; Tennessee, 178; Kentucky, 182 ; Ohio, 188; Michigan, i93; Indiana, 196; ininoi8,203; Mis- souri. 205; Iowa, 212; Wisconsin, ?15 ; California, 222 ; Utah Territory, 228 ; New Mexico, 230 ; In- dian Territory, 233 ; Mexico, 237 ; Central America, 244 ; Trinidad, 250 ; Cuba, 254. Minnesota Territory paok 231 Missouri River 59 Missouri, State of 205 Mississippi River 58 Mississippi, State of 161 Mobile, Ala 157 Montserrat 253 Mosquito Territory 244 Mountains: North America, 39; United States, 57; Maine, 71 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 78 ; Mas- sachusetts, 82; Connecticut, 92; New York. 97; New Jersey, 109 ; Pennsylvania, 111 ; Maryland, 123 ;Virginia, 134 ; North Carolina, 139 ; South Caro- lina, 143 ; Georgia, 148 ; Alabama, 157 : Texas, 171 ; Arkansas, 173; Tennessee, 176; Kentucky, 182; Michiean, 191 ; Missouri, 205 ; California. 218 ; Ore- gon Territory, 225; Utah Territory, 227; New Mex- ico, 229; Indian Territory, 233 ; Northwestern Terri- tory, 234 ; Mexico, 235 ; Central America, 243 ; Hayti, 247 ; Jamaica, 248 ; Trinidad, 250 ; Porto Rico, 255 ; Madeira, 259. Mount Auburn Cemetery 84 Nebraska 234 New Britain 47 New Brunswick ^ 52 Newfoundland 55 New Hampshire 74 New Jersey 107 New Mexico, Territory of 229 New Orleans, La 166 New Providence 251 New York City 99 New York, State of. 97 Nevis 253 Niagara, Falls of 99 Nicaragua .243 North Carolina 139 Northwestern Territory 234 Nova Scotia 53 Ohio 185 Oregon Territory 225 Pennsylvania Ill Philadelphia, Pa 113 Physical Aspect : America, 39 ; Greenland, 42 ; Ice- land, 44 ; Spitzbergen, 45 ; Russian America, 45 ; British America, 47 ; Vancouver's Island, 48 ; North- westera Archipelago, 48 ; Prince Edward's Island, 48 ; Canada, 49 ; Nova Scotia, 53 ; Cape Breton, 54 ; Newfoundland, 55 ; United States, 57 ; Maine, 71 ; New Hampshire, 74 ; Vermont, 78 : Massachusetts, 82 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 97 : New Jersey, 107 ; Pennsylvania, 111 ; Delaware, 119; Maryland. 123; District of Columbia, 127; Virginia, 133 ; North Carolina, 139 ; South Carolina, 143 ; Georgia, 148 ; Florida, 153 ; Alabama, 157 ; Mis- sissippi, 161 ; Louisiana, 164 ; Texas, 169 ; Arkansas, 173; Tennessee, 176; Kentucky, 180; Ohio, 185; Michigan, 191 ; Indiana, 196 ; Illinois, 199 ; Missouri, 205; Iowa, 210; Wisconsin, 213 ; California, 218; Oregon TeiTitory, 225; Utah Territory, 227; New Mexico, 229 ; Minnesota Territory, 231; Indian Ter- ritory, 233; Northwestern Territory, 234; Mexico, 235 ; Central America, 243 ; West Indies, 245 ; Hayti, 247; Jamaica. 248; Trinidad, 250; The Bahamas, 251 ; Cuba, 254 ; Porto Rico, 255 ; The Bermudas, 259 : Madeira, 259. Pitt.sburgh, Pa 115 Plains 39,243 Plymouth Colony, Settlement of 86 Political Divisions : British America, 46 ; United States, 61 ; Mexico, 239 ; Central America, 243 ; West Indies. 245. Population: North America, 42; Greenland, 43; Ice- land, 44 ; Russian America, 45 ; British America, 46 ; British Possessions, 46 ; Canada, 52 ; United States, 61 ; Maine, 73 ; New Hampshire, 77 ; Ver- mont, 80; Massachusetts, 85; Rhode Island, 91; Connecticut, 94 ; New York, 104 : New Jersey, 110, Pennsylvania, 117 ; Delaware, 121 ; Maryland, 125 ; District of Columbia, 127 ; Virginia, 136; North Car- olina, 141 ; South Carolina, 145 ; Georgia, 151 ; Flor- ida, 156 ; Alabama, 159 ; Mississippi. 163 ; Louis> iana, 168 ; Texas, 172 ; Arkansas, 175 ; Tennessee, 178 ; Kentucky, 183 ; Ohio, 188 ; Michiaan, 194 ; Indi- ana, 198 ; Illinois, 204 ; Missouri, 209 ; Iowa, 212 ; Wisconsin. 217 ; California, 223 ; Oregon Territory, 226 ; Utah Territory, 228 ; New Mexico, 230 ; Min- nesota Territory, 231 ; Indian Territory, 233 ; Mex- 8 INDEX TO SOUTH AMERICA. ico, 239; Central America, 243; West Indies, 246; The Bahamas, 251 ; Madeira, 260. Porto Rico 255 President's House at Washington 131 Presidents of the United States 70 Prince Edward Island 48 Productive Resources : Greenland, 43 ; Iceland, 44 ; Spitzhcrgen, 45 ; United States, 60 ; Maine, 73 ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 78 ; Massachusetts, 85 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 103 ; New Jersey, 109 ; Pennsylvania, 115 ; Delaware, 119 ; Maryland, 125 ; Virginia, 134 ; North Carolina, 141 ; South Carolina, 145 ; Georgia, 150 ; Florida, 155 ; Alabama, 159 ; Mississippi, 161 ; Louisiana, 160 ; Texas, 171 ; Arkansas, 175 ; Tennessee, 178 ; Ken- tucky, 182 ; Ohio, 188 ; Michigan, 193 ; Indiana, 196 ; Illinois, 203 ; Missouri, 205; Iowa, 212; W^isconsin, 215 ; California, 220 ; Oregon Teiritory, 226 ; Utah Territory, 227 ; New Mexico, 230 ; Minnesota Terri- tory, 231 ; Indian Territory, 233 ; Mexico, 237 ; Cen- tral America, 244; West Indies, 245; Hayti, 248; Jamaica, 249 ; Trinidad, 250 ; The Bahamas, 251 ; Cuba, 254; Porto Rico, 255 ; The Bermudas, 259 ; Madeira, 260. Public Lands of the United States ; 60 Pulaski and Greene Monument at Savannah, Ga...l52 Railboads : United States, 60 ; Maine, 73 ; New Hamp- shire, 76 ; Vermont, 78 ; Massachusetts, 85 ; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 94 ; New York, 103 ; New Jersey, 109 : Pennsylvania. 115; Delaware, 119 ; Ma- ryland, 125; Virginia, 136; North Carolina, 141; South Carolina, 145 ; Georgia, 150 ; Alabama, 159 ; Mississippi, 161 ; Louisiana, 166 ; Texas, 171 ; Ten- nessee, 178 ; Kentucky, 182; Ohio, 188; Michigan, 194 ; Indiana, 198 ; Illinois, 203 ; Wisconsin, 215 ; California, 223. Red River Settlement 47 Religion in Mexico 240 Religion in the United States 61 Representatives in United States Congress, Num- ber of CI Revenue of British Colonies 46, 52 Rhode Island 89 Rio Grande del Norte 229 Rivers : North America, 40 ; Canada, 49 ; New Bruns- wick, 52 ; Nova Scotia, 53 ; United States, 58 ; Maine, 71; New Hampshire, 76; Vermont, 78 ; Massachu- setts, 82; Rhode Island, 89 ; Connecticut, 92 ; New York, 97 ; New Jersey, 109 ; Pennsylvania, 113 ; Del- aware, 119; Maryland, 123; Virginia, 134, North Carolina, 139 ; South Carolina, 143 ; Georgia, 150 Florida, 153; Alabama, 157; Mississippi, 161 ; Louis iana, 164 ; Texas, 171 ; Arknnsas, 173 ; Tennessee 176; Kentucky, 182; Ohio, 185; Michigan, 191 Indiana, 196 ; Illinois, 201 ; Missouri, 205 ; Iowa, 210 Wisconsin, 215 ; California, 218 ; Oregon Territory. 225 ; Utah Territory, 227 ; New Mexico, 229 ; Min nesota Territory, 231 ; Indian Territory, 233 ; North western Territory, 2.34 ; Mexico, 235 ; Central Amer ica, 243 ; Hayti, 247 ; Jamaica, 249 ; Trinidad, 250 Porto Rico, 255. Russian North American Possessions 46 Sacramento City, Cal 220 St. Bartholomew 258 St. Christopher's or St. Kitt's 253 St. Eustatiiis 257 St. John, Capital ot Newfoundland .55 St. John, Capital of New Brunswick 53 St. John's, West Indies 258 St. Lawrence, Gulf of 40 St. Louis, Mo ' 207 St. Lucia .252 St. Martin's 257 St. Thomas 253 St. Vincent 252 Saltillo, Mexico 239 San Francisco, Cal 220 San Juan d'Ulloa, Castle of 238 San Salvador 243 Santa Cruz or St. Ci-oix 257 •Santa Fe, New Mexico 229 Savaimali, Ga 150 Schools, (See Education). Sea of the Esquimaux 40 Seal of the United States, Description of 147 Sierra Nevada 58 Signers of the Declaration of Independence, Names of. 67 .«laves in the United States pagr nl Smithsonian Institution, Washington 133 Soil, (See Physical Aspect). South Carolina 143 Spanish West Indies 254 Spitzbergen 45 .Sydney, Capital of Cape Breton 54 Telegraphs in the United States 62 Teneriffe, Island of. 260 Tennessee 176 Texas 1 69 Tobago 252 Tortola 253 Trinidad 250 Trinity Church, New York 101 United States 57 Utah Territory 227 Valleys 39 Vegetable Kingdom 42, 43, 44 Vera Cruz 238 Vermont 78 Virginia 1.^3 Virgin Islands 253 Volcanoes 42, 235, 243, 245 Washington City, Capital of the United States 127 Washington Monument, at Washington City 131 Washington Territory 226 West Indies 243 Western Islands 261 Western Reserve, Ohio 190 Wisconsin 213 SOUTH AMERICA. . Page. Amazon River 264, 273 Andes 263 Animal Kingdom 26.5. 269 Araucania ". 283 Area: South America, 363; New Grenada. 266 ; Ecua- dor, 268 ; Venezuela, 269; Guiana, 270; British Gui- ana, 271 ; Dutch Guiana. 272 ; French Guiana, 272 : Brazil, 273 ; Peru, 277 ; Bolivia, 280; Chili, 281 : Ar- gentine Republic, 284 ; Paraguay, 286 ; Uruguay, 287 ; Patagonia, 288. • Argentine Republic 284 Bays : Ecuador, 268 ; Peru, 277 ; Chili, 282 ; Argentine Republic, 284. Bcrbice 271 Bogota, Capital of New Grenada 26C Bolivia 280 Boundaries : South America, 263 ; New Grenada, 266 ; Ecuador, 268 ; Venezuela, 269 ; Guiana, 270 ; Dutch Guiana, 272 ; French Guiana, 272 ; Brazil, 273 ; Peru, 277 ; Bolivia, 280 ; Chili, 281 ; Argentine Republic, 284 ; Paraguay, 286; Uruguay, 287 ; Patagonia, 288. Brazil 273 British Guiana 271 Buenos Ay res 284 Buenos Ayres, City of 285 Cayenne 272 Chili 281 Cities and Chief Towns : Now Grenada, 267 ; Ecua- dor, 268 : Venezuela, 270 ; British Guiana, 271 ; Dutch Guiana, 272 ; French Guiana, 272 ; Brazil, 274 ; Peru, 277; Bolivia. 280; Chili, 282; Argentine Republic, 285; Paraguay, 286; Uruguay, 287. Climate : South .\merica, 264 ; New Grenada, 267 ; Ecuador, 268 ; Venezuela, 269 ; Guiana. 271 ; Brazil, 274; Peru, 277; Bolivia, 280; Chili. 282; Argentine Republic, 284 : Paraguay, 286 ; Uruguay, 287 ; Pata- gonia, 289. CoM.MERCE : Venezuela, 270 ; British Guiana, 271 ; Dutch Guiana, 272; French Guiana, 272: Brazil, 275: Peru, 278: Bolivia, 281; Chih, 283^ Argentine Republic, 285 ; Paraguay, 286 ; Uruguay, 268. Demerara 271 Diamond-Mines of Brazil 275 Dutch Guiana 272 Ecuador 268 Education : New Grenada, 267 ; Venezuela, 270 ; Bra- zil, 275 ; Peru, 278 ; Bolivia, 281 ; Argentine Repub- lic, 285 ; Paraguay, 287. Esscquibo 271 Exports (.-^ee Commerce). Falkland Islands 290 French Guiana 272 Georgia 290 -4' INDEX TO EUROPE. Government: Venezuela, 270; British Guiana, 271 ; Putch Guiana, 272 ; French Guiana, 272 ; Brazil, 276 ; Peru, 278 ; Chili, 283. Guiana 270 Harbors: Ecuador, 268; Chili, 282; Argentine Re- public, 284. History: South America, 265; New Grenada, 267; Ecuador, 269 ; Venezuela, 270; Guiana, 270 ; Brazil, 275 ; Peru, 279 ; Bolivia, 281 : Chili, 283 ; Argentine Republic, 285 ; Paraguay, 287 ; Uruguay, 288 ; Pata- gonia, 289. rmports, (See Commerce). Islands: South America, 2G4, 289 ; Peru, 277 ; Chili, 282. Lakes : Venezuela, 269 ; Brazil, 274 ; Peru, 277 ; Bo- livia, 280; Chili, 282; Argentine Republic, 284 ; Par- aguay, 286; Patagonia, 289. Latitude and Longitude: South America, 263; New Grenada, 266 ; Ecuador, 268 ; Venezuela, 269 : Guiana, 270; Brazil, 273 ; Peru, 277 ; Bolivia, 280; Chili 281 ; Argentine Republic, i;84 ; Paraguay, 286 ; Uruguay, 287. Lima, Capital of Peru 277 Llanos or Plains. .'. 263, 266, 269, 277, 284 Magdalona River 266 Manufactures : New Grenada, 267 ; Venezuela, 270 ; Brazil, 275 ; Chili, 283 ; Argentine Republic, 285 ; Paraguiiy, 286. Minerals : South America, 265 ; New Grenada, 267 ; Ecuador, 268; Venezuela, 270: Brazil, 274 ; Peru, 278 ; Bolivia, 280 ; Chili, 282 ; Argentine Republic, 285 ; Uruguay, 288. Montevideo 288 Mountains : South America, 263 ; New Grenada, 566 ; Ecuador, 268 ; Venezuela, 269 ; Guiana, 270 ; Brazil, 273; Peru. 277; Bolivia, 280; Chili, 282 ; Argentine Republic, 284 ; Paraguay, 286 ; Patagonia, 288. New Amsterdam 271 New Grenada 266 Orinoco River 264, 269 Pamperos 284' Panama Railroad 267 Paraguay 286 Paramaribo 272 Patagonia .- 288 Peru 277 Physicai, Aspect : South America, 263 ; New Grena- da, 266 ; Ecuador, 268 ; Venezuela, 269 ; Guiana, 270 ; Brazil, 273 ; Peru, 277 ; Bolivia, 280 ; Chili, 281 ; Ar- gentine Republic, 284; Paraguay, 286; Uruguay, 287 ; Patagonia, 288. Plains or Llanos 26-3, 266. 269, 277, 284 Political Divisions : Ecuador, 269 ; British Guiana, 271 ; French Guiana, 272 ; Brazil, 274 ; Par u. 277 ; Bolivia, 280 ; Chili, 282 ; Argentine Republic, 285 ; Uruguay, 287. Population : New Grenada. 267 ; Ecuador, 269 ; Ven- ezuela, 270; British Guiana. 272; Dutch Guiana, 272 ; French Guiana, 272 ; Brazil, 275 ; Peru, 278 ; Bolivia, 281 ; Chili, 283 ; Argentine Republic, 285 ; Paraguay, 287 ; Urueruay,288 ; Patagonia, 289. Potosi Silver Mines . .". 280 Pboductive Resources : New Grenada, 267; Ecua- dor, 268; Venezuela, 270; Guiana, 271; French Guiana, 272 ; Brazil, 274 ; Peru, 278 ; Bolivia, 280 ; Chili, 282 ; Argentine Republic, 284 ; Paraguay, 286 ; Uruguay, 288. Railroads in Chili 282 Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama 267 Rivers : South America, 264 ; New Grenada, 266 ; Ecu- ador, 268: Venezuela. 269 ; Guiana, 271 ; Brazil, 273 ; Peru, 277; Bolivia, 280; Chili, 282; Argentine Re- public, 284 ; Paraguay, 286 ; Uruguay, 287 ; Patago- nia, 289. Rulers: Venezuela. 270; Brazil, 276; Bolivia, 281; Paraguay, 287 ; Uruguay, 288. Silver Minis of Potosi 280 Soil. (See Physical Aspect). South American Islands 289 Simih Shetland Islands v .290 Surinam 272 Tierra del Fuego 289 Uruguiiy 287 Valparaiso 282 Venezuela 269 Volcanoes : Ecuador, 268 ; Peru. 277 ; Bolivia, 280 ; Cliili, 282 ; Areentine Republic, 284 ; Patagonia, 289. Verba Mate, or Paraguay Tea 286 ETTHOFE. Page. Aix-la-Chapelle 347 Albania 385 Altona 351 Amsterdam 332 Andorre 319 Antwerp 329 Aosto 365 Archduchy of Austria 341 Area: Europe, 291, 294; England and Wales, 300; Scotland, 306 ; Ireland, 310; France, 313 ; Spain, 319 ; Portugal, 32;1; Switzerland, 325; Belgium, 329; Holland, 331 ; Germany, 335 ; Austria, 338 ; Bohe- mia, 342; Silesia, 342; Transylvania, 344; Prussia, 347 ; Denmark, 350 ; Sweden and Norway, 353 ; Rus- sia, 356, 357 ; Italy, 361 ; Sardinia, 365 ; Venetian Lombardy, 366; States of the Church, 370 ; Naples, 372 ; Island of Sicily, 374 ; Greece, 380 ; Turkey. 384. Army, English 295 Austerlitz 342 Austria 340 Austrian Poland 345 Banat 344 Bays: Europe, 293: England and Wales, 301; Scot- land, 307 ; Holland, .332 : Prussia, 346 ; Denmark, 350 ; Naples, 373 ; Greece, 380. Belgium 329 Berlin, Capital of Prussia 347 Berne, Switzerland 326 Bohemia 342 Bosnia 385 Boundaries : Europe, 291 ; England and Wales, 300 ; Scotland, 306: Ireland, 310; France, 313; Spain, 319 ; Portugal, 323 ; Switzerland, 325 ; Belgium, 329 ; Holland. .331 ; Germany. 334 ; Austria, 338 ; Transyl- v;inia, 344; Prussia, 346; Denmark, 350; Sweden and Norway, 352; Russia, 356 ; Italy, 361 ; Sardinia, 365 ; Venetian Lombardy, 366 ; Tuscany, 369 ; States of the Church, 370; Naples, .372; Greece, 380; Tur- key, 384. Bremen 335 British Islands 295 British Possessions in the Mediterranean 377 Bruges 329 Brunn, Capital of Silesia 342 Brussels, Capital of Belgium 329 Canals: England and Wales, 305; Scotland, 308; France, 315 ; Belgium, 330 ; Holland, 332 : Germany, 336 ; Russia, 359. Capes 293 Cephalonia 379 Chamoani 365 Cities and Chief Towns : Europe, 294 ; England and Wall s. 302 ; Scotland, 307 ; Ireland, 311 ; France, 314 ; Spainj^21 ; Portugal, 323 ; Switzerland, 326 ; Belgium, 3^; Holland, 332; Germany, 335; Hunga- ry, 343; Prussia, 347 ; Denmark, .351 ; Sweden and Norway, 354 ; Russia, 358 ; Italy, 362 ; Sardinia, 365 ; Tuscany, 369 ; States of the Church, 371 ; Island of Sicily, 374 ; Greece, 380; Turkey, 385. Cli.mate : Europe, 294 ; England and Wales, 301 ; Scotland, 307 ; Ireland, 310 ; France. 314 ; Spain, 320 ; Portugal, 323 ; Switzeriand. 326 ; Belgium, 329 ; Germany, 334 ; Austria, 338 ; Hungary, 343 ; Prus- sia, 347 : Denmark, 350 ; Sweden and Norway. 353 ; Russia, 3.57 ; Italy, 362 ; Two Sicilies, 375 ; Gibraltar, 377 ; Greece, 380 ; Turkey, 385. Coblentz 347 Cologne 347 Constantinople, Capital of Turkey 384 Commerce : England and Wales, 305 ; Scotland. 308 : Ireland, 311 ; France, 315; Spain, 321; Portucal, 324 ; Switzeriand, 327; Belgium, .330; Holland. 332 : Germany. 336 ; Austria, 339 ; Hungary, 343 ; Prus- sia, 348 ; Denmark, 351 ; Sweden and Norway, 354 : Russia, 3.59 ; Italy, 363 ; Gieece, .381 ; Turkey,' 386. Copenhagen, Capital of Denmark 351 Corfu 379 Corsica 372 Cracow 345 Crete 379 Cronstad t 358 Dalmatia 345 Dantzic 34,^ Denmark 350 Dusseldorf 347 Edinburgh 308' 10 INDEX TO EUROPE. Education: England and WhIos, 305; Scotlmi.i, 308 ; Ireland, 311; Fiance, 315; Spain, 3:21; I'uitusnl, 324 ; Switzerland, 327 ; Belgium, 330 ; Hulland, 33^ ; Austria, 339 ; Prussia. 348 ; Denmark, 35] ; .-^weden and Norway 354 ; Uus>ia, 359 : Italy, 3fi3 ; Two .Sici- lies, 375 ; Greece, 381 ; Turkey, 386. Elba, Island of 370 Elsinore, Denmark 351 Exports, (See Commekce). Finances, British -. 297 Florence 369 Foreign Possessions of Great Britain 297 France 313 Frankfort-on-the-Meyn 335 Galicia 345 Gallipoli 385 Geneva 326 Genoa 365 German- Austrian States 34 1 Germany 334 Gibraltar 377 Glaciers of the Alps 325 Glasgow 308 Governmrnt: British Islands, 295; Ireland, 312; Andorre, 319; Spain, 321; Portugal, 324 ; Switzer- land, 327 ; Belgium, 330 ; Holland, 333 ; Germany, 335 ; Austria, 340 ; Prussia. 348 ; Denmark, 351 ; Sweden and Norway, 354 ; Russia, 359 ; States of the Church, 370 ; Greece, 382 ; Turkey, 386. Gozo 377 Grand Ship Canal of Holland 332 Great Northern Railway 330 Greece 380 Gulfs 293 Hamburg 335 Harbors : England and Wales, 301 ; Scotland, 307 ; Spain, 320 ; Prussia, 346. History : British Islands, 297 ; England and Wales, 306; Scotland, 309: Ireland, 312; France, 316; Spain, 322 ; Portugal, 324 ; Switzerland, 328 ; Bel- gium, 330; Holland, 333; Germany, 335; Austria, 339 ; Hungary, 344 ; Dalmatia, 345 ; Prussia, 348 ; Den- mark, 351 ; Sweden and Norway, 355; Russia, 360 ; Italy, 363; Sardinia, 365 : Venetian Lombardy, 367 ; Modena, 369 ; Tuscany, 369 ; Stiites of the Church. 370; Two Sicilies, 375; Gibraltar, 377; Ionian Islands, 379 ; Greece, 382 ; Turkey, 387. Holland 331 Hungary 343 Illyria 341 Imports, (See Commerce). Innspruck 342 Ionian Islands 378 Ireland 310 Irish Famine in 1846-'48 311 Islands : Europe, 293 : England and Wales, 301 ; Scotland, 307 ; Spain, 320 ; Holland, 332 : Prussia, 346 ; Denmark, 350 ; Italy, 362 ; Greece, 380. Italy 361 Kirkillissia 385 Konigsberg 347 Lakes : Europe, 293 ; England and Wales, 301 ; Scot- land. 307 ; Ireland, 310 ; France, 313 ; Portugal. 323 ; Switzerland, 325 ; Holland. 332 ; Germany. 334 ; Austria, 338; Hungary, 343; Prussia, 346; Den- mark, 3.50 ; Sweden and Norway, 353 ; Russia, 356; Italy, 362 ; Naples, 373 ; Turkey. 385. Latitude and Longitude : Europe, 291 ; England and Wales, 300; Scotland, 306 ; Ireland, 310; France, 313; Spain, 319; Portugal, 323; Switzerland, 325; Belgium, 329; Holland, 331 ; Germany, 334; Aus- tria, 338 ; Vienna, 341; Prague, 342 ; Transylvania, 344 ; Prussia, 346 ; Denmark, 350 ; Sweden and Nor- way, .352 ; Russia, 356 ; Italy, 361 ; Corsica, 372 ; Island of Sicily. 374 ; Gibraltar, 377 ; Malta, 377 ; Io- nian Islands, 378 ; Greece, 380 ; Turkey. 384. Lisbon 323 Liverpool 304 Lodomeria 345 Lombardy 366 London _ 302 Lubec 335 Macedonia 385 Madrid, Capital of Spain........ » 319 Maelstrom 353 Magdeburg 347 Malta 377 Mantua 367 MANurACTURES : England and Wales, 305 ; Scotland, 308; Ireland, 311; France, 315; Spain. 321 ; Portu- gal, 324 ; Switzerland 327; Beleium, 330 ; Holland, 332; Germany. 336; Austria, 339; Bohemia, 342; Prussia, 348 ; Denmark, 351 ; Sweden and Norway, 354 ; Russia, 359 ; Greece, 381 ; Turkey, 386. Milan , .366 Military Frontier 344 Minerals : England and Wales, .305 ; Scotland, 308 ; Ireland. 311, France, 315; Spain, 321; Portugal, 324; Switzerland, 526; Belgium, 330; Germany, 336 ; Austria, 338 ; Hungary, 343 ; Transylvania, 344 ; Prussia, 348 ; Sweden and Norway, 354 ; Rufl- Bia, 359 ; Italy, 363 ; Turkey, 386. Modena 369 Moravia 342 Moscow 358 Mountains: Europe, 291 ; England and Walen, 300; Scotland, 307 ; Ireland, 310 ; France. 313 ; Spain, 320 ; Portucal, 323 ; Switzerland. 325 ; Belgium. 329 ; Germany, 334 ; Austria, 338 ; Hungary, 343 ; Tran- sylvania, 344 ; Prussia, 346: Sweden and Norway, 353 ; Russia, 356 ; Italy, 361 ; Sardmia, 365 ; States of the Church, 371 ; Naples, 372 ; Island of Sicily, 374 ; Greece, 380 ; Turkey, 384. Naples, kingdom of 372 Naples, City of 373 National Debt of Great Britain 297 Navy of Great Britain 295 Nice 365 Norway 352 Olmutz 342 Palermo 374 Papal States 370 Paris 314 Parliament, British 295 Parma 367 Peninsulas 291 Phillipopolis 385 Physical Aspect : Europe, 291 ; British Islands, 295 ; England and Wales, 300; Scotland, 306 ; Ireland, 310 ; France, 313 : Andorre, 319 ; Spain, 319 ; Portu- gal, 323 ; Smitzerland, 325 , Belgium. 329 ; Holland, 331; Germany, 335; Austria, 338; Hungary, 343; Transylvania, 344 ; Prussia, 34ii ; Denmark, 350 ; Sweden and Norway, 353 ; Russia, 356 : Italy, 361 ; Sardinia, 365 ; Venetian Lombardy, 366 ; Parma, 367 ; Modena, 369 ; Tuscany, 369 ; States of thi- Church, 371 ; Naples, .372 ; Island of Sicily, 374 ; Gibraltar, 377 ; Malta, 378 ; Greece, 380 ; Turkey, 384. Poland 345 Political Divisions : Europe, 294 ; England aud Wales, 304; Scotland, 309; Ireland, 312; France, 314; Spain, 321; Portugal, 323 ; Switzerland, 326; Germany, 335; Austria, 340; Prussia, 347 ; Sweden and Norway, 354 ; Russia, 357; Italy. 364; Naples, 373 ; Island of Sicily, 374 ; Turkey, 385. Pontine Marshes 362 Popes of Rome 371 Population : Europe, 294 ; England and Wales. 304 ; Scotland, 309 ; Ireland, 311 ; France, 316 ; Andorre, 319; Spain, 319; Portugal, 323; Switzerland. 326; Belgium, 330; Holland, 332; Germany. 335; .ius. tria, 339 ; Hungary, 343 ; Transylvania, 344 ; Military Frontier, ,345; Cracow, 345; Prussia, 347; Denmark, 350 ; Sweden and Norway, 354 ; Russia, 357 ; Italy, 363, 364 ; Gibraltar, 377 ; Malta and Gozo, 378 ; Greece, 381 ; Turkey, 386. Portugal 323 Potsdam in Prussia 347 Productive Resources : Ensland and Wales, 304 : Scotland, 308; Ireland, 312; France, 315: Spain, 321 ; Portugal, 324 ; Switzerland. 326 ; Belgium, 329 ; Holland, 332 ; Germany, 336 ; Austria, 338 ; Hungary, 343 ; Prussia. 347 ; Denmark, 351 ; Swe- den and Norway, 353 ; Russia, ,359 ; Italy, 363 ; Two Sicilies, 375 ; Greece, 381 ; l\irkcy, 386. Prussia 346 Railroads: England aud Wales, 305 : Scotland, 308 ; France, 315; Belgium, 330; Germany, 336: Russia, 359. Religion : Europe, 294 ; France. 316 ; Portugal, 324 ; Switzerland, 327 ; Germany, 3.35 ; Russia, 359 ; Italy, 363 : Greece. 381. RiVKRS : Europe, 293 ; England and Wales, 301 ; Scot- land, 307 ; Ireland, 310; Fiance, 313; Spain, ,320 ; Portugal, 323 ; Switzerlaad, .325 ; Belgium, 329 ; Hoi- land, 332 ; Germany, 334 ; Austria, 338 ; Tyrol, 342; INDEX TO ASIA- 11 Hungary, 343 ; Prussia, 346 ; Denmark, 350 ; Sweden and Norway, 353; Russia, 356; Italy, 362; Naples, 373 ; Greece, 380 ; Turkey, 384. Rome 370 Rulers: England and Wales, 306; Scotland, 309; France, 318 ; Spain, 322 ; Portugal, 325 ; Holland, 333; (iermany, 338; Prussia. 349 ; Denmark, 352; Sweden and Norway, 355 ; Russia, 360 ; States of the Church, 371 ; Turkey, 387. Russia 356 St. P-'tersburgh 358 Salonica. '. 385 Salzburgh .' 341 Sau Marino 372 Sardinia 365 Sardinia Island 366 Scandinavia 352 Scotland 306 Seas 293 Ser V ia 385 Sicilies, The Two 372 Silesia. 342 Soil. (See Productive Resources). Spain 319 States of the Church 370 Styria 341 Sweden 352 Switzerland 325 Tchermen 385 Temesvar, Duchy of 344 Thcfisaly 385 Transylvania 344 Trieste 341 Turin 365 Turkey 384 Tuscany 369 Tyrol 341 Venice 367 Venetian-Lombardy 366 Vienna — 34 1 Visa 385 Voralberg 341 Volcanoes 372 Wales 300 Zante 379 ASIA. Page. Acre 402 Afghanistan '. 4 12 Altai, or Golden Mountains 389 Anam 425 Animal Kingdom 391 Antiquities 423 Arabia 405 Area: Asia, .189, 392 ; Turkey, 393 ; Asia Minor, 394 ; Syria, 395 ; Arabia, 405 : Persia, 409 ; Afghanistan, 412; Beloochistan, 414 ; Hindostiin, 415; Ceylon, 422; Farther India. 424; China, 427; Independent Tartary, 434 ; Russia, 437 ; Japan, 440. Armenia 402 Asia Minor 394 Bays 406 Beloochistan 414 Bethlehem 40 1 Birmah 424 Bombay. 419 Bootan 42 1 Boundaries: Asia. 389; Turkey; 393; Asia Minor, 394 ; Syria, 395 ; Palestine, ,398 ; Arabia, 405; Persia. 409; Afghanistan, 412; Beloochistan, 414 ; Ilindos- tan, 415; China, 427; Independent Tartnry, 4.34; Russia, 437. British I nd ia 418 British Territories in Farther India 426 Cabul 413 Calcutta 418 Camphor- Tree 428 Canals in China 429 Candle-Tree in China 428 Canton, Commercial Capital of China 4.30 Ceylon 422 China 427 Cities and Chief Towns : Asia, 39? ; Turkey, 394 ; Palestine, 400; Arabia, 407; Persia, 410; Afghanis- tan. 413 ; Beloochistan. 414 ; Hindostan, 418 ; Ceylon, 422; Farther India, 424 ; China, 430; Independent Tartary, 435 ; Japan, 440. Civilization .page 392 Climate : Asia, 391 ; Turkey, 393 ; Syria, 396 ; Ara- bia, 406; Persia, 410; Afghanistan, 413 ; Beloochis- tan, 414 ; Hindostan, 417 ; Farther India, 424 ; China, 428 ; Independent Tartary, 435 ; Russia, 437 ; Japan, 440. Commerce : Syria, 396 ; Arabia, 408 ; Persia. 411 ; Affhaiiistan, 413; Beloochistan, 414; Hindostan, 419 ; China, 430; Independent Tartary, 436; Russia, 438 ; Japan, 442. Consular Ports of China 433 Corea 433 Damascus 402 Danish India 422 Deserts 389 Education: Persia, 411; Afghanistan, 413; Hindos- tan, 419 ; China, 431 ; Japan, 442. Farther Ind ia 424 French India 422 Government : Persia, 411 ; Afghanistan, 413 ; Beloo- chistan, 415; Hindostan, 420; China, 432; Japan, 443. Great Wall of China 429 Harbors 393,395 Himalaya Mountains 390 Hindostan 415 Hindu-koosh Mountains 434 History : Asia Minor, .395 ; Syria, 397 ; Arabia, 408 ; Persia, 411 ; Afghanistan, 413 ; Beloochistan, 415 ; Hindostan, 420 ; Ceylon, 423; China, 432; Indepen- dent Tartary, 434, 436 ; Russia, 439 ; Japan, 443. Independent Tartary 434 India 415 Irak-Arabi 405 Irkutsk 438 Islands 391, 395. 428, 440 Ispahan, Ancient Capital of Persia 410 Japan 440 Jerusal em 400 Kamtschatka 439 Koordistan 439 Lacadive Islands 323 Lakes : Asia, 390 ; Turkey, 393; Asia Minor, 394 ; Sy- ria, 396 ; Palestine, 399 ; Persia, 410 ; Afghanistan, 413 ; China, 428; Japan, 440. Languages 392, 396 Laos...'. 425 Latitude and Longitude : Turkey, 393 ; Arabia, 405; Persia, 409 ; Afghanistan, 412; Beloochistan, 414; Ceylon, 422; Farther India, 424 : China, 427; Independent Tartary, 434 ; Japan, 440. Malacca 426 Maldive Islands 423 Manufactures : Asia, 392 ; Persia, 411 ; Afghanistan, 413 ; Hindostan, 419 ; China, 429 ; Independent Tar- tary, 436 ; Japan, 442. Mesopotamia 404 Minerals: Asia, 391; Asia Minor, 395; Arabia, 407; Persia, 411; Afghanistan, 413; Beloochistan, 414; Hindostan, 419 ; Russia, 438 ; Japan, 442. Mountains : Asia, 389 ; Turkey. 393 ; Syria, 395 ; Pal- estine, 398 ; Arabia 405 ; Persia. 409 ; Afghanistan, 412; Hindostan. 416, 417; Ceylon, 422; Farther In- dia, 424; China, 427; Independent Tartary, 434; Russia, 4:i7 ; Japan. 440. Nanking, Ancient Capital of China 430 Nazareth 402 Nepaul 421 Ochotsk 439 Palestine 398 Peking. Capital of China 430 Persia 409 Phoenicia 402 Physical Aspect : Asia, 389 ; Turkey. 393 ; Asia Mi- nor, 394 ; Syria, 395; Arabia, 405; Persia. 409 ; Af- ghanistan, 412 ; Beloochistan, 414 : Hindostan, 416; Ceylon, 422; Farther India, 424 ; China, 427 ; Inde- pendent Tartary, 434 ; Russia, 437 ; Japan. 440, Political Divisions : Asia, 392 ; Turkey, 394 ; Syria, 396; Palestine, 398 ; Arabia, 407; Persia, 410 ; Hin- dostan, 418; Farther India. 424 ; China, 430 ; Inde- pendent Tartary, 435 ; Russia, 438 ; Japan, 440. Population : Asia, 392 ; Asia Minor, 395 ; Syria, 397 ; Palestine, 403 ; Arabia, 408 ; Persia, 411 ; Afghanis- tan, 412; Beloochistan, 392 ; Hindostan, 418; Cey- lon, 423; Farther India, 424; China, 430; Indepen- dent Tartary, 4,36 ; Japan, 442. Portuguese India 428 12 INDEX TO AFRICA AND OCEANICA Pboductive Resources : Asia, 392 ; Asia Minor. 394 ; Syria, 396; Arabia, 407 ; Persia, 410; Afghiiiiistan, 413; Beloochistan, 414; Hindoatan, 419; Ceyliui, 423 ; China, 428 ; Independent Tartary, 435 ; Russia, 437 ; Japan, 441. Races 392 Religion "Asia," 392; Syria, 396; Persia, 411; Hin- dostan, 419 ; China, 431 ; Independent Tartary, 436 ; Japan, 442. RiVEBs : Asia, 390 ; Turkey, 393 ; Asia Minor, 394 Syria, 396 ; Palestine, 399 ; Arabia, 406 ; Persia, 410 Afghanistan, 413 ; Beloochistan, 414 ; Hindostan, 4)7 Farther India, 424 ; China, 428 ; Independent Tar tary, 434 ; Russia, 437 ; Japan, 440. Russia 437 Seas., 399,406,435 Siam 424 Siberia 437 Syria 395 Table-Lands of Central Asia 389 Tabriz 410 Tartary 434 Tea-Plant, its Culture, &c 428 Teheran, Modern Capital of Persia 410 Tobolsk 438 Tomsk 439 Turkestan 434 Turkey 393 Upas, Fabled Valley of the 440 Vegetable Kingdom 391 Volcanoea , 390,440 AFKICA. Page. Abyssinia, 455 Alexandria 4.51 Algiers 458 Angola 469 Animal Kingdom 448 Antiquities 451, 459 Akka: Africa, 445, 449 ; Egypt, 450; Abyssinia, 455; Barbary States, 456; Tripoli, 459; Morocco, 460; Central Africa, 463 ; Liberia, 465 ; Southern Africa, 468 ; Eastern Africa, 469 ; South Africa, 470. Ashantee 465 Atlas Range of Mountains 445 Barbary States 456 Barra Somauli 470 Bechuanas 472 Benguela 4 69 Biafia 468 Boundaries : Africa, 445 : Egypt, 450 ; Abyssinia, 455 ; Barbary States, 456 ; Tunis, 457 ; Morocco. 460 ; Central Africa, 463; Senegambia, 463. Bourbon or Mascarenha 448 Catfraria 472 Cairo 451 Canal in Egypt 451 Cape Colony 471 Central Africa 463 Cities and Chief Towns: Africa, 449; Egypt, 451 ; Abyssinia, 455 ; Tripoli, 459 ; Morocco, 461 ; Liberia, 465 ; Natal, 473. Civilization 449 Climate : Africa, 448 ; Egypt, 450 : Abyesinia, 455 ; Barbary States, 457 ; Morocco, 461 ; Senegambia, 463 ; Liberia, 465 ; South Africa, 471. Commerce : Africa, 449 ; Egypt, 451 ; Barbary States, 457 ; Tripoli, 460 ; Morocco, 462 ; Soudan, 467. Congo 468 Dahomy 465 Eastern Africa 469 Education 452, 462, 467 Egypt : 450 Fejee Islands 4ti5 Fiiendly Islands 485 Gaboon 468 Government: Egypt, 452; Ti'ipoli, 460; Morocco, 462 ; Soudan, 467. Guinea 464 History : Egypt, 452 ; Abyssinia, 456 ; Barbnry States, 457 ; Algiers, 458 ; Tripoli, 460 ; Morocco, 462 ; Libe- ria, 465 ; Cape Colony, 471. Hottentot Country 471 Islands. 447, 463 Isle of France 448 Kartoun 454 Lakes : Africa. 447 ; Egypt, 450; Abyssinia. 455 ; Bar- bary States, 457 ; Senegambia. 463. Latitude and Longitude : Africa, 445 ; Egypt, 450 ; Abyssinia, 455; Barbary States, 456; Algiers, 458 ; Liberia. 465 ; Cape Colony, 471. Liberia 465 Loan go 468 Madagascar 447 Manufactures : Egypt, 451 ; Tripoli, 460 ; Morocco, 461 ; Soudan, 467. Mauritius, or Isle of France 448 Minerals 451, 455 Monrovia, Capital of Liberia 465 Morocco 460 Mountains : Atrica, 445, 446 ; Abyssinia, 455 ; Barbary States, 456 ; Liberia, 465. Mozambique 470 Natal 473 Niger 446 Ni le .' 446 Northern Africa 456 Nubia 453 Physical Aspect : Africa, 445 ; Egypt, 450 : Abys- sinia, 455; Barbary States. 456 ; Tripoli, 459 ; Mo- rocco, 461 ; Senegambia, 463 ; Guinea, 464 ; Sierra Leone, 464 ; Liberia, 465 ; Eastern Africa, 469 ; South Africa, 470. Political Divisions : Africa, 449 ; Esypt, 450 ; Abys- sinia, 455; Guinea, 464; Soudan, 466; Southern Af- rica, 468 ; Lower Guinea, 468 ; Natal, 473. Population 449, 452 Productive Resources: Egypt, 451 ; Abyssinia, 455; Tripoli, 460 ; Morocco, 461 ; Soudan, 467. Railroad in Egypt 451 Religion 449, 45.5, 462, 467 Rivers: Alrica, 446; Egypt, 450; Abyssinia, 455; Barbary States, 457 ; Senegambia, 463 ; Liberia, 465. St. Helena 447 Senegambia 463 Seychelles 448 Soudan 466 South Africa 470 Southern Africa 468 Tunis 457 Tripoli 459 Vegetable Kingdom 449 Zanguebar 470 Zoolu 473 OCEANICA. Paob. Adelaide, Capital of South Australia 480 Area: Oceanica, 474; Malaysia, 475; Borneo, 475; Java, 476; Sumatra, 476; Celebes, 476; Australia, 477 ; Van Diemen's Island, 481 ; New Zealand, 482 ; New Guinea, 483. Australasia 477 Australia 477 Australian Desert 478 Bays 478 Bonin Islands 485 Borneo 475 Caroline Islands 485 Celebes 476 Climate : Oceanica. 474 ; Australia, 478 ; Van Die- men's Island, 432 ; Polynesia, 485 ; Sandwich Islands, 487. Cook's Islands....: 486 Georgian Islands 486 Gold Region of Australia 479 Harbors 478 Hervey Islands 486 History : Oceanica, 474 ; Australia, 481 ; Van Die- men's Island, 482 ; New Zealand, 483 ; Sandwich Islands, 487. Ludrones 485 Language 474 Latitude and I.oNorruDK : Oceanica, 474 ; Austra- lia, 477 ; Van Diemen's Island, 481 ; New Zealand, 482 ; New Guinea, 483 ; New Hebrides, 484 ; New Caledonia, (fcc, 484. Malaysia 475 Marion Islands ■ 485 Marquesas Islands • 486 Melbourne, Capital of Victoria, Australia 480 Moluccas 476 Mountains : Oceanica, 474 ; Australia, 477; New Zea- land, 482 ; Sandwich Islands, 487. ILLUSTRATIONS. 13 Navigator's Islands page 486 New Britain 484 New Caledonia 484 New Guinea 483 New Hanover 484 New Hebrides 484 New Ireland 484 New South Wales 4"9 New Zeal and 482 Norfolk Island 481 Pclew Islands 485 Philippines 477 Physical Aspect : Oceanica, 474 ; Australia, 477 ; Van Diemen's Island, 482 ; New Zealand, 482: New Guinea, 483 ; Polynesia, 485 ; Sandwich Islands, 487. Pitcairn's Island 486 Political Divisions : Oceanica, 474 ; Australia, 479 ; Polynesia, 485; Sandwich Islands, 487. Polynesia 485 Population : Oceanica, 474 ; Malaysia, 475 ; Borneo, 475 ; Java, 476 ; SumaU-a, 476 ; Celebes, 476 ; Philip- pines, 477; Australia, 479; Van Dieman's Island, 482 ; New Zealand, 483. Sandwich Islands 487 Scattered Islands 488 Society Islands 486 Soliimon' s Islands 484 South Australia 480 Sumatra 476 Sydney, Capital of New South Wales 479 Tahiti 486 Van Diemen's Island or Tasmania 481 Victoria 479 Volcanoes 474, 476, 487 Washington Islands 486 Appendix : General View of Astronomy, 489 ; The So lar Sy.-=tem. 4S9 ; The Sun, 489 ; The Planets, 490 The Fixed Stars, 491 ; The Milky Way, 492 ; Nebu- liB, 492 : Comets, 492. Elements of Geology, 493 ; Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Rocks, &c., 494. ILLUSTRATIONS. Map of the "World, showiDg the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and embel- lished with Physiognomies of various Nations, Female Costumes of different Countries, %^ liMiiliiiiVI ,' i: I,, I ' I 'nil fe. »,j ,. KJ^A Ir, ivJjtl .H'llli'ii!"' I ; t ■ ■■''■iliil::i;;' -,, , '¥ 11:1 l| ' I !. '•■ I'll!" I'll ! l.i,rjn ' , ,i||;lif!l!;iii!i:i;|i'iiii^^ 18 DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. called its latitude, and being reckoned from the equator toward the nearest pole, it has either north or south latitude accordingly. No place can have more than 90 degrees of latitude, because the poles where they terminate are at that distance from the equator. The Seasons in which the sun apparently moves in the equator are termed equinoxes, because when he moves in it the day and night are equal over the whole earth. The seasons at which the declination of the sun is greatest are termed solstices, because his declination seems to remain stationary for a time. The circles in which he then moves are denomina- ted tropics, and are called tropics of Cancer and of Capricorn, because they pass through constellations so named in a zone called the Zodiac. The tropics and polar circles divide the earth into five zones : the torrid zone lies between the tropics, and is continually exposed to the vertical rays of the sim ; the temperate zones are comprised be- tween the tropics and polar circles — the rays of the sun fall on them more obIiqu<^ly ; and the frigid zones comprise the regions within the polar circles, which seldom receive the sun's rays, and then very obliquely. The Earth, at different Points of its Orbit around the Sun. Atmosphere. — The terrestrial globe is surrounded by an invisible and mtan- gible fluid which revolves with it, and whose extent above the surface of the earth has been variously estimated to be on an average from twenty to fifty miles. The atmosphere is composed of two distinct substances, viz., air, properly so called, and water in a state of vapor. According to recent experiments, air contains 20-8 of oxygen, and 79'2 of nitrogen, besides about three thousandths parts of carbonic gas, and traces of ammonial vapors, from which plants derive their nitrogenous contents. Air is capable of expansion by heat, and of com- pression hy cold ; consequently its weight or density differs according to its temperature, and is also temporarily affected by other causes. To vegetable DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. 19 and animal life it is equally essential ; by its means the extremes of heat and cold are tempered, and every clime rendered habitable to man ; without it there would be neither speech nor hearing, for by reason of the oxygen contained in the atmosphere it becomes a medium for the com'^eyance of sound. Winds are motions of air, principally caused by the apparently unequal dis- tribution of heat and cold over the globe ; by the motion 'of the earth in selation to the sun and moon ; and by the elevations of the land, and the extent of ocean; by these means the atmosphere is kept in constant motion, fit for the purposes of life, and the water which is raised by evaporation is wafted as clouds to va- rious districts, producing that never-ending change which marks all the opera- lions of the Creator. Within the tropics the general direction of the wind throughout the year is from the eastward ; in the temperate regions the aerial currents are more westerly. On the equator calms are prevalent ; but toward the tropics storms are of great violence, and are termed hurricanes, or typhoons. The periodic winds termed monsoons (from the Malay word mussin, season), in the Indian ocean and adjacent seas, blow from the southwest during six months, viz., April to October; and from the northeast during the other half of the year. Between the tropics and to the 28th or 32d degree there is a steady breeze called the passage or trade winds ; in the northern hemisphere they blow generally from the northeast, and in the southern hemisphere from the southeast. Near land they frequently follow the course of the coast. The velocity of the wind varies from a gentle breeze of 5 to 10 miles an hour, to a storm or hurri- cane of 80 to 100 miles an hour. Climate signifies the varieties of temperature and moisture in different coun- tries. The climate of any region must of course materially depend on the de- gree in which it receives the rays of the sun ; and the zones into which the earth has consequently been divided have been enumerated. This division, ■ however, can afford but a very imperfect idea of the temperature of any region, because local circumstances often cause great differences of climate between countries in the same parallels of latitude : for instance, there is a differ- ence of 19 degrees Fahrenheit in the mean annual temperature of Main at Lab- rador, on the northeast coast of America, and of Sitka, on the northwest coast, both in the same parallel. The line of perpetual snow not only varies in differ- ent latitudes, but also in the same parallel under different circumstances : thus, on the south side of the Himalaya mountains vegetation ceases at 12,000 feet above the sea, and on the north slopes green crops are found at 15,000 feet above the sea. The snow-line within the tropics is about 16,000 feet, but at 80 degrees from the equator there is almost constant congelation at the ocean level. Islands and coast districts generally enjoy a more moderate climate than the interior of continents, because the ocean preserves an equable temperature, which it communicates to the adjacent country. The climate of any region is greatly influenced by the height and position of its mountains, the peculiarities of its soil, the prevailing winds, the amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and espe- cially by the degree of elevation above the le.vel of the sea. A description of the climates of different countries will be given under their separate heads. Geology. — The structure of this earth, with which we are but very imper- fectly acquainted, confirms, so far as it has been ascertained, the Mosaic account of its creation and preparation during successive ages — the Hebrew word translated "day," signifying also "period," or ** state." What countless ages may have passed while this globe was being cooled, clothed with herbage, and covered with animal life, before the formation of man on the sixth and conclu- sive period of creation, is not permitted us to know. The crust of the earth is supposed to be about thirty miles in thickness, and as the mean density of the globe, estimating it at rather more than double that of granite, is not quite five sevenths that of iron, not half that of silver, not a 20 DESCRIFnON OF THE EARTR THE WORLD ON A POLAR PROJECTION-NORTHEN HEMISPHERE. quarter that of gold — the interior is most probably a fluid or gas, possessing a degree of heat greater than any with which we are acquainted. Water drawn from springs or veins of water with which the earth is everywhere intersected, and which lie under the surface as the blood-vessels beneath the skin in the human frame, is found to increase in heat according to the depth from which it is taken. , . j r v Mineralogy. — Not only were varieties of stone, and abundance of hme, provided for the construction of habitations, but the earth was also stored with metals, without which man could not have advanced in civilization. Iron, as the most useful, is the most abundant. Copper, lead, zinc, tin, silver, gold, and platina, are found in various regions. There are also varieties of semi-metals. Coal, which is so indispensable, exists probably at greater or less depth in every part of the globe, and is generally found near the seashore. The Ocean, which constitutes about three fourths of the superficies of the earth, or 150,000,000 square miles, is of various depths, the average being about three miles. Its profundity is probably equal to the height of the land above its surface. The greatest depth would therefore be about five miles. DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. 21 THE WORLD ON A POLAR PROJECTION-SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. The A'itality of the ocean is preserved by the constant motion to which it is subjected by the tides, by currents, and by the moveinents of the atmosphere ; but during the most violent storms the agitation does not extend lower than fifty feet. The tides are by some mysterious law connected with the attraction of the moon, and are highest at its new and full. Every twelve hours in the day the sea rises to its greatest height, and remains stationary for about six minutes. There is therefore high and low water on every tidal shore in the world twice every twenty-four hours, varying at the periods of ebb and flow according to the portion of the earth which is turned toward the moon. The Land. — Estimating the superficies of this globe at somewhat less than 200,000,000 square miles, only about one fourth consists of land, of which the largest portion is in the northern hemisphere. The land is composed princi- pally of two large tracts, one of which is subdivided into the continents of North and South America, and the other into those of Europe, Asia, and Africa. America, which is 9,000 miles long, is insulated from the other three great divisions : Europe and Asia are conterminous, and the latter is joined to Africa by the isthmus (Suez). The proportions of land in the different divisions is 22 DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. about— Asia, 20,000,000; Africa, 12,000,000; America, 11,000,000; Europe, 4,000,000; and Australasia, 3,000,000 — equal to 50,000,000 square miles. Doubtless the arrangement of earth and ocean, of mountains, plains, lakes, and rivers, has not been left to chance, and is in unison with the laws which are evident in every other part of creation. It would seem, from the great ex- tent of ocean, that it was intended, in addition to its other purposes, to serve as a highway for man, as almost every country borders somewhere on the sea. The most marked features of the earth are its lofty mountains, extensive lakes, and vast rivers. The highest mountain chains are those of ^he Himalaya, in India, which rise in one part to about five miles in altitude, the Andes, in South America, the Altai, in Asia, the Honan, in China, the Caucasian ridge, in Mes- opotamia, the Rocky mountains. North America, and the Alps, in Switzerland. North America possesses the largest fresh- water lakes in the world. Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, cover an area of about 150,000 square miles. Superior, which covers 55,000 square miles, and has an ave- rage depth of 1,000 feet, is about 627 feet above the sea. The rivers of North America are also of great extent. In South America the Andes extend along the west coast, and the country then descends by successions of steppes, or table-lands, to the east coast, affording space for the great rivers Amazon, Ori- noco, and the Parana, or Plate. The table-land of Mexico is about 7,000, that of Quito, 8,000, and that of Riobomba, 10,000 feet above the sea. Asia has a varied surface, and its mountain ridges and rivers are more extensive than those in any other part of the globe. The Himalaya ridge may be termed the back- bone of the earth ; between this ridge and that of the Altai mountains there is a table-land 10,000 feet above the sea. The rivers of Asia are of vast extent. Africa is chiefly distinguished by vast deserts, especially in the northern portion. The rivers Niger, Congo, and Nile, are its chief streams. Europe presents a greater variety of surface than any of the above-named quarters, and although neither its mountains, rivers, or lakes are equal in extent to those of America, Asia, or Africa ; yet, by reason of its position, temperate climate, and fertility of soil, it is the most useful and the most beautiful quarter of the globe. A great plain with no marked elevations extends from the German ocean east and north, comprising Denmark, Holland, Belgium, parts of France, Germany, Poland, and the greater portion of European Russia. But all the other regions, including Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Portugal, northern France, Hungary, Styria, Carynthia, Greece, and Turkey in Europe, are more or less elevated, and com- prise the most picturesque scenery and cultivated regions of the earth. The prominent ridges are the Alps, Pyrenees, Apennines, and Carpathian moun- tains. The Ural chain of mountains, so rich in mineral wealth, form the bound- ary between Europe and Asia, and have an elevation of 3,000 to 6,000 feet. Great Britain and Ireland present, on a smaller scale, all the leading features of the adjacent continent, in respect to their mountains, lakes, and rivers. The highest peaks in the United Kingdom are, Ben Nevis, in Scotland ; Snowdon, in Wales ; M'Gillicuddy's reeks, in Ireland, and Skiddaw, in England. The largest rivers of Europe are the Danube, Dneiper, Rhine, Loire, Elbe, and Rhone. The largest lakes in Europe are those of Ladoga, Onega, and Geneva. As the physical features of each country will be separately described, there is no necessity for giving further detail here. Australasia, which has been termed the ffih quarter of the globe, is as yet imperfectly known. It includes the largest island in the world, Australia, or New Holland, which is about 2,400 miles in length, and about ] ,300 in breadth ; and also Van Dieman's Land, New Zealand, and several smaller islands. The rich and beautiful Eastern Archi- pelago, comprising Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Moluccas, New Guinea, am! other islands, are the links in a chain of insular communication between Asia and Australasia. DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. 23 Vegetable Kingdom. — The A'egetable productions of the earth are almost numberless ; 75,000 species are known to botanists, ana offer striking evidence of the wisdom of the Creator, by their marvellous adaptation to the varying soil and climate of the regions to which they are indigenous. The plants most generally diffused over the surface of the globe are those most serviceable to man, and to the herbivorous animals, viz. : the grasses, and wheat, barley, oats, and rye, which are almost universal. The vegetation of the torrid zone is re- markable for its richness and variety ; among the most useful products are rice, sugar, coffee, cocoa, spices, cotton, indigo ; the most valuable medicinal plants, delicate fruits, beautiful cabinet woods, and enduring ship-building tim- ber, (teak and poon), are obtained in the tropical regions. Tea, tobacco, and the mulberry, are the products of countries bordering on the tropics ; in the temperate zones, grain, edible roots (such as the potato), fruits, flax, and timber, abound. As the general average it may be said, that in countries north of 80° latitude, there are about thirty known species of plants ; in the countries between the 80th and 60th parallel, about 600 ; about the 52d parallel, 1,000 ; in the 54th parallel, 2,000 ; in the 45th, about 3,000, and in- creasing in numbers as we approach the tropics. The ocean also contains nu- merous. species of marine plants. Animal Kingdom. — Every portion of the earth, air, and ocean teems with animated life, and, as in the vegetable kingdom, the greatest number and variety are found in the torrid zone. The known classified species of animal life are in round numbers — mammalia, 300; birds, 2,600; amphibia, 400; fish, 1,000; insects, 800; vermes, 4,000. The animals domesticated for the use of man, viz., the horse, ass, ox, sheep, and goat, are widely disseminated, and found in or adapted for every zone. The camel, or " ship of the desert," is peculiar to Africa and Asia, as is also the elephant. The carnivorous animals are chiefly found in the torrid zone. In Europe, with the exception of wolves, there are none but herbivorous quadrupeds. Dogs and cats seem to belong to all regions. Among birds, the domestic fowl, ducks and geese, are found in the torrid, as well as temperate zones. The ocean everywhere abounds with food for man. Man, the lord of the animal creation, )ias a constitution which enables him to live in every climate. Though sprung from a common origin, long residence in particular climates under particular circumstances have given distinctive char- acters to the race. In color, they vary from the fair complexion and light eyes of northern Europeans, to the yellow-colored tribes of China, the red American In- dian, the olive Malay, and the black African. The hair also differs remarkably, being in some races soft and flowing, in others crisp, resembling wool, in others scanty and wiry. The form of the skull and of the limbs is also liable to consid- erable variation ; the head of some races being oval, of others pyramidal, and of others flat with a receding forehead. The best ethnologists reckon five princi- pal varieties. 1. The Caucasian race comprises nearly all Europe and the north of Africa,. together with all Asia, from the Ganges to the Mediterranean, as far north a.s a line drawn from the Himalaya mountains to the Oxus and the Ural. They have also displaced the original races in the United States and Canada, and oa the coasts of Australia and South Africa, and have become largely intermixed with them throughout Mexico and the greater part of South America. They have always comprised the nations most advanced in civilization, and have in- cluded Jews, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and the nations of Modern Europe. The characteristics of the Caucasian race are, an ov.il head, high forehead, small mouth, and generally flowing hair. In color tJiey differ very widely, from the fairest complexion to swarthy, and even quite' black. And it is observable that among the Jews, a single tribe of this great family, and that the one least altered by intermarriages with other people, and •Jl DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. CAUCASIAN. MONGOLIAN. the one whose history can be best traced, the varieties of color are of every shade, from the lightest to the darkest. So that the color of the skin may be entirely rejected from the consideration of race, and may be attributed vs^holly to climate and external circumstances. 2. The Mongolian, or Chinese race, occupies the remainder of Asia, with the exception of the Malay peninsula and the adjacent districts. The Finns and Lapps of the extreme north of Europe, and probably the Basques of Spain, and the Esquimaux of North America and Greenland, be- long also to this family. The char- acteristics of the Mongolian are, eyes obliquely set and small, head pyramidal above the cheek bones, which are wide, and render the face larger in proportion to the head, than it is in Europeans. The color is commonly a yellow olive, more or less dark, and the hair scanty, but wiry, though in some Mongolian tribes it is abundant. 3. The American race, or red In- dians, are not at all uniformly of that dull red color which is pecu- liar to many of their tribes. Some are dark nearly to blackness, and some so fair as to vie with Euro- peans. The eyes are deeply set, and the beard commonly nearly want- AMERICAN. j"g- '^^^y originally occupied the DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. 25 APBICAN. MALAY. whole continent of America with the exception of the extreme north, but a mixed race has arisen in Peru, Brazil, and Mexico, from the infusion of Span- ish and Portuguese settlements ; and European colonization has nearly effaced the last traces of aboriginal American blood in the United States and Canada. 4. The whole of Africa below the Sahara and Abyssinia is occupied by the negro race, unless we except the European settlements about the Cape of Good Hope, which are gradually driving the Hottentots and Bushman tribes north- ward. The latter vary in some respects from the negro races, but have been included under the same family. The aborigines of Australia have been con- sidered also to belong to the negro race rather than to the Malays. The dis- tinctive characteristics are, a low forehead, protruding lips, and crisp hair, but these features are by no means constant, and vary greatly in different tribes. 5. The Malay race extends over the Malay peninsula, and the adjacent islands, Madagascar, and a great part of the Pacific. Their characteristics are, the head narrow, the hair black, flowing, and abundant. In mentioning these varieties of the human family, it is not to be understood that the type is so strongly defined as to admit of no gradations, much less that there is any distinction so permanent as not to admit of modification, by differ- ing circumstances. Social Divisions. — With respect to their social state, men may be divided into four classes, viz., savage, barbarian, half-civilized, and civilized. 1. In the savage state, men subsist by hunting, fishing, and the spontaneous productions of the earth ; and hence are usually thinly scattered over a wide country, rude, ignorant, and destitute of most of the comforts of life. To this class belong the American Indians, and a great part of the negroes in Africa and Australasia. 2. In the barbarous state, subsistence is derived chiefly from pasturage and rude agriculture ; and men in this state usually live in tents, and wander from place to place with their flocks and herds. The Arabs, Tartars, and Malays in Asia, and the Moors of Northern Africa, are in the barbarous state. 26 DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. 3. Among the half-civilized nations, agriculture and some of the finer manu- factures are carried on with great care, and to a very high degree of perfection, but foreign commerce is ahuost unknown. The Chinese, Japanese, Hindoos, Persians, and Turks, are half-civilized nations. 4. In the civilized state, science, the arts, and all the various institutions and arrangements of society, are in a highly improved form. Europeans, and their descendants generally, are regarded as civilized, but the degrees of civilization are very different in different countries. Population. — The population of the world is in round numbers about 1,030,000,000, who' are distributed in the following proportions : — Asia and Australasia, 625,000,000 ; Europe, 250,000,000 ; Africa, 100,000,000 ; Amer- ica, 55,000,000. The following is Hassell's enumeration by races : Cauca- sian, 436,625,000 ; Mongolian, 389,310,000 ; Malayan, 32,000,000 ; Ethiopian, 69,633,000; American Indians, 10,287,000 ; — Total, 937,855,000. Government. — The forms of government into which conlmunities are divi- ded, are despotisms, constitutional monarchies, and republics ; of the whole population of the world, not one twentieth enjoy constitutional freedom. The languages spoken are very numerous. Dr. Pritchard estimates them at 2,000. The principal religious creeds are the Christian, Jewish, Mohammedan, Hin- du and Buddhist. The professing Christians are in number about 200,000,000 ; the Jews are estimated at 5,000,000; the Mohammedans, about 150,000,000; the Hindus at 50,000,000 ; the Buddhists about an equal number ; and the re- maining population of the earth consists of various pagan and polytheistic sects. COMPARATIVE VIEW OF VARIOUS ERAS. The year of the Vulgar or Christian Era, 1853, corresponds -with the 1857th from the Birth of Christ, ; with the latter part of the 77th, and beginning of the 78th of the Independence of the United States of America, which was declared Thursday, July 4, 1776; with the close of the 122'2d of the Persian era, which began Tuesday, June 19, N. S., 632, A. D. (the years of this era begin now on the 29th of August) ; with the latter part of the 1269th of the He- gira or Mohammedan era ; with the 1301st of the Armenian Ecclesiastical year; with the 1569th of the Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs ; with the 1891st of the Era of the Casars, or Spanish Era; with the 1898th of. the Julian Era, or since the reformation of the calendar of Numa Pompilius, by Julius Csesar; with the 2165th of the Grecian Era of the Seleucides; with the 2602d of the Babylonish Era of Nabonassar, used by Hipparchus and Ptolemy (this Era dates from Wednesday, February 18th, N. S. 747 B. C, according to Chronologers, or 746 B. C, according to Astronomers. The years contained 365 days only, and have^conse quently, now advanced upon the Gregorian year 628 days. The 2602d year begins Mav 30, 1853); with the 2606th (according to Varro) of the old Roman Era A. U. C. ; with the 26'29th of the Olympiads, or the latter part of the 4th year of the 657th, and beginning of the first of the 658th Olympiad of 4 years ; with the 3868th of the era of Abraham, used by Eusebius ; with the 4201st from the Deluge, according to Usher and the English Bible); with the4955th of the Cali Yuga, or Hindu and Indian Era, which dates from the Deluge; with the 4250th of the Chinese, or the 50th of their 7 1st cycle; with the 5613th from the Creation of the World, according to the Minor Era of the Jews, or the 6212th, according to tbe Greater Rabbinical Era of the Jews; with the 6081st, according to Eusebius; with the 5797th, ac- cording to Scaliger; with the 5857th, according to Usher and the English Bible; with the 7S45th, according to the Antiochian and Abyssinian Eras; with the 7355th, according to the Alexandrian Era; with the 7361st, according to the Era of Constantinople, used by the Byzantine Historians. There are about 140 difi'erent eras i-especting the age of the world; some claiming it to be more than three millions of years old. Julius Africanus, following the Septuagint version of the Bible, which is the most reliable authority for chronology that is known, makes the Creation to have taken place on the 1st of the Jewish month Tisri, 5508 years B. C, or 7361 years ago. A GEKEEAL YIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE EARTH. Name. Missouri. Mississippi. The Nile. The Amazon, Maranon, So- limoens, or Orel] an a. Niger, Qnor- ra, or Joliba. Length. 4200 3200 3800 3600 ObL Madeira or Mamore. 3000 2600 2570 Source and Course. Rises in an elevated valley of the Rocky mountains, be- tween 42° and 48° north lati- tude. Some of its sources are within a mile of those of the Columbia. Course first north, then east, southeast and south. Rises in 47° 10' north lati- tude, about 150 miles west of Lake Superior. Course mostly to the south. Two streams aspire to be called the "true" Nile. The Abyssinian or Blue Nile rises 60 miles south of Lake Tzane or Dembea, and, bending grad- ually to the north, is joined by the White Nile, which rises near the equator, in the un- known interior of Africa, and thence flows with a course chiefly north. Humboldt determines the source in Lake Lauricocha, 3° among the Andes of Peru, about 100 miles from the shores of the Pacific. Course, first north-northwest, then to the east. Believed by Laing to rise in the Kong mountains, about 180 miles north-northwest of Cape Mount. First ascertained by Park, to flow from west to east. The last part of its course is to the south. Near the frontiers of China, from the Altai chain of moun- tains. Course through Siberia, chiefly northwest and north. Mountains of Cochabamba, in the western part of Bolivia. Course various ; Southeast and east, then north and northeast. Termination and Character. Joins its associate the Mississippi, 3,000 miles from its source, the latter, thence, though contributing but one fifth its volume of water, gives name to the main trunk, which terminates in the gulf of Mexico, where it forms a swampy delta 120 miles wide. Eminent geog- raphers consider this the main trunk of a vast system of rivers, whose basin is 1,400,000 geographical square miles. Lower part of its course subject to great inundations. Navigation impeded by sandbars and driftwood. Mediterranean sea by two chief mouths. A narrow river, watering one long valley. Receives no tributary for 1,350 nautical miles. Course obstructed by rapids in Nubia for 100 miles. Reaches its maximum of inundation in October. Banks thickly peopled. No river more honored than this. Infested by crocodiles and hippopotami Enters the Atlantic ocean by a mouth whose clear width is 150 miles. Though not the longest, is the broadest and most majestic river in the world, having a basin of 1,412,880 square miles. Navi- gation unimpeded to the Andes. It has a number of large tributaries. In the gulf of Guinea, by an extensive delta, not surveyed. Its termination long a problem ; first determined by two brothers of the name of Lander, who, navigating it downward from Boussa, where Park met his fate, came to the sea by a mouth called Nun. In the sea of Obi, an estuary of the Arctic ocean. Course very meandering. Basin 1,040,000 square miles. All the Siberian rivers are subject to great floods. Joins the Amazon. Is the longest tributary river in the world. Of wide and powerful current. Blocked by isles and rapids for 350 miles of its course. Flows through unexplored regions. 28 PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE EARTH. Name. Length. YenneseL Mackenzie. Yang-t?e-ki- ang, or Kianku. Volga. Irtish. Parana or La Plata. Lena. Hoang-ho or Yellow. St Lawrence. 2500 2440 2300 2300 Rio Grande del Norte. Orinoco. 2300 2200 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 Source and Course. In Chinese Tartary, in the great Altai chain. Its course through Siberia is more di- rectly north than the Obi. At the west of Great Slave lake, through which it flows. Course eccentric in its earlier part, ultimately north-north- east. From the southern part of the great Gobi desert in Cen- tral Asia — a region prolific in mighty streams. Course south- east, east, and northeast From the heights of Valdai, in the government of Tver, in Russia. Course to all points ; chiefly east, southeast and south. Rises in China. It flows west into Nor-zaizan lake, then north through Siberia. In a chain of mountains south of Villa Rica, in the gov- ernment of Minas Geraes, in Brazil. Flows to all points, chiefly southwest and south. Rises '70 miles north of Bai- kal lake, in Siberia. Course varies, northeast and east ; finally, near Yakutsk, turns to the north. In Central Asia, 300 miles to the east of the Yang-tse- kiang. Course very eccen- tric, chiefly to the east May be considered to rise above Lake Superior, in the table-land of the Huron coun- try, near the sources of the Mississippi. It forms the out- let to the five great lakes of North America. Its course from Lake Ontario is north- east Rises in 40" north latitude, near the source of the Arkan- sas, in the Sierra Madre. General direction south and southeast Sources in 4" north latitude in the Sierra Parima. Runs first southwest, then west, and bends gradually to the north and northeast Termination and Character. Forms a long estuary in reaching the Arctic ocean. Enters the Arctic ocean by many mouths. First navigated by Mackenzie, 1789. Communicates with a vast sys- tem of lakes, by its various tributaries, in a district little known. Enters the Tung Huan, or Eastern sea, 150 miles below Nanking, and is 20 miles wide at its mouth. Is the largest river of the Old World. Flows through countries little known to Europeans. Discharges itself below Astrachan, into the Caspian sea, through an archi- pelago of islands. Its basin 482,464 square miles. Channel very tortuous-; often impeded by banks and shallows. Overflows in March. Joins the river Obi at Samarov, in 61" north latitude. Is the greatest trib- utary stream of the Old World. Forms, with the Uruguay, the wide and celebrated estuary called Rio de la Plata. Much impeded by islets and banks. Mouth near five miles wide. Its basin 1,146,640 square miles. Enters the Arctic ocean in 71° north, with a wide channel. Remarkable for its fossil remains. Enters the Hoang-hai or Yellow sea. The Great Wall of China touches this river twice. Pours an immense volume of water into the Atlantic — 90 miles wide at its mouth. Navigable for ships of a large class 1,000 miles. From the sea to Mon- treal it is called the St Lawrence ; thence to Kingston, in Canada West the Catasaqui or Iroquois; between Lakes Ontario and Erie it is called the Niagara, whose cataracts are the most remarkable in the world : between Lakes Erie and St Clair the Detroit ; between Lakes St Clair and Huron, the St Clair ; and between Lakes Huron and Superior, the Narrows or Falls of St Mary. Enters the gulf of Mexico at Mata- moras. Navigable for steamboats about 700 miles. In the lower part of its course forms the boundary line between Mexico and the United States. Debouches into the Atlantic, by nu- merous outlets, of which the widest is six miles. Humboldt ascertained its bifurcation and communication by the Cassiquiare with the Rio Negro. Tide felt 250 miles inland. Abounds with crocodiles and mosquitoes. PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE EARTH, 29 Name. J:*glialien or Amour. Iii'lus or Siudh. Euphrates or El Fraat. Danube or Donau. Ucayale or Paro. St. Francisco. Xingu or Gintchu. Columbia. Cambodia. Brahmapoo- tra. Gaiigea. Tocantins. Length. 1800 1700 1700 1700 1700 1600 1600 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 Source and Course. In Chinese Tartary, from a branch of the Altai mountains. General course east and north- east. Formed by two streams which unite north of the Him- alaya mountains. One, the Leh, rises near the Brahma- pootra ; the other descends from the Kara mountains. In- tersects the Hindu-koosh, and runs to the southwest Rises in the southern bases of the sacred Ararat. Course varied, west, south, and south- east. Rises in the mountains of the Black Forest, in Baden, near the town of Villingen. Itsgeneral course is to the east. Rises in 18° south latitude, near La Paz. Flows west and northwest, through Peru. In the Sierra Canastra, in the province of Minas Geraes, in Brazil. Flows north, north- east, and east. In 15° south latitude, in the province of Matto Grosso, in Brazil. Flows to the north, inclining east. In the great range of the Rocky mountains, nearly op- posite the source of the Mis- souri. Flows to every point of the compass. Proper di- rection west. Descends from the table- land of Central Asia, from th<5 neighborhood of the Yang-tse- kiang. It pursues, with no great deviatlon.s, a course to the south-southeast. Rises in Thibet, on the northern side of the great Himalaya mountains. The course of this river is very eccentric ; it is mostly east and south. Descends in perpetual cas- cades from the icy summits of the Himalaya. Course cir- cuitous, southeast^ and east Rises in the Brazilian Pyr- enees. Course chiefly north. Termination end Cbaracter. Flows through countries little known, into a gulf opposite a large island of its own name, whence the waters commu- nicate with the seas of Japan and Ochotsk. Has a basin of 856,944 square miles. Forms a delta of 80 miles at its en- trance into the Indian ocean. Ordinary breadth at Bunnar, one mile. Stream- foul and rapid. Channel uncertain. Waters regular in their inundation, re- turn, and quantity. Breadth of the swell, about five miles from the bank. Early part of its course not well ascer- tained. Discharges itself into the Persian gulf. Stream rapid and not clear. Subject to overflow. No river earlier known, or more famous. It is one of the rivers of Paradise. Dischai'ges its waters into the Black sea, by three great mouths. Current rapid. Navigated to Ulm. In Walla- chia, its navigation is greatly obstructed by rapids and sandbars. Has a basin of 230,768 square miles, and receives more than 100 tine tributaries. Joins the Amazon in Peru, South America. Enters the Atlantic ocean, near Ser- gippe, by one wide mouth. Confined to one broad vale, between two chains of mountains. Pours its waters into the estuary of the Amazon. Course very meandering. Pacific ocean, by a mouth five miles in width. Remarkable for its bends. Channel 960 yards over at its junction with the Lewis. Navigation obstructed by timber, and by two series of falls or shoots. Subject to inundation. In the Chinese seas, below Cambodia. Has a large delta. Three principal mouths very wide. Said not to be nav- igable more than 950 miles from its mouths, on account of its falls. Discharges its waters into the bay of Bengal, in union with those of the Ganges. Its waters are holy. Is a very wide stream, with few tributaries. Bay of Bengal, by numerous outlets, forming a multitude of low wooded islands. Waters are sacred. Stream wide and noble. Subject to periodical inundation. Navigation easy for more than 1,300 miles. Enters the Atlantic ocean by a great estuary, called Rio Para. 30 PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE EARTH. Name. Arkansas. Tongouska. Ohio. Paraguay. Negro. Length. 1500 1500 1380 Source and Course, 1300 1260 Irawaddyor 1200 Arah-wah-tee Red or Roxo. Araguay. Tapajos. Pelcomayo. Tigris. Colorado of the Pacific. Jihoon, Amoo, or Oxus. Don. Dneiper. Uruguay. Platte or Nebraska. 1150 1150 1150 1150 1140 1100 1100 1100 1000 1000 1000 In the Sierra Madre of the Rocky mountains. Its course is east and southeast. Rises about 100 miles west of the Lena. Course, semicir- cular, north, northwest, and west. Formed by a junction of the two rivers Monongahela and Allegany at Pittsburgh ; the last of which issues from a small lake near Lake Erie. General course southwest. In the mountains of Matto Grosso in Brazil. It has a course to the south. Source in the province of Caguan, in New Grenada, not ascertained. Flows first to the east, afterward south, and then southeast. In Central Asia, near the Cambodia. Flows mostly to the south, through theBirman empire. In the Rocky mountains. Flows east and southeast. In the Brazilian Pyrenees. Course to the north. Flows through the Indian Territory and state of Arkansas into the Missis- sippi, at latitude 33° 30'. Is a potent tributary to the Yennesei, nto which it pours its waters, in Sibe- ria, in 65° north latitude. Termination and Character. In the Cerro Parexis, m Brazil. Flows to the north. In the Andes of Charcas, north of Potosi, in Bolivia Course east and southeast. Rises in the chain of Mount Taurus, about 85 miles north of Diarbekr, in Asiatic Turkey. General course southeast. In the Rocky mountains, in 43° north latitude, and pur- sues a southwesterly course. In Lake Sirikel, in the Hin- du-koosh mountains. Course chiefly northwest. Rises in the province of Tu- la, in Russia. Flows to all points; proper direction to the south. In the northern part of the Russian government of Smo- lensk. Direction, south, south- west, and southeast. In the Brazilian coast range. Course west, southwest, and south. Has its source near that of the Arkansas, in the Rocky mountains. Its course is to the east Falls into the Mississippi in 37° north latitude, where it is one mile wide. A broad and noble stream, of inestimable advant.nge to American commerce. Ob- structed by falls and rapids for about two miles at Louisville, but which is avoided by Louisville and Portland canal. Course very sinuous. Joins the Parana at Corriente.i. Re- ceives abundant tributaries on all sides, and dilates for 150 miles of its course into the resemblance of a lake. Enters the river Amazon by a delta of three mouths. This river receives from the Orinoco the branch called Cassiqui- are, which connects, for purposes of commerce and communication, the ba- sins of the Orinoco and Amazon. In the Indian ocean, by a great many mouths. Has few tributaries ; yet is a very wide rivei*. Its banks are thickly peopled. Joins the Mississippi in Louisiana. Unites itself with the river Tocantins. Flows through countries little known or settled. Enters the Amazon at Santarem, in 1° south latitude. Joins the Paraguay below the city of Assumption, on the western border of Paraguay. Joins the Euphrates at Koorna. Its course is exceedingly sinuous. Famous in early history. Water sweet, though turbid. Discharges itself into the Gulf of Cal- ifornia. Flows through a country des- titute of timber. Discharges itself into the sea of Aral by two principal mouths. Discharges its waters through the sea of A^of into the Black sea. Enters the Black sea below Kherson, in one great stream. Navigation ob- structed by rapids in Ekatheiinoslav. Terminates in tlie estuary of the Rio de la Plata, in conjunction with the Rio Parana. Runs into the river Missouri. Forms the northern boundary of the Indian territory. Can be forded at almost any point in low stages of water. PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE EARTH. 31 Name Lenf^h. Colorado de Mendoza. 960 Magdalena. 950 UraL 950 Jumna. 960 Thulean. 920 Nerbuddah. 900 Putumayo or lea. 900 Source and Course. Tennessee. Pur us. Petchora. Oula or Songari. Rhine. Canadian. Vermejo. Coejueta or Tapura. Senegal. Godavery. 900 900 900 900 860 850 800 800 800 800 From volcano of Coquimba, in the Chilian Andes. Gen- eral course southeast, through the Argentine republic. In the Paratno de las Papas, in the province of Neyva, in New Grenada. General course north. From the Ural mountains, north of Ouralsk. Proper course south, in the middle west. In the Himalaya mountains. Course forms the segment of a circle-southwest to southeast. Has its source in Thibet, and runs to the south. Near Ajmeergur, in Central India. Flows to the west. From the Andes of Ecuador. Flows east and southeast In the Allegany mountains, Virginia. Course to all points, properly west and north.. In the mountains of Peru, about 12° south latitude. Its course is northeast. From the Ural mountains, in the north of the province of Perm, in Russia. Proper direction north and west. In Manchuria. Flows south- east, and northeast. Has its springs in Mount St. Gothard, in the Grisons, Swit- zerland. True direction to the northwest Termination and Character. In the Rocky mountains. Course south and east. In the Andes, near south- western border of Bolivia. Course varies from east to southeast. In the Andes of Popayan, New Grenada. Course south- east and east. Rises in the highlands of Mendingo, in Africa. Course is semicircular, east, north, northwest, and west Rises in the Ghaut mount- ains, in Ilindostan, about 20' north latitude. General direc tion east and southeast Discharges itself into the South Atlan- tic ocean, in latitude 39° 30' south, and longitude 64° west from Greenwich, Enters the Caribbean sea by many mouths. Navigation unobstructed up to Honda. Often a mile wide after its union with the Cauca. Infested with crocodiles and gnats. Enters the Caspian sea. For a part of its course it forms the dividing line between Europe and Asia. Flows into the Ganges at Allahabad, in Hindostan. Enters the Indian seas at Martaban. Almost without a tributary of any con- sequence. Enters the Arabian gulf through the gulf of Cambay. Joins the Amazon, in Brazil. Enters the Ohio, with the Mississippi. near its junction Discharges into the above the Rio Negro. river Amazon, Enters the Arctic ocean, through an archipelago of low isles Main channel 20 miles wide at the mouth. Joins the river Amour, in Chinese Tartary. Course is winding. Enters the North sea or German ocean. Remarkable for its noble origin in the High Alps, and its mean termi- nation in the dikes of Holland. At Schanke, its chief waters go into the Meuse, by the Waal; but the channel, that retains the name, is nevertheless full, deep, and navigable to the sea. Basin 58,568 square miles. Joins the river Arkansas, in the In- dian territory. Enters the Paraguay, a little above its junction with the Parana. Joins the river Amazon, above the Negro. Navigation obstructed by sev- eral falls. Enters the Atlantic ocean at 16° 6' north latitude. A shifting sandbar pre- vents entrance of vessels drawing over 10 feet water. Cataracts about mid- course. Attains its highest flood in Au- gust In the bay of Bengal. Forms a delta of 60 miles. Has a tortuous channel 32 PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE EARTH. Name. Paranahyba. Aldan. Sutlej. Syr or SOioon. Yarkand. Indigurka. Olensk or Olonec. Vitim. Issim or Ishim. Apurimac. Olekma. Kansas. Divina or Dwina. Jutay or Hyntahy. Gambia. Meinam. Javary or Yabary. Parima or Branco. Length. 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 180 750 710 700 700 700 700 700 700 Source and Course. In the Sierra Dure, in Bra- zil. Course north-northeast. In the Altai mountains of Siberia. Course north and west. Issues from Lake Rawan, in Thibet. Runs noi-thwest, be- side the Himalayas, which, turning, southwest, it inter- sects between mountains of amazing height. In the Beloor or Gakchel mountains. Circuitous north- western course through Inde- pendent Tartary. Rises on the eastern side of the Beloo Tag, or Northern Imaus. Flows to the east. , In the Altai mountains of Siberia. Course northerly. In the territory of the Ton- gousi, in Siberia. Flows north. In the Altai chain of mount- ains. Runs to the north. Has its source in Indepen- dent Tartary. Runs north. Lake Villano, in the prov- ince of Arequipa, about 45 miles from the shores of the Pacific. Flows through Peru, north, northwest, and north- east On the confines of the Chi- nese empire. Flows north. In the Great Desert, between the rivers Platte and Arkan- sas. Course to the east. Three rivers rising in distant quartei's, and uniting in Vo- logda, Russia, form the Divi- na. Soukhona, the principal river, rises near Vologda. It flows northeast and north- northwest. In the neighborhood of the Javary, in the Peruvian An- des, South America. Course north and northeast. Believed to rise near the Senegal, and to have a very eccentric course. Proper di- rection to the west. In the soutliwestern frontier of China. Bends gradually to the south. In the Sierra de Conoma- mas, in Peru, South America. Course varies northwest to east. In the Parima mountains, which form the southern boundary of Venezuela. Prop- er course south. Termination and Character. Enters the Atlantic ocean by three mouths, in latitude 1° south. Joins the Lena just below Yakutsk. Joins its water to those of the Indus, in the northwestern part of Hindostan. One of the five streams which give to that region the name of Punjab, memo- rable as the battle-ground of the Seik and British wars in 1845-49. Enters the sea of Aral by several out- lets. This sea gradually subsides. Believed to terminate in a lake in China called Lopnor. Some late re- ports mention a supposed communica- tion with the Irtish. Flows into the Arctic ocean. Empties into the Arctic ocean. Joins the Lena at Vitimsk. Joins its waters with those of the Ir- tish, in Siberia. Joins the river XJcayale or Paro. This was considered the true river Amazon, until the question was other- wise settled by Humboldt. Enters the river Lena, not far from Olekminsk. After receiving several tributaries it joins the Missouri, a few miles above Independence, in the state of Missouri. Empties into the White sea, forming the great northern port of Archangel, in Russia. Unites itself with the Amazon. Terminates in the Atlantic ocean, at Cape St. Mary's. Is 20 miles wide at its mouth. Length can not properly be ascertained. Gulf of Siam, in Farther India, by a delta of three mouths. Joins the Amazon. Character little known. Joins the Rio Negro, in Brazil. PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE EARTH. 33 Name. Colorado of Texas. Tobol. Orange or Gariep. Helmund or Helmind. Alabama. Elbe. Meta. Vistula or Wiesel. Lewis or Saptin. Kama. Kistnah. 500 Dniester. 500 Guapora or Itenaz. 500 Cauca. 500 Tombigbee. 500 James. 600 Altamaha. 500 Savannah. 500 Roanoke. Length. 700 700 700 600 600 600 600 550 520 500 Source and Course, 500 In Mount Guadalupe. Runs southeast and south. In the steppe or desert of Issim, in Independent Tartary. Course to the north. Rises in the country of the Bushmen, in South Africa, from sources yet unknown. Flows across the continent to the west. In the Hindu-koosh mount- ains, in Afghanistan. General course south and west In the southern extremity of the Allegany mountains. Flows south, west, and south. From numerous affluents on the north side of the Bohe mian mountains. Course cir- cuitous, but generally to the northwest From the eastern side of the Andes of Bogota, and flows north and east In the bases of the Carpa- thian mountains, in Austrian Silesia. Its course circuitous, mostly northeast and north. In the Big Horn or Long's Peak, in the Oregon territory, Flows northwest and west In the Ural mountains in the province of Viatka, in Rus sia. Flows first north, then east and finally south. In the Ghaut mountains, 25 miles south of Poonah. Runs southeast and east From the northern base of the Carpathian mountains, in Austria. Course southwest From the Sierra Parexis, in South America. Course cir- cuitous, mostly to the north. In the Andes of Popayan, in New Grenada. Flows north and northeast Rises in the northern part of Mississippi. Course nearly south, through Miss, and Ala. In the Alleganies. Course circuitous, but generally east Formed by tlie union of the Oconee and Ockmulgee, in Georgia. Course southeast Rises in the Alleganies, and, taking a southeastern course, divides South Carolina from Georgia. Formed by the Staunton and the Dan, hoth of which rise in Virginia. Course southeast through Virginia and N. C. Termination and Character. Flows through Texas, receiving seve- ral tributaries, into the gulf of Mexico. Joins the Irtish at Tobolsk, in Siberia. Enters the Atlantic ocean near Cape Voltas. Has a very tortuous course. Much impeded by cataracts. Overflows in November and December. Its bed said to abound with precious stones. Discharges its waters into the Lake or Sea of ZurotL Unites with the Tombigbee to form the Mobile, which enters the Gulf of Mexico by many mouths. Empties into the North sea, below Hamburgh. Seven miles wide at its mouth. Very useful to German traflic. Basin estimated 44,860 square miles. Joins the Orinoco, below San Borja. Flows through vast plains, called Llanos, abounding in high grass. Enters the Baltic sea by three mouths. A noble stream, of great utility to com- mei'ce. Mixes its waters with those of the Columbia, in latitude 46° 20' north. Joins the Volga, in the province of Kazan. Course sinuous. It is the largest secondary or tributary river of Europe. Enters the Indian ocean by mouths. Course very winding. two Empties into the Black sea, below Odessa, in Russia. Remarkable for a channel perpetually winding. Joins the Madeira, in Brazil. It flows through regions little known. t Unites itself with the Magdalena, be- low Mompax, in latitude 9° north. * Empties into the Mobile, in Alabama. It receives many fine streams, and i^ navigable to Columbus, in Mississippi, i Flows into Chesapeake bay, about 37° north latitude. ' Discharges into the Atlantic through several mouths, sixty miles south of the Savannah. Navigable for small vessels 200 miles from the ocean. Falls into the Atlantic in 32^ north latitude. Navigable for large vessels to Savannah, Ga., 18 miles, and for small vessels to Augusta, 140 miles farther. Empties into Albemarle sound. Is navigable for 70 miles to the falls, and, by means of the Weldon canal, around the falls to Danville, in Virginia. , 34 CHIEF MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. H^ _< rii-i-l ifS rj< CO CO .-H §iO ■* CO (N ■-• r-l P»|nFH|f«i-<|w'« TABLE OF THE HEIGHTS, ETC., OF THE CHIEF MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. Note. — In the following table it has rather been the endeavor to give a selection of the most remarkable points in many localities, than a mere catalogue of the highest summits : a thing in the present state of informa- tion impracticable, and of no great value if attained. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 83 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 60 61 Name. Kailas Dhawalagihri Jawahir Sorata Illimani Chamalari Aconcagua Koondus Budrinath Chimborazo Chuquobatnba. Peteha Kilmandjaro Antisana Cotopaxi Elbours Arequipa Moonakoah Mount St. Elias Popocatepetl Cittalapetl or Orizaba Ararat Cerro de Potosi Pichincha Klutchefskaia Mont Blanc Monte Rosa Sierra Nevada Geesli Mountains. . . . Tongaragua Cervin or Matterhorn Mount Fairweather. . Mquinvari Loucyra Ophir Loupilla Finster Aarhorn Hood Mount St Helen's. . . Monte Viso Jungfrau Monch Eiger Fremont's Peak Bighorn Shreckhorn Vischerhoru Iseran Arjish-dagh Cameroona Sevellan Heigbt in Feet, 29,000 28,174 25,750 25,400 24,250 23,980 23,907 23,543 23,444 21,440 21,000 21,000 20,000 9,137 8,889 8,493 8,373 8,000 7,860 7,735 7,888 7.266 6,000 5,940 5,825 5,800 5,150 5,500 5,(;00 4,974 4,837 4,732 4,500 4,451 4,160 4,144 4,100 4,000 3,300 3,872 3,700 3,507 3,483 3,470 3,430 3,377 3,300 3,286 3,100 3,000 3,000 Locality. Hindu-koosh, Afghanistan. Himalaya, Nepaul, Hindostan. Himalaya, Bhotan, Hindostan. Andes of Bolivia. Andes of Bolivia. Himalaya. Andes, Chili. Himalaya, Nepaul, Hindostan. Himalaya, Nepaul, Hindostan. Andes of Ecuador. Andes of Peru. Honan, China. Zanguebar, Africa. Andes of Ecuador. Andes of Ecuador. Caucasus. Andes of Peru. Hawaii, Sandwich Islands. Rocky Mountains, Russian America. Mexico, North America. Mexico, North America. Armenia. Andes of Bolivia. Andes of Ecuador. Kamtschatka Alps, Savoy. Alps, Switzerland. California, United States. Abyssinia. Andes of Bolivia. Alps, Switzerland. Confines of Russian America. Caucasus. Alps of France. Island of Sumatra. Alps of France. Bernese Alps. # Oregon Territory. Oregon Territory. Alps, Piedmont. Bernese Alps. Bernese Alps. Bernese Alps. Rocky Mountains, United States. Rocky Mountains, United States. Bernese Alps. Bernese Alps. Alps, Piedmont. Anatolia or Asia Minor. Biafra, Africa. Armenia. 36 CHIEF MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD. No. 52 53 64 65 66 57 58 69 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 Name. Amid-Atnid Ortler Spitz. Soconda Peak of TenerifFe Cenis Mulhagen Simplon Mount Egmont La Maladetta Miltsin Pic de Veleta Pic Posets Koriatskaia Mont Perdu Pena de Penarauda .... Great St. Bernard Italitskoi ^tna Buet. Nieuweldt Parmesan Lebanon Pindus Orbelus Little St. Bernard Monte Corno Sierra Cobre Peak of Lomnitz Monte Velino Adam's Peak Egmont Peak Schneehatten Parnassus Krivan Taygetus Ida Sinai Blue Mountains Tousas Mount Washington .... Paudinskoi . ^ Olympus Cevennes. ■. . . Black Righi...,,.. Tanagai Hecla Mount Marcy Dovrefeld Puy de Dome 4. Ben Macdhu ,.. Ben Nevis. Mansfeldt ' . Peaks of Otter Vesuvius Catskill Table Mount Snowdon.. Maegillicuddy Reeks. . . Skiddaw Mount of Olives Cradle Mount Ozark Cape Horn Height in Feet. 13,000 15,000 12,600 12,300 11,800 11,650 11,540 11,430 11,424 11,400 11,385 11,277 11,215 11,168 11,031 11,027 11,000 10,954 10,100 10,000 10,000 9,800 9,750 9,660 9,594 9,542 9,000 8,700 8,397 8,280 8.150 8,120 8,068 8,034 7,900 7,690 7,530 7,486 6,800 6,650 6,550 6,520 6,500 6,476 6,079 6,400 5,200 6,200 4,875 4,840 4,418 4,370 4,280 4,260 3,932 8,800 3,580 3,571 3,410 3,022 2,556 2,545 2,500 1,860 Locality. Abyssinia. Tyrol ese Alps. Honan, China. Canary Isles. Alps, Switzerland. Sierra Nevada, Spain. Alps, Switzerland. New Zealand. Pyrenees. Morocco. Sierra Nevada, Spain. Pyrenees. Kamtschatka. Pyrenees. Leon, Spain. Alps, Switzerland. Altai Range, Asia. Sicily. Alps, Savoy. Cape of Good Hope, Africa, Banca, Sunda Isles. Syria. Turkey in Europe. Balkan Ridge, Turkey. Graian Alps. Apennines, Naples. Cuba. Carpathian Mountains. Apennines, Naples. Ceylon. New Zealand. Norway. Greece. Carpathian Mountains. Greece. Candia. Arabia. Jamaica. Russia. White Mountains, New Hampshire. Ural. Anatolia or Asia Minor. France. Alleganies, North Carolina. Switzerland. Ural Mountains. Iceland. New York. Norway. France. Aberdeenshire. Invernesshire, Green Mountains, Vermont Blue Ridge, Virginia. Naples. New York. Cape of Good Hope, Africa. Carnarvonshire, Wales. Kerry, Ireland. Cumberland. Palestine. Brecknock. Arkansas. South America. AMERICA. Of the four great quarters of the globe, the continent of America is the largest ; and on that account, together with its late discovery, it has been de- nominated the " New World." It extends from 55° 58' south latitude to 74° nnrth, a length of upward of 9,000 miles ; and its width, lying between 35^ and 168^ west longitude from Greenwich, where greatest, is 3,800 miles ; and its average breadth about 1,500 miles. This vast tract of country occupies an area of 12,000,000 square miles, and is marked into two great divisions, called North asid South America, connected only at one point by the isthmus of Panama, vvhicli is in places not more than from forty to fifty miles broad. The Ameri- can continent is bounded by the Atlantic ocean on the east, and the Pacific on the west. Toward the north its limits have been but partially explored. History. — Whether the continent of America was known to the ancients is a point quite undecided. Discoveries by the Norwegians in the tenth and eleventh centuries have been published ; but the knowledge obtained by the Northmen appears to have been little promulgated, and eventually lost to Eu- rope ; and it is certain, that at the revival of letters, the Canaries, or Fortunate islands were believed to be the western limits of the world. About the latter part of the fifteenth century, Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, con- ceived the idea of sailing to the East Indies across those unexplored seas that lie to the westward of the then known world, thus exhibiting a knowledge of the sphericity of the earth far beyond the age in which he lived. On the 3d of August, 1492, he sailed from Palos, in Spain, and after weeks of anxious care, and amid the murmurings of discontent and threatened mutiny, on the 11th of October, he discovered one of the islands of the Bahama group, to which he gave the name of San Salvador.* He visited Cuba, St. Domingo, and other LAKDmG OF COLUMBUS. * Columbus and his crew, immediately after landinc, eatberod in a group upon the ehore, and, with the priests that accompanied them, they Ufted up the voice of thanksgiving to God, for his gracioua preservation. The as- tonished nativea gathered at a Uttlc distance in awe and wonder. 38 DESCRIPTION OF AMERICA. West India islands, but it was not until his third voyage, in 1498, that he dis- covered the continent, at the mouth of the Orinoco, in South America. The success which attended Columbus soon induced other adventurers to follow him. Almost simultaneously, in 1498, Giovanni, or John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, and Amerigo Vespucci a Florentine, sailed for the lands discovered by Columbus ; the former under the auspices of Henry VII., of England, and the latter in employ of Spanish merchants, with the sanction of Ferdinand. Cabot discovered Newfoundland, and touched at other points, but did not attempt a settlement. Vespucci added nothing to the discoveries of his predecessors, but on his return home published an account of the discoveries in the New World; and the country was, in consequence, named after him America, an honor to which Columbus was more justly entitled. In 1500, Corte de Real, a Portu- guese in search, like all the other American explorers, of a northwest passage to India and China, discovered the coast of Labrador. In 1502, the gulf of Mex- ico was visited by Columbus. In 1513, Florida was discovered by John Ponce, a Spanish captain. In 1519, Fernando Cortez discovered and conquered Mex- ico. In 1524, John Verrazzani, a Florentine, in the service of Francis I., of France, examined a considerable part of the Atlantic coast of N. America, and in 1525, Stephen Gomez sailed to the 46° In 1535, California was dis- covered by Cortez. In 1539, Hernando de Soto, a Spaniard, discovered the Mississippi. In 1576, Frobisher, an Englishman, discovered the straits which bear his name. In 1577, Drake was the second navigator to sail round the globe, and his discoveries kindled the enthusiasm of his fellow-countrymen in England. In 1585, John Davis explored the west coast of Greenland. In 1607, Henry Hudson discovered the bay or inland sea which bears his name, where he perished in a mutiny of his seamen. In 1607, John Smith discovered Chesapeake bay. In 1616, William Baffin explored Baffin's bay. In 1673, Louisiana was discovered by the French. In 1728, Behring's straits were discovered by a Danish navigator of the same name, then in the service of Russia. From 1772 to 1775, the justly celebrated Captain Cook explored the northwest coast of America, which was also carefully surveyed by the distin- guished English navigator, Vancouver. From 1819 to 1822, Captain Franklin determined the northwest boundaries of the Arctic sea, between the mouths of the Coppermine river and Cape Turnagain. In 1819, Lieutenant Barry ex- plored the northeast boundaries, and penetrated as far as Melville island, in 74° 27^ north, 113° 47' west. In 1825-26, Captain Franklin traced the coast from the Coppermine to Mackenzie's river, and from the mouth of the latter to 149° 30' west longitude. In 1827, Captain Beechey discovered the coast from Icy Cape to Point Barrow ; the subsequent discoveries of Sir John and Sir James Ross, of Sir John Richardson, of the royal navy, and of Hearne, Mackenzie, Dease, Simpson, and Rae, officers of the Hudson's Bay and Northwest Compa- nies, and Lieut. De Haven and Dr. Kane, of the Grinnell expedition have nearly completed the north coast line of the American continent. NORTH AMERICA. Boundaries. — North America is bounded on the east by the Greenland sea, Atlantic ocean, gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean sea ; on the south and west by the Pacific ocean, and on the north by Behring's straits, and the Arctic seas and islands. It is in length from north to south about 4,500 miles. Physical Aspect. — The numerous indentations, estuaries, bays, and gulfs on the eastern shores of North America, present a marked contrast to the gen- erally unindented western coast, and also to the regular outlines of the eastern and western shores of South America. The force of the Atlantic, driven by strong easterly winds, has formed the great inland seas and gulfs of Hudson, Baffin, St. Lawrence, and Mexico, and the noble harbors on the eastern coast of America fitly adapt the country for maritime industry and commerce. Mountains. — The most marked inland feature is the vast range termed the Rocky, or Stony mountains, which run parallel to the Pacific from Mackenzie's river, in the Arctic regions, to the isthmus of Panama, and after a slight break, continue along the west coast of South America to Cape Horn. The height of this range varies much ; so far as we know the loftiest portion of the Rocky mountains is in New Caledonia, where the altitude is from 12,000 to 18,000 feet, and where there are several parallel ranges. In California, the Sierra Ne- vada, a ridge of less height than the Rocky mountains runs nearer to the Pacific. In the eastern parts of North America the Allegany, or Appalachian mountains, also extend in a northerly and southerly direction from the gulf and river St. Lawrence, to near the northern confines of Georgia in the United States. The highest points of this ridge do not exceed 6,500 feet ; the general elevation is 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea. Plains. — The mountain ranges mark the three great lowlands ; viz., the Western, between the Rocky mountains and the Pacific, the Central, or great Mississippi basin, between the Rocky mountains and the Alleganies, and the Eastern Lowlands, between the Alleganies and the Atlantic. In the great cen- tral basin, which extends from the coasts of the Arctic sea to the gulf of Mex- ico, there are three wide and regular slopes, the first between the Alleganies and the Mississippi, is slightly diversified by hills, and includes the most fertile portion of the United States ; the second, more extensive and more level, slopes gradually from the Mississippi to the Rocky mountains, and consists of exten- sive prairies and sandy districts, with few landmarks, excepting a well-wooded belt of 200 miles ; and in the more southern districts the " Cross Timber" for- ests extend from north to south across the prairies of Texas to the south bank of the Arkansas river, and form the leading fjeature of the western prairies. The region toward the gulf of Mexico is low and swampy. The third slope extends northward from the sources of the Mississippi and Missouri, forming the great plain of the Saskatchewan and the numerous lakes and swamps which lie between Hudson's bay, the Rocky mountains, and the Arctic seas, in the whole of which there are few elevated tracts. Mexico is, for the greater part, a table land, with an average elevation above the sea of 7,000 feet, a sloping de- scent to the Pacific and to the gulf of Mexico : a chain of active volcanoes trav- erses the table land at right angles. The general dip of the land is from north to south throughout the UnUed States ; at Panama the elevation of the land is not more than 1,000 feet, with low plains on either side, of alluvial formation. 40 DESCRIPTION OF NORTH AMERICA. Lakes. — North America has the largest lakes in the world : the dimensions of the best known are as follows : — Names. Superior — Huron Michigan .. Erie.. Ontario Champlain. Nicaragua. Siracoe St. Clair... Length in miles. 420 250 300 265 180 105 95 40 35 Breadth in miles. 140 220 80 63 60 12 30 30 30 Circumfer- Average ence depth in miles. in feet. 1,500 1.000 1,200 860 800 780 700 250 500 500 235 250 50 120 125 100 20 Elevation above the eea. 627 594 .565 234 128 700 There are other large lakes in North America, such as Lake Winnipeg, Great Slave lake, Great Bear lake. Great Salt lake, and others, whose dimen- sions have not been definitely ascertained. Bays. — The North American coast is indented with immense gulfs and arms of the sea. One of the principal of these, in the northeast part of the continent, has not been inaptly termed the sea of the Esquimaux, from its coasts being everywhere occupied by tribes belonging to this peculiar race : it consists of two great divisions, Davis's straits and Baffin's bay, separating Greenland from the main land, and Hudson's bay lying more to the south and west, but connected with the former by numerous channels, some of which have been only recently discovered. The navigation of these seas and inlets, even in the most favorable seasons, is extremely difficult, from their being constantly encumbered with ice ; and it is only during a short period of the year that it can be attempted. The next great inlet of the sea is the gulf of St. Lawrence, so called from the great river of the same name which falls into its southwest extremity. Passing over the numerous inlets and noble bays on the coast of the United States, we come to the gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea. This vast Mediterranean is sepa- rated from the Atlantic by the peninsula of Florida and the islands of the West Indies. The latter are, as it were, a continuation of Florida, and are, it is prob- able, the only remaining points of what was once a broad belt of land, Avhich has been broken to pieces and partly submerged in some of those tremendous convulsions to which the earth has been subject. But however this may be, this great inland sea is divided into two portions by the peninsula of Yucatan and Cape San Antonio, at the western extremity of the island of Cuba, which approach within a comparatively short distance of each other ; that to the north being called the gulf of Mexico, and that to the south the Caribbean sea, or the sea of the Antilles. The gulf of Cortez, or California, separating the peninsula of that name from the main land, is the most important inlet of the sea on the west coast of North America. Rivers. — The principal rivers of North America are, the Missouri, Missis- sippi, Ohio, M'Kenzie, Arkansas, Red, Columbia, Susquehanna, Potomac, Sa- cramento, Santee, Alabama, Hudson, Rio Grande, Buena Ventura, Colorado, Sonora, Sabine, and St. Lawrence. The whole course of the Missouri, with its associate the Mississippi, is over 4,000 miles from its source to its mouth in the gulf of Mexico. Climate varies according to latitude : on the eastern coast of North America the cold of winter is more severe, and the heat more oppressive than on the western coast. At Vancouver's island, in 50<^ north, the climate is compara- tively mild, but the east coast, in the same latitude, has a very severe and al- most uninhabitable region. On the shores of the gulf of Mexico the heat is ex- cessive, and throughout the northern or maritime coasts of Central America, the atmosphere, saturated with vegetable miasm, and deprived of its oxygen by volcanic eruptions, is highly prejudicial to human life. 42 DANISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. Volcanoes. — There are no known active volcanoes north of Mexico, except one in Lower California, but throughout Mexico and Guatemala a volcanic re- gion extends to the subterranean fires manifested in the Andes. Mineralogy. — North America is rich in coal, iron, and copper. Large masses of pure native copper are found on Lake Superior ; iron, lead, and coal, abound in various parts of the United States, and the gold region of California seems inexhaustible. Vegetable Kingdom. — But a small number of species are identical with the vegetation of Europe, Asia, or Africa. All kinds of bread corn grow in the regions south of 58'^ of latitude, which is the limit at which wheat ripens in North America. Maize thrives in every district from Canada to Mexico. The potato is indigenous to the American continent ; rice, cotton, sugar, silk, and to- bacco, arrive at perfection south of the 35th parallel, and the pine, fir, larch, cedar, ash, oak, elm, beech, birch, maple, walnut, and other timber-trees, form large forests in different parts of the continent. Animal Kingdom. — Few of the existing race of large quadrupeds are indi- genous to America ; the elephant, rhinoceros, camelopard, camel, lion, tiger, leopard, hippopotamus, and other herbivorous and carnivorous animals, are here unknown. The white, or polar, and black bear, are found in the arctic and adjacent regions ; further south, varieties of the deer tribe, the cariboo, bison, buffalo, wolf, fox, hare, opossum, beaver, and various fur-bearing animals abound, and the panther roams in the temperate zone. Birds are very numerous ; many with splendid plumage, but without song. The ostrich is not known in Amer- ica. The cayman, or crocodile, and the iguano, abound in Central America. Serpents and snakes exist in every part of the continent ; the rattlesnake is pe- culiar to America. Insects are of great variety, and frogs and salamanders are found as far north as Mackenzie's river, in the 67th parallel. Population. — The Anglo-Saxon race in North America number, in British America, about 2,500,000, and in the United States about 20,000,000. The negro population in the United States is composed of about 3,000,000 slaves, and 500,000 free blacks. The population of Mexico and Central America is prob- ably about 9,000,000, of whom not more than 1 ,000,000 are whites, the remainder are Creoles and Indians. The whole number of full-blooded aborigines in North America is about 7,000,000. The total number of inhabitants, on the re- gions extending from the Hudson Bay Company's territories to the isthmus of Panama, probably does not exceed 40,000,000, and of these about 25,000,000 are of pure European blood. DANISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. The possessions of Denmark in North America are Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen, with a number of smaller islands in the Arctic seas, that are noted mainly for the production of precious stones and valuable minerals, but are otherwise of no account in a commercial sense. Greenland. — This extensive island lies to the northwest of the American ■continent, and is boimded on the west by Davis's straits, and on the east by the Atlantic ocean. Its most southerly point is Cape Farewell, in latitude 59^ 49' north. Its northern limits are not definitely known. It is of triangular shape, and its area is estimated at 350,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Perpetual winter, interrupted only by a few weeks of warm weather, reigns over these desolate and dreary regions. The entire country is mountainous and rocky. A range of lofty mountains traverse its cen- DANISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 43 tre, dividing it into East and West Greenland. The eastern coast is rendered nearly inaccessible by ice. The western coast is high, rugged and barren. The entire coast is indented by bays, and interspersed with islands. Minerals. — Rich copper ore, black lead, marble, asbestos, garnets, crystals, and other valuable stones are found here. Vegetation is almost suspended ; its growth being limited to a few stunted trees, with mosses, lichens, grapes, &c. Animal Kingdom. — Reindeer, polar bears, white hares, foxes, dogs, and seals, are found here. Sea-fowl, eagles, ravens, and other birds of prey, are also numerous. Population. — The natives of Greenland are the Esquimaux. They are filthy, ignorant, and degraded, and seem to be reduced to the lowest degree of barbarism, living on fish and blubber, and clad in seal-skin, having no domestic animals, and displaying no art or skill, except in the construction and manage- ment of their frail canoes. They number about 20,000. History. — In the early part of the tenth century an Icelander or Norwegian rover discovered the western coast of Greenland, having been driven toward it in a storm. Whether the scanty vegetation appeared to him delightful, after the hard- ship he had endured, or he wished to tempt his countrymen to visit it, is uncer- tain ; but the inappropriate name of Greenland was given to and still continues the designation of a country aptly described as "one immense glacier." An Icelandic colony soon after settled there, which flourished three or four hun- dred years ; but it became extinct from cold and pestilence in the fourteenth century. The first modern settlement was planted by Hans Egede, a Norwegian clergyman, in 1721. He was joined by the Moravian missionaries in 1733. After which the Danes began to frequent the coast, and eventually a number of settlements were formed which now rank as colonies of Denmark. There are about 300 Danish colonists and many natives in these settlements. The Danes procure, as articles of commerce, seal-skins, fur, eider-down, train-oil, whale- bone, and fish. Iceland lies about 200 miles to the east of Greenland, in the North Atlantic ocean. It is between 60=" 30' and 66° 40' north latitude, and 16° and 23° west longitude from Greenwich. It is of irregular triangular shape, and has an area of about 40,000 square miles. VOLCANO OF UOUNT HECLA, ICELAND. 44 NORTH AMERICA.— ICELA^^). Physical Aspect. — The island contains many lofty mountains, some of which are volcanic, presenting the singular spectacle of eternal fires bursting out through eternal snows. Glaciers, or icy summits, cover a great part of the island. The celebrated volcano, Hecla, is in the southwest, and about thirty miles inward. It is more remarkable for the frequency and violence of its eruptions than its height, being only 5,200 feet above the level of the ocean. There are upward of thirty other volcanoes in existence, which occasionally spread frightful desolation over the land. Twenty-three eruptions of Hecla are recorded by Europeans since their settlement in Iceland. Hot springs and boiling fountains abound, and are used for cooking by the inhabitants. In some parts of the island vast caldrons of boiling mud are in a slate of constant ebul- lition, sending up columns of dense vapor, which obscure the atmosphere a great distance around. The volcano of Skaptar Jakul is 7,000 feet high. Minerals. — Few minerals are met with. Iron and copper exist, but the mines are not worked. Sulphur is found in inexhaustible quantities, and for- merly was largely exported. Vegetable Kingdom. — Varieties of moss and lichen, with a few dwarf- beech and willow-trees, constitute almost the whole vegetation. The extensive forests with which tradition invests Iceland no longer exist. Animal Kingdom, — Of wild animals, foxes, and reindeer, are most numerous. Polar bears, brought down on the ice, frequent the shore. Nearly all kinds of sea-fowl inhabit the coast and island. The eider-duck abounds here, and its feathers form an article of export. Climate, — The climate is variable. Thunder is seldom heard, but storms of wind and rain are frequent, and fogs are perpetual. The sun is visible at midnight from the hills in midsummer, but the summer is very brief, and is suc- ceeded by a long and sunless winter. Food. — The principal articles of food are fish, butter, and milk, and bread is a luxury. Agriculture is limited mostly to the growing of grass for the herds of cat- tle, with which the island abounds. There are no manufactures, except of a domestic nature, carried on. Every man, even to the bishop, and other high functionaries, makes his own shoes and clothes. Barter is the prevailing sys- tem in trade, money being scarcely known there. Those who live near the coasts bring dried cod and stock fish, dried salmon, whale, shark and seal oils, seal-skins, &c. Population. — Iceland has a population of about 60,000. The Icelanders are chiefly of Norwegian origin, and have a frank, open countenance, florid complexion, and flaxen hair. They have retained, with few innovations, the ancient modes of life and the costume of the Scandinavian race. Their dwel- lings are filthy, and repulsive to strangers. Capital. — Reikjavik, the capital, on the southwest coast, has about 900 in- habitants, mostly Danes. It contains a printing-office, lyceum, library of 5,000 volumes, and several learned societies. The only permanent settlements are near the coasts. Education. — The Icelanders are Lutherans, and are remarkable for their strict morals. There are few who can not read and write, and most of them are well educated. The language is Scandinavian, and is rich in poetry and prose. There was a printing-press established here in 1530, the first ever es- tablished in America. History. — The first discovery of Iceland, authenticated by history, was made about the year 860, by some adventurous Norwegian and Swedish rovers. The first colony was planted here in 875. In fifty years afterward, all the coasts were occupied by settlers, and about 928 the inhabitants formed them- selves into a republic. They maintained their independence for nearly 400 NORTH AMERICA.— RUSSIAN POSSESSIONa 45 years ; but in the thirteenth century became subject to Norway, and, on the an- nexation of that kingdom to Denmark, Iceland was transferred along with it, and has since remained a colonial dependency of that nation. Spitzbergen, or Pointed Mountains, is a group of four islands, lying about midway between Nova Zembla and Greenland, between 76° and 81'° north lati- tude and 3° and 9° east longitude from Greenwich. There are four prin- cipal islands, viz., Spitzbergen proper. Northeast Land, Southeast Land, and Charles Foreland, the last-named lying west of the others. In addition to these there are numerous other smaller ones lying around them. Physical Aspect. — Innumerable rocks and inlets surround the entire coast, which is indented by capacious bays and fiords. These islands rise in places into mountains from 1,000 to 4,000 feet in height, the peaks covered with eternal snow. The coasts are iron-bound, presenting but few good harbors. Products. — The surface is mostly destitute of any animal or vegetable prod- ucts ; but there are a few bears and foxes which live upon fish. Spitzbergen was formerly a whaling station, but is now seldom visited. History. — These islands were discovered in 1535. The sovereignty of Denmark over Spitzbergen is only nominal. It is also claimed by Russia. It has no stationary population. RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. This territory comprises an extensive region of the northwest part of North America, of which very little is known, except along the western coast. It extends from Behring's straits eastward to the meridian of Mount St. Elias, along both the Arctic and Pacific oceans ; and from that mountain southward, along the coast chain of hills, till it touches the coast about 54° 40' north lati- tude, comprising an area of about 400,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The Russian possessions are chiefly mountainous. Mount St. Elias is the most lofty peak, being 17,860 feet in height. The coast line is irregular, being indented by large bays, formed by bold promontories and peninsulas. Climate. — The climate of Russian America is very severe, though not so extreme as is felt in similar latitudes on the eastern coasts. The country is subject to sudden changes, and frequent falls of rain in summer, and of snow in winter. Islands. — The Aleutian islands, stretching from the peninsula of Kamschat- ka in Asia to Cape Alaska in North America, may be considered as belonging to this region. They are very numerous, occupying a circular area, extending from 165° to 195° east longitude from Greenwich. They are of volcanic ori- gin, and are at the present day subject to eruptions. Commerce. — The Russia Fur Company have a few factories on the coast and islands, but almost the whole country is occupied by various native tribes, chiefly Esquimaux. The commerce is mainly limited to the exportation of furs to Canton, and the import of provisions and agricultural supplies from the Brit- ish possessions. It is of little value, and is constantly declining, as the sea- otter and seal are becoming comparatively scarce. Capital. — New Archangel (or Baranoff), a place of about 1,000 inhabitants, is the residence of the governor. Population.— The total population is estimated at about 70,000, including the aborigines. 46 NORTH AMERICA.— BRITISH POSSESSIONS BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. The British possessions in America comprise an area of about 2,500,000 square miles : their extreme length between east and west, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, is 3,000 miles ; and from north to south, 2,000 miles. The boun- daries of this vast region are, on the north the Arctic ocean and the adjacent seas and islands, many of them yet unexplored ; on the northwest, Russian America ; on the west, the Pacific ocean ; on the south the United States ; and on the east, the Atlantic ocean. The southern boundary is defined by an irregular line drawn from the ex- treme end of Vancouver's island, extending along the parallel of 49"^ north to the head of Lake Superior, thence through the centre of that lake and the cen- tres of Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, the falls of Niagara, and Lake Ontario to St. Regis on the St. Lawrence, 60 miles southwest of Montreal, thence along the parallel of 45^ north to some highlands, which divide the waters that flow into the Atlantic from those that flow into the St. Lawrence ; thence to the source of the St. Croix, and to the mouth of that river in Passamaquoddy bay in the gulf of Fundy. The whole country lies between the parallels of 51° 77' and 78° or 80° north, and the meridians of 52° and 141° west from Greenwich. The British territory is divided into the provinces or districts known as New Britain (Hudson's Bay Company's territories), the Canadas (East and West, or Lower and Upper), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Edward island, Newfoundland, the coast of Labrador, Vancouver's, Queen Charlotte, and other islands and districts west of the Rocky mountains. The relative position and condition of the several divisions of the British territory, will be seen in the following tabular view : — Divisions of British North America. Area in Sq. Miles. Popula- tion. Annual Revenue. Value of Imports. Tonnage Entered. C£Lnad& East ............... 202,000 148,000 27,800 15,000 3,100 2,100 40,000 2,000,000 15,000 890,000 I 950,000 5 195,000 250,000 ) 30,000 \ 65,000 100,000 200,000 5.000 $. 3,000,000 650,000 600,000 125,000 350,000 50,000 12.500,000 6,000,000 5,500,000 750.000 4,300,000 500,000 Tons. 1,000,000 450,000 420,000 50,000 125,000 20,000 Oane Breton Isle .............. Newfoundland.. .--. New Britain.. Total 2,453,000 2,685,000 4,775,000 29,550,000 2.065,300 History.-^— The honor of discovering that portion of the western hemisphere which constitutes British America, is due to John Cabot, who, under the au- thority of Henry VH., of England, in 1497, entered the gulf of St. Lawrence, visited the adjacent coasts, and claimed them in the name of the master he served. No permanent eflforts at colonization were made by the English, but the region termed Canada (from Kanata, a collection of huts) was seized by the French in 1541 ; and after many reverses the colonists from France succes- sively established themselves at Quebec, Montreal, and other places along the river St. Lawrence,; and as far as Lake Erie, in Western or Upper Canada. The French were, however, engaged in constant hostilities with the adjacent New England (now United States) colonists, and in 1759, the combined British and provincial forces, under General Wolfe, captured Quebec, and drove the French entirely out of Canada, which has ever since remained a province of the British empire. NORTH AMERICA,— NEW ^RITAIN. 47 NEW BRITAIN. The northwest territories of British America, exclusive of Canada, extend from the Pacific ocean and Vancouver's island along the parallel of 49'^ north latitude, near to the head of Lake Superior, and thence in a northeasterly direc- tion to the coast of Labrador and the Atlantic. The Arctic ocean forms the northern boundary. The length of this vast region is about 2,600 miles, and its breadth nearly 1,460 miles. Its area is about 2,000,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — A large portion of the country east of the Rocky moun- tains consists of inland seas, bays, lakes, rivers, swamps, treeless hills and hollows, " tossed together in a wave-like form, as if the ocean had been sud- denly petrified while heaving its huge billows in a tumultuous swell." The coast of Labrador, from 50° to 60° north latitude, and from 56° to 78° west longitude^ so far as we know, is formed of rocks, lakes, swamps, and moun- tains. The Rocky mountains have their northern extremity in the Arctic ocean, latitude 70° north, longitude 140° west, and run nearly south-southeast, parallel with the west coast, forming the eastern boundary of the Oregon region, sending off, at different places, spurs and buttresses, and dividing the waters that flow into the Atlantic from those that flow into the Pacific. Viewing, therefore, the whole of the territories between the Rocky mountains and Hudson's bay, north of the 49th parallel, as one region, it may be considered as a series of lakes, rivers, and plains, with a gradual elevation from east to west. The northern territory is intersected with lakes, marshes, and rivers, to a greater ex- tent than any part of the known globe ; and it would seem as if the inner springs of the earth there burst forth. Some parts investigated are truly regions of des- olation : vegetation ceased in the latitude of 60° north ; no land is seen capable of cultivation ; the whole surface is rugged and uneven, and the open valleys nearly devoid of all vegetable productions. The settlement on the Red river, distant from Montreal, by the Ottawa river, about 1,800 miles, in latitude 50° north, longitude 97° west, is elevated 800 feet above the sea, in a level coimtry, contiguous to the wooded borders of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, along which the settlement extends for fifty miles. The soil is comparatively fertile, and the climate salubrious. The two princi- pal churches, the protestant and Roman catholic, the jail, the Hudson's Bay Company's chief buildings, the residence of the Roman catholic bishop, and the houses of some retired ofllzcers of the fur trade, are built of stone, which has to be brought from a di^ance. The population of the Red river settlement, is about 8,000. History. — In 1517, Sebastian Cabot, while in search of the northwest pas- sage, penetrated into Hudson's bay, but without discovering it to be an enclosed sea. In 1585, Davis, while prosecuting a similar investigation, discovered the straits called by his name. In 1610, Hudson sailed through the strait, and into the bay named from him Fretum Hudson, "the Hudson sea." In 1616,. Baffin traced the outlines of another great bay, to which his name was given. Prince Rupert, the duke of Albemarle, earl of Craven, Lord Ashley, and others,, formed a company and commenced a traffic in furs, for which purpose $50,000- was subscribed. A charter of incorporation was granted by Charles II. Thc^ Hudson's Bay Company now consists of 240 proprietors, representing a capita! stock of $20,000,000. The afl^airs of the corporation are managed by a gover- nor, deputy-governor, and committee, and have about 136 establishments, be- sides hunting expeditions and shipping, aflfording employment to 1,500 persons, besides occasional labor in boating and other services of a great number of the natives. Their forts, or stockaded positions, extend from the coast of Labrador 48 NORTH AMERICA,— BRITISH POSSESSIONS. westward to the Pacific, and from the northern boundaries of Canada to the confines of the Arctic ocean. Vancouver's Island. — This island is situated on the west coast of Amer- ca, between 48° 17^ and 50° 55' north latitude, and 123° 10' and 128° 30' west longitude, and 290 miles long, with an average breadth of 55 miles. We know little of the interior of the country : it is said to be intersected by high moun- tain ranges, with extensive prairies, a rich soil, abundantly timbered with oak, pine, &c., and well watered, adapted for the cultivation of wheat and other grain, with a fine climate, and many excellent harbors. The shores of the island are generally high, steep, rocky, and covered with wood. Fort Victoria, the chief establishment, in 48° 26' north latitude, and 123° 9' west longitude, is on the south shore, near the head of a narrow inlet, termed the port of Camo- sack, or Cammusan, around which there is a range of plains to an extent of nearly six square miles, containing valuable tillage and pasture-land, and water- power for flour and saw-mills. Coal is found in seams ten to eighteen inches thick, some below high-water mark, others sixty feet above the sea. It yields coke in the proportion of fifty two per cent. The extent of the coal-field inland is supposed to be considerable, and it stretches over all the northeast coast. There is excellent anchorage in the neighborhood, which may be approached by way of Cape Scott, thus avoiding the difficult and dangerous navigation of Sir George Seymour's narrows and Johnstone's straits. The natives, on the island amount to about 5,000 in number. Vancouver's island is in possession of the Hudson's Bay Company. The North-western Archipelago, which lies north of Vancouver's island, belongs partly to England and partly to Russia. The islands within the Brit- ish dominions are of various sizes ; the largest, named " Queen Charlotte's isl- iand," is somewhat of a triangular form, lying nearly north and south, the south point in the parallel of 52°. The superficial area is less than that of Vancou- ver's island : it has several good harbors. Of the interior of the whole of these islands little or nothing is known ; the largest are traversed by mountain ridges in the direction of their greatest length from southeast to northwest. The ad- jacent coast is of very irregular outline, with numerous bays, inlets, and chan- nels, forming a labyrinth of passages. The Indian Population. — It is difficult to describe the character of the various tribes ; they have each some recognised difference, and are most of them in a constant state of warfare with each other. Ambuscades, surprises by day or night, and treacherous massacres of the- old and young, of women and the sick, constitute the moving interests of their lives. No hardships or induce- ments will make them settle and cultivate their land ; and until they do so, it is almost hopeless to expect any Christian results from the humane efforts of the Hudson's Bay Company and the missionaries. The most degrading supersti- tions prevail; cunning is employed where force can not be used in plunder; lying is systematic ; woman is treated as a slave ; and the wild Indian is, in many respects, more savage than the animals around him. Prince Ed-ward Island (formerly called St. John's) is situated in a recess or bay in the gulf of St. Lawrence, and lies between 45° 50' and 47° 7' north latitude, and between 62° and 64° 27' west longitude. It is separated on the west from New Brunswick, on the south from Nova Scotia, and on the east from Cape Breton, by the straits of Northumberland. Its exceedingly irregular outline somewhat resembles a crescent in its general appearance, the concave side being toward the gulf, into which its boundary capes project. Physical Aspect. — The general appearance of Prince Edward island is extremely pleasing, though it has nothing of the romantic boldness which char- .acterizes the northern shores of the gulf. The surface, like that of New Bruns- NORTH AMERICA.— CANADA. 49 wick, gently undulates, without any absolutely flat country, but nowhere reaches the elevation of mountains, the principal high lands being a chain of hills trav- ersing the island nearly north to south, from De Sable to Greenville Bay. The whole island was once covered with forests of beech, birch, maple, poplar, spruce, fir, hemlock, larch, and cedar ; and although the labors of the lumber- men, the progress of cultivation, and many destructive fires, have greatly thinned their rich luxuriance, yet still they spring up spontaneously and adorn the land, which is clothed in verdure to the very edge of the water. The constant ac- tion of the strong tidal waters of the gulf of St. Lawrence, has caused the island to be indented and intersected by bays, creeks, and inlets, which are so numerous 'and extensive, that scarce any part of the territory is more than eight miles distant from tide water. Of the numerous harbors the principal is that on which the eapital, Charlotte town (population 6,000), is built, situate on the southeast side of the island, at the bottom of Hillsborough bay. CANADA. Canada is situated between 42^ and 51° north latitude, and 61° and 84° west longitude from Greenwich, with an area of about 350,000 square miles. In 1791 Canada was divided into two provinces. Eastern or Lower Canada, which extended from Ottawa river to the Atlantic, was chiefly occupied by the early French settlers and their descendants ; and Western or Upper Canada, which extended in a westerly direction along the great lakes, to the head of Lake Superior, and to which the refugee loyalists from the United States, and emigrants from Britain, chiefly resorted. In 1841 the two provinces, for -legis- lative purposes, were reunited. Physical Aspect. — The natural features of Canada partake of the most ro- mantic sublimities and picturesque beauties ; indeed, the least imaginative be- holder can not fail to be struck with the alternations of ranges of mountains, magnificent rivers, immense lakes, boundless forests, extensive prairies, and foaming cataracts. The eastern parts of Canada are bold, mountainous, and covered with forests on both sides of the St. Lawrence ; east and north of Mon- treal the country becomes flat or gently undulating. Rivers. — The St. Lawrence and Ottawa are the principal ; there are seve- ral minor streams flowing into them and into the great lakes, of which the St. Lawrence is the outlet to the ocean. The river St. Lawrence, from the mag- nificent basin of Lake Superior in Canada East, has a course to the sea of 2,000 miles, and a varying breadth of 1 to 100 miles. It is navigable for ships of a large class about 1,000 miles, and the remainder of its course for barges, bat- teaux, and vessels drawing little water, of from ten to fifteen and even sixty tons burthen. It receives in its majestic course most of the rivers that have their sources in the extensive range of mountains called the Land's Height; and also those intersecting the ridge which commences on its south bank, and runs nearly southwest to Lake Champlain. From the sea to Kingston, where it receives the waters of Lake Ontario, this river is called the St. Lawrence ; between Lakes Ontario and Erie, the Niagara ; between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, the Detroit ; between Lakes St. Clair and Huron, the St. Clair ; and be- tween Lakes Huron and Superior the distance is called tlie Narrows, or falls of St. Mary. 'J'he Ottawa, or Grand river, which was formerly a boundary line between Upper and Lower (^lanada, has a course of 550 miles from its source near Lake Teraiseaming to its union with the St. Lawrence, near Montreal, 4 50 NORTH AMERICA.— CANADA. where it disemboguges. The navigation is impeded by rapids. The Sague- nay, St. Maurice or Three-Rivers, Champlain, Chaudiere, St. Francis, and Richelieu, are all fine rivers ; useful for navigation to a limited extent, from the northern or southern shores of the St. Lawrence. In Canada West, the Thames, Severn, and other streams, do not afford much inland navigation, which is, however, amply provided for by the great lakes. The falls of Niagara, by which Lake Erie empties its waters into Lake Ontario, form one of the finest sights in the world, viewed from the Canada side. Canals. — The Rideau, extending from Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to By- town, on Ottawa river, was built to avoid the dangerous rapids of the St. Law- rence, between the lake and Montreal. The Welland canal is a noble structure, uniting Lakes Erie and Ontario, and giving the proA'inces an unobstructed sloop navigation for the commerce of the western states. Climate. — A region of such extent as Canada has necessarily great variety of temperature ; in Eastern Canada the winter is severe, and snow lies on the ground for several months ; in Western Canada the climate is much milder. Chief Cities. — Quebec and Montreal, in Canada East, and Kingston and Toronto, in Canada West. Quebec, the seat of her majesty's government, on an eminence 350 feet above the St. Lawrence, is the strongest fortress on the American continent ; and, well defended, may be deemed impregnable : popula- tion, 42,000. Montreal, 600 miles from the sea, is a handsome commercial city, at the head of ship navigation on the St. Lawrence : population, 60,000. Kingston, 180 miles from Montreal, on Lake Ontario, has a fine harbor, and is strongly fortified : population, 12,000. Toronto, 184 miles from Kingston, near the northwestern extremity of Lake Ontario, is a flourishing and well-built city : population, 31,000. There are several other thriving towns — especially in Canada West — viz., Hamilton, 14,000 ; Bytown, 8,000; London, 7,000 ; Guelph, Niagara, Queenston, Peterborough, &;c. The Canada Company have a fine tract of about one million acres, near Lake Huron ; and they have estab- lished several thriving settlements. The eastern townships in Canada East, belonging to the British American Land Company, are rapidly increasing in prosperity. Three Rivers, and Sorel or William Henry, towns on the St. Law- rence, between Quebec and Montreal, are picturesque and well-situated. Population, &c., of Canada West. Counties. Area sq. miles. Pop. IS.'Si. Chief Towns. 1. Adilington 576 15,165 Bath. 2. Brant 416 25,426 Brantford. 3. Bruce 992 2,8ri7 Penatangore. 4. Carleton 898 31,397 ...Bytown. 5. Durham 620 30,732.... Port Hope. 6. Dundas 377 13,811.. ^ 7. Elgin 703- . . .25,418. . 8. Essex 677. . . . 16,817. . 9. Frontenac 1,342 30,735. . 10. Glengary 4.50. .. .17,596. . 11. Gray 2,321. .. .13,217 . 12. Grenville 421 20,707 . . 13. Haldimand 459. .. . 18,788. . 14. Halton 362 18,322. . 15. Hastings 1.324 31.977. . 16. Huron 1,392. ...19,198 17. Kent 870.. 18. Lambton 1,093.. .Williamsburg .St. Thomas. .Sandwich. .Kingston. .Alexandria. . Durham. .Prescott. .Cayuga. .Wellington, S. . Belleville. .Goderich. 17,469.... Chatham. 10,815 Sarnia. 19. Lanark 1.180 .. . .27,317 Perth. 20. Leeds 805 .... 30,280 ... . Brockville. 21. Lenox 170 7,955 Napanee. 22. Lincoln .300 23,868 Niagara. 23. Middlesex 1 079 . . .39.899 . . . .London. 24. Norlhumbcrlaiid730 31 229 Cobourg. 25 Norfolk 600. . . .21.281 .... Simcoe. 26. Ontario S.'Jl 30,576 Oshawa. 27. Oxford 710 32 638. ...Woodstock. 28. Peel 458 24,816. .. .Brampton. 29. Perth 698 15.545 .... .^tratford. 30. Peterborough .1,005 15.237 Peterborough 31. Prescott 475. . . .10,487. . . . L'Original. 32. Prince Ed ward. 334.... 18,887 Picton. 3.3. Renfrew 1,133.... 9,415... .McNab. 34. Russell 379.... 2,870 35. Simcoe 1,797. 36. Stormont 391 . 37. Victoria 749. 38. Waterloo 513. 39. Wellington.... 1,237. 40. Welland 356. 41. Wentworth 426. 42. York 8C8. ...27.165 Barrie. ...14,643 Cornwall. ...11.657 Metcalfe. ..26,537.. ..26,796.. -.20.141.. --42.619.. ..79,719.. .Berlin. .Guelph. .Chippewa. .Hamilton. -Toronto. Total 32,492 - . . 952,004 Canada East. 1 CoTJNTiEa. 12.T2. Beauharnois 40,213 2. Bellechasse 17,982 3. Berthier 34,668 4. Bonaventure 10,844 5. Chambly .20,576 6. Champlain 13,896 7. Dorchester 43,1 05 8. Drummond 16,562 9. Gaspg 10.904 10. Huntingdon 40,645 11. Kamouraska 20,396 12. Leinster 29.690 13. L'Islet 19,641 14. Lotbinifere 16 657 15. Megantic 13,835 16. Missisquoi 13,484 17. Montmorency 9..598 18. Montreal 77,381 I 19. Nicolet 19,657 Counties. 1852. 20. Ottawa 22,903 21. Portncuf 19,366 22. Quebec 61.526 23. Richelieu 25.686 24. Rimousky 26,882 25. Rouville 27.031 26. Saguenay 20,783 27. St. Maurice 25.563 28. St. Hvacinthe... 30,623 29. Shefford 16.482 30. Sherbrooke 20,014 31. Stanstead 13,898 32. Terrebonne 26,791 33. Two Mountains. 3,0470 34. Vaudreuil 21,429 35. Vercheres 14.393 36. Yamaska 14.748 Total 890,262 52 NORTil AMERICA.— NEW BRUNSWICK. Lower Canadti. Canada. F'li ori2in.669,S28 Ertglaiid & Waif 8.. 11/230 Not French on2iii.l25..580 Scotland 14 SfiS United States. ^ 12.482 Ireland .')1,49!J Other Countries. .. 5,377 NATIVITIES OF THE INHABITANTS. Uvper Cnnada. Canada, F'h origin.. 26.417 England & Wulee, . fi2.R99 Not French oriein.526.093 Scotland 7.=) 811 United .States 43,732 Ireland 176267 Other Countries. ..20,985 The character of the inhabitants of Canada partakes of the source whence they spring — if of French descent, levity and obsequiousness give place to ease, or rather gentleness of manner, combined with manly, yet respectful freedom of deportment : the descendants of the English lose the rusticity and boorishness peculiar to the lower class of their ancestors ; and with abundance of the ne- cessaries of life, and leisure for the improvement of their minds, the natural saturnine character of the British is relieved by a pleasing buoyancy of spirit and enthusiasm of action. The offspring of the original French inhabitants form about one half of the population. Government. — 1. A house of assembly, consisting of eighty-four members, chosen by electors possessing a property qualification. 2. A legislative coun- cil, of forty-five to fifty members, nominated by the crown for life, or quamdm se bene gesserunt. 3. An executive council, of eleven official members, heads of departments, also freely elected by the people to the house of assembly ; this council forms the ministry of the governor-general, and is changed when- ever it can not command a majority in the house of assembly. Revenue. — The annual revenue of the province is derived from custom du- ties, about $2,000,000, of which one third is yielded by the inland ports on the lakes, and United States frontier ; the remainder consists of sea customs. The excise yields $150,000 a year, the tolls from public works $250,000, and the territorial revenue about $100,000. Commerce. — Quebec and Montreal are the seaports of Canada. There is a large inland trade between Canada and the United States. Produce. — Chiefly agricultural. Land in cultivation in Canada East, about 3,600,000 acres ; in Canada West, 3,700 000 acres. NEW BRUNSWICK. New Brunswick forms an eastern section of the American continent, and is situated between 45° 5' and 48° 20' north latitude, and between 63° 50' and 68° west longitude from Greenwich. It is bounded on the north by Chaleurs bay, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, and the Ristigouche river ; on the south and southeast by the bays of Fundy, Chignecto, and the narrow peninsula which prevents Nova Scotia from being entirely insulated; on the east by Northum- berland straits, which separate it from Prince Edward island and the gulf of St. Lawrence ; and on the west by the state of Maine. Physical Aspect. — There is much variety of scenery, marked by several distinguishing features. The greater part of the surface undulates boldly, forming several continuous ridges of high land. The elevations are seldom of any considerable height, yet their precipitous acclivities, sharply defined out- line, and deep ravines, give them an Alpine character, while the rich valleys, sheltered plains, and noble forests, through which rivers and lakes wind in every direction, offer many a cheering prospect to the eye of the intending set- tler, by the promise of speedy and abundant return to diligent labor. The greater part of New Brunswick is still an uncultivated, though beautiful wil- derness, containing abundance of fine timber and extensive prairies. Rivers. — The chief river, the St. John, disembogues in the bay of Fundy. For 85 miles, up to Frederickton, the capital, it is navigable for vessels of fifty NORTH AilERICA.— NOVA SCOTIA. 53 tons ; thence barks of twenty tons can ascend to the Grand Falls, which are 125 miles higher ; above them it is only useful for boats. The Miramichi is second only to the St. John in extent and importance, and with its numerous tributaries drains a vast tract of country. The Ristigouche is also a fine stream. Capital. — The city of St. John (population 36,000), in 45° 20' north lati- tude, 66° 3' west longitude, is built on a rocky peninsula projecting into the harbor at the mouth of the noble river of the same name, and from its favorable position is the emporium of the inland trade of a great part of New Brunswick. Much labor has been employed in levelling the streets, but several of them are still inconveniently, and in winter even dangerously, steep. That division of the city nearest the entrance of the harbor is called Lower Cove. The princi- pal wharfs, docks, and warehouses, are situated farther to the north. The whole shore is lined with timber ponds, booms, and ship-yards, which receive the numerous rafts floated down the river. History. — New Brunswick originally formed a portion of the French Aca dia ; but in 1761 (after the conquest of Quebec) it was colonized by British set- tlers. NOVA SCOTIA AND CAPE BRETON. The peninsula of Nova Scotia and the island of Cape Breton together form one of the provinces of British North America, and are separated by a nar- row strait, through which the waters of the gulf of St. Lawrence partly escape. NovA Scotia is situated between 43° 25' and 46° north latitude, and 61° and 66° 30' west longitude from Greenwich. On the northwest and north it is bound- ed by the bays of Fundy and Chignecto, the boundary line which separates it from the county of Westmoreland in New Brunswick, Bay Vert, and the Northum- berland strait, which divides it from Prince Edward island ; on the east by the gulf of St. Lawrence and the gut of Canso, which separates it from Cape Bre- ton island ; and on the south and west by the Atlantic ocean. Its extreme length from east to west is about 283 miles ; breadth varies greatly: between Chester and Black Rock pier it being about fifty miles, and between Bristol bay and the head of Bay Vert, 104. It is connected with the continent by an isthmus only eight miles wide. Physical Aspect. — Above 3,000 square miles, occupied by lakes and rivers of various shapes and sizes, so distributed that there is no point in the province thirty miles from navigable water. The face of the country is pleasingly di- versified with hill and dale, but the elevations are of inconsiderable height ; the highland ranges seldom exceed 500 feet above the level of the sea, and run through the country generally from east to west. History. — Probably discovered by the Cabots ; colonized by the French in 1604, and called Acadia ; their settlements destroyed by the English in 1614. In 1621 a large tract was granted to Sir William Alexander, who called the pe- ninsula by its present name. For several years it was occupied by French and by English, who were in constant warfare ; and until 1763 these two nations, with varying success, held the country alternately. It was then, however, defi- nitely given over to the English, in whose possession it has since remained. Lakes. — Numerous. The largest is Lake Rossignol, thirty miles in length. Lake George, another lake of considerable size, is situate in the township of Yarmouth. Rivers. — Principal the Shubenacadie and the Annapolis. The former fine 54 NORTH AMERICA,— NOVA SCOTIA. stream is navigable for large vessels some distance into the interior, its banks are adorned with extensive groves of lofty timber, and contain inexhaustible, stores of gypsum and lime ; the scenery is picturesque ; varied by the abrupt frowning cliff with its woody summit, the verdant and cultivated vale, the wil- derness with its deep solitudes, and the busy hum of civilized society. The rise and fall of the tide at the mouth of this river is about fifty feet. The An- napolis is navigable for large vessels for twenty miles above Annapolis, and forty above Digby. The country along the banks of the Avon is extremely beautiful ; the luxuriance of the meadows ; the frequent changes of scenery ; the chain of high hills on the south and west, clothed with variegated foliage, and the white sails of vessels passing rapidly through the serpentine windings of the Avon and St. Croix, are some of the leading features of the landscape. Harbors. — In number, capacity, and security, the harbors of Nova Scotia are unsurpassed, if not unequalled, by those of any other country of similar extent. Between Halifax and Cape Canso are twelve ports, capable of receiv- ing ships-of-the-line, and there are fourteen others of sufficient depth for mer- chantmen. Pictou, on the northern shore, celebrated for its extensive coal- fields, has also a fine harbor. Capital. — The capital of Nova Scotia is Halifax, situated in 44° 40' north, and longitude 63° 3V west from Greenwich. The city is delightfully located on the slope of a rising ground facing the bay on the eastern or more accessible side of the peninsula. The harbor extends north by west about sixteen miles, and terminates in a beautiful sheet of water called Bedford Basin, which con- tains ten square miles of safe anchorage. Halifax has about HO, 000 inhabitants, possesses considerable wealth and trade, and is a central point for the fishing trade, and also for the foreign commerce of Nova Scotia. It is the British North American station for the Cunard line of steamships, which sail between Liverpool, and Boston and New York. The town has an intrenchment, and is strengthened with forts of timber. At the northern extremity is a naval depot, supplied with stores of every kind for the royal navy. Halifax was settled by the British in 1749. Government. — Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward's island, and Newfoundland, are all governed on the same plan as Canada, with a separate lieutenant-governor over each colony. Cape Breton Island lies between 45° 27' and 47^ 5' north latitude (inclu- ding Madame, Scatari, Bouladrie, St. Paul's, and other minor islands), and be- tween 59° 38' and 61° 50' west longitude, its extreme length from northeast to southwest being about one hundred miles, and its extreme breadth from south- east to northwest about eighty miles. Topography. — Cape Breton is divided into two peninsulas by the great inlet of the sea termed Bras d'Or lake, which ramifies in the most singular and ro- mantic manner throughout the island, and at one point approaches within a mile of the Atlantic on the opposite coast. The portions of Cape Breton thus sepa- rated strikingly contrast with each other, that on the north being high, bold, and steep, with dangerous coasts, whose rocky and often perpendicular cliff's have a grand but forbidding aspect, which is rarely relieved by harbors ; while that on the south is low, undulating, and intersected by numerous streams, but gradu- ally rises from the interior shore of the Bras d'Or, until it presents abrupt cliff's toward the ocean. Sydney, the capital, is beautifully situated at the head of a fine bay, on a narrow but somewhat elevated tongue of land, stretching into the extensive inlet which forms its secure and capacious harbor. The island of •Cape Breton, possesses valuable coal mines. History. — Colonized by the French, who made Louisburg a strong fortifica- tion ; it was captured by the English in 1758, in whose possession it has since remained. NORTH AMERICA.— NEWFOUNDLAND. 55 NEWFOUNDLAND. The island of Newfoundland is situated on the northeast side of the main entrance to the gulf of St. Lawrence, between 46'^ 40' and 51° 39' north lati- tude, and between 52° 44' and 59° 31' west longitude. It is divided from the coast of Labrador on the north, and northeast by the straits of Belle Isle ; its southwestern extremity approaches within fifty miles of Cape Breton, and on the northwest the gulf of St. Lawrence separates it from Canada. Newfound- land is the nearest to Europe of any part of America ; the distance from St. Johns', in Newfoundland, to Port Valentia, on the west coast of Ireland, being 1,656 miles. Newfoundland is noted for the most productive cod-fishery in the world ; more than 3,000 vessels, and 40,000 men, of various nations, being em- ployed in the trade. Topography. — Newfoundland stands on an immense bank, in length about 600 miles, and in breadth about 200 miles, with soundings varying from twenty- five to ninety-five fathoms ; the base being a mass of solid rock. There are apparently two banks, the outer one lying within 44° 10' and 47° 30' north lat- itude, and within 44° 15' and 45° 25' west longitude, with soundings varying from 100 to 150 fathoms. Newfoundland is in form nearly an equi-lateral tri- angle, the apex being to the northward, and the base extending east and west, between Cape Ray and Cape Race. The coast is everywhere indented, at in- tervals of two or three miles, by broad and deep bays, innumerable harbors, coves, creeks, and rivers. The shores are all rocky, with pebble beaches, often covered with stunted wood nearly to the water's edge ; and lofty head- lands on the southwest side. The interior of the island appears to be rocky, with numerous tracts of moss ; much intersected by rivers and lakes, and but thinly wooded, except on the banks of the rivers, where poplars, birches, and spruce firs, grow. The British settlements are mostly confined to the coast line. Capital. — St. Johns, the capital, is situated on the open eastern coast, in 47° 33' 33" north latitude, and 52° 45' 10" west longitude. The harbor is spa- cious and secure, everywhere, excepting toward its termination, of great depth, having upward of nmety feet in the centre, and land-locked by high hills, which on its south side afford no shore, and on its north admit a strand, built over with warehouses and wharfs. St. Johns is a place of considerable strength, from both its natural position and the fortifications erected for its protection. History. — Newfoundland is the oldest colony of England ; British govern- ment was established at St. John's in 1583, by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, under the orders of Queen Elizabeth. FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. Something more than a century since, France held possession of nearly half of the North American continent. But from time to time, through conquest, cession, or purchase, portions of its territory have been parted with, till at pres- ent three small desert islands are all that can be included under the name of " French Possessions in North America." The three islands referred to are St. Pierre, and Grand and Petit Miquelon, situated near the south coast of New- foundland. They were ceded to tlie French in 1763. They are of no import- ance, other than as fishing stations for French vessels. A treaty of reciprocity between the French government and the United States, in regard to these islands, was entered into in 1847. They are under the charge of a governor, who resides at the town of St. Pierre, on the island of that name. THE UNITED STATES. The " United States of Amer- ica" is the most interesting and important division of the western hemisphere. Comprising a ter- ritory equal in extent to that of half of the kingdoms and princi- palities of Europe combined, with a population exceeded by but three or perhaps four of the Euro- Hlpean states, and numbering scarce ; three fourths of a century since i it broke loose from the leading- strings of the mother-country, the American republic stands unpar- alelled in the history of the rise and growth of nations. The ter- ritory of the United States lies between the meridians of 67^ and 125° longitude west from Green- wich, and the parallels 24° and 49° of north latitude. It is bounded by the Atlantic ocean on the east, and the Pacific on the west ; by the British colonies on the north, and the republic of Mexico and the great gulf of that name on the south. It comprises an area of over 3,000,000 square miles. The frontier line has a length of about 10,000 miles, and about 5,000 miles of sea and lake coast. Physical Aspect. — A territory of such vast extent must of course comprise a great variety of surface, soil, and clijiiate. A large proportion of it is not only susceptible of cultivation, but has a fertile soil capable of supporting a dense population. There are but few barrens, and no great deserts, except one in the territory of Utah. It is numerously threaded by navigable streams, which not only give fertility to their borders, but are available in bearing the gifts of the soil to domestic and foreign markets, and in bring backing to the inhabitants the products and luxuries of other climes. Mountains. — The territory of the United States is traversed by several chains of mountains. The Allegany, or Appalachian range, on the Atlantic side, runs in a northeasterly direction, from the northern part of Georgia to the gulf and river of St. Lawrence, stretching along in tmiform ridges, at the dis- tance of from 250 to 80 miles from the seacoast, and following its general direction. It occupies in breadth a space of from 60 to 120 miles, and sepa- rates the waters which run into the Atlantic ocean, from those which flow into the Mississippi and its tributaries. The highest elevation in this range, and the most prominent in the Atlantic states, is Black Mountain, in the western part of North Carolina ; it is 6,476 feet in height. The general elevation is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Rocky mountains, situated about 800 miles from the Pacific coast, are on a much grander scale than the Alle- 58 THE UNITED STATES. ganies. Their base is about 300 miles in breadth, and their loftiest summits, covered with everlasting snow, rise to the height of from 12,000 to 18,000 feet above the level of the sea. These vast chains may be considered as a continu- ation of the Cordilleras in Mexico. The Sierra Nevada is a range of mountains extending through California, and from these branch off to the northwest the Cascade range, which traverses Oregon into the British territories. Both these ranges become more elevated as they extend farther north, where some of their peaks enter the regions of perpetual snow. Still farther west is another chain called the Coast range, running almost parallel to, and at a short distance from, the Pacific coast. Bays. — The principal bays and soimds on the Atlantic border are — Passam- aquoddy bay, which lies between the state of Maine and the British province of New Brunswick ; Massachusetts bay, between Capes Ann and Cod ; Long Island sound, between Long Island and the coast of Connecticut ; Delaware bay, which sets up between Cape May and Cape Henlopen, separating the states of New Jersey and Delaware ; Chesapeake bay, which communicates with the ocean between Cape Charles and Cape Henry, extending in a northern direction for 200 miles, through the states of Virginia and Maryland ; Albemarle sound and Pamlico sound, on the coast of North Carolina. There are no large bays or sounds on the coast of the gulf of Mexico. On the Pacific coast, however, there are several excellent bays, but the principal and only one necessary to mention is the bay of San Francisco, in the newly-acquired territory of California. Lakes. — The great lakes of North America have been described on a pre- vious page. Lakes Michigan and Champlain are the only two lying wholly within the United States. Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, have the boundary between the United States and the British provinces, running directly through their centre. The other lakes of any magnitude in the Ignited Stales are Lakes George, Oneida, Otsego, Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, Crooked, Canandaigua, Honedoye, Chautauque, and Canesis, all in New York ; Moosehead, Chesuncook, Pemadumcook, Moosetogmaguntic, Sebago, and Schoodic, in Maine ; Winnipiseogee, in New Hampshire ; and Memphremagog, between Canada and Vermont. There are numerous others which it is impossi- ble to mention. In Louisiana, are the great lakes of Pontchartrain, Borgne, Ouacha, Grand, and others formed by the waters of the Mississippi ; Bodeau, Cadoe, Bistinoe, Caunisnia, Bayou-Pierre, Spanish, Black, and others formed by the Red river and its branches. In Wisconsin, is Lake Winnebago, formed by Fox river. There are several extensive lakes also in Florida. In Califor- nia are the Tule lakes, and the Pyramid lake, in the centre of which stands a natural granite pyramid. There is also the Great Salt lake in the territory of Utah. Rivers. — The rivers of the United States are numerous, and some of them among the most important, and affording facilities for inland navigation and trade unparallelled in any section of the globe. They may be divided into four great classes: 1st. The streams which rise on the east side of the Allegany, mountains, and flow into the Atlantic ocean ; 2d. Those south of the Allegany range, which discharge themselves into the gulf of Mexico ; 3d. The Missis- sippi and its wide tributaries, which drain the waters of the vast valley included between the Rocky and Allegany ranges ; and 4th. The rivers which, rising on the western declivity of the Rocky mountains, direct their course to the Pacific ocean. The Mississippi is the largest river in the United States, and one of the noblest in the world. Its course, in conjunction with its great auxiliary, the Missouri, is about 4,200 miles. The Mississippi rises west of Lake Supe- rior, in latitude 47^ 47' north, amid lakes and swamps, in a dreary and desolate region, and after a course southeast for about 500 miles, reaches the falls of the St. Anthony. Thence it flows a southeasterly and then a southerly direc- THE UNITED STATES. , 59 tion, and discharges its waters into the gulf of Mexico. The principal tributa- ries of the Mississippi from the east are the Wisconsin, the Illinois, and the Ohio, which is itself formed by the junction of the Allegany and Monongahela, at Pittsburgh. The chief tributaries of the Ohio are the Wabash, the Cumber- land, and the Tennessee. The principal tributaries of the Mississippi from the west are the St. Peter's, the Des Moines, the Missouri, the Arkansas, and the Red rivers. The Missouri enters the Mississippi river about eighteen miles above St. Louis, after a course of 3,217 miles. Although it loses its name at its confluence with the latter, it is much the longer stream of the two ; but the Mississippi, having been first discovered and explored, has retained its name to the gulf of Mexico. The Missouri is formed of numerous branches, which rise among the Rocky mountains, between the parallels of 42° and 48<^ north latitude, the principal of which are the Yellow Stone, the Nebraska or Platte, and the Kansas. The most remote are the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin rivers. The only obstruction that occurs to its navigation is at the Great Falls, a dis- tance of 2,000 miles from the Mississippi. The principal rivers east of the Alleganies, are the Penobscot, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehannah, Potomac, James, and Savannah. The principal rivers which rise south of the Alleganies, and fall into the gulf of Mexico, are the Appalachicola, which is formed by the junction of the Chatahoochee and Flint rivers ; the Mobile, which is formed of the Alabama and Tombigbee, which unite near latitude 31°, after a separate course of several hundred miles, and the Colorado, Brazos, and Rio Grande del Norte, in Texas. The latter stream, and the Gila, which emp- ties into the gulf of Calffornia, form the line between the United States and Mexico. The rivers flowing from the Rocky mountains to the Pacific are, the Columbia, in Oregon, which rises near latitude 55° north, and falls into the Pa- cific ocean, after a course of 1,500. Its principal tributaries are Clarke, Lewis, Colville, and Willamette rivers. The Colorado, in California, after a course of 1,000 miles, empties into the gulf of California. The other rivers in California are the Sacramento and San Joaquin, which empty into the bay of San Fran- cisco, and the Buenaventura, which empties into the bay of Monterey. Climate. — The United States, though lying within the temperate zone, em- brace almost every variety of climate. In the northern parts, the winters are long and severe ; snow often falls to the depth of three or four feet, and the cold is so piercing as to oblige the inhabitants to make very diligent provision against it. Spring returns here in April, and the heat is great in summer. In the southern parts of the country snow is seldom seen, ice is rarely formed in the rivers, and those fruits which shrink from a northern climate, and flourish only in warm regions, are scattered over the soil. In Georgia, the inhabitants may load their tables with oranges, lemons, and other exquisite fruits that grow in their gardens and groves, while in parts of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, even peaches will not flourish. Between these extremities, as in Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, and California, there is a region adapted to the wine-grape, which thrives best in places removed from both the torrid and frigid zones. Minerals. — Minerals abound in the United States in great variety and pro- fusion. It has all the useful, as well as all the precious metals. Iron is very generally diffused, and is very abundant. Coal, both bituminous and anthracite, is found in great quantities. Rich copper mines exist in the northwestern states, and lead mines in Missouri and Illinois. The gold mines of California seem inexhaustible ; quicksilver mines have also been profitably worked there. Granite, marble, and other building stones, are found in every section of the country. Salt springs abound in many parts of the Union, and large quantities are manufactured in New York, Western Pennsylvania, Western Virginia, Ohio, and Illinois ; it is also made from sea-water in some parts of New England. CO THE UNITED STATES. Railroads, &c. — About fourteen thousand miles of railroad are in successful operation in the various sections of the United States. They are nearly equal, in the aggregate, to the railroads of all the rest of the world ; and if extended in one line would reach more than halfway round the globe. There are about 5,000 miles of canals in the United States, forming valuable artificial means of navigation for transporting the heavy products of the country ; but since the rapid increase of railroad communication few canals have been commenced. It is within ten years that the first line of telegraph was erected in the United States, and there are now more than 15,000 miles in operation, connecting the most important points of the country with each other, for the instantaneous trans- mission of intelligence. CoMMKRCE. — In the extent and prosperity of its commerce the United States is second only to Great Britain. There is no part of the globe to which Amer- ican merchantmen do not find their way ; and the coasting and inland trade are carried on to an equal extent. The foreign exports are confined principally to agricultural products, with naval stores, timber, and other productions of the forest. The exports and imports are each over $200,000,000 annually. The imports are European manufactures, principally of the finer descriptions, and the productions of the tropics, such as sugar, coffee, spices, wines, &c. There are about 10,000 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 5,000,000, employed in foreign commerce. Fisheries. — The fisheries of the United States are extensive and valuable. About 250 vessels and about 12,000 seamen and landsmen are employed in the whale-fishery. The products of this fishery amount to from 400,000 to 500,000 barrels of oil annually. The cod-fishery is pursued off the coasts of New Eng- land, and as far north as Labrador, and about 100,000 tons of shipping are thus employed. The mackerel fishery employs about 60,000 tons of shipping. Agricultural Products. — The agricultural products of the United States, according to the census statistics for 1850, were — wheat, 104,799,230 bushels; Indian corn, 591,586,053 bushels ; tobacco, 199,532,494 pounds; cotton, 2,474,- 214 bales of 400 pounds ; wine, 141,295 gallons ; hay, 13,605,384 tons ; hemp, dew-rotted, 62,182 tons, water-rotted, 13,059 tons; flaxseed, 567,749 bushels; maple-sugar, 32,759,263 pounds; cane-sugar, 318,644,000 pounds ; wool, 52,- 422,797 pounds ; butter, 312,202,286 pounds ; cheese, 103,184,585 pounds Manufactures. — The manufactures of the United States are various, com- prising almost every article known to commerce. From the great variety of soil and climate, producing in abundance every species of raw material, the cheap and inexhaustible supply of moving power furnished by innumerable running streams, combined with the improvements which are every day taking place in machinery, the United States is destined eventually to distance all other countries in its progress in this branch of industry. The entire capital invested in manufactures in the United States on the first day of June, 1850, was $530,000,000 ; amount paid for labor, year ending as above, $240,000,000 ; value of manufactured articles, $1,020,300,000; persons employed, 1,050,000. Public Lands. — The public lands form a very important feature of the na- tional wealth. The property of the soil within the limits of the United States, not owned by the several states, or by individuals, is vested in the general government. They are principally located in the western and southwestern states and territories, and in California and Oregon. They amount, in the ag- gregate, to several hundred millions of acres, to which the Indian title has been extinguished. Education. — There is great attention paid to education in most of the states. Common and primary schools are widely distributed, and high schools are numerous. The common schools are supported either by a fund accumu- lated from various sources, or by taxation ; and in the new states and territories THE UNITED STATES. 61 640 acres of the public lands in every township is specially reserved for pur- poses of education. There are in the United States 130 colleges and univer- sities, sixty theological seminaries, twelve law schools, and fifty medical schools. Religion. — There is no established or national church in the United Slates, religion being left to the voluntary choice of the people. No special privileges or immunities are granted to one denomination beyond another, it being an essential principle in the national and state governments, that legislation may of right interfere in the concerns of public worship, only so far as to protect every individual in the exercise, without molestation, of that of his choice. Nor is any legislative enactment made for the support of religion, except that, in Massachusetts the legislature is enjoined to require, and in New Hampshire is empowered to authorize, the several towns and parishes to make adequate pro- vision, at their own expense, for the support of protestant ministers. In the latter state also, a Roman catholic is disqualified, by the constitution, from hold- ing any state office. But in all the other states religion is left entirely to the voluntary support of its professors. Population. — The first census was taken in 1790, since which period there have been six decennial enumerations. Their results are as follows : — Census Year. 1790. 1800. Ratio of Increase per. cent. White Colored Persons. Total Persons. Free. Slave. Population, ... 3,172,464 59 466 697,897 3,929,827 ... 4,304,489 108,39.5 893,041 5,305,92.5 35 01 1810 5,862,004 186,446 1,191,364 7.239,814 36.45 1820 7,872.711 238,197 1,543,688 9,654,596 33.12 1830 10.537,178 319,599 2,009,043 12,866,020 33.48 1840 14.189,705 386,295 2,487,3.55 17,063,355 32 67 1850 19,467,.537 426,762 3,204,089 23,263,488 36 25 The following table contains some of the more important details of the census of 1 850, classified by states and territories : — STATES. Alabama Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Mussachusetta Michisran Mississippi Missouri New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina. . Ohio Pennsylvania Rhode Island.. .. South Carolina.. . Tennessee Texas Vermont Virg^inia Wisconsin Ter. Minnesota.. Ter N. Mexico... Ter. Oregon Ter. Utah Disl. Colunihitt.. Total.*.. Q 73.070 28,252 61.013 15,290 9,022 91,011 146.544 170,178 32.962 130,769 49,101 95,797 81,708 152,835 71,616 61,681 96,849 57,339 81,064 473,936 105,542 336.090 386,216 22.379 ,52,642 129.420 27,9881 .56,642! 16.5,815 56,316 l.OOi 13,453 2,.'n4 2,322 7,917 fe 73,786 28,416 No re 73,443 15,43P 9,107 91,471 149,153 17 1, .504 33,.';i7 132,920 51,112 1<3,787 87,384 192,679 72,611 52,107 100,891 62,287 89.080 566,869 116,023 348,523 408,497 28,216 52,9. J7 130.005 28,377 59,7.53 167..530 57,60R 1,01(1 13,.50i' 2,374 2,322 8.292 H 219,728 85,699 turns. 180,001 35,771 25.674 266,096 445,644 506.408 1 00,88 n 392,841 141,059 296,788 211,495 484,284 208,471 156,260 3I2.98B 1 55,9 54 233,74li 1,515,05; 272,789 1.004,111 1,142,86.3 70.417 137,773 382,27( 84,863 159,67 45 1, .552 164,221 3,695 31,730 8.142 6,022 1 8,518 O 0) lfl6,779 76.369 183,304 35,518 21,493 235,342 400.460 471,220 90.994 368,848 1 14,357 285,404 207,095 501,420 186,626 139,498 279,091 161.535 232.49 1, -504,405 280,,506 951,997 1,115,000 73,.5a3 136,8.50 374,623 69,237 153,732 4+3,75: 140,344 2,343 29.800 4,945 5,308 19,479 1.047 318 Eetiin 3,749 8,989 420 1,368 2,7.56 5,472 168 4,771 7,.593 705 34,914 4,314 1,412 473 1,338 243 11.542 22,978 13,226 12.239 25.0.57 1,660' 4.110] 3,072 171 367 25,813 365 21 14 119 12 4,210 ■2s 1,225 271 ated al 3.737 8,968 505 1.51i 2,6 1( 5,316 167 4,965 9.9; 620 39,163 4,481 1,145 426 1,206 232 11,551 24,9,59 13.970 12,061 28.266 l.f 4,790 3,199 160 313 27,986 261 18 3 87 12 5,763 a 3 428.779 162,657 165.000 370;791 89,246 48,092 524,318 851.470 988,416 192,214 771,424 272,9.)3 583,188 492,667 994,499 397,6.54 296,6.57 .591.621 317.964 489,333 3,097,394 .580.491 1,980,408 2,311.786 147..541 283,523 763,164 1.54.431 314,120 949,133 305,191 6,077 61,.M7 13,293 11,3)4 43.000 3,339,163 3 .575.602 9,943.415 9,524.122 204.961221,801 2 ' Barrett J -Prescott 1,500., Lexington > . ., .„ .„- Concord ^ April 19, 177o Bunker's Hill June 17,1775. Fort Moultrie June 28, 1776. .Moultrie Long' Island Aug. 27, 1776.. Washington 600. 108. .450. . 32. ( Pitcairn } •• I Smith., i 1,700.. 273 200 Pitcairn Smith Howe 3,000 1,054 Parker UO vessels •'^^^^^^ ^270 guns. . Howe . . . , 24,000 . How e 35,000 .149i.-Howe . 9...Rahl 2,000 .500a. .300.. ..15,000. White Plains Oct. 28, 1776.. Washington 18,000. Fort Washington.. Nov. 16, 1776. .Morgan 2,967. Trenton Dec. 26, 1776.. Washington . .. 3,000. Princeton Jan. 3, 1777.. Washington . .. 4,000 100.. . Mawhood 2,000.. Bennington Aug. 16, 1777. .Stark 1,600 100...Baum. 1,100.. Brandywine Sept 11, 1777.. Washington. ..11.000 900/. .Howe 18,000.. Stillwater (1st) Sept. 19, 1777.. Gates. 5,000 319. ..Burgoyne 7,000.. Germantown Oct. 4, 1777.. Washington. ..11,000 800g-..Howe 20,000.. Stillwater (2d)/t Oct. 7, 1777. .Gates 10,722 80. . .Burgoyne 6,000.. Red Bank Oct. 22, 1777. .Greene 400.... 32. ..Donop 2,000.. Monmouth June 28, 1778.. Washington . Quaker Hill, R.I. .Aug. 29, 1778. . Sullivan . Savannah Dec. 29, 1778.. Howe ... Brier Creek Mar. 3, 1779.. Ash Stony Point July 15, 1779.. W^yne . Savannah Oct. Charleston May The W^axhaws May Camden Aug. King's Mountain... Oct. Cowpens Jan. Guilford Mar. Ninety-Six May 22.1781 .11,000 302. . . Clinton 19,000 . 211...Pigott . 700 lOOi... Campbell 2,000. , l,560....150A:..Prevost 900. 98.. .Johnson 606. ..878...Prevost ..254OT.. Clinton 8,000. .316...Tarleton Eutaw Springs Sept. Yorktown Oct. 9, 1779..D'Estaing 4,450.. 12, 1780. .Lincoln 5,000.. 29, 1780..Buford 400... 16, 1780.. Gates 3,663.. . .720. ..Comwallis 2,100.. 6, 1780.. Campbell 1,600.. ..100.. .Ferguson 1,600.. 17, 1781.. Morgan 800.... 72. ..Tarleton 1,100.. 15, 1781. .Greene 4,400 400. . .Cora wallis 2,400.. 150...Cruger 500 450 300 800 20c lOOi 28 Oe 576 500 600 400 400 349 260 26 16 63Z 120 268 17 375 334« 3680 600 .Greene. 8, 1781.. Greene 2,000.. ..555. ..Stewart 2,300 500p 19, J781.. Washington.. .16,000.... 300. ..Cornwallis 8,000 5525- a 1.097 taken prisoners. b 2,816 taken prisoners. c 909 taken prisoners, d .300 taken prisoners. e 654 taken prisoners. /400 taken pi-isoners. ^ 400 taken prisoners. h This second battle of StUlwater led to the surrender of Burgoyne, and his entire army, at Saratoga, ten days afterward. i 453 taken prisoners. k 230 taken prisoners. 1 543 taken prisoners. m 5,000 taken prisoners. n 648 taken prisoners. o 500 taken prisoners. p 538 talien prisoners. q 7,247 taken prisoners. FAC-SIftULE OF CONTINENTAL MONEY. !?WraiIl|l|ll!liII--:«T\ 6 o o rn r: H a-^M nt rt o w « ^ a c rt^ d J3 o O >-J c5 ^^ ^ ^ ^ * « • MH a •a « 3 HHCL, lo t» 00 Tj< ■^ ^ ■> ^i»-s £ xy ; 5i"= 1. o s u E Mi if "Six.;.;; 2 2«~s-g-2 -S =5 «•£ 'Sr^ ci! ai-3 ^ OJ ?; m . --ScS-sS i 5.wc:-= ■'-5 3 - ■■sa.o^.s" 3 U ti-; X s c S * I- o a O c ^' o i* c -^ — '-'—it. s ^ = = -■ ^ s s s -3 = j: u IK ?; c M d" ' _ s a D I" i o 5 = ? >.= t *^ C B » » . o •^ to C c o 5 pqHfM So O *- M . ->72!SO •OOCh OH %. a o B to o C ba a w rt c! o " » S r "■MS e S *• ° 00 O O H « CT) Tjl « .St » t-i cq m -"^ >o lo f- « MCM M £ Si; jwcqpq • 00 Oi o c a 2 ■a .2^ 3 -t- « C o :3 («■« O oO o B S 00 Oi o iH c5 ro T(i O o M H .;^"i^^|s?J« : 0-3- - rt o a ■j;x,_.aoS : c 91 w Ji aj 5-_ "■- «-Cl, ■» .r"" " « ^• o D U i. 2 => £ *j'*- - 3 ='— O !>" - S "S"S .,» 5 ».= i"s " n £ J).S s-s ko"'^ irl 3 0) c =-, :: M=- = - S 3 c^.£ >,i.^^j,.3Ti «; c s S = 8 . *^ 5^:i a;-2 c*-5 i'JS-a W)«r £ rtaJT e o r r °<- V. • re o S'3 ■(Mm J3 fi t>. " o S "» 2 B-g a HPQojto ^-^ i|5*£ Ji o ^i i| «3 = 5= =* Si| S-ls £-.§.i J J &i 1.2 2| Satis ^tl*S*'cT'hice>*3»uia« uxoOh ttovs »...(*j*:** cb c &•« o^ 68 THE UNITED STATES. Federal History. — The year subsequent to the declaration of independence, the united colonies had entered into a compact for the general good, and adopt- ed articles of confederation as organic law for the whole. But when peace re- turned, and commerce and the arts began to revive, they were found too defec- tive for sound and efficient government, and accordingly, in May, 1787, dele- gates from the several states met at Philadelphia, and adopted the present federal constitution on the 17th of September following. The government was organized under it, and George Washington, who had commanded the Ameri- can army through the trying times of the Revolution, was elected the first pres- ident. He was inaugurated in the city of New York, on the 30th of April, PORTRAIT OF WASHINGTON. 1789. Washington filled the presidential chair eight consecutive years, and within that time established a wise financial and foreign policy for the govern- ment — the chief features of which were, an economical expenditure, a judicious tariff for revenue, and strict neutrality in relation to the wars of nations in the eastern hemisphere. Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee, were admitted into the Union during Washington's administration. Our neutral policy irritated the French, and they not only committed aggressions upon our commerce, but threat- ened us with invasion. John Adams succeeded Washington in 1797, and in view of the threats of the French, he raised an army, and increased the navy. Washington was appointed to the command of the former, but he died soon after. Happily for humanity, the services of the army were not needed. Thomas Jefferson succeeded John Adams as president of the United States in 1801. During his administration a treaty was effected with France (then ruled by Napoleon as first-consul) for the cession of Louisiana to the United States, for which our government paid fifteen millions of dollars. The energetic meas- ures of President Jefferson made the commercial and political influence of the THE UNITED STATES. 69 United States seriously felt in Europe. The scar which England received, in her contest with America during the Revolution, still mortified her pride, and the growing commercial importance of the new republic excited her fiercest jeal- ousy. In her impotent wrath, she committed aggression after aggression, until at length they could no longer be borne with honor ; and during the fourth year of Mr. Madison's administration (which succeeded Mr. JeflTerson's, in 1809), war was formally declared against Great Britain. This war was continued until February, 1815, when peace was restored, a treaty having been agreed to at Ghent, by commissioners appointed by both powers. During Mr. Madison's administration Ohio, Louisiana, and Indiana, were admitted into the Union. The total expenditures of the United States government during the war may be staled in round numbers at $100,000,000, and the loss of lives at about 30,000 persons. The war with England had scarcely closed, when the depre- dations upon our commerce by the Algerine corsairs rendered it necessary to declare war against that power. A squadron under Commodore Decatur sailed for the Mediterranean in May, 1815, and in a very short time he obtained pay- ment for property destroyed, and treaties highly advantageous to the United States from the dey of Algiers, and the beys of Tunis and Tripoli. .Tames Monroe succeeded Mr. Madison in the presidential chair in 1817. His admin- istration (which lasted eight years) was a quiet one, and no foreign war dis- turbed the repose of our people. A brief war with the Seminole Indians oc- curred in 1818 ; and in 1819 Spain ceded to the United States the whole of East and West Florida, and the adjacent islands. During Mr. Monroe's ad- ministration, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri, were admitted into the Union. On the admission of the latter state, in 1820, the slavery ques- tion first arrayed the North and South as antagonists upon sectional grounds. In 1822, Congress, by an almost unanimous vote, acknowledged the independence of the South American republics. John Quincy Adams succeeded Mr. Monroe in 1825, and his administration was one of almost unbroken peace and prosper- ity. Andrew Jackson succeeded Mr. Adams as president in 1829. A tariff law, passed in 1828, caused much discontent at the South, and a threatened re- bellion, called NuUification, was manifested in South Carolina in 1831-32. During Jackson's administration, the Indian " Black Hawk war," occurred, and a second war with the Seminoles commenced in 1835 ; and Arkansas and and Michigan came into the Union. Martin Van Buren succeeded Jackson in the presidential chair, in 1837. It was during his administration that the trou- bles on our Canada frontier took place, when the sympathizing aid which' our people lent to the revolted Canadians came very near involving us in hostilities with Great Britain. Van Buren was succeeded by General Harrison in 1841, but death terminated his earthly career just one month after he was inaugurated, and John Tyler, the vice-president, succeeded him. During Mr. Tyler's ad- ministration a new tariff was instituted ; Texas, an independent republic, and Florida, were annexed to our confederacy. James K. Polk succeeded Mr. Tyler in 1845, and war soon after followed between this government and that of Mexico, in consequence of the annexation of Texas. General Taylor, with a small force, was sent to the Mexican frontier of Texas to oppose a threatened in- vasion ; and two severe battles were fought between the Americans, under Tay- lor, and the Mexicans at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, on the 8th and 9th of May, 1846. General Scott was also sent to Mexico, and there took the chief command. Taylor captured Matamoras and Monterey, and defeated a Mexican army of four times the numlier of his own forces, at Buena Vista ; while Scott, after securing Vera Cruz, pushing on toward the capital. After several success- ful battles, he hoisted the American flag over "the halls of the Montezumas." A treaty was finally concluded between our government and that of Mexico, by which California and New Mexico became the property of the United States. 70 THE UNITED STATES. Iowa and Wisconsin were admitted into the Union and the Oregon boundary qnestion settled during Mr. Polk's administration. General Zachary Taylor, was elected the twelfth president in 1848. The discovery of gold in Califor- nia, and the colonization and founding of a new state on the Pacific coast were the chief events of Taylor's administration. President Taylor died quite sud- denly, on the 9th of July, 1850, and was succeeded in office by the vice-pres- ident, Millard Fillmore, whose administration has been signalized by the admis- sion of California into the Union, and the passage of the compromise measure. PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 NAME. Gi^orge Washington John Adam8 Thomas .TefFerson James Madison......... James Monroe John Quincy Adams Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William Henry Harrison John Tyler James Knox Polk Zurhary Taylur Millard Fillmore Friinklin Pierce RESIDENCE, Virginia Massachusetts. . . Virginia Virginia Virginia Massachusetts.. . Tennessee New York Ohio Virginia Tennessee Louisiana New York New Hampshire, BOHN. Feb. 22, 1732 Oct. 30, 1735 April 13, 1743 March 16, 1751 April 2, 1759 July 11, 1767 March 15, 1767 Doc. 5, 1782 Feb. 9, 1773 March 29, 1790 Nov. 2, 1795 Nov. 24,1784 J i>. 7. 1800 Nov. 23.1804 Installed into office. < 5 57 8 1789 1797 61 4 1801 58 8 1809 58 8 1817 f8 8 1825 58 4 1829 62 8 1837 54 4 1841 f8 - 1841 51 4 i 1845 49 4 i 1849 6J 1 1 1850 50 3 1853 48 DIED. Dec. 14, 1799 July 4, 1826 July 4, 1826 June 28, 1836 July 4, 1831 Feb. 23, 1848 June 8, 1845 April 4, 1841 June 15, 1849 July 9, 1850 •<.s 68 91 83 85 72 80 78 68 54 66 Half-D;)llur, 00 CcnU Dollar. $1. Dollar, THE UNITED STATES.— MAINE. 71 MAINE.* Maine, the northeasternmost of the United States, lies between 43° 5' and 47^ 20' north latitude, and 66° 49' and 71° 4' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Canada East, from which it is separated by the river St. Johns ; east by New Brunswick, from which it is separated in part by the St. Croix-; south by the Atlantic ; west by New Hampshire, from which it is separated in part hy Piscataqua and Salmon Fall rivers ; and northwest Iiy Canada East. Superficial area, 32,628 square miles. Physical Aspect. — On the seaboard the surface is generally level, though not very fertile. For some ten or twenty miles back the soil is sandy, gravelly, clayey, or loamy, seldom very rich, but tolerably fertile in some places, though oftener poor. In the tract lying north of this, extending from fifty to ninety miles from the sea, the same kinds of soil are found, but generally more fertile. The surface rises into large swells of generally good soil, be- tween which, along the margins of the streams, are frequently rich " intervale," or alluvial lands ; while in other places sandy or gravelly pine plains occur, or spruce or cedar swamps. In the central parts of the state the surface is more broken ; and in many of the river valleys the soil is not exceeded in fertility in any of the other New England states. At the extreme north the country is less hilly, and is but little settled. Mountains. — On the western side of the state, a little to the eastward of the White mountains, in New Hampshire, an irregular chain of high lands com- mences and extends northeastwardly, more or less interrupted, to the easterly boundary of the state, terminating at an isolated peak, 1,683 feet in height, called Mars hill. Katahdin mountain, which may be considered as a part of the above-named range, is much the highest land in the state, being 5,335 feet above the level of the sea. Agamentacus, which is of considerable elevation, is in York, near the southwest corner of the state. Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — The principal rivers are, the Penobscot, Ken- nebec, Androscoggin, Saco, Sheepscot, Damariscotta, Machias, Salmon Fall, Piscataqua, St. Croix, and the St. John's. The lakes, or ponds, are rather nu- merous, the most noted of which are Moosehead, Umbagog, Sebago, Schoodic, Chesuncook, Pemadumcook, and Mooselogmaguntic. The principal bays are Casco, Penobscot, Frenchman's, Englishman's, Machias, and Passamaquoddy. Islands. — The chief islands are Mount Desert, Deer, Long, Boon, Fox, and Cranberry. Climate. — Although the climate is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, the air in all parts of the state is salubrious and pure. Near the ocean^ and bays, the heats of summer are greatly tempered by the breezes ; and the rigors of winter, though severe, are more uniform and less trying to health than in many situations farther south. The range of the temperature varies from 100"^ Fahrenheit to 27° below zero. Snow often lies upon the ground for four to five months in the year. Cities and Chief Towns. — Augusta is the seat of government. Bangor and Portland are cities. The other populous towns are Bath, Bucksport, Bel- * .So callfid as enrly ns 1533, from Maint, a department of France, of which Henrietta Maria, queen of England was proprietor at the time. 71 rOLOB.lVcstfroiii Gri'Rnwic!!. ^7 Soi '^"'^^ 48 M le o£]MUcs ^\Wit=;.' J';. 17 Qijeh m 1 45 iy- 'Q '^^o ■f odL :§>;■ Marie ;% ^.\ ■'#. o >«' Jii) !f lis "^^fWin ij-ji: wM^ v^ I; *=? — nx 1^ ^.n-reat -III Ion ).n] r Moosohc \GreenvOle C HlnorJatcX. Jiei \Crancl incehor ?tis \St.. IG 44 V BUigliam i ir -"f^ '\:Exeker ^Bethel AKptrSXi5©(^'/"<^'?*<3fas'^ i^ ASH/I N GTOI '^j-^<>nn>jfi^/^J^^^;^ :'-*,•. IVfachia?^ tettlicn Has Slfinclistu Wti[ctJnir6 So AUrih 1)1"" « J7> ver1i«lX2^U=^- / j2/ fcaiiuaUi SZffiK MAINE M 43 6 Lon.E. Irom "Wadliiit'lori 10 THE UNITED STATES.— MAINE. 73 fast, Brunswick, Camden, Frankfort, Gardiner, Gorham, Hallowell, Minot. Saco, Thomaston, Westbrook, Waldoborough, and York. Productive Resources. — The principal products of the state are horses, )eat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, wool, butter, cheese, sugar, hay, wheat, rye, irley, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Among the other resources are lime, limber, ice, and fish. Manufactures. — There are about twenty cotton, and double that number of wodllen factories in the state. Ship-building is also extensively carried on. RxiLROADS AND Canals. — Thc railroads already completed in Maine are of essential value to the interests of the state. They extend about 500 miles, and corinect Portland, the commercial capital, with important points in Maine, and witl, Boston and Montreal. The only canal in this state is the Cumberland and Oxf«rd canal, connecting Portland with Sebago pond, 20 miles, and by a lock in Sigo river, navigation is extended to Long pond, 31 miles farther. It cost about f:250,000. Commerce. — The commerce and navigation of this state is mostly confined to coasting and fishing. Its principal exports are lumber, stone, lime, fish, prepared meats, &c. Its commerce with foreign states, in 1850, amounted to about two and a half millions of dollars ; and the shipping owned within the state to somewhit over a half a million of tons. Education. — The common schools in Maine are supported by the districts in which they are located. They number over 5,000. The principal colle- giate institutions ate Bowdoin college, at Brunswick, to which is attached a medical school, andWaterville college, at Waterville. There are theological seminaries at Bangor, and Redfield, and upward of 100 academies in various parts of the state. * Population.— In 1790, 96,540; in 1800, 151,719; in 1810, 228,705 ; in 1820, 298,335 ; in 1830, 399,955 ; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows :— Counties. 18.50. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Aroostook 12,535 9,413 Lincoln 74,875 63,512 Waldo 47,230 41,.535 Cumbrrland 79,549 68.fi60 Oxford 39,763 38,339 Washington 38,810 28,309 Franklin 20,027 20,800 Penobscot 63,089 45,705 York 60,101 54,023 Hancock 34,372 28.646 Pi»;ataquis 14,735 13,138 Kennebec 62,521 55,804 Sonerset 35,581 33,912 Total 583 188 501,796 Government is vested in a governor, senate, and house of representatives, who are elected annually on the 2d Monday in September. The senate can not be less than 20, nor exceed 31 members ; the house of representatives can not be less than 100, nor exceed 2.00 members. Seven councillors are elected by the legislature, to advise the govfjrnor in his executive duties. The judicial power is vested in a supreme judicial court, and such other courts as the legis- lature may establish. Judges are appointed by the governor, and hold their offices during good behavior, or until seventy years of age. The right of suf- frage is vested in every male citizen, 2\ years of age (excepting paupers, per- sons under guardianship, and Indians not taxed), who shall have resided three months in the state next preceding an election. History. — This state embraces a part of New France, as named by Ver- razanni, in 1524 ; or a portion of Acadia, as granted to De Monts in 1603 ; or a part of North Virginia, or the Plymouth Company, as claimed by the English in 1606 ; or, more recently, a part of the territory of the "Council of Plymouth," chartered in 1620. In 1622 a grant was made to Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason, of all the country between Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, extending interior to the lakes and rivers of New France, or Canadas, which they called " Laconia." In 1629, that portion of this tract lying between the Merrimac and Piscataqua, extending sixty miles from the sea, was conveyed to Mason alone, and then first received the name of " New Hampshire." In 1639, Gor- ges obtained a royal charter, constituting him lord proprietor of the province ; but, from his stately scheme of government, the people became dissatisfied, and 74 THE UNITED STATES.— NEW HAMPSHIRE, sought protection of Massachusetts, who took them under her jurisdiction in 1652, and called it the county of Yorkshire. In 1677 she purchased the claims of the heirs of Gorges, as to both jurisdiction and soil. In 1686 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed royal governor over all New England. Ply- mouth, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, immediately sub- mitted to his jurisdiction. A few months after Connecticut was added, and in 1688 his power was further extended over New York and New Jersey. In 1691, Plymouth, Massachusetts, Maine, and Acadia, or Nova Scotia, vere formed into one royal colony, under Governor Phipps, upon which Plymouth lost her separate government, contrary to her wishes ; while New Hampshire, then under the protection of Massachusetts, was forcibly severed frrm her. Massachusetts obtained a confirmation of her charter, and, through longdisputes with the Indians and the French, those additions to her territory wfre main- tained under her jurisdiction until she became an independent state. The first settlement made in Maine was by the " Sagadahock colony," which consisted of one hundred planters, under the command of George Popham. They landed at the mouth of the Kennebec, in 1607 (thirteen years before the settlement of Plymouth), at the place now called Hill's Point. Phippsburg, ana erected a few cabins, a storehouse, and some slight fortifications, naming their plantation "St. George." Seventy-five of the number were left to pass the winter, who lost their storehouse by fire, and their president by death : and Jie year following they abandoned the enterprise, and returned to England. The first permanent settlement was in Bristol, as early as 1625. Maine, from its first corporation, was a district of Plymouth, or Massachusetts, and wks usually called the " province or district of Maine." Although it had long been sufficiently popu- lous to become a state, and efforts had been made for that purpose, in 1785-'86, and in 1802, it was not admitted into the Union before 1820, when it became a sovereign state. The motto of its seal is Dirigo, "J direct," having reference to the north star on the crest of the coat-of-arms, vhich is a directing point to the mariner : it also implies that this state was the northernmost member of the ■confederation at the time of its admission. GOVERNORS. William King 1820 Albion K. ParriB 1821 Enoch Lincoln 1826 .Toniithan H. Hunter. .1830 Samuel E. Smith 1831 Robert P. Duiilap 1834 Edward Kent 1838 John K. Fairfield 1840 Edward Kavanagh. ..1843 Hugh J. Anderson.. ..1844 .Tohn W. Dana 1847 John Hubbard ..1850 Wm. G. Crosby. 1853 NEW HAMPSHIRE.* New Hampshire lies between 42° 4V and 45° 11' north latitude, and 70° 40' and 72° 28' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Canada East, east by Maine, from which it is separated in part by Salmon Fall river ; southeast by the Atlantic ; south by Massachusetts ; and west by Connecticut river, which separates it from Vermont. Superficial area, 9,41 1 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Taking into consideration the small extent of surface in this state, it is more varied in its natural features than any other in the Union. Commencing at the sea- shore, we find a sandy beach, bordered by extensive salt marshes, which are * This state received its name froin John Mason, to whom, in 1629, a portion of its territory was granted .after Hampshire, in England, the county I'roai which he emigrated. lon-TCirom TpGreenwich iy NEW HAMPSHIRE Scale o:^ jnQes _4« 45 W\°ColcbraoUg if fM ^JoCobunJaia \^ VorOuunierUmd. >u pL^femp hrcmagog \atvsbiirg iCmljagbg- 44 JCuiWftaa^r.aiicasler HanviUe o .vav iBatfi . o ''q^__ \WtUteIii/d JJdi/ilefiein} i -aOJFi-ancoi J' O lantlaff cbSL Zincoln STtcukitme Anarosco*? BeOul \'Fryelnirg KheUea '\Tcarren , tOrfo. -a 5( ° SanOMlch ^ iL L Ossipel St lOUt Orange 7ra/ton . JBristoV 43 urn a 'Udnfietit' ■mndsorl Springfi CorrOsf^/ I / ,^: •uiicmeeX. p „ SaSs, Suxton ^oscawc ERR ediOio' Ossifis^t iwianipisdp gel ntonl ^ 1'^ Camtnnbx {luxtlestown Upole ISto 'dt&rdi flraUlej boror rc H E S^ loChesmiBeli •Swctnzey £" A. t \OUr/iani \ Roclies t vc»: -*T- ufo/jkintari' V^'!/^ I'urerfieia AlOred o •^TI^ZZ* Kr*? C°/ n Weare « DCcruig ^ » •»-. 9b?i*re GofXStgwn IXcw^l EsTlci' /((/f ■- . H)l L L S B R O U 6 1 .i- AmlM?rst Jaffrey \ t'^etcrlii>roup7i ® .1 JltaymoT ^•» Chester R 6 c i< I N (Winchester ^ewo , m\a s s Solo. C H U <^\dov: T 43 fHampfor^ H Ai T \S L 011.E a5t iroin M^shti^ gton ^«ivic3| 76 THE UNITED STATES.— NEW HAMPSHIRE intersected by numerous creeks. In the midst of this beech there is a bold promontory, called the " Boar's Head." For the first twenty or thirty miles from the sea the country is either level, or variegated by rolling swells, fertile valleys, and small conical hills. The remainder of the state is greatly diver- sified by sloping woodlands, rich intervales, rugged mountains, fruitful valleys, foaming cascades, crystal rivers, and silvery lakes, which, from their wild and picturesque effect, have distinguished this country the " Switzerland of Amer- ica." The soil is as varied in its character as the surface ; a considerable por- tion is fertile, and it is generally better adapted to grazing than tillage. The " intervale lands," on the borders of the large rivers, are esteemed as the most valuable, particularly if they are enriched by annual floods. The uplands, of an uneven surface, and of a warm, moist, stony soil, are regarded as the best for grazing. The sandy pine plains are the poorest, and often are of little or no use, except for growing wood. Mountains. — The most considerable of these are the White mountains, the Monadnock, Moosehillock, Ossipee, Sunipee, Patuckoway, and Kearsarge. Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Mer- rimac, Androscoggin, Salmon Fall, Piscataqua, Exeter, or Swamscot, Saco, Upper and Lower Ammonoosuc, Sugar, Ashuelet, Winnipisiogee, Contoocook, Lamprey, Nashua, Margallaway, and Piscataquog. The chief lakes are the Winnipisiogee, Umbagog, Ossipee, Massabesick, Sunipee, Newfound, and Squam. There are two " Great bays" in this state ; the largest situated at the confluence of Swamscot, Winnicut, and Lamprey rivers ; the other at the south- west corner of Lake Winnipisiogee. Merrymeeting bay is situated at the east- erly end of the same lake, and Portsmouth harbor opens on the Atlantic. Islands. — The only islands worthy of note are the Isles of Shoals, seven in number, off Portsmouth harbor, and numerous islets in Winnipisiogee lake. Of the latter, Long, Cow, and Davis's, are the largest, and are in a high state of cultivation. Climate. — The climate, like that of the states adjacent, is subject to the ex- tremes of heat and cold, but the air is generally salubrious and pure. Along the seaboard, invalids subject to complaints of the lungs generally suffer from the ocean winds. Morning and evening fires become necessary from Septem- teraber till May. The streams are generally locked up in ice, and in the open country the snow often abides on the earth from November till April, and in the woods till May or June. Cities and Chief Towns. — Concord is the capital. Manchester and Ports- mouth are cities. The other principal towns are Amherst, Alton, Chester, Claremont, Dover, Derry, Exeter, Franklin, Gilford, Gilmantown, Goflstown, Hanover, Haverhill, Hopkinton, Keene, Lancaster, Meredith, Nashua, New Market, Ossipee, Peterborough, Plymouth, Rochester, Sandwich, Sanbornton, Somersworth, Strafford, Warner, Walpole, Weare, and Winchester. Productive Resources. — The chief products of this state are horses, mules, horned cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, eggs, sugar, butter, cheese, hay, wood, lumber, wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, and Indian corn. Of the mineral resources there are iron, lead, silver, tin, zinc, manganese, soap- stone, granite, feldspar, and mica. Manufactures. — The principal manufactures of this state are cotton and woollen goods, cast-iron, paper, leather, boots and shoes, carriages, furniture, hats, pottery-ware, mechanical and agricultural instruments, &c. Railroads and Canals. — There about 600 miles of railroads in New Hamp- shire, a large proportion of them radiating from Concord, the political capital of the state, to almost every point of the compass. The only canals in the state are those for facilitating the navigation of the Merrimac river. Commerce. — New Hampshire has but the single port of Portsmouth on the THE UNITED STATES.— NEW HAMPSHIRE. 77 Atlantic, and its direct foreign commerce heretofore has been extremely small, amounting in the aggregate to less than $60,000 in 1851 ; but the increased facilities afforded by the opening of railroad communication between Ports- mouth and the interior of the state will materially enlarge its foreign trade. The shipping owned within the state amounts to about 23,000 tons. Education. — The principal literary institutions of the state are, Dartmouth college, at Hanover, attached to which is the New Hampshire Medical school ; and theological seminaries at Gilmanton, Concord, and New Hampton. There are also 70 or 80 academies, and about 3,000 common schools throughout the state. Population.— In 1790 141,899; in 1800, 183,762; in 1810, 214,360; in 1820, 244,161 ; in 1830, 269,328; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows :— Counties. 1850. 18-40. Counties. 1850. 18-10. Counties. 1850. 1840. Belknap 17,721 17.988 Grafton 42,343 42,311 Stiaftbrd 29,364 2.3,166 Carroll.- 20,156 19,9/3 Hillsborough 57,477 42,494 Sullivan 19,375 20,340 Cheshire 30,144 26,429 Merriraac 38,445 36,253 Coos 11,853 9,849 Rockingham 51,086 45,771 Total 317,964 284,574 Number of slaves in 1790, 158 ; in 1800, 8 ; in 1840, 1. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, of 12 members, and house of representatives, of about 300 members, and the executive power in a governor and five councillors, all elected by the people, the second Tuesday in March. The right of suffrage is vested in every male inhabitant, of twenty- one years, excepting paupers and persons not taxed. The judiciary power is vested in a superior court, and court of common pleas. Judges are appointed by the governor and council during good behavior, or until seventy years of age. History. — The first permanent settlements in New Hampshire were made at Little Harbor, Portsmouth, and Dover, in 1623. In 1641, all the colonists of this state placed themselves under the protection of Massachusetts, and formed apart of the county of Norfolk. In 1 679, it was again constituted a separate province by Charles II., and in 1680, the first assembly convened. In 1690, it reunited with Massachusetts, from which, two years after, it was again separated against the wishes of the people. In 1695, the two provinces were placed under the juris- diction of New York, but were reunited in 1702, and thus continued until 1741, when a separate government was appointed over each, and New Hampshire ever after constituted a distinct government. During the war of independence the government was conducted by a temporary administration. The state con- stitution was established in 1784, which, with the amendments of 1792, forms the one at present in force. In 1788 this state, in convention, adopted the con- stitution of the United States. PRESIDENTS AND GOVEBNORS UNDEB THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. John Cutts, President. 1680 George Vaughan, Lieutenant-Governor 1715 Richard VValdron, President 1681 Samuel Shute, Governor of N. H. and Mass 1716 Edward Cranfield, Lieutenant-Governor 1682 John Wentworth, Lieutenant-Governor 1717 Walter Barefoote, Deputy-Governor 1685 William Burnet, Govi^rnor of N. H. and Mass 1728 Joseph Dudley, President of New England 1686 Jonathm Belcher, Governor of do. do 1730 Sir Edmund Audroe, Governor of New England. . 1687 David Dunbar, Lieutenant-Governor 1731 John U.sher, Lieutenant-Governor 1692 Benning Wentworth, (iovemor 1741 William Partridge, Lieutenant-Governor 1697 John VVentworth, Governor 1767 Samuel Allen. Governor. 1698 Matthew Thornton, President of Provincial Cong.1775 Lord Belmont, G<)vi>mor of N. Y., N. II., & Mass. 1699 Meshech Wcare, President from 1776 to the close Joseph Dudley, Governor of N. H. and M;u«8 1702 of the Revolution 1784 PRESIDENTS OP THE CONSTITUTION OF 1784. Meehech Weare 1784 John Sullivan 1786 John Sullivan 1789 John Langdon 1785 John Langdon 1788 Josiah Bartlett 1790 GOVERNORS UNDEB THE PRESENT CONSTITUTION. Josiah Bartlett 1792 William Plumer 1816 Matthew Harvey 1830 Anthony Colby ..184f John T. Gilman 1794 Samuel Bell 1819 Samuel Din8moor....l831 Jared VV. Williams... 1847 John Langdon 1805 Levi Woodburv 1823 William Badger. 1835 Samuel W. Dinsmoor 18.50 Jeremiah Smith 1809 David L. Morri'll 1824 l.=aac Hill 18,16 Noah Martin 1852 John Langdon 1810 Benjamin Pierce 1827 John Page 181)9 William Plumer 1812 .lohn Bill 1828 Henrv Hubbard 1842 * John T. Gilman 1813 Benjamin Pierce 1829 John H. Steele 1844 78 THE UNITED STATES.— VERMOIST. VERMONT.* Vermont lies between 42° 44' and 45° north lati- tude, and 71° 33' and 73^ 25' east longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Canada ; east by New Hampshire, from which it is separated by Con- necticut river ; south by Massachusetts ; and west by New York, from which it is separated, in part, by Lake Champlain, and contains 10,200 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The surface of this state is generally uneven, and a great part of it mountainous. A large proportion of the soil is fertile, and adapted to the various purposes of northern agriculture. It is generally deep, of a dark color, rich, moist, warm, loamy, and seldom parched by drought. The " inter- vales" along the rivers and lakes are regarded as the best for tillage ; and much of the land among the mountains is excellent for grazing, and here there are found many fine farms. Mountains — The Green mountains, so named on account of the evergreens with which they are covered, extend in a lofty, unbroken range, quite through the central part of the state, from north to south. In the southern part of Washington county they are separated into two ridges, the most westerly of which is much the highest. The highest elevations in this ridge are Killing- ton peak. Camel's Hump, or " Camel's Rump," as it is commonly called, and the " Chin," in Mansfield mountains. Ascutney is another noted mountain of this state, lying at the southward of Windsor. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Lamoille, Onion, Missisque, Winooski, White, Black, Passumpsic, Deerfield, West, and Otter Creek. Lakes Champlain and Memphremamgog lie partly in this state. Among[ the smaller bodies of water are Lakes Dunmore and Bombazine. Islands. — The principal of these are North and South Hero, and La Motte, all of which are in Lake Champlain. Climate. — The climate is remarkably healthy, but is subject to great ex- tremes of heat and cold, the range of temperature varying from 27° below zero Fahrenheit to 100° above. Winter usually commences in its greatest severity early in December, and often continues till April. During this season there is generally a prevalence of fair weather, and the cold is more uniform and steady than in other parts of New England near the coast. Chief Towns. — Montpelier is the capital. The other large towns are Barry, Bratileboro', Brandon, Barnet, Bennington, Burlington, Chester, Danville, Enosburgh, Fairfield, Georgia, Hartford, Hartland, Highgate, Middlebury, Mil- ton, Newbury, Northfield, Norwich, Rockingham, Rutland, Randolph, Spring- field, Thetford, Sf. Albans, Weathersfield, Windsor, and Woodstock." Productive Resources. — The chief products are horses, mules, neat cat- tle, sheep, swine, poultry, butter, cheese, sugar, wax, silk, wool, lumber, pot and pearl ashes, hay, hops, hemp, flax, wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Of the mineral or fossil resources, lead, iron, cop- peras, marble, limestone, and granite, form the principal. Manufactures. — Leather, bar and cast iron, boots and shoes, linseed oil, nails, mechanical and agricultural implements, cotton and woollen goods, paper, &c., are among the products of manufacturing industry. Marble is quarried, sawn, and polished, in several places. Railroads and Canals. — There are several lonsf lines of railroad in Ver- * Vermont, which signifies, in French, " Green Mountain." wns first so called by the iiihabit«iits, in their ih-c loration of independence, in 1777. 3 I.on.West iixun Greaiwldi E R O / - \St Derlishvre - X '. ^.4 Montgoni' A{ H K\L I ^U'W °Xicrby I'etchero^ Mirfax iWestfa 0:1 m-asl gtODi / fCftaHotte ^ \LA Kfl A l|:UE /,^ dTc~- Ijergennes ^Xyndon 'i^ D O ^n-'Oerbuhr f^^'f'^^^jchmn TIJ'Sk -a 5 i Lwi/cdln ,Jjfe> / c i era. Martlet Q\ I'aUsi Xopsliccm Vewbmyl ue -N- I Canaanir Xcniingtor, iiii ~ JBToonifu^il 5^ (0 Godldhan. Id ''^Concord. . ■ror(t\ f -g^-i .Andovcr Mancliest t T^^ifOiaU r lAStratton ^A^Toimsejul IN D A M 15 ^er rai 43 I I u \opoKvnalM \ M A S t^. , •JTilmOiffton BraMcioTo\ iKecaae VERMONT GfHToril 5,1 ScaleoSJUllfs 10 20 C H\ U T S -£: Lon. E.lrom'Washlngton 80 THE UNITED STATES.— VERMONT. mont, extending from the borders of Massachusetts and New Hampshire to Burlington and Canada, and from Rutland to Whj^hall and Troy in New York. There are about 400 miles of railroad in the state. There are some short canals, designed to overcome obstructions in the navigation of the Connecticut and White rivers. Commerce. — The foreign commerce of Vermont is mostly with Canada. Its principal port is Burlington, on Lake Champlain. Its domestic and foreign trade amounts in value to about one and a half millions of dollars annually. Education. — The oldest literary institution is the university at Burlington, founded in 1791. There are also, Middlebury college, Norwich university, and a medical school at Woodstock, all in a flourishing condition. Besides these, there are many academies, and some 3,000 common schools in the state. Population.— In 1790, 85,416; in 1800, 154,465; in 1810, 217,713, in 1820, 235,764; in 1830, 280,652; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows ;— Counties. 1850. 1840. Grand Isle 4,145 3,883 Lamoille 10,872 10,475 Orange 27,296 27,873 OrWns 15,707 Rutland 33,059 Counties. 1850. Addison 26,549 Bennington 18,589 Caledonia 23,595 Chittenden 29,036 Essex. 4,650 Franklin 28,586 1840. 23,583 16,872 21,891 22,977 4,226 24,531 13,634 30,699 Counties. 1&50. 1840. Washinston 24.6.54 23,506 Windham 29,062 27,442 Windsor. 38,320 40,356 Total 314,120 291,948 Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate of thirty mem- bers, and a house, consisting of one member from each town ; and the executive power, in a governor, or, in his absence, a lieutenant-governor ; all chosen an- nually by the people, on the first Tuesday in September. The judiciary pow- ers are vested in a supreme court of five judges, and county courts (each composed of one judge of the supreme court, and two assistant judges), all chosen annually by the legislature. A council of thirteen censors is chosen once in seven years, to supervise the legislative and executive branches of government. The right of suffrage vests in male citizens of twenty-one years of age, who have resided in the state one year, and are of quiet and peaceable behavior. History. — The first permanent settlement in Vermont was made at Fort Dummer, in 1724, though the northwesterly part of this state was visited by Champlain, and others, as early as 1609. In the year 1739, New Hampshire claimed jurisdiction of the territory, and made many grants of land west of Con- necticut river. The same territory was also claimed by New York, whose right was established by decision of the crown, in 1764. In the meantime, New York had also made grants to others of the same tracts, which caused continued disputes, and even resistance, for years. In 1774, New York passed severe enactments on the subject ; but, at the commencement of the revolution, the contest was suspended. In 1777, the people, preferring a government of their own, met in convention, and declared themselves a free and independent state. In consequence of these conflicting claims. Congress dared not admit Vermont into the Union at the commencement of the revolutionary war, for fear of offending New Hampshire and New York, although she had expressed a readiness to throw off" the British yoke. By another convention, held at Windsor, in 1777, a state constitution was adopted, but the government was not organized before 1778. In 1786, this constitution was modified, and was again revised in 1793. In 1790, the controversy with New York was ended, by the payment of $30,000, and the year following Vermont was admittted into the Union as a sovereign state. Motto of the seal, "Freedom and Unity." GOVERNOR.S. Thomas Chittenden.. 1778 Mos(!9 Robinson 1789 Thomns Chitt<:ndon..l790 Isaac Tichenor 1797 •Israel Smitli. 1807 I.'aac Tichenor 1808 Jonas Galusha 1809 Martin Chittenden. ..1813 Joiia-^ Galusha 1815 Ricliard Skinner 1820 C. P. Van Nosa 1823 Ezra Butler 1826 Pamuel C. Crafts . ...1828 William A. Palmer... 1831 Silas H. .lenison 1836 CharKs Paine 1841 John Mattocks 1843 William Slade 1845 Horace Eaton 1 846 Carlos Coolcdge 1850 C. K. Williams 18.51 Erastu8 Fairbanks. ..1853 ^^ I 5' JS" 'I 1. 82 THE UNITED STATES.— MASSACHUSETTS. MASSACHUSETTS.* Massachusetts, the mother-state of New England, lies between 41° 23' and 42° 52' north latitude, and 69° 50' and 73° 30' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Vermont and New Hamp- shire ; east by the Atlantic ; south by Rhode Island and Connecticut ; and west by New York. Its super- ficial area is 7,500 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The surface of this state is greatly diversified, and the soil may be divided into three distinct zones — mountainous in the western, hilly in the central and northern, and level in the southeastern sections. Salt marshes are numerous in most of the maritime parts. The soil is exceedingly varied. In the southeastern part it is mostly light and sandy ; interspersed, however, with numerous spots that are fertile. In the middle and northern sections, par- ticularly toward the seaboard, it is of much better quality, but distinguished more from its superior cultivation, than its natural fertility. The more western parts, especially in the valley of the Connecticut river, have generally a strong, rich soil, excellent for grazing, and suited to most of the purposes of farming. Mountains. — The Green mountain range passes through the western part of the state, from north to south. The principal chain takes the name of Hoo- sac mountains, the highest summits of which are the Saddle and Taghkanic. The other elevations, noted for their size and height, are Wachusett, Mount Tom, Mount Holyoke, Mount Toby, Blue and Pow-Wow hills. Rivers and Bays. — The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Merrimac, Concord, Nashua, Pow-Wow, Ipswich, North, Saugus, Charles, Mystic, Ne- ponset, Taunton, Chickapee, Deerfield, VVestfield, Frencli, Miller's, and the Housatonic. Massachusetts bay lies on the easterly side of the state, between Capes Cod and Ann. Numerous other bays indent the coast, the principal of which are. Buzzard's, Barnstable, Plymouth, and Cape Cod. Islands. — The most noted of these are, Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, the Elizabeth islands (sixteen in number), Plum island, and those in Massachusetts bay. Climate. — The climate is generally favorable to health, though persons with feeble lungs, living near the seaboard, are liable to suffer from the ocean winds. The air from the interior is generally dry, serene, and salubrious. The sum- mers are pleasant, but subject to excessive heat, often followed by a depression of temperature of 50° Fahrenheit in a few hours. The winters are generally rigorous, the thermometer often standing below zero. Cities and Chief Towns. — The city of Boston is the capital.! Roxbury, * Massachusetts derived its name, it is supposed, from a tiilie of Indians fonnerly at Bamstablo, or from Moswctuset, the Indian name of Blue Hill, a few miles south of Boston. t Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, and metropolis of New England, occupies a peninsula, and other adjacent points, at the head of Massachusetts bay. The original town was cuntinod to the peninsula ; but this, although enlarged by artificial means, has long since proved too narrow for the growing city, which, passing the barriers thrown around it by nature, now enibraces, independently of the populous to\^^l3 and villages that aro its offspring, the triple division of " Old Boston," " South Boston," and " East Boston." The " Neck" was formerly the only avenue from the town to the main land, but it is now united by bridges, and other avenues, to Charles- town, Cambridge, South Boston, and other surrounding points. From the west side of the city. Western ave- nue is continued to Brookhne, on the opposite side of Charles river bay, by a costly dam one mile and a half in length, and one hundred feet broad. Proceeding from the middle of this, on which are several tide mills, a second dam divides the bay into two spacious basins. Several of the Boston railroads also enter the city, by bridges built expressly for that purpose. The harbor extends from Nantasket to the city, and spreads from Chelsea and Nahant to Hingham, contain- ing about scventy-tive square miles. It is bespangled with upward of fifty islands, or rocks, and receives the waters from the IMystic, Charles, Neponset, and Manatticut rivers, with several other smaller streams. One of the most remarkable features connectc-d with the harboi- is costly and splendid wharves. These marks of com- mercial enterprise and prosperity are about 100 in number, and of various diimensions. Long wharf is 1.800 84 TEE UNITED STATES.— MASSACHUSETTS. lliiii Cambridge, Charlestown, Salem, Newburyport, Lawrence, Lowell,* Worcester, Springfield, and New Bedford, are cities. The other populous towns are, Am- herst, Andover, Adams, Atlleboro', Abington, Beverly, Barnstable, Danvers. Ded- ham, Dorchester, Dartmouth, Fitchburgh, Framingham, Fairhaven, Fall River, feet long, and 200 feet wide ; Central wharf, 1,397 feet long, and 150 feet wide ; India wharf, 980 feet long, and from 246 tn 280 feet wide ; axid Commercial wharf is 1,100 feet long, and 160 feet wide. These, like most of the others, are lined with extensive and magnificent warehouses, constructed of the most substantial materials. Another valuable acquisition is Boston Common, a pleasant park of about fifty acres, situated at the south- westerly slope of Beacon hill. It is pleasantly diversified with knolls, avenues, fountains, a small lake, or pond, and trees, some of the latter of which are interesting relics of colonial and revolutionary times. The common is surrounded by an iron fence, over one mile in extent. Between the common and Charles river bay lies the botanic garden, a beautiful and tasteful enclosure. On the north side of the common, and at the summit of the hill, stands the statehouse, an elegant structure, 173 feet in length, 61 feet in depth, and 120 feet in height. The top of the dome is 230 feet ahbve tide-water. The view frOm the top of the statehouse is very extensive ^ and variegated ; perhaps nothing in the country is superior to it. To the east appears the bay and harbor of Boston, interspersed with beau- tiful islands ; and in tlie distance beyond, the wide extended ocean. To the north the eye is met by Charlestown, with its interesting and memorable heights, of Bunker hill, crowned with the monument, 220 feet in height, and the navy-yard of the United States ; the towns of Chelsea, Maiden, and Medford, and other villages, and tlie natural for- ests mingling in the distant horizon. To the west, is a fine view of the Charles river and bay, the ancient town of Cambridge, rendered venerable for the university, now about two hundred years old ; of the flourishing villages of Cambridgeport and East Cambridge, in the lat- ter of which is a large glass manufacturing establishment ; of the highly cultivated towns of Brighton, Brookline, and Newton ; and to the south is Roxbury, which seems to be only a continuation of Bos- ton, and which is rapidly increasing ; Dorchester, a fine, rich, agricul- tural town, with Milton and Quincy beyond ; and still farther south, the Blue hills, at the distance of eight or nine miles, which seem to bound the prospect. Faneuil hall, which is justly styled the " cradle of American hberty," was originally built in 1740, for a town-hall and market-house. It has bfen enlarged and beautified on several occasions, and will always be a place of historical intei-est to the lovers of liberty. Adjoining it on the east is Faneuil Hall market, one of the most splendid and commodious edifices of the kind in the counti-y. It is constructed of Quincy granite, or sienite, .^40 feet in length, 50 feet wide, and two stories high. The courthouse, merchants' exchange, postoffice, customhouse, Massachu- setts general hospital, the Old South meetinghouse, Tark-street, Brat- tle-street, and Trinity churches, the Tremont house, Revere house, the Atheneum, the jail. Society of Natural History, the Houses of Indus- try, Correction, and Reformation, are among other objects of in- terest. The water-works may be regarded as one of the most import- ant of the recent improvements. By a series of pipes and reservoirs, water is conveyed to all parts of the city proper, and East and South Boston, from Long Pond, or Lake Cochitxiate, a distance of nearly 20 miles It will supply 10,000,000 gallons of water daily, and cost not much less than $5,000,000. Railroads diverge from this city in various directions, connecting it with Plymouth, Cape Cod, New Bedford. Fall River, Proi-idence, Sfon- inn, and merchants," of the Wrst ol England, called the Plymouth Company, granting "to them the right of settlement of the territory of North Viru'iiiia. At the same time a similar charter was granted to like persons residing in London, and called the London Company lor the settlein.nt of South Virghiin. It was stipulated that neither should form a setllomant within a hundred miles of the other. THE UNITED STATES.— MASSACHUSETIS. 87 LANDHJG 01^ TiiE PILGEIMS AT PLi'MOUIH KJCK, MASS, nifcon. -^ndfo-^l 6s*jfvC**^ Facsimiles of the Signatures of Principal Passen.'crs in tlie Maj-Flower. 88 THE UNITED STATES.— MASSACHUSETT3. First Coin minted in the American Colonies. piirt of Connecticut, New Hampshire, Maine, and Acadia. In 1641, the set- tlements of New Hampshire were incorporated with Massachusetts. In 164.3, the four colonies, Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, en- tered into articles of confederation, under the title of the "United Colonies of New England."* In 1652, Maine placed «. ^r^ ov u^ y.,. itself under the protection of Massachusetts, 6l-e^S'*'^^\ called the county of "Yorkshire," and re- mained a part of her territory, with some modifications, until it became a sovereign state. In 1686, the charter government of Massachusetts Bay was taken from her, and a president placed over the dominion from Narraganset bay to Nova Scotia. The same year, Sir Edmund Andros arrived at Boston, with a commission as royal governor of all New England. Plymouth, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, immediately submitted to his jurisdiction. A few months after, Connecticut was added, and in 1688, his power was further extended over New Jersey and New York. In 1689, Plymouth was united to Massachusetts by royal order, and its old charter confirmed. In 1691, Plymouth, Massachu- setts, Maine, and Acadia, were formed into one royal colony, under the name of "Massachusetts." In 1699, New Hampshire and Massachusetts were placed under the jurisdiction of New York, but were again reunited in 1702, and thus continued until 1741, when a final separation took place. In con- formity to the original grant of the Plymouth Company, Massachusetts claimed an indefinite extent of country westward, which was adjusted with New York, by ceding all her territory west of a line, running north and south, one mile east of Geneva, and was known as the "Genesee Country." In 1776, on the declaration of independence, Massachusetts formed a state constitution, which went into operation in 1780, and, with the exception of the amendment in 1820, is the same as the one of the present day. In 1778, it ratified the con- stitution of the United States. The motto of the seal is, E7^se petit placidam sub liber tate quietem — "By his sword he seeks the calm repose of liberty." Plymouth Colony. John Carver 1620 William Bradford.. . .1C21 Edward Winslow 1633 Thomas Prince 1634 William Bradford. . . .1635 Edward Winflow.. ..1636 William Bradford.. ..1637 Thomas Prince 1638 COLONIAL GOVERNOKS ELECTED BY THE PEOPLE William Bradford 1639 Col. of MassarhnscUs Bay. John Endicntt. 1644 John Winthrop 1630 Thomas Dudley 164,^ Thomas Dudley 1634 John Winthrop 1646 John Haynes 1635 John Endicott 1649 Henry Vane 1636 KichardBellinghain..l654 John Winthrop 1637 John Endicott 165.") Thomas Dudley 1640 Richard Bellinghani.. 1665 Richard Bellingham.. 1641 John Lererett 1673 John Winthrop 1642 Simon Bradstrect 1679 Edward Wiuslow . ..1644 William Bradford.. ..1645 Thomas Prince 1657 Josiah Win,slow 1673 Thomas Hinckley . ..1680 COLONIAL KULEBS APPOINTED BY THE KING. Joseph Dudley President of New England 1685 Simon Bradstreet, Governor of Massachnsetts Bay. 1689 Sir Edmund Androa do. do. do. do 1686 Thomas Hinckley, Governor of Plymouth Colony. 1689 GOVEBNORS UNDER THE SECOND CHARTER APPOINTED BY THE KING. William Dunmier, Lieut. Gov . 1703 Thomas Pownall 1757 Wilham Burnet 1728 Thos. Hutchinson, Lieut Gov.. 1760 William Dummer, Lieut. Gov. 1729 Francis Bernard 1760 William Taylor, Lieut. Gov ...1730 Thos. Hutchinson, Lieut. Gov. 1770 Jonathan Belcher 1730 Thomas Hutchinson 1770 William Shirley 1741 Thomas Gage 1774 Spencer Phips, Lieut. Gov 1749 Sir William Phips 1692 Wm. Stnuahton, Lieut. Gov... 1694 Earl of Bellamont 1699 Wm. Stoughton, Lieiit. Gov 1700 Jo.^eph Dudley 1702 William Taylor, Lieut. Gov. ..1715 Samuel Shute 1716 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. John Hancock 1780 James Bowdoin 1785 John Hancock 1 687 Samuel Adams 1794 Increase Sunnier 17!)7 Caleb Strong 1800 James Sullivan 1807 Christopher Gore. . . .1809 Elbridge Gerry 1810 Caleb Strong 1812 John Brooks 1816 William Eustia 1823 Levi Lincoln 1825 John Davis 1834 S. T. Armstrong, L.T.1835 Edward Everet't 1836 Marcus Morton 1840 John Davis 1841 Marcns Morton 1843 George N. Brigge 1844 Geo. S. Bout well 1851 John H. Clifford 1853 * In 1651, the General Court of Massschusetts ordained that coin should be issued ; that it should have a dou- ble ring, with this inscription : Mass.vchusetts, and a tree in the centre, on one side, and New England and the year of the coinage upon the other. Massachusetts was the only oniony that ever issued money, and it issued large sums. m THE UNITED STATES.— RHODE ISLAND. ^ 89 RHODE ISLAND.* • Rhode Island, the smallest state, as regards its territory, in the Union, lies between 41° 22' and 42'-' 3' north latitude, and 71° 6' and 71° 38' west longi- tude from Greenwich, and is bounded north and east by Massachusetts ; south by the Atlantic ; and west by Connecticut. Its superficial area is 1,340 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The surface of this state is generally level, except in the northwest part, where it is rocky and hilly. There are many hills, however, as Mount Hope, in Bristol, Hopkins' Hill, in West Greenwich, and Woonsocket Hill, in Smithfield. The soil on the continental part is tolerably fertile, though thin and lean, and requires much labor to be tilled. But the lands near Narraganset bay, as well as those on the islands, have great fertility, and are in a high state of cultivation. The soil of this state is generally regarded as better adapted to grazing than tillage. Rivers and Bays. — The principal rivers are the Pawtucket or Blackstone, Providence, Pawtuxet, Wood, and Pawcatuck. Narraganset is the only bay worthy of note, and nearly divides the state in two. Islands. — Besides the isle from which this state talies its name, Block, Ca- nonicut, Prudence, Patience, Hope, Dyer's, and Hog islands, are included within its territory. Climate. — The climate is proverbially healthy; and on the islands, where the sea breezes have the effect, not only to mitigate the heat in summer, bu^to moderate the winter's cold, it is more temperate than in any of the other New England states. Newport has long been celebrated as a delightful summer residence, and is much resorted to by people from the South. Cities and Chief Towns. — The city of Providence and Newport are the seats of government. The other populous towns are, Bristol, Cumberland, Foster, Gloucester, Johnson, North Providence, North Kingston, Scituate, Smithfield, South Kingston, Tiverton, Warren, and Warwick. Productive Resources. — The principal products are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, eggs, butter, cheese, wool, hemp, flax, hay, lumber, wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Anthracite coal is found and wrought to a small extent in this state. Manufactures. — A greater proportion of the people of Rhode Island are employed in manufacturing than in any other state of the Union. The state abounds in excellent water-power, affording sites for manufactories, which are extensively improved. The principal manufactures are woollen and cotton; but it has several furnaces, tanneries, paper-mills, and other establishments. Railroads and Canals. — The railroads are principally connecting links in the great line of travel from New England to the South. The three principal roads extend from Providence to Boston, Worcester, Mass,, and Stonington, Conn., respectively, and have an aggregate length of about 150 miles. The Blackstone canal, from Providence to Worcester, lies partly within this state. Commerce. — The direct foreign commerce of Rhode Island (owing to the greater eligibility of the ports of neighboring states) is small, compared with its population and industry. Its exports and imports in 1851 amounted to $550,000. Shipping owned in the state amounts to about 28,000 tons. Education. — Brown university, at Providence, is the only college in the * So called from its island of the same name, which was supposed to bear a resemblance to the isle ot Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. MlUbi 42 ad SuTtor M A Vxh rti {pougtasP lumJP. Slate^svMe I ^fl? Jl ^ i ^> (0^Chepachi PRO I -<*i ry ■We s ^ Gr e euwi cl 5)E (^6 V e I Of I I WhA j ^ lO K --, . -V Miltora. ^W^n^w^ '^remhara m -7-,-rc:a.-. ^ J'alls % tSharon \^orToiii^ ,Smithfiel«r ttzleiot, o JblmsToii ^- fcC [I Jaw 1 W -ft -? oSdeJconJc Sc\it xavte CxaTi^*' J^, s^ < ipponauQ T f 1 c li t«> 42 ^^ •^ °ReholotTi Swansey o "-'•>^ tiverl -East- / iyfj (ay ^v '*^ I ^.^^ii^=^o .^TO ^^n^^- % ^' f V~iWickfora 'XitUeMiest o •T 0^ N{ ^^<.-- V^^' Isa. '^'. Of. Staff oriUK^ I i \Vonqv iQuiasSani 41 20 THE UNITED STATES.— RHODE ISLAND. 91 state. There is an atheneum also at Providence, and academies and common schools are numerous. Provision is also made for the insane and blind. Population-.— In 1790, 69,110; in 1800, 69,122; in 1810, 77,031; in 1820, 83,059; in 1830, 97,199; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows :— Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 18.'50. 1840. Counties. IS.'iO. 1840. Bristol 8,514 6,476 Newport 20,007 16.874 Washington 16,430 14,324 Kent. 15,068 13,083 Providence 87,525 58,073 ' Total 147,.544 108,830 Number of slaves in 1790, 952; in 1800, 381 ; in 1810, 103; in 1820, 48; in 1830, 17; in 1840, 5. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, and house of representatives ; and the executive power in a governor, and lieutenant-gover- nor ; all chosen annually by the people, on the first Wednesday of April. The judicial powers are vested in a supreme court, consisting of a chief-justice and three associates, who hold their offices at the discretion of the legislature ; and in a court of common pleas for each county, consisting of a justice of the su- preme court and two associates. The right of suffrage is vested in all male native citizens, who have resided in the state two years, and in the town where they propose to vote six months ; who have been registered seven days in the town-clerk's office ; have paid a tax, or done military duty, within the preceding year ; and in all other male citizens (naturalized foreigners) who, in addition to the preceding qualifications, possess real estate in the town or city where offer- ing to vote worth $134 over all incumbrances, or which rents for $7 per annum. History. — The first permanent settlement by Europeans, within the present limits of Rhode Island, was made at Providence, in 1636, by Rev. Roger Wil- liams, who had been banished from the Massachusetts colony for his peculiar religious opinions. This settlement was called the "Providence Plantation." The next settlement was made at Portsmouth, in the northern part of Rhode Island, in 1638, which, the year following, received the name of the " Rhode Island Plantation." In 1643, when the four colonies of Massachusetts entered into articles of confederation, under the title of the " United Colonies of New England," under the pretence that the Providence and Rhode Island plantations had no charter, and that their territory was claimed by Plymouth and Massa- chusetts, they were excluded from the confederacy. The year following, Roger Williams obtained a free charter from the British parliament, and incorporated the two plantations under one government, which continued in force till 1663, when a new charter was granted by Charles II. The latter is the venerable charter under which the people lived and prospered, until its constitution was amended, in 1842. The first general assembly was held at Portsmouth, in 1647, when the executive power was confided to a president and four assist- ants. The constitution of the United States was not adopted in Rhode Island until 1790, after it had received the assent of all the other states. John Coeispshnll 1647 Jeremiah Clarke 1648 Benedict Arnold 1663 Williiim Brenton 1666 B>"neiiict Arnold 16.')9 Nicholas Easton 1672 WilliHm Coddin5ton.l674 Walter Clarke 1676 Benedict Arnold 1677 John Cranpton 1679 Pelee; Snndford 1680 William Coddineton.1683 FHESIDENTS UNDEK THE FIRST CHARTEB. John Smith 1649 Roger Williams 16,55 William Brenton 1660 Nicholas Easton 1650 Benedict Arnold 1657 Benedict Arnold 1662 governors under THE SECOND CHARTER. Henry Bull 1685 William Wanton 1732 William Greene 17.57 John Wiinton 1734 .Stephen Hopkins 17.58 Richard Ward 1741 Samuel Ward 1762 William Greene 1743 Stephen Hopkins 1763 Gideon Wanton 1745 Samuel Ward 1765 William Greene 1746 Stephen Hopkins 1767 Gideon Wanton 1747 Josias Lyndon 1768 William Greene 1748 Walter Clarke 1686 Sir Edmund Andros .1686 Henry Bull 1689 John Easton 1690 Caleb Carr 1695 Walter Clarke 1696 Samuel Cnin,=ton 1698 Joseph Jenckes 1727 Joseph Wanton 1769 Stephen Hopkins 1755 Nicholas Cooke 1775 GOVEBNORS OF THE STATE. .lames Fenner 1807 John B. Francis 1833 Klisha Hams 1847 Nicholas Cooke 1776 Williiim Greene 1778 William Jones 1811 Williiim Sprague 1838 John Collins 1786 N'-hemiah R. Knii;ht.l817 S. W. Kinir ipiiO William C. Gibbs 1821 James Fenner 1843 James Fenner 1824 Charles Jackson 1845 Lemuel H. Arnold. . . 1831 Byron Dimon 1846 Arthur Kinner 1789 Henry Smith 1805 Isaac Wilbom, L. G..1806 Henry B. Anthony... 18.50 Philip Allen 1851 92 THE UNITED STATES.— CONXECTICUT/ CONNECTICUT. Connecticut, so called from its principal river, lies between 41° and 42° north latitude, and 71° 20' and 73° 15' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Massachusetts ; east by Rhode Island ; south by Long Island sound ; and west by New York, containing 4,674 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The surface is uneven, and greatly diversified by hills and valleys. The soil is generally fertile, particularly so in Fairfield county, and the alluvial meadows in the valley of the Connec- ticut are uncommonly fine, and well adapted for tillage ; but a large portion of the state is better suited to the purposes of grazing. Mountains. — Strictly speaking, there are three mountain ranges in this state ; one running a few miles east of the Connecticut, as far south as Chat- ham, where it is cut off by that river, and reappears again on the westerly side, and terminates at East Haven. Another range, which extends from xMount Tom, in Massachusetts, runs through the whole state, on the westerly side of the Connecticut, and terminates at New Haven, in a bold bluff called East Rock. A third range, still further west, extends from the Green mountains, in Vermont, across the state to New Haven, and terminates in a similar bluff called West Rock. The Blue hills, in Southington, belonging to this range, are the most elevated land in the state, being at least 1,000 feet in height. At the westward of Hartford is Talcott mountain, belonging also to this range. Rivers, Bays, Harbors, &c. — The principal rivers are, the Connecticut, which is 400 miles long, and navigable for large boats to Hartford, while small vessels ascend it fur 300 miles ; the Housatonic, Thames, Farmington, Nau- gatuck, and the Quinnebaug. The shores of Connecticut are penetrated by numerous bays and creeks, which afford many safe harbors for small vessels. The three best harbors in the state are those of New London, Bridgeport, and New Haven. Climate. — The climate is generally healthy, though subject to sudden changes of temperature, and extreme degrees of heat and cold. In winter, the northwest winds are piercing and keen, while those which blow from the south are more mild. Near the coast the weather is particularly variable, usually changing with the wind, as it blows from the land or the sea. In the western and northerly parts of the state, the temperature is more uniform and mild. Cities and Chief Towns. — The cities of Hartford and New Haven are the seats of government. New London, Norwich, Bridgeport, and Middletown, are cities. Other towns are, Ashford, Berlin, Bristol, Canaan, Chatham, Col- chester, Coventry, Cromwell, Danbury, Derby, East Hartford, East Windsor, Enfield, East Haddam, Fairfield, Farmington, Greenwich, Glastonbury, Granby, Guilford, Griswold, Groton, Haddam, Killingly, Litchfield, Lyme, Milford, Mansfield, New Canaan, Newtown, Norwalk, North Stoniiigton, Plymouth, Plainfield, Ridgefield, Stamford, Suffield, Salisbury, Sharon, Saybrook, Stafford, Stonington, Thompson, Weston, Wilton, Wethersfield, Windsor, Wallingford, Waterbury, Waterford, Windham, and Woodstock. Productive Resources. — Among the staple products may be enumerated, horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, eggs, fish, beef, pork, milk, butter, cheese, silk, wool, tobacco, hemp, flax, hay, straw, wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, Indian corn, potatoes, garden vegetables, fruits, cider, and' wine. Iron ore, of superior quality, is found in Salisbury and Kent, that of the former being particularly adapted for the manufacture of wire. At Stafford, a 94 THE UNITED STATES.— CONNECTTDT. bog iron ore is found, from which excellent castings and hollow ware are made. Lead and copper mines exist in different parts of the state, but in general they have not been worked to much extent. A lead mine, near Middletown, con- taining silver, has recently been re-oponed with success. At Simsbury there is also a mine of copper. In Portland, and Haddam, a reddish-brown free- stone is quarried, which is easily wrought, and is highly esteemed in modern architecture, wherever it can economically be obtained. Fine variegated mar- ble is found at Milford, resembling verd-antique. Manufactures. — A large proportion of the people of Connecticut are en- gaged in manufactures, more particularly those of cotton and woollens ; also, iron, hats, paper, leather, tinware, buttons, cutlery, carriages, ship-building, &c. Railroads and Canals. — Connecticut has over 600 miles of railroad in operation, and others projected, which will undoubtedly be carried through at an early day. The only canals in the state now in operation are those which have been constructed to facilitate navigation on the Connecticut river. Commerce. — The commerce of Connecticut is mostly with the southern states and the West Indies. The imports and exports of J 851 amounted to $775,000, one half of which entered and cleared at New Haven, and one fourth at New London. The shipping owned within the state amounts to about 120,000 tons. The foreign commerce of Connecticut has decreased, owing to the facilities afforded by railroad communication for shipping at New York and Boston. Education. — There are three colleges in Connecticut ; Yale college, at New Haven, one of the most flourishing in the Union ; Trinity college, at Hartford ; and the Wesleyan university, at Middletown. There are in the state 150 academies, and over 1,700 common schools. Connecticut has a large school fund, amounting to about $2,000,000. The asylum for the deaf and dumb, at Hartford, is the oldest and most respectable institution of the kind in the United States. Population.— In 1790, 237,946; in 1800, 251,002; in 1810, 261,942; in 1820, 275,248; in 1830, 297,711; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — Counties. 1850. 1840. Fairfield 59,775 49,917 Hartford 69,9fi6 55,629 Litchfield 45,253 40,448 CoDNTiES. 1850. 1840. Middlesex 30,680 24. 879 New Haven 62,126 48,619 New London 51,821 44,463 Counties. 1850. 1840. Tolland 20,091 17.980 Windham 31,079 28,080 Total 370, 791 310.015 Number of slaves in 1790, 2,759 ; in 1800, 951 ; in 1810, 310; in 1820, 97; in 1830, 25, who were not emancipa- ted, on account of advanced age or infirmities. History. — Connecticut comprised a part of the territory of the Plymouth colony, and was granted to the earl of Warwick, in 1630, extending west- ward from the Atlantic to the " South Sea." The first permanent settle- ment was made in 1633, by English emigrants from Massachusetts Bay, who located at Windsor, Hartford* and Wethersfield. In 1635, another pu- ritan colony was also established, at _ the mouth of the Connecticut, called First Church built in Connecticut. " Saybrook," in honor of Lords Say and Brooke, to whom, in 1631, the earl of Warwick had conveyed his title. In 1C38, a third puritan colony was formed at New Haven, and remained in force until 1665. In 1639, the inhabitants of Windsor, Hartford, and Wethers- * The annexed cut represents the first meetinijhouse for worship erected in Connecticut It stood at Hart- ford, and was built about the year 1635. It stooil 99 yenre, and was then taken down. Some of the timber 13 itill in existence, a portion of it being used in the construction of the Centre Congregational church at Hartford THE UNITED STATES.— CONNECTICUT. 95 field formed a separate government for themselves, as one public state, or com- monwealth, to which the Saybrook colony was annexed, by purchase, in 1644, and with which the New Haven col- ony united, under the royal charter, in 1665. In 1662, the royal charter of Connecticut was granted by Charles II., embracing the territory extending westward from Narraganset bay to the Pacific, embracing within its limits the New Haven colony, and most of the present state of Rhode Island. In 1687, Sir Edmund Andros came to Hartford with a body of troops, and, by royal authority, as governor-general of all NewEngland, demanded a surrender of this charter, and a dissolution of the existing government. The Connecticut The Charter Oak, Hartford, assembly being in session at the time, Avere not disposed to make the surrender ; and while the siibject was under discussion, the lights were extinguished, and the charter secretly conveyed away, and concealed in the cavity of a hollow oak-tree, which is still standing, and bears the name of the " Charter Oak." This charter formed the basis of the government until 1818, when the present constitution was adopted. Within this charter was embraced the " Connecticut Western Reserve," consisting of about 3,300,000 acres of land in the northeast part of Ohio, which, as a compromise, was ceded to the United States, in 1796. It was sold to the Connecticut Land Company," for $1,200,000, and was the foundation of the state school fund. The constitution of the United States was adopted in 1788. The motto of the state seal is, Qui trans tulit sustinet — "He who brought us hither still preserves." Government. — The government is vested in a governor, lieutenant-gover- nor, senate, and house of representatives, all chosen annually by the people, on the first Monday in April. The senate consists of not less than 18, nor more than 24 members. The sessions of the legislature are held annually, alter- nately, at Hartford and New Haven. The judicial power is vested in a su- preme court of errors, superior court, and such inferior courts as the legislature may establish. Judges are chosen by the legislature, and hold office during good behavior, or till seventy years of age. The right of suffrage is enjoyed by every white male citizen of the United States, who has resided in the town six months immediately preceding, and has a freehold of the yearly value of seven dollars, or shall have performed, or been excused from, military duty, or shall have paid a state tax, one year next preceding the election, and who is of good moral character. COLONIAL GOVERNORS. Edward Hoplciin IfilO .lolin Haynos... iVeio Haven Colony. Theoptiilns Eaton . . .1639 Francis Nowinan le.'iS William Loot 1G61 Connecticut Colony. John Haynes 1639 John Winthrop 1665 William Lcet 1676 Robert Treat 1680 Sir Edmund Andros. 1687 Jonathan Trumt)ull..l776 Matthew Griswold. ..1784 Samuel Huntington.. 178.') Oliver Wolcott 1706 Jonathan Trumbull.. 1798 John TreadweU 1809 John Ilaynes 1611 Edward Hopkins 1G12 John Haynes 164:} Edward Hopkins 1644 John Haynes 164.5 Edward Hi>|)kitis 1646 ....1647 Edward Hopkins 1 648 John Haynes 1619 Edward Ilcjpkins 1650 John Havnes Ui.")! Kdwiird Ho[ik.in8 16.')2 John Haynes 1653 GOVERNORS OF THE UNITED COLONIES. Robert Treat 1 689 Joseph Talcot 1724 John Winthrop 1696 Gurdon Saltoustall -.1707 Jonathan Law 1741 Roger Wolcott 1751 GOVERNORS SINCE THE REVOLUTION. Roger Griswfdd 1811 John Cotton Smith ..1813 Oliver Woicott 1 817 Gideon Tomlinson. ..1827 John S. PetiTS 18.31 Henry W. Edwards. 1833 Samuel W. Foote.. ..1834 Henry W. Ed wards.. 18.35 Wm. W. Els worth... 1838 C. F.Cleveland 1843 Roger S. Baldwin.. ..1844 Isaac Tousey 1846 Edward Hopkins 16.54 Thomas Wells 1 6.55 John Webster 1 6.56 John Winthrop 16.57 Thomas Wells 16.58 John Winthrop 1659 Thomas Fitch 1 754 William Pitkin 1766 Jonathan Trumbull.. 1769 Clark Bissell 1847 Joseph Tnimbull 1 8.50 Thos. II. Seymour. -.1851 THE UNITED STATES.— NEW YORK. 97 NEW YORK. New York, the wealthiest and most populous state in the Union, is situated between 48° 30' and 45° north latitude, and 71° 56' and 79° 56' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Canada, which is separated in part by Lake Ontario and the river St. Lawrence ; east by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Con- necticut ; south by the Atlantic, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania ; and west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie and the Niagara river ; the two latter separating it, in part, from Canada West. It has a superficicfl area of about 46,000 square miles, or 30,000,000 acres. Physical Aspect. — The natural features of this state are greatly diversified, but in general may be regarded as an elevated tract, with numerous indenta- tions and depressions, which forms the basins of the lakes and the valleys of fertilizing streams. The surface of the eastern division is more varied in its character than the western. There are some level tracts, the principal of which embrace the prairies and larger plains of Long island ; but the greater portion is mountainous and hilly. The central and western divisions are mostly level, or moderately undulating, except near the Pennsylvania line, where it becomes broken and hilly. The soil of this state is generally good, except on the more sterile parts of the Hudson highlands, and other mountain- ous tracts, and many parts are celebrated for their extraordinary fertility. The valleys of the Mohawk and the Genesee, in particular, have long been prover- bial for their productiveness, and are regarded as inexhaustible in their yield. The extensive plains in the central part of Long island, heretofore used as woodlands, producing large quantities of fuel for the New York market, are now being converted into farms and gardens, and the soil, with a moderate outlny for amendments, is found to produce, when properly cultivated, as well as any other land on the island. Mountains. — There are several ridges of mountains in this state, which are generally considered as extensions of the Allegany or Appalachian chain. Two of these cross the eastern division, one of which extends from New Jersey to West Point, forming the Hudson highlands ; thence in a northerly direction to the Taghkannic mountains, constituting the dividing ridge between the Housa- tonic and Hudson rivers. The same range continues to Vermont, and is there known as the Green mountains. The other range, from New Jersey, termi- nates at the Shawangunk mountains, on the west side of the Hudson. Another range, still more prominent, also extends from New Jersey, as a continuation of the Kittatinny ridge, to the Kaatsbergs (Catskill), near the Hudson, whence it continues in a northwesterly direction, through the counties of Albany and Schoharie, forming the Helderberg ; thence to the Little Falls, through Herki- mer, where it is known by the name of Sacondaga mountain ; thence along to the westward of Lake Champlain to the river St. Lawrence, forming the Adiron- dack mountains. Mount Marcy being the most lofty pinnacle of the range. Rivers, Creeks, Lake.s, and Bays. — The principal rivers are, the St. Law- rence, Niagara, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehannah, Genesee, Oswego, Oswegat- chie, Black, St. Regis, Mohawk, Saranac, Salmon, Chenango, Tioga, Seneca, Canisteo, Allegany, Croton, Harlem, and East. The most noted creeks are, the Tonawanda, Ellicott, Eighteen-mile, Oak-Orchard, Oriskany, East and West Canada, Schoharie, Sacondaga, Rondout, and the Wail Kill. Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, lie partly in this state. The other chief lakes 7 NEW YORK THE UXITED STATES.— ^•E^V YORK. 99 are George, Cayuga, Seneca, Oneida, Oswegatchie, Canandaigua, Chautauque, Skaneateles, Saratoga, and Crooked. The principal bays are. New York, Ja- maica, Great South, Shinnecock, Gardiner's, Peconic, Oyster, and Fhishing. Cataracts. — New York is noted for a number of magnificent waterfalls. The falls of Niagara form the most stupendous cataract in the world. The water accumulated from the great upper lakes, forming a river about tliree quarters of a mile wide, and from forty to sixty feet deep, flows with a current of seven miles an hour. As it proceeds the river widens, and embosoms Grand and Navy islands, and again contracts to its former width. Below the islands are rapids, which extend a mile, to the precipice, in which space the river de- scends fifty-seven feet. Here Goat island divides the river into two channels. Over the precipice the river falls perpendicularly about 160 feet. Much the greater part of the water passes in the channel between Goat island and the Canada shore, and this fall is called, from its shape, the Horseshoe. Between Goat island and the small island in the eastern channel the stream is only eight or ten yards wide, forming a beautiful cascade. Between this small island and the American shore the sheet of water is broad, and the descent greater by a few feet than at the Horseshoe fall, but the stream is comparatively shallow. The best single view of the falls is from Table-Rock, on the Canada shore, and the best view of the rapids is from Goat island. Trenton falls, twelve miles north of Utica, are a succession of magnificent cascades. The Cohoes falls are formed by the passage of the Mohawk over a wall of rock, in one sheet, sixty- two feet high. At Rochester, the Genesee has a fall of ninety-six feet. At Ithaca, Fall creek has a descent of 438 feet in the space of a mile. The Cau- terskill falls are a beautiful cascade, of great elevation, in the Highlands. Mineral Springs. — The Saratoga and Ballston mineral springs are the re- sort of invalids at all seasons, and of the fashionable world during summer. The salt springs, near Syracuse, annually yield four million bushels of salt. The sulphur springs, at Sharon, in Schoharie county, and at Avon, in Livingston county, are efficacious in the treatment of chronic complaints. Islands. — The chief island-*, surrounded by tide water, are Long, Staten, Manhattan, Blackwell's, Gardiner's, Shelter, and Plum. Those of the inland waters are. Grand and Tonawanda islands, in the Niagara river, and several others in the St. Lawrence. Climate. — The climate is more varied, perhaps, than in any other state. In the easterly section, below the Hudson highlands, the winters are compara- tively mild, but changeable, and frequently are rendered disagreeable by the ocean winds. In the northeastern and central divisions they are more uniform, but severe. In the western division they are also mild, and are subject to less variation than either of the other divisions, except near the lakes, where they are often rendered unpleasant by tempestuous winds. The extremes of tem- perature near the city of New York vary from 4° below zero Fahrenheit to 90° above ; at Albany, from 16° below to 93° above ; at Canandaigua, from 8° below to 87° above ; and at Buffalo, from zero to 80° above. The climate of this state is generally regarded as healthy, with the exception of a few months in summer and autumn, in the vicinity of stagnant marshes and sluggish streams. Here, as in most other parts of the country, situated in similar circumstances, intermittents and bilious disorders more or less prevail. Cities and Chief Towns. — The city of Albany is the capital. New York,* *New Yobk, the great commciciiJ mntropolis of thf United States, and in population, commerce, and wealth, one of the first cities of the globe, in sitnnted in latitudi- 40^ 42' 40" uorth, and in longitude 74'-' 1' 8" west from Greenwich, and 3° 0" 22" east from Waahington, 216 miles southwest of Boston, and 86 miles northeast of Phila- delphia. The city is located on Manhattan island, between Hudson and East rivers, which unite at its lowermost extremity, forming one of the most admirahle harbors for beauty and convenience in the world. The island is 13^ miles long, bounded on the north by Harlem river, formerly Spuytendevil creek, and embraces an area of about 20 square miles. On the south part of this, the compact part of the city is built, extending about four miles along each river, and spreading northward by a rate of progress which will soon cover the whole 100 THE UNITED STATES.— NEW YORK. THE UNITED STATES.— NEW YORK. 101 Brooklyn, Buffalo, Willianisburgh, Rochester, Troy, Syracuse, Utica, Hudson, Auburn, and Schenectady, are cities. The other populous towns are Attica, Avon, Amsterdam, Argyle, Arcadia, Berne, Bethlehem, Black Rock, Batavia, Binghamton, Brookfield, Boonville, Bainbridge, Barre, Butternuts, Brunswick, isliimt. Its aflmirahle position for foreisn commerce, with its noble bay, and its remarkable facilities of intomal conimnnication with every portion of tlie Union, have been the unfailing sources of its extraordinary srowth a7i(l projpenty. Here the noble Hudson, after a course of more than 200 miles, through a rich and jjopulous ref(ion, sweeps majestically along, bearing on its bosom the vast commerce of the Erie canal and the Wi'tt, expands into the upper bay, and passes through the " Narrows" into the ocean. Here, too, on the ojjposite side, courses the strong tide of East river, wliich, winding between Long island and the main land, forms the rocky jiass of " Hell-Gate," and several islands. This stream, which averages about three fourths of a mile in width, and thirty feet in depth, atfords a passage for vessels of a large class into Long fsland sound and the Atlantic ; while those en- gaged in foreign commerce, as well as in the southern coasting-trade, usually enter and leave the harbor through the Narrows, between Staten and Long islands. The best anchorage for these is at the wharves (Jong the East river, which is more secure from ice than the Hudson. British packets, coasting vessels, and canal-boats gene- rally, lie along the foiTner I'iver ; some at Brooklyn, and the Atlantic dock, on the opposite bank ; while the Hudson is thickly lined with steamboats and ships from England, France, .Spain, Portugal, Holland, Sweden, and other foreign countries. On this liver, also, at the foot of Canal street, is the wharf of the Collins' line of steamers, bet^veen Livei-pool and Ni^w York. The Cunard steamers land at Jersey city, on th(> opposite side of the river. Other splendid lines run between the city and Southampton, Bremen, and Havre, in Europe, Charles- ton, Savannah, New Orleans, Havana, Chagres, Nicaragua, and Panama. Steamboats of diflerent grades, fioiii the magnificent floating palaces of the Hudson, to the lesser propeller and steam-ferry boats, are constantly leaving or approaching the city, and animate its waters with the most varied prospect of lite and activity. For pleasant, salubrious position, and beauty of surrounding country. New York is as conspicuous as it is lor commercial advantages. Entering the outer bay, fi-om the Atlantic, the traveller sees on the left of the broad expanse of water, the blue hills of New Jersey, formerly knouTi as the highlands of Navesink. Toward the north, the romantic heights of Staten island rise to view, and on the cast, the shores of Long island. Following the Narrows, between the two islands, which are defended by strong fortifications, the upper or iniicr part of the bay opens an enchanting scene. Staten island recedes, and the shores of New Jersey reappear. Long island con- tinues on the right, and after passing Governor's island, with its fortifications, the great city displays its forest of masts and spires, its domes and its nouses, relieved by the green foliage of the "Battery," set, like an emerald, in some darker stone. The ground rises from the Battery, and from both rivers, by a gradual ascent, of which Broadway is the ridge, or summit. This surface, with the outline of the city, which rapidly widens from its southern point to a breadth of two miles, at Corlear's Hook, on the East river, gives an imposing effect, une- qualled by almost any in the world. At the lower and ancient part of the city, the streets arc somewhat irregu- lar, but not unpleasant, being lined with rows of warehouses and stores of the most splendid and solid construc- tion. Many of these are brick, some of freestone, and others of white marble. This is the business part of the city, and embraces comparatively few residences. Wall street is the principal theatre of financial and mercan- tile operations, and is a broad, straight avenue, leading from East river to Broadway. On either side of this are numerous splendid banking-houses, and -other public buildings, among which is the Merchants' Exchange, of blue granite, or sienite, 200 feet long, 171 feet wide, and 124 teet high to the top of the dome, with u portico supported by massive solid pillars. Within, the most remarkable apartment is the exchange, a rotunda, 80 feet in diameter, and 80 feet high, lighted from above by the dome, and resting upon eight Corinthian cohnnns of Italian marble. The whole building is of fire-proof materials, and is a splendid ornament to the city. The cus- tomhouse, on the .same street, is a beautiful structure of white marble, in Doric architecture, surrounded by rows of Corinthian columns, with a portico extending across the entire front on Wall street. It is 200 feet long, 90 feet wide, and 80 feet high, and contains numerous apartments for the different offices, the princi])al of which is of circular form, 80 feet in diameter, surrounded by columns, and lighted by a beautiful dome. This stnictui-e occupies the site of where once stood Federal HhII, where Washington was inaug^irated first president of the United States, April 30, 1789. At the head of Wall street, fronting on Broadway, stands Trinity cliurch, tiie most costly and magnificent structure of the kind in America. It is of light-brown freestone, in purely Gothic architecture, and is 192 feet deep, 84 feet Mide, the walls fiO feet high, and the spire reaching 284 feet aliove the ground. From the battlements, at the base of the spire, appears a magnificent panorama of New York bay, its islands. New Jersey, and Long inland, with Brooklyn, Williamsburgh, and other populous towns ; while below the feet the giant city spreads' east, west, north, and soutli, on each side of Broadway, which, for three miles, bisects it in nearly a straight direction. This splendid street, which is 80 feet wide, is lined with large and magnificent stores, warehouses, and hotels, built of white marble, freestone, and other durable materials. Below Trinity church, besides a number of fine hotels, there is the United States bonded warehouse. Proci^ed- ing northward, successively apj^ear the Astor house, ocoipying an entire square, built of blue granite, the city- hal!, the Irving house, opposite to which is Stuart's dry-goods palace, a massive structure of white marble, the Society libraiy, hospital, St. Nicholas hotel, Academy of Design, Metropolitan hotel, and Grace church, of pure white marble, elaborately sculptured. At Tc^nth street, Broadway makes a small angle, and, after passing Union park, and Madison square, proceeds nearly northward to the upper end of the island. Among the public build- ings in the lower part of the city is the citj'-hall, in the "Park," a pleasant triangular enclosure, of ten acres. This edifice is of white marble, except the back, which is of brown freestone. Its architecture is a combination of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders. It is 216 feet long, 105 feet deep, and 65 feet high. Upon the roof is a cupola, with a clock, illuminated at night, and an enormous bell, the powerful tones of which send the alarm of fire over au area of many miles. Within are well-furnished apartments for ditt'erent offices of the city government; and in the second story the governor's room, which is decorated with portraits of the presidents, governors of the state, mayors of the city, and many American heroes and statesmen. In front of this edifice a splendid fountain rises, from the middle of a circular Viasin, surrounded by flowers and shrubs. The jiark also ' contains the new city-liall ; the hidl of records, and several other public buildings, for the accommodation of the courts, and city business. The halls of justice, often called, from its architecture, the "Egj-ptian Tombs," is a massive and large buililing. on Centre street, of light-colored granite, 253 feet long, and 200 feet wide. It con- tains the city prison, and other departments of justice. Columbia college is pleasantly situated westward of the park, fronting a beautiftU green, the west side of which once overlooked the Hudson, but is now at a di.-tanee of about a fourth of a mile. This institution was foundc^d under George II., in 1754, and has educated some of the most distinguished men of the country. Tlie New York Postotfice occupies the old Middle Dutch church on Nassau, Cedar, and Libeity stri'ets. Other prominent liuildings worthy of note are Clinton hall, occui)ied by the Mercantile library ; Odd-Fellows hall, an imposing stnicture of freestone ; the New York university, an ele- gant white marble Gothic stiiicture ; the university medical college, on Fourteenth street ; the New York college of physicians and surgeons, on Crosby street ; the New York medical college ; the general throlcjgical seminary ot the protestant episcopal church ; the Union theological seminary ; the free academy ; the Astor library ; the in- stitution for the blind ; the deaf and dumb asylum; tlie Ni'W York orphan asj'lum, upon an attractive slope over- looking the Hudson ; the colored orphan asylum ; the lu'^ylum for friendless boys ; the sailors' home ; the colored 102 'FHE UNITED STATES.— ^^:W YORK. THE CTTT-HALL. Bath, Brookhaven, Benton, Coeymans, Chenango, Champlain, Chazey, Chat- ham, Claverack, Cortlandtville, Collins, Concord, Catskill, Coxsackie, Clayton, Cazenovia, Clarkson, Canajoharie, Camillus, Cornwall, Cherry Valley, Castle- homo, and many other noble, charitable institutions, which form a most enviable ornament of pride and honor for the metropolis of America. New York is well furnished with educational and literary privileges, and manifests its high interest in mental culture, by the number and excellence of its libraries, schools, colleges, lectures, and journals, the latter of which are, in general, superior to those of any other city in the Union, for intrinsic merits, despatch, and for every requisite of newspaper literature. The public grounds of New York are numerous, but scarcely commensurate with its greatness and wealth. The "Battery," at the south extremity, is an airy and delightful resort in summer, carpeted with greensward, shaded with large trees, and fanned by the breezes of the bay. At the southwest side, built up from the water, is Castle-Garden, once a fortification, but now used for public gatherings, and for the magnificent annual fairs of the American Institute. Its vast amphitheatre will contain 10,000 persons. Not far from the Battery, at the foot of Broadway, is the "Bowling-Green," a small elliptical enclosure, containing a fountain and lofty trees. Here, before the Revolution, stood a gilded leaden statue of George III., which was converted by the patriots into bullets, to be fired at the troops of the king, whom it represented. The park has been already noticed. Union square is a pleasant oval ground, adorned with flowers, grass, trees, and a fountain. Washington square, formerly a potter's field, lies westward of Broadway, and affords a pleasant promenade. Tompkins, Stuy- vesant, and Madison squares, are the other public grounds, none of which are sufficiently ample for the wants of the city. St. John's, and Grammercy, are beautiful private parks. It remains to notice a work which, in grandeur of design, and magnificent execution, is truly worthy of the commerciiil metropolis of America. The Croton water works are the most extensive and costly structure of the kind in the country, and probably in the world, if we except those at Marseilles, in France. A dam across Croton river, 40 miles north of the city-hall, creates an exhaustless and beautiful lake, of about 400 acres in area, five miles in circumference, and capable of containing 550,000.000 gallons of water. The aqueduct extends from this point to Harlem river, without interruption, conveying the water through a conduit of niasonwork, which has a descent of about one foot to a mile, is six feet three inches wide at the bottom, seven feet eight inches at the top, and eight ft^et five inches high. It passes Harlem river upon the "High bridge," which has been pro- nounced equal to the most magnificent structures, of a similar kind, in ancient Rome. Fourteen piers of solid ma- sonry support arches, upon which rests the bridge, 1,450 feet long, and 114 feet above tide-water. Alter crossing the river, the aqueduct conveys the water to the receiving reservoir, 836 feet wide, 1,825 feet long, and containing 150,000,000 c;allons. The water is separated by a partition of masonry, forming two divisions, which may be alternately full and empty, or both full at the same time. The whole area of the surface of the water is equal to 35 acres. From this basin the water is conveyed through iron pipes to the distributing reservoir, two miles southward, whence it is distributed through iron pipes under ground, cleanses the streets, and enters the hou- ses, administering comfort, beauty, and health, to the city and it^ denizens. The area of the latter reservoir is equal to four acres ; its capacity is 20,000,000 gallons. The water-works can supply 60,000.000 gallons daily ; the average quantity is 30,000,000. The cost of the aqueduct and reservoirs was over $12,000,000. The manufactures of New York, like its commerce, are more extensive than those of anj- other American city. Ship building and machinery are among the branches most largely carried on. Here are built the mag- nificent ocean steamers, packets, and steamboats, that are the glory of New Y'ork. The principal streets are traversed in various directions by omnibus hnes, connecting the important points. Ferries communicate with [lobokon, Jersey City, Staten island, Brooklyn, Williamsburgh, and Astoria. The rnilroails diverging from New York are, the Harlem, and Hudson River, to Albany ; the New York and New Haven; the Cnnidch and Amboy ; the New Jersey ; the New Jersey Central ; the Morris and Essex ; the I'aterson and Raniapo ; the F.rie ; the Long Island ; and the Philadelphia. Not all of these enter the city ; many cnmmuniiMit^ by steamboats from diflorent distances. Til.' pdpulation nf the city in 1653 was 1.120; in ](i61, 1,743; in 167.5, 2,-580 ; in 1696, 4,455; in 1730, 8,2.56: in 17.5(i. 10,.5:i0; in 1774. 22,861; in 1786, 23.688 ; in 1790, 3,3,131 ; in 1800, 60,48il; in 1810, 96,373; in 1820, 12,3,706; in 1825, 166,136 ; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1835, 270,089 ; in 1840, 312,710 ; in 1845. 371,280 ; and in 1850, 515,394. The contracted limit* of Manhattan island has caused many populous places to spring up on all sides, whose THE UNITED STATES.— NEW YORK. 103 ton, Canatidaigua, Canton, Cortlandt, Deerfield, Dunkirk, Duanesburg, Drvden, Elmira, Ellsburg, Eaton, Elbridge, Franklin, Fishkill, Frankfort, Flatbush, Florida, Fayette, Fort Ann, Greene, German Flats, Geneseo, Greece, Goshen, Greenbush, Glenville, Groton, Greenwich, Galen, Greenburgf, Hanover, Har- mony, Homer, Hamburg, Hamilton, Hempstead, Hoosick, Haverstraw, How- ard, Huntington, Hector, Ithaca, Johnstown, Jamaica, Kinderhook, Kingston, Le Roy, Little Falls, Lyme, Lenox, Lockport, Lysander, Lansinghurgh, Lisbon, Lansing, Lyons, Mentz, Middletown, Malone, Mount Morris, Morrisa- nia, Mennon, Mohawk, Manlius, Minisink, Monroe, Montgomery, Mexico, Mid- dlefield, Milton, Middlebury, Madrid, Mamakating, Marbletown, Mount Pleasant, Mile, New Berlin, Norwich, New Hartford, Newburgh, North Hempstead, New- town, Nassau, Newfieh!, Ogdeiisburg, Oxford, Orleans, Onondaga, Oswego, Ot- sego, Oyster Bay, Owego, Plattsburgh, Portage, Pomfret, Poughkeepsie, Port- land, Peru, Perry, Pompey, Phelps, Phillipstown, Pittstown, Potsdam, Palmyra, Queensbury, Rennselaerville, Roxbury, Royalton, Rome, Ridgway, Richland, Ramapo, Sparta, Sullivan, Salina, Skaneateles, Seneca, Scriba, Sand Lake, Schaghticoke, Schodack, Saratoga Springs, Schoharie, Seneca Falls, South- ampton, Southold, Saugerties, Shawangunk, Sodus, Truxton, Trenton, Unit>n, Virgil, Vernon, Verona, Van Buren, Volney, Westervliet, Westerloo, Westfield, Watertown, Westmoreland, Whitestown, Wall-Kill, Warwick, Waterloo, War- saw, Whitehall, Westchester, and York. Productive Resources. — The chief products are horses mules, neat cat- tle, sheep, swine, poultry, eggs, beef, pork, fish, butter, cheese, silk, hay, wool, sugar, wine, hops, tobacco, flax, hemp, lumber, pot and pearl ashes, pitch, tar, turpentine, wheat, flour, rye, barley, oats, peas, beans, flax-seed, buckwheat, potatoes, Indian corn, apples, cider, pears, plums, peaches, grapes, and other fruits peculiar to the latitude. Of the mineral and fossil resources, iron, salt, marble, hydraulic cement, gypsum, super-phosphate of lime, flagstone, and lime, are the most important, all of which are extensively and profitably wrouj^ht. Manufactures. — The manufactures of New York are extensive. Every section of the state abounds in excellent water-power, which is generally im- proved for manufactories, flour-mills, saw-mills, &;c. Cotton, woollens, iron, paper, leather, glass, oil, silk, cutlery, hardware, firearms, carriages, &c., are the more important articles of manufacture. Railroads and Canals. — New York has about 2,000 miles of railroads in successful operation. The most important are, the New York and Erie, ex- tending from the Hudson river to Lake Erie, a distance of 450 miles ; and the Hudson river, and the New York, Harlem, and Albany railroads, extending from New York city to Albany. From Albany railroads extend eastward to Boston, northward to Canada, and westward to Buffalo. From all these roads branches extend to various important points in the state. The New Haven connects New York city with the eastern stales. The principal canal in New York is the Er*ie, extending from New York to Buffalo,* 364 miles. From the Erie lateral iuhnbitants aro mainly engaged in business in the metropolis, and which should be viewed as portions of the city, in considt'rine its extent and population. To this class belongs the city of Brooklyn, which is benutifuUy situated opposite the southern part of New York, from which it is separated by East river. Us neat and quel Btrrete, the chasteness of its houses, the purity of it.-s atmos))here, added to the facilities afforded by the numerous ferries for reaching the great metropolis, render it a desirable place of residence. Brooklyn is celebrated for the number and magnificence of its churches. The navy-yard is located at the northeastern part of the city, and Greenwood, the finest ceraett^ry in the United States, at the southern part. The growth of the city has been almost unparalleled ; the population in 1820 was 7,175; in 1830, 15,nt)6 ; in 1840,36,2.3.3; and in 18.50, 97,e.3a Adjoining Brooklyn is the city of Williamsburgh, wliich has grown from a village of 5,094 inhabitants in 1840, to a city of 30 856 in IS-IO. On the W(^st bank of the Hudson river lies Jersey City, with a population of over 16,000. It is the terminus of the railroads connecting New York with the south. To the north of it is the rura! village of Hoboken, fiist settling into a large town. Other places might be mentioned, as Morrisania, Flushing, Staton Island, &.C., which are almost entirely dependent on New York for their prosperity. * The commanding situation of Buffalo, as the gate through which the immense traffic of the West, borne on the boKom of the great lakes, passes to the east, makes it the most important inland city in the state. It is situ- ated at the confluence of Buflido creel, with the east end of Lake Erie, and at the we? tern terminus of the Erie canal, by which route it is 363 miles distant from Albany. It occupies a slope chiefly on the north side of the creek, which is here deep enough for v»'88el8 drawing eight feet of water. The stroetB aro generally regular, the THE UNITED STATES.— NEW YORK 105 canals diverge north and south, traversing many important sections of coimtry. The canals are, with a single exception, the property of the state. They have an aggregate length of about 1,000 miles, and have been principally built for the purpose of uniting the navigation of the lakes with the Hudson river. Commerce. — The foreign commerce of New York is nearly equal to that of all the rest of the Union combined. Her lake and interior commerce is equally immense. In 1851, its imports and exports amounted to $225,000,000. The shipping owned within the state is over one million of tons, of which about one half is employed in the coasting trade, and on the lakes. Education. — Among the literary institutions of New York are, Columbia Union, Hamilton, and Geneva colleges ; and the New York, Madison, and Rochester universities. There are seven theological seminaries, and five med- ical schools. There are, also, about 250 academies, and 12,000 common schools in the state. The money appropriated for the support of common schools amounts to over a million of dollars annually. PopuLATiox.— In 1790, 340,120; in 1800, 586,756; in 1810, 959,949; in 1820, 1,372,812; in 1830, 1,918,608; in 1840 and 1850, in counties, as fol- lows : — Counties. 1850. 1840. Albauy 93,279 68,593 Allegany 37,808 40,975 Broome 30.660 22.338 Ciittnraugus 38,9.50 28,872 Cayuga 55.458 50,338 Chautauque 50,493 47.975 Chemung 28.821 20,732 Chenango 40,311 40,785 Clinton 40,047 28,1.57 Columbia 43,073 43,2.52 Cortland 25,140 24,607 Delaware 39,834 35,396 Dutchess 58,992 52,398 Erie 100,993 62.465 E.SSPX 31,148 23,634 Franklin 2.5,102 16,518 Fulton 20,171 18,049 Genesee 28,488 59,587 Greene 33,126 30,446 Hamilton 2,188 1,907 1840. 37,477 60,984 47,613 17,830 3.5,140 40,008 Counties. 1850. Herkimer 38,244 Jefferson 68,1.53 King.? 1.38,882 Lewis 24,564 Lirinffston 40,875 .Madison 43,072 Monroe 87,650 Montsomery 31.993 New York 515,.547 312,710 Niagara 42,276 31,132 Oneida 99,566 Onondaga 8.5,890 OntHrio 43,929 Onmse 57,145 Orleans 28.501 Oswego 62,198 Otsego 48,638 Putnam 14,138 Queens ^ 36,833 Counties. 18.50. 1840. Richmond ....15,061 10.965 Rockland 16,962 11,975 St. Lawrence 68.617 .56.706 Saratoga 45,646 40..5.53 Schenectady 20,054 17.387 Schoharie 33,548 32,358 64.902 Seneca 25,441 24,874 35.818 Suffolk 36,922 32,469 Steuben 63,771 46,138 Sullivan 25,088 15,629 Tioga 24,880 20,527 Tompkins 38,746 37.948 Ulster 59.384 45,822 Warren 17,199 13.4J2 Wa.shington 44,750 4! ,081) Wayne 44,953 42,057 Westchester 58.263 48,686 Wyoming 31.981 new eo. Yates 20,.590 20,444 85,310 67,911 43,501 50,739 2.5,127 43,619 49,628 12,825 30,324 60,295 Rensselaer 73,363 Total 3,097,394 2,428,957 Number of .slaves in 1790, 21,324; in 1800, 20,343; in 1810, 15,017; in 1820, 10,088; in 1830, 75; in 1840, 4. Government. — The executive power is vested in a governor, and lieutenant- governor, who must be native-born citizens of the United States, and have resi- ded in the state five years, and who are elected biennially ; and the legislative power in a senate, of 32 members, elected biennially, and a house of assembly, of 128 members, elected annually, on the Tuesday succeeding the first Monday in November. The secretary of state, comptroller, treasurer, canal commis- sioners, attorney-general, engineer, and surveyor, are elected biennially by the people. Judges are elected by the people, and hold their ofl^ice eight years. Every white male citizen, 21 years of age, who has resided in the state one year, and in the county where he offers his vote four months next preceding the election, enjoys the right of suffrage. Persons of color, who have resided buildings substantial, and many of them imposing. The longest and broadest i.s Main street, the Broadway of Buffalo, on both sides of which, for more than two miles, extend lines of stores and other buildings. From the top of the elevation above the city appears a wide panorama of the lake, Black Rock basin, Niagara river, the Erie canal, and the surrounding country. Buffalo is the offspring of the Erie canal, and ever since thecompletion of that stupendous work has continued to increase in population, wealth, and importance. A great chain of railroads binds Buffalo to New York, Bos- ton, Albany, and the richest portion of the Empire state along tlie course of the Erie canal ; and another travers- ing the valleys of the Susquehnnnah and Delaware, links it with New Jersey, New York city, and Philadelphia. By either of these routes, the passengers may reach Buffalo from New York, a distance of about .500 miles, in less than 20 hours. The Lake Shore railroad connects it with the vast network of railroads in the western states. The harbor of Buffalo was formerly impeded l)y .sands, which the winds and stonns of Lake Erie deposited at its entrance. By the construction of a mole and pier, 1,5(XJ feet long, this obstruction is removed, ami V("sscls drawing eight fM^t of water now enter the creek. Here, in the wmter season, n large number of vessels, steam- boats, ships, schooners, and canal-boat), are congregated, and protected from ice and storms. Several hundred schooners, and a number of steamboats, navigate Lake Erie, from Buffalo, to the different ports on its shores. A large amount of capital is invested in manufactures. The population of Buffalo, in 1810, was 1,508 ; in 1820, 2,095 ; in 1830, 8,653 ; in 1840, 18,213 ; in 1850, 42,261. 106 THE UNITED STATES.— NEW YORK. three years in the state, and have possessed a freehold of $250, one year previous to the election, are allowed the right of suffrage. History. — In the year 1609, Henry Hudson, a navigator (who had pre- viously made two voyages to the American continent, in the service of a company of London merchants), in the employ of the Dutch East India Com- pany, while exploring the coasts of what are now Virginia, Delaware, and New Jersey, in search of a passage to the Pacific ocean, passed thronoh the Narrows, entered the magnificent bay of New York, and discovered the month of the Manhattan (now Hudson) river. For ten days he continued his voyage cau- tiously up this river, confidently hoping it would open through to the great ocean, and it was not until he reached the head of tide-water, in fact until he was at the mouth of the Mohawk, thnt he relinquished this idea. He reached England in the autumn of that year. During the same year, Champlain, having fortified Quebec, passed through the lake which bears his name, and descended Lake George. The two navigators came very near meeting each other from different points, in the interior of New York. The Dutch commenced a regu- lar trade with the Indians upon the Hudson in 1610, which was continued sev- eral years before a permanent settlement was commenced. They began a set- tlement at Albany in 1615, built a fort, and called the country upon the river New Netherlands. About the same time, a small settlement was made upon Manhattan island, but actual colonization did not take place until after 1621, when the Dutch West India Company was formed. In 1629, this company issued patroon privileges, for the purpose of encouraging settlements, and emi- gration rapidly increased. In 1633, the Dutch erected a fort on the Connecti- cut river, upon the present site of Hartford, but soon after abandoned the place. The Dutch at this time claimed Long island, yet the English commenced set- tlements upon the eastern end of it. They also claimed jurisdiction over the whole country bordering the Delaware and its bay, but there a colony of Swedes, which had been projected by and planted under the auspices of Gustavus Adol- phus, disputed their authority, and they built a fort upon the island of Tinicum, in the Delaware, a few miles below Philadelphia. In 1643 '44, the Dutch waged a war against the neighboring Indian tribes upon Long island, and in New Jersey, who showed signs of disaffection, having been badly treated by the whites. The Indians were subdued, and dispersed. In 1647, Peter Stuy- Tesant, the most celebrated of the Dutch governors, arrived, and by order of the home government he set about reducing the Swedish colony to submission. This was accomplished in 1655, and Neui Swede?!, upon the Delaware, became a part of the New Netherlands. In 1664, Charles II. granted the country be- tween the Connecticut and the Delaware to his brother, the duke of York, who sent an armed force to take possession. This they accomplished in the autumn ■of that year, and the name of the settlement and province was changed to New York. When, in 1689, Governor Andros was imprisoned, the people of New York, under Leisler, took possession of the fort there. Leisler continued at the head of affairs until 1691, when he was arrested by Slaughter, a newly- appointed royal governor, and executed, on a charge of high treason. From ihe year 1700 until 1744, the province of New York was quiet, except the ex- citement produced by a pretended negro plot.* It Avas then that the "five years' war" with France took place, and northern New York became the thea- tre of hostilities. Hoosick and Schenectady were burnt. From 1755 to 1763 occurred the French and Indian war, and New York was the chief field of ope- rations within the English colonies. Fort Oswego was captured by Montcalm, August 13, 1756, and the next year, on August 9, he stormed and took Fort William Henry, on Lake George. The English also made conquests of fort- * Tlie I)('li(^f provnilecJ, thongli witliout nny just grimiids, that the negroes of Now York hnd plotted tlie do- Btruction of the town, and tlie niHFsacro of the whites. Thirty negroes w-ere burnt at the stake, eighteen hanged, .and seventy were transported for hfe. THE UNITED STATES.— NEW JERSEY. 107 rps>!es in the possession of the French ; Ticonderoga, Frontenac, and Niagara. The Congress of the colonies, which the stamp-act gave birth to, was held in the city of New York, in 1765, and about the same time the association called the Sons of Liberty was organized in this province. In 1767, the powers of the colonial legislature were annulled by parliament, because the assembly re- fused to grant supplies to troops. In 1773, the people of New York, like those of Boston, successfully resisted the landing of tea. In 1775, after hearing of the battle of Lexington, a provincial congress was assembled, and thus the col- ony was governed until 1777, when a constitution was adopted. On August, 27, 1776, occurred the battle on Long island, between the Americans and British and Hessians. The city was evacuated by the Americans on the 23d of Sep- tember. From that time until the close of the Revolution, this state was the scene of some of the most exciting and important events of the war. But our limits forbid a detail of them. On the 25th of November, 1783, the British evacuated New York. It was there that Washington, the first president of the United States, was inaugurate, on the 30th of April, 1789. New York rati- fied the Constitution of the United States July 26, 1788. Dutch Governors. Peter Menuit 1624 Wouter Von Twiller 1632 William Kieft 1638 Peter Stuyvesant 1647 English Governors Richard NicoUs 1664 Francis Lovelace 1667 Sir Edmund Andros 1674 Anthony Brockholst 1681 Thomas Dongan 1683 Francis Nicholson 1688 Jacob Leisler, Lieut Gov 1689 Henry Slaughter 1691 Richard Insolsby, Lieut. Go v.. 1691 Benjamin Fletcher. 1692 Earl of Bt'llamont 1698 John Nanfan, Lieut. Gov 1701 Lord Combury. 1702 Lord Lovelace 1708 Richard Ingolsby, Lieut. Gov. .1709 Gorardus Beekman, President. 1710 General Hunter 1710 Peter Schuyler, President 1719 William Burnet 1720 John Montgomery 1720 Rip Van Dam, President 1731 William Crosby 1732 George Clark 1736 George Clinton 1743 James Delancy, Lieut Gov 1753 Danvers Osbom 1753 Sir Charles Hardy 1755 James Delancy, Lieut Gov 17.57 Cadwallader Colden, Lt Gov. . 1760 Robert Moncton 1762 Cadwallader Qolden, Lt Go v.. 1763 Henry Moore 1765 Eiirl of Dunmore 1770 William Try on 1771 Provincial Congress 1775 Slate Governors. George Clinton 1773 John Jay 1797 George Clinton 1801 Morgan Lewis 1804 Daniel D. Tompkins 1807 John Taylor, Lieut. Governor. 1817 De Witt Clinton 1817 Joseph C. Yates 1822 De Witt Clinton 1822 Nathaniel Pitcher, Lieut Gov.. 1828 Martin Van Buren 1829 Enos T. Throop, Lieut Gov... 1829 William L. Marcy 1833 William H. Seward 1839 William C. Bouck 1843 Silas Wright 1845 John Young 1847 Hamilton Fish 1849 Washington Hunt 1851 Horatio Seymour 1853 NEW JERSEY.* New Jersey lies between 38° 57' and 41° 22' north latitude, and 73° 58' and 75^29' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by New York ; east by the Hudson river, Staten island sound, and the Atlantic ; southeast by Delaware bay, which separates it from Delaware ; and west by Delaware river, which separates it from Peimsylvania. It has a superficial area of 8,320 square miles. Physical Aspect. — This state presents a great diversity of surface, as well as of soil. The northern portions are mountainous, interspersed with rich valleys, and extensive tracts, well adapted for grazing, and for the plough. An elevated range^ called the " Palisades," commences near Hoboken, and extends along the Hudson for miles, forming a perpendicular wall of stone, which at some points is 500 feet high. The middle portions are less hilly than the northern, and much of the soil is fertile, and well tilled. The southern counties are principally composed * So named after the i.aland of Jersey, on th" coast of France, of which Sir George Carteret, to whom the territory of New Jersey was conveyed, in 1664, was formerly governor. NEW JERSEY THE UNITED STATES.— NEW JERSEY. 109 of a long range of level country, commencing near Sandy Hook, and lines the whole coast of the middle states. Much of this range is sandy, and nearly bar- ren, producing little else than small oaks and yellow pine ; in other cases, swamps of white cedar occur. In the southern section along the Atlantic and Delaware bay, there are extensive marshes, which are monthly inundated by the tides. A stratum of green-sand marl, in spme places thirty feet thick, underlies the surface throughout the length of this tract, which has been exten- sively used as a fertilizer in reclaiming the land. Mountains. — In the northwesterly part of the state there are two ranges, subordinate to the Alleganies, one called South mountain, and the other, Blue mountain, or Kittatinny ridge. The more prominent points of the former are designated by the names of Mosconetcong, Schooley's, Hamburg, Wawayanda, and Bear mountains. The other elevations worthy of note are Mine, Trow- bridge, Second, and Ramapo mountains. Rivers and Bays. — The principal rivers are the Hudson, and Delaware, its eastern and western boundaries ; the Raritan, Passaic (the great falls of which, above Paterson, have a perpendicular descent of seventy feet), Hackensack, Egg Harbor, Great Egg Harbor, Shrewsbury, Toms, Maurice, Delaware, and Mosconetcong. The chief bays are the Delaware, Newark, New York, Rari- tan, Sandy Hook, Barnegat, Little and Great Egg Harbors, and Grassy. Climate. — The climate along the seaboard, and in the valleys of the inte- rior, may be regarded as mild, though the former is often rendered disagreeable by ocean winds. In the mountainous region, at the north, the winters are cold, and often severe. The range of temperature varies from a few degrees below zero to 90° above. The air is remarkably pure, and usually salubrious, except in summer and autumn, near marshes and streams. Cities and Chief Towns. — Trenton is the seat of government. Jersey City, Newark, and Paterson, are cities. The other populous towns are, Am- boy, Argyle, Belvidere, Bergen, Camden, Elizabethtown, Flemington, Franklin, Freehold, Hanover, Hopewell, Howell, Hackensack, Lebanon, Mount Holly, Morristown, Morris, Mansfield, New Brunswick, Nottingham, Newton, Orange, Princeton, Rahway, Somerville, Salem, Woodbury, Wantage, and Westfield. Productive Resources. — The chief products are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, eggs, butter, shad, oysters, cheese, fruit, cider, wine, flax-seed, wax, pitch, tar, resin, turpentine, silk, wool, lumber, haj^, wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Of the mineral and fossil resources of this state, iron and zinc are the most abundant, and their ores are extensively wrought. An extensive bed of phosphorite, a native phosphate of lime, has been opened in Morris county, which promises to add much to the agricultural wealth of the state. Manufactures. — The manufactures of New Jersey are numerous, embracing almost every variety of goods. Cotton and woollen mills are established in many parts of the state ; silk and linen goods are manufactured to a considera- ble extent ; also machinery, hardware, railroad-cars, carriages, firearms, jew- elry, glass, earthen-ware, fire-brick, Sic. There are also extensive tanneries, and other manufactories of leather. Whole villages are employed in boot and shoe making. Railroads and Canals. — The great lines of railroad between New York and Pennsylvania traverse this state. Branch roads are also constructed from the central roads to the more important towns ; making, in the aggregate, about 200 miles of railway in the state. The Delaware and Raritan, 42 miles, and Morris, 102 miles long, are the most important canals in this state. Commerce. — The foreign commerce of New Jersey is small, on account of its proximity to New York ; its coasting trade, however, is considerable. The shipping owned within the states amounts to about 80,000 tons. 110 • THE UNITED STATES.— NEW JERSEY. Education. — The principal literary institutions are, the college of New Jer- sey, at Princeton, founded in 1738, and Rutgers college, at New Brunswick, founded in 1770, to both of which are attached theological seminaries, and to the former a law-school ; and Burlington college, founded in 1846. There are about 100 academies and 1,500 common schools in New Jersey. Population.— In 1790, 184,139; in 1800,211,949; in 1810, 249,555; in 1820, 277,575; in 1830, 320,823; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. If^M. 1840. Atlantic 8,961 8,726 Gloucester 14,655 25,438 Morris ^0,1.58)„.o^ Boreen 14,725 13,223 Hudson 21,821 9,488 Ocean 10,0325""''^ Burlington 43,203 32,831 Hunterdon 28.989 24,783 Salem 19467 16,024 Camden 25,422newco. Mercer 27,992 21,502 .Somerset 19,6i?8 17.455 Cape May 6,433 5,324 Middlesex 28.635 21,893 .Sussex ^2,989 21,770 Cumberland 17,189 14,374 Monmouth 30,313 32.909 WaiTen 22.358 20.366 Essex 73,950 44,621 Passaic 22,575 16,734 Total 489,5.55 373,306 Number of slaves in 1790, 11,423 ; in 1800, 12,422 ; in 1810, 10,851 ; in 1820, 7,657 ; in 1830, 2,254 ; in 1840, 674 ; in 1850, 222. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, elected for three years, one third renewed each year, and a general assembly, chosen annually, on the second Tuesday of October ; the executive power in a governor, elected by the people, once in three years, at the general election, and is ineligible for the next term. The judiciary power is vested in a court of errors and appeals, composed of the chancellor, supreme court, and six other judges ; a court for trial of impeachments ; a court of chancery; a supreme court of five judges, and courts of common pleas. The chancellor and supreme court judges hold their offices for seven years ; the six judges of the court of errors and appeals for six years, one judge vacating his seat each year in rotation ; and the judges of the courts of common pleas for five years. The latter are chosen by the legislature ; the others receive their appointment from the governor. The right of suffrage is vested in every white male citizen, who shall have resided in the state one year, and in the county where he votes five months, paupers, idiots, insane per- sons, and criminals, excepted. History. — The territory of the present state of New Jersey was formerly in- cluded, in part, in New Swedeland, which lay on the west side of the Dela- ware, as far up as Trenton falls, and was purchased of the Indians, and settled by the Swedes, in 1638. It also formed a part of the Dutch province of New Netherlands, and was included within the jurisdiction of Governor Stuyvesant, in 1655. The first permanent settlement within the present limits of this state was made at Bergen, in 1623, by the Danes. In 1664, Charles II., of England, having granted to his brother James, the duke of York, the whole territory from Connecticut river to the shores of the Delaware, the latter im- mediately compelled the Dutch and Swedes to surrender, and took possession of the province, with its subordinate settlements west of the river, except the present state of New Jersey, which he conveyed to Sir George Carteret, and Lord Berkeley, who were already proprietors of Carolina. In 1673, the Dutch regained all their former possessions, including New Jersey, but relinquished them to the English again, in 1674. Ai'ter this event, the duke of York ob- tained a second charter, confirming the former grant, and restored to Berkeley and Carteret their former rights. Berkeley sold his share of the territory, which, two years afterward, fell into the hands of William Penn and two other Quakers, and the province was divided into "East Jersey" and "West Jersey." The former was governed by Carteret, and the latter by the quakers. In 1682, after the death of Carteret, East Jersey was sold to Penn, and eleven other in- dividuals of the same order and faith, who were joined by twelve partners, and were known as the "twenty-four proprietors." The celebrated Robert Barcbiy was appointed governor for life. In 1688, the whole province was placed umlor the jurisdiction of Andros, who had already become royal governor over New THE UNITED STATES.— PENNSYLVANIA. Ill England and New York. From this time, up to the year 1702, the country re- mained in an unsettled condition ; the people surrendered their powers of gov- ernment to the crown, making New Jersey a royal province, and uniting it to New York. From this period, up to 1738, the province remained under the jurisdiction of New York, but had a distinct legislative assembly, and a sepa- rate government was instituted, which continued in force until the American Revolution. The state constitution was formed in 1776, and the constitution of the United States adopted in 1787. Motto of the seal, "Liberty and Indepen- dence." Governors under the Constitution. Isaac H. Willinmson 1817 William Liviiwston 1776 Ppter D. Vrnom, jr 1829 1832 Governors under the King. Lewis Morris 1738 John Hamilton, President 1746 John Rt^adinjr, President 1746 Jonathan Belcher 1747 John Reading, President 1757 Francis Bernard 1758 Thomas Boone 1760 Josiah Hardy 1761 Wm. Temple Franklin 1763 William Paterson 1791 Elias P. Se.lpy. Richard How.ll 1794 Peter D. Vroomjr 1833 Joseph Bloomfield 1801 Philemon Dickerson 1836 John Lambert, Acting Gov 1802 William 8. Pennington 1837 Joseph Bloomtield 1803 Daniel Haines 1844 Aaron O^dpn 1812 Charles C Stratton 1845 William S. Pennington 1813 Daniel Haines 1848 Mahlon Dickerson 1815 George F. Fort 1851 PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania, so called in honor of the father of its illustrious founder, lies between 74° 44' and 80° .34' west longitude from Greenwich, and 39° 43' and 42° 17' north latitude, and is bounded north by Lake Erie and New York ; east by New York and New Jersey, from which it is separated by Delaware river; south by Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia; and west by Virginia and Ohio. Its superficial area is 46,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The surfaoe of this state is greatly diversified by mountains, hills, and dales. It contains but few large tracts of level land, and these generally occur along the borders of streams. With one or two partial exceptions, it is composed of two great plains, declining from the dividing ridge of its waters. The eastern declivity, drained by the Delaware and Susquehannah, and their tributaries, gradually descends to the level of the tide ; the western, in like manner, drains the numerous confluents of the Ohio. The southeastern counties may be regarded as undulating, rather than hilly, and are under a high state of cultivation, particularly along the Sus- quehannah. Most of the central part of the state is mountainous, often inter- spersed with high and sterile ridges, occurring in close succession, interlocking each other, and enclosing long and pointed valleys between. It is within this region, too, that the fertile valley of Wyoming occurs, surrounded by a lofty chain, known at different points by as many local names. Most of the country west of the AUeganies is hilly, with numerous irregular and abrupt elevations, not disposed in regular chains. In this part of the state, particularly along the streams, the soil is highly fertile ; and between Allegany river and Lake Erie, as well as on the western border, the soil is good. Mountains. — The structure and position of the mountains in this state have given it an aspect peculiar to itself, and constitute its most prominent features. South mountain extends from New Jersey, interrupted by the Delaware, below Easton, in a southwesterly direction across the state to Adams county, on the borders of Maryland. Next to this, the Blue mountain, or Kittatinny range, extends from the western part of New Jersey, also interrupted by the Delaware, THE UNITED STATES.— PENNSYLVAjSTIA. 113 to Pamell's Knob, near the south border of this state. Next come Second, Sharp, and Broad mountains, the latter of which is an irregular elevation, with a broad and barren table-land at its top. Between the Kittatinny and Alleg,any ranges is what is called the Appalachian chain, which consists of eleA'ated and nearly parallel ridges, in some instances twenty miles apart, and frequently divi- ded by subordinate ridges. The great Allegany ridge extends nearly across the state, presenting on its southeasterly side an abrupt ascent, but a gentle descent on the northwesterly slope, consisting of an elevated and undulating table-land. Westward of this range are Laurel ridge, and Chestnut ridge, run- ning parallel therewith. Rivers and Lake. — The principal rivers are the Delaware, Schuylkill, Le- high, Susquehannah, Juniata, Genesee, Allegany, Monongahela, Ohio, Clarion, and Youhioghany. Lake Erie bounds this state on the northwest. Islands. — Tinicuni island, in the Delaware, and Presque isle, on the south side of Lake Erie, are those most worthy of note. Cllmate. — The climate, though generally healthy and temperate, is fluctua- ting and varied. The extremes of temperature are from 20° below zero to 98° Fahrenheit above. On both inclined plains, it is a rare occurrence that the rivers in winter are not more or less frozen, and rendered unnavigable. Rece- ding to the more elevated tracts and high mountain valleys, summer is visited by occasional frosts, which, in some situations, appear in every month of the year. In all of the higher regions, abiding snows usually appear in December, and remain until March. Spring and autumn are usually delightful seasons in all parts of the state. Cities and Chief Towns. — Harrisburg is the seat of government. Phila- delphia* and Pittsburg are cities. The other populous towns are, Allegany, * Philadelphia, the first city of Pennsylvania, in population, wealth, and manufactures, and the second in the United t>tates, is situated on a peninsula formed by the conflupiice of Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. The city was laid out with beautiful regularity in 1683, by its illustrious founder, William Penn, who gave it its name, signifying "brotherly love." Many of the noble trees which grew on the site are now commemorated by the names of the streets running east and west, as Chestnut, Walnut, Pine, &c., while those crossing them are designated by numerals. The ground on which Philadelphia is built is even, rising gently from each river, along which it extends for several miles. On the Delaware the scenery is monotonous ; but the water being deeper than that of the other river, the commerce and business of the city tends to this side ; while the SchuyC kill ittfords pleasing landscapes, and agreeable places of residc^nce. Many of the smaller vessels, sloops, and boats, here congregate, laden with coal and other products of the valley of the Schuylkill. This part of the city is now rapidly increasing in wealth and business. No ft^ature of Philadelphia is more striking than the rpgularity and cleanness of its streets. Tlie latter peculiarity is chiefly o^ving to the convenient grade, which allows the water to descend and find its way, through sewers and other channels, into the Delaware. The houses, also, are more remarkable for neatness and solidity, than for splendor and show. They are mostly of brick, adorned with steps and bast^ments of white marble, wliich the neighboring quarries furnish in abundance, and of fine quality. Of this material a number of the public buildings are constnicted, among which are the United States Marine hospital, the Pennsylvania bank, the Girard bank, the building formerly occupied by the United States Bank, and Girard College, which deserves more than a passing mention. A bequest of $0,000,000, vrith grounds beautifully situated, on an elevation near the city, was made, in 1831, by Stephen Girard, an eccentric, though wealthy citizen of Philadelphia, for the purpose of founding a colleee for orphans. With part of these funds has been erected one of the most magnificent structures in the United States. The college consists of five build- ings. The main edifice in the centre is devoted to the education of pupils and students of Tarions ages and ac- quirements ; the other four, two on each side, are residences for the instructors and studcnta. The whole is of nchly-wrought white marble. The central structure is 218 feet long, and 160 feet wide, surrounded by 31 Co- rinthian columns, 55 feet high, and 6 feet in diameter. The interior is in a corresponding style of splendor. The four other buildings are each 125 feet Ions, and 52 feet wide. Another building in Philadelphia, of less magnificence, probably excites greater interest. This is the old Statehouse, or Independence Hall, whi-re the declaration of American independence was decreed and signed by the first continental Congress. The bf 11 which announced to the anxious people the adoption of this great instrument !«_ carefully preser»'ed in thi' cupola. It bears the prophetic inscription, " Proclaim liberty throuffh- out the land iinto all the inhabitants thereof." These words were imprinted on the bell long before the use which was afterward made of it could have been known. In this building are, a statue of Washington, in wood, and many othi-r relics of the Revolution. Philiiilelphia contains a large number of important public buildings and institution/?. Among them are, the Penn.-ylvHuia hosjiital, which owes its origin to Doctors Franklin and Bond : the Insane asylum, outsid(! of the city ; the almshouse, fronting Schuylkill river on its west side ; institutions for the deaf and dumb, and for the blind, and several other charitable establishments. Beside these, there are the American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743, by the exertions of Doctor Franklin, and possessing a large and valuable library an6 John Blackwell. Deputy Gov.. 1688 Sir William Keith, Dep. Gov... 1717 James Hamilton 1759 Benjamin Fletcher, Governor.. 1693 Patrick Gordon, Deputy Gov.. .1726 John Penn 1763 William Markham, Governor.. 1693 James Logan, President 1736 James Hamilton, President 1771 William Penn, Governor 1699 George Thomas, Dep. Governorl 738 Richard Penn 1771 Andrew Hamilton, Dep. Gov. .1701 Anthony Palmer, Pre.siJent 1747 John Penn, Governor 1773 Edward Shippen, President. . . .1703 James Hamilton, Deputy Gov, . 1748 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE FIRST CONSTITUTION. Thomas Wliarton 1777 William Moore 1781 Benjamin Franklin 1785 Joseph Reed 1778 John Dickinson 1782 Thomas Mifflin 1788 GOVERNORS UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION. Thomas Mifflin 1790 J. Andrew Shulze 1823 David R. Porter 1K» Thomas M'Kean 1799 Georsje Wolf. 1829 Francis R. Shunk 1844 Simon Snyder 1808 Joseph Ritner 1835 William F. Johnson 1849 William Findlay 1817 George Wolf. 1836 William Bigler 11:52 Joseph Hiester 1820 Joseph Ritner 1837 THE UNITED STATES.— DELAWARE. 119 DELAWARE.* Delaware, the smallest state in the Union, in re- spect to population, and, next to Rhode Island, in ter- ritory also, lies between 38° 2T and 39° 50^ north latitude, and 75^ and 75^ 40' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Pennsylvania; east by Delaware river and bay ; and south and west by Maryland. Its length from north to south is 90 miles, its greatest breadth 32 miles, and its superficial area 2,120 miles. Physical Aspect. — The general aspect of this state is that of an extended plain, or several inclined plains, favorable for cultivation. Some of the upper portions of the county of Newcastle, however, are irregular ami broken ; the heights of Christiana are lofty and commanding ; and the hills of Brandywine are rough and stony ; but in the region toward Delaware river and bay there is very little diversity of surface. On the table-land, forming the dividing ridge between the Delaware and Chesapeake, is a chain of swamps, which give rise to various streams, that descend the slopes to either bay. Along the Delaware river, and some ten miles into the interior, the soil gene- rally consists of a rich clay, well-adapted to the purposes of agriculture ; but between this tract and the swamps the soil is sandy and light, and of inferior quality. In the county of Newcastle the soil is a strong clay ; in Kent it is mixed with sand ; and in Sussex the sand greatly predominates. Rivers and Bays. — The principal streams, besides the Delaware river, which forms a part of the eastern boundary, are Brandywine, Jones, Christiana, Duck, and Mispillion creeks, and Choptank, Marshy Hope, and Nanticoke rivers. Indian river enters the Atlantic by a broad estuary, and Delaware bay washes the state on the east. Climate. — The climate is generally mild and healthy ; but the two extremes, differ in temperature more than might be expected in so little extent of latitude,. ■ and in so small a difference in relative height. The winters in the northern part are somewhat cold, but never severe. The summers are hot in those sit- uations not tempered by the breezes from the bays. Chief Towns. — Dover is the seat of government. The other populous towns are, Delaware City, Georgetown, Milford, New Castle, Smyrna, and Wilming- ton. Productive Resources. — The principal staple products are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, poultry, eggs, swine, beef, pork, silk, wool, hay, butter, cheese, milk, wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, peaches, and Indian- corn. The county of Sussex exports large quantities of timber, obtained from Cypress swamps, or Indian river. Delaware contains but few minerals. Among the branches of the Nanticoke there are large quantities of bog iron ore, how- ever, well-adapted for castings. Before the Revolution it was worked to some extent, but since that period the business has declined. Manufactures. — The manufactures of Delaware consist chiefly of woollea and cotton goods, leather, paper, iron, gunpowder, &;c. Its flouring-mills are numerous and extensive, and its flour takes a high stand in the market. Railroads and Canals. — The only railroads within the state are, the Frenchtown, from New Castle to Frenchfown, 16 miles ; the Philadelphia and Wilmington, and the Wilmington and Baltimore, which form part of the great *So called, from tho bay on which it life, and which received its name from Lord Delaware (or de la War),, governor of Virginia, who died upon ita waters. 20 tonii'tutle East from TVasfiintrran THE UNITED STATES.— DELAWARE. 121 line of travel from the northern to the southern Atlantic states. The Chesa- peake and Dehiware sloop canal, 14 miles long, is the only canal in the state. It extends from Delaware city to Back creek, and unites the waters of the two great bays from which it takes its name. Commerce. — The foreign commerce of Delaware is very small. The amount of shipping owned in the state is about 17,000 tons, 15,000 of which is engaged in the coasting-trade. Education. — There is but one college in Delaware, which is located at Newark, and was founded in 1833. There are about 30 academies, and 250 common schools in the state. Population.— In 1790, 59,094 ; in 1800, 64,273 ; in 1810, 72,974 ; in 1820, 72,749; in 1830, 76,739; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows :— 1840 Newcastle 33.120 Kent 19,872 Sussex 25,093 Total 78.085 18.50 do 42.784 do 22.816 do 2.5,93.5 do 91,535 Numbpr of slaves in 1790, 8,887 ; in 1800, 6,153 ; in 1810, 4,177 ; in 1820, 4,509 ; in 1830, 3,292 ; in 1840, 2,605 ; in 1850, 2,289. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, of nine mem- bers, three from each county, chosen for four years, and a house of representa- tives, of twenty-one members, seven from each county, chosen for two years. The executive power is vested in a governor, chosen for four years, and ineli- gible ever after. General election, biennially, second Tuesday in November. The judicial power is vested in a court of errors, superior court, court of chan- cery, orphan's court, oyer and terminer, general sessions, register's court, and such other courts as may be established by law. The right of suffrage is granted to every white male citizen, twenty-two years of age, after one year's residence in the state, and one month in the county where he votes, and having within two years paid a tax ; also to those persons, qualified as aforesaid, twen- ty-one years of age, without payment of tax. History. — Lord Delaware, governor of Virginia, first entered the bay known by his name in 1610. The Dutch from the New Netherlands (New York) soon afterward visited it, and claimed jurisdiction. The first permanent settle- ment upon the Delaware was made by a colony of Swedes, in 1627, under the auspices of the Swedish West India Company. The Dutch asserted their claim by an appeal to arms, and, with a competent force, took possession of the country, in 1655, and attached it to the New Netherlands. When the latter came into the possession of the duke of York, in 1681, William Penn, as stated in the history of Pennsylvania, purchased what is now the state of Delaware, and annexed it to Pennsylvania. Delaware had a legislature separate from that of Pennsylvania, but after 1703 one jjovernor ruled both. It remained in this subordinate condition until 1776, when the inhabitants declared it a free and independent state, and organized a government under it. It was the first to ratify the constitution, which it did on the 7th of December, 1787. Its state constitution was adopted in 1792, and revised and amended in 1831. Motto of the state seal, " Liberty and Independence." Governors of New Sweden. Peter Jlinuits 1637 John MKinloy 1777 Cffisar Rodney 1778 Joshua Clayton 1793 Gunnino^ Bedford 1796 Daniel Rogers 1797 Richard Biissctt 1798 Janinp Svkes 1801 David Hall 1802 Nathaniel Mitchell . . . 1805 GOVERNORS AND PRESIDENTS OF DELAWARE. Peter Hollaendare 1640 John Papecoia 1652 JohnPrintz 1642 John C. Rising 1654 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE FIRST CONSTITUTION. John Dickinson 1782 Nicholas Vnnyi czi ZIZ3 era, ,^g^j idz: izzalcziD nn en tt3 en czn I _^, ^ CC]|CC]CDCDCD[ , |:0QJ:Z]IIIl[III]CZl3'l||b- tsfe^'?ot,|i2>bcl>at.ft!D?«bsk.gi.-b!D.feSi!s Wm2 am nr DCDC S^^CDh '?,r DI CD CD] [CD CZD LJ I ^^1 - & e. y ? s THE UNITED STATES.— MARYLAND. 125 liridge, Chestertown, Cumberland, Centreville, Denton, Elkton, Easton, Fred- erick, Hagerstown, Leonardtown, Port Tobacco, Prince Frederick, Princess Anne, Rockville, Snowhill, and Upper Marlborough. Productive Resources. — The chief products are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, butter, cheese, wine, sugar, wax, hops, tobacco, wool, cotton, silk, hemp, flax, hay, wheat, rye,^oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, and Indian corn. Among the mineral resources are, bog iron ore, bituminous coal, ])orcelain and other clays, red and yellow ochre, chrome ores, alum earth, and copperas. Manufactures. — In manufactures, Maryland occupies a respectable posi- tion. Numerous woollen and cotton mills, copper and iron-rolling mills, are established near Baltimore, and also scattered over other parts of the .'state. Silk, flax, and mixed goods, are also manufactured to a considerable extent. Tanneries are numerous, and ship-building is carried on extensively. The flour of Maryland is considered second to none in the market. The capital in- vested in manufactures is about $12,000,000. Railroads and Canals. — The great chain of southern railroads traverses this state. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad, extending from Baltimore to Wheeling, 178 miles, is a magnificent work. Other lines intersect the stale in difl^erent directions. The Chesapeake and Ohio canal, from Georgetown, D. C, to Cumberland, 184 miles long, lies mostly in this state. It is intended to continue it to Pittsburgh, Pa., 340 miles. Commerce. — The imports and exports of Maryland are about $14,000,000 annually. The shipping owned within the state is about 2,000,000 tons, about one half of which is engaged in the coasting trade. Education. — There are several colleges in Maryland. Washington college, at Chestertown, founded in 1783, is the oldest; St. John's college, at Annapo- lis, founded in 1784, is next. Beside these are, the University of Marvland, and the St. Mary's, both of Baltimore; Mount St. Mary's, at Emmitsburg, and St. James's, near Hagerstown. There are two medical schools at Baltimore. There are besides, in the state, about 200 academies and grammar-schools, and 800 common schools. PopuLATIO^f.— In 1790, 319,728; in 1800, 341,548: in 18^0, 380,546; in 1820, 407,350; in 1830, 447,040 ; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows :— Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 18.50. 1840 AllPtfliaiiy 2-2,769 13,fi90 Charles 16,lfi2 16.023 Somom-t 22.4.56 i'.K.i f^ Anne Anindnl 32,393 29,532 Dorchester 18,877 18,843 St. Mary's 13698 ]3,'>34 Baltimore City 169,054 102,313 Frederick 40,987 30,405 Talbot 13,811 126!)0 Biiltiniore County... 41,592 32,066 Harford 19,.3.5fi 17,120 Washington 30 848 28 8.".0 Calvert 9,646 9,229 Kent 11.386 10,842 Worcester 18,859 18.3';7 Caroline 9,692 7,806 Montgomery 15,860 14,669 Carroll 20fil6newco. Prince George's 21,.550 19..539 Total 583,035 469232 Cedl 18,939 17,232 Queen Anne's 14,484 12,633 Number of slaves in 1 790. 103,036 ; in 1800, 105,635 ; in 1810, 111,503 ; in 1820, 107, 398 ; in 1830, 102,394 : in 1840, 89,737 ; 1850, 90,308. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, and a house of delegates. The senators are elected by the people for a term of four years, one half of them being chosen biennially. One senator is chosen from each county, and one from the city of Baltimore ; making the present number of sen- Btaircnse, within the column, the visiter beholds a wide pro.spect of thrt city, and its varied environs. Battle monument, also of white marble, ia ,52 feet high, and was erected in memory of the patriots wlio fell in defence of this city against the British, in 1814. Many of the churches are remarkable for architectural beauty. The courthouse, state penitentiary, customhouse, St. Mary's college, and the halls of numerous literary and scientific institutions, are among the other important public buildings. The exchanec is 225 feet wide, 141 feet deep, and 115 feet to the top of the dome. Colonnades of the Ionic order, made of Italian marble, extend across its eaat and west fronts. Water is supplied in abundance from fountains in the city, and from Jones's foil, in the vicinity, by an aque- duct and pipes. In manufactures, as in commerce, Baltimore ranks with the great cities of America. Jones's fall (a small creek dividing the city, and spanned by several beautiful bridges) and tlic Patapsco afford numerous excellent Beats for mills and manufactories of various kinds. The population of the city in 1775 wa.s 5,936 ; in 1790, 13,503- in 1800, 26,614 ; in 1810, 46,555 : in 1820, 62,738 ; in 1830, 80,625 ; in 1840, 134,379 ; in 1850, 169,012. 126 THE UNITED STATES.— MARYLAND. ators twenty-two. The members of the house of delegates are elected by the people once in two years, and until the apportionment to be made under the census of 1860, are seventy-two in number. The executive power is vested in a governor, who is chosen by the people, for a term of four years. The state is divided into three districts, and the governor is taken from each of the three districts alternately. The judicial power is vested in a court of appeals, in circuit courts, courts for the city of Baltimore, and in justices of the peace ; all elected by the people. The judges of the court of appeals, four in number, and the circuit judges, eight in number, are chosen for ten years. The general election is held on the first Wednesday of November, biennially. The consti- tution conveys the right of suffrage on every free white male citizen, of twenty- one years of age, having resided one year in the state, and six months in the county in which he offers to vote. Imprisonment for debt, and lotteries, are now prohibited. History. — In 1632, Charles I. granted to Sir George Calvert (Lord Balti- more) the whole territory extending from the Potomac to the fortieth degree of north latitude, comprising not only all the present states of Maryland and Dela- ware, but a part of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Though involved in a con- troversy for many years, respecting their common boundaries, Maryland and Pennsylvania did not fix upon their existing limits before the year 1762, when they w^ere determined by actual survey by two eminent English engineers, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, and hence the present boundary between these two states is called " Mason and Dixon's line." The first permanent settle- ment within the limits of Maryland was made on the island of Kent, by William Claiborne, in 1632. A few months later, the grant was made to Lord Balti- more, and his brother, Leonard Calvert, proceeded to the Potomac, in 1634, with one hundred emigrants, mostly catholics, and formed a settlement at St. Mary's, where the first legislative assembly convened, in 1635. In 1774, a provincial Congress took the government into its own hands. It joined the confederacy in 1776, and adopted the federal constitution in 1788. In 1790, that portion of the state now constituting the district of Columbia, was ceded to the general government. Maryland formed her constitution in 1776, which was subjected to numerous amendments till 1851, when a new one was framed by a state convention, and adopted by the people. The motto of the seal is, " Industry the means, and plenty the result." GOVERNORS UNDER THE PROPRIETABV AND EOYAI, GOVERNMENT. Leonard Calvert 1637 Thomas Green 1647 William Stone 1649 Parliament Commissioners 1654 Josiah Fendall 1658 Philip Calvert 1660 Charles Calvert 1662 Lord Baltimore, Proprietor 1675 ITiomas Notley 1678 Thomas Johnson 1777 Thomas Sim Lee 1779 William Pace 1782 WilUara Smallwood 1785 John Eap;er Howard 1788 George Pinter 1792 Thomas Sim Lee 1792 John Haskins Stone 1794 John H<^nry 1797 Benjamin Os;le 1798 John Francis Mercer 1801 Lord Baltimore 1681 Lionel Copley 1692 Francis Nirholson 1694 In the hands of the Crown 1697 Nathaniel Blackstone 1 699 Thomas Tench, President 1703 John Seymour 1704 Edward Lloyd 1704 John Hart 1714 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. Robert Bowie 1803 Robert Wright 1805 Edward Lloyd 1809 Robert Bowie 1811 Levin Winder 1812 C. Ridgelsy, of Hampton 1815 C. W. Gnldsborough 1818 Samuel Sprii;!,' 1819 Samuel Stevens 1822 Joseph Kent 1826 Daniel Martin 1829 Charles Calvert 1720 Benedict Calvei-t 1727 Lord Baltimore 1733 Samuel Offle 1737 Thomas Bladen 1742 Samuel Ogle 1747 Benjamin Tasker, President. ..1751 Horatio Sharpe 1753 Robert Eden 1769 T. K. Caroll 18.30 Daniel Martin 18."il George Howard 1831 James Thomas 1833 Thomas W. Veazey 18:16 William Grason 1839 Francis Thomas 1842 Thomas G. Pratt 1845 Philip F. Thomas 1848 Enoch L. Lowe 1851 THE UNITED STATES.— DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 127 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The District of Columbia was ceded to the United States by Maryland and Virginia, in 1790, and became the seat of the national government in 1 800. It was originally ten miles square, lying on both sides of the Potomac, thirty-six square miles having been taken from Virginia, which constituted the city and county of Alexandria; and sixty- foursquare miles from Maryland, embracing the county of Wash- ington. By an act of Congress, in 1846, which was subsequent- ly accepted by the people of Alexandria, that county was re- troceded to the state of Virginia, and the District of Columbia is now restricted to the Maryland side of the Potomac. This district was the theatre of disgraceful scenes, in our last war with England, in 1814. In Au- gust of that year Washington was left in a defenceless condition, when invaded by the British, and was deserted by the president, the heads of the departments, and by most of the citizens. The enemy entered the city, burned the capitol, including the library of Congress, the mansion of the president, the navy-yard, with its contents, and most of the public offices, except the patent-office. The whole world regarded this act as a violation of the rules of modern warfare. The surface of this territory is gently undulating, with some low marshes, but there are several eminences which afford fine seats for the cities within its limits. The soil, with little exception, is sterile in its natural state, but has of late been rendered productive by superior cultivation. The climate is similar to that of the contiguous states. The population in 1800 was 14,093; in 1810, 24,023; in 1820, 33,039; in 1830, 39,834; in 1840, 43,712; in 1850, 51,687. Number of slaves in 1800, 3,244; in 1810, 5,395; in 1820,6,377; in 1830, 6,119; in 1840, 4,694; in 1850, 3,687. The civil government of this district is under the immediate authority of the United States, and the municipal power is exercised by a mayor and corporation. It has never been represented in Congress. . Washington City is pleasantly situated on the east bank of the Potomac .river, in latitude 38° 53' 34" north, and longitude 77° V 30" west from Green- wich. It is 295 miles from the ocean, following the course of the river, 225 miles southwest of New York, and 1,203 miles northeast of New Orleans. Note. — The p-eat seal of the United States (a front view of which is giren on paffc 57) was adopted by Con- gresa June 20, 1782 ; its device is thus deacrilK^d in the act : — " Ar.ms : ralcwiiys of thirteen pieces, argent and gules ; a chief azure ; the escutcheon on the breast of the American eajfle displayed, proper, liolding in his dexter talon an Olive-branch, and in his sinister a bundle of thirteen arrows, all proper, and in his beak a scroll inscribed with this motto, ' E pluribus unum' [Many in one]. For the Crest : Over the head of the eagle, which appears above the escutcheon, a glory, or, breaking through a cloud, proper, and surrounding thirteen stars forming a con.stellation, argent, on an azure field." This seal has a reverse side, of which the followinpr is the description : — " Reverse : A pyramid unfinished. (Representing the American confederacy as still incomplete, — the structure to be carried upward as new states are admitted Into the Union.) In the zenith an eye in a triangle (representing the All-seeing Eye), surrounded by a glory proper. Over the eye these words, ' Annuit cwptis' [God has favored the undertjiking). On the base of-the pyramid the numerical letters mdcclxxvi., and underneath the following motto, ' Novus ordo seclo. rum' " (A new series of ages ; — denoting that a new order of things has commenced m this western world). □'jQXiann[73Rnc:2!]^i:^^;^^o n^lJiiJ*alj ^croiciiaaczDa □□en DQOi[XWZ]H 3S m I irsiHuii I t^iisnnBDDi c3Cga_ eDCSDmcii :ai ^^JIUMin ^ a □ □ □ Dio, [^ □ CD ir-ir//i^M^^ > ini — n"' 1 S-r^ I -"i;— 1\ — i't'-^ — i i-t^ f ii — i r— ._^a[i][iD^d£iDnadapi L^Z] n m El D C^ W^lZ] D [Z] □ □!□ Ca [1=1 CD > J^iOCqiJUJiJ □ U.C3 □ [□ □ □;□'□ CZ3 E7/ o ~"1i|D07ZlSnDH[!igDDD/ i — eaB,.nc7aapnEiini3aao[i7U^>»(ty^^bt. ^' — ii\T,[3:^z!^sa[iacLC |?f ^§'|§?| 1 ,— « r-iSr? / 1 1— rrnnTTi rT7r-iAvT»-f 1 r 1 r — 1 1 1 i — . /.t?aS3(2«JS23 ^•3 a Vi^i7zz: cnu'Sii m:§Jtz] czi □ □ [7/ ??^g; [ * Qaaaa'll I fill fllirlll I Dssan □ DEaOlCZ] □ □aaojcD pfr-inr-irarai <« S(% 55;ft Wft 5 &j 2l a 3 . (as s as ;: THE UNITED STATES.— DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 129 The city is built on a point of land formed by the confluence of the Potomnc and the Anacosta rivers, which afford a good harbor for vessels of the largest class. Commerce, however, flows naturally toward Baltimore, leaving to Wash- ington, perhaps, a less rapid growth, but more quiet. A more beautiful site for a city could hardly be obtained. It was selected by Washington as the fittest locality for the seat of the national government, and the city was laid out under his direction. It is said his attention was called to the advantages of this location as long previous as when he had been a youthful surveyor of the country around. Pleasant slopes, decked with elegant mansions, surrounded by hills and varied scenery, and the general aspect and airiness of the town, conduce to render Washington an agreeable place of residence. The city is planned out on a grand scale ; and if ever built up as originally designed, would be one of the finest cities in the world. By this plan seven spacious avenues were laid out, to diverge from the Capitol as a centre, and five avenues form rays from the President's House, the latter building and the Capitol being each situated on beautiful eminences, about one mile and a half apart, and connected by Penn- sylvania avenue, now the principal street in the city. The avenues are named after different states, and are crossed diagonally by streets running east and west, named after the letters of the alphabet, and others running north and south, which are named after numbers. The avenues and streets leading to public places, are from 120 to 160 feet wide, and the other streets are from 70 to 1 10 feet wide. Only a comparatively small part of its extensive site is yet covered by buildings, which, in connection with its spacious avenues, has given it the designation of the " city of magnificent distances." A bridge a mile long spans the Potomac, another the Anacosta (sometimes termed the eastern branch of the Potomac), and two others over Rock creek, connect Washington with Georgetown. On the Anacosta is a navy-yard, occupying an area of 27 acres. THE CAPITOL, ENLARGED. The Capitol is justly regarded as one of the finest national buildings in the world. It stands on a gentle eminence, in the midst of a beautiful space of 23 acres, highly ornamented with trees, shrubbery, &c. The dome, which is 120 feet high from the ground, is the first object which strikes the eye at a distance. The edifice is of white freestone, and, as originally built, consisted of a central 9 130 THE UNITED STATES.— DISTRICT OV COLmiBTA. ^ V l-^^r'* \> HALL OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. THE SENATE CHAMBER, WASHINGTON. THE UNITED RTATEvS.— DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 131 part and two wings. The width of the whole building was 352 feet, and dcptli of the wings 121 feet, and occupied an area of one and a half acres. But, in the addition of new states to the Union, with the consequent increase of con- gressional representation, the Capitol, on its- original plan, has finally become too limited, and an enlargement was commenced in 1851, and is being rapidly l^ressed to completion. The above engraving is designed to represent this edi- fice, as it will appear when the additions shall have been finished. These additions will consist of two wings at the ends of the building, with which they will be connected by corridors, or piazzas, 44 feet long, and 50 feet wide. The wings will each be 143 feet by 238, exclusive of porticoes and steps ; and the entire length of the building, when completed, will be 751 feet, and the area it covers 153,112 square feet, or over 3^ acres. Beneath the dome is the rotunda, a spacious apartment, 75 feet high, and 95 feet in diameter. On its walls the magnificent national paintings of Trumbull, Chapman, Weir, and Vanderlyn, are hung. The room is al.r, a portion of the letters G. W. miiy yet be seen, carved in the rock. When Washington was a young man, he climbed up thitlier, to leave the record of his name. Another natural curiosity is '• Weyer's cave," in Auiiu-'ta county, which extends a mile, presenting a series of spacious apartments, encrusted with beautiful crystals and stalactites. 136 THE UNITED STATES.— VIRGINIA- tatoes, and Indian corn. Of the fossil and mineral resources, gold, copper, iron, lead, coal, marble, limestone, and salt, are the most important. But the most valuable are iron, coal, and salt. The belt of country in which gold is found is in the county of Spottsylvania, and the regions adjacent. — The coal fields are very extensive, anthracite being found on the easterly side of the Alleganies, and bituminous on the western. Salt springs occur on the banks of the Great Kanawha, where salt is manufactured in great abundance. Manufactures. — Iron ranks first among the manufactures of Virginia, em- bracing machinery, firearms, hardware, cutlery, &c. Cotton and woollen man- ufactures rank next, in which about $2,500,000 is invested. In the manufacture of tobacco, about $2,000,000 is invested. Railroads and Canals. — There are about 700 miles of railroad in operation in Viro^iiiia, and more in process of construction. The most important canats in the state are, the James River and the Kanawha canal, reaching from Rich- mond to Lynchburg, 146 miles, and the Dismal Swamp canal, 23 miles. Commerce. — The foreign exports and imports of Virginia amount to about $5,000,000 annually. The domestic exports and imports amount to about $25,- 000,000 annually. The principal articles of domestic export are tobacco and flour. The shipping owned in the state is about 60,000 tons. Population.— In 1790, 748,308; in 1800, 880,200; in 1810, 974,642; in 1820,1,065,379; in 1830, 1,211,405; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as fol- lows : — eastern virginia. Counties. 1850. 1840. Accomac 17,890 17,096 Albemarle 25,800 22,924 Appomatox 9,193newco. Amherst 12,699 12,576 Amelia 9,770 10,320 Alexandria 10,008 new co. Bmiis wick 13,894 14,346 Bedford 24,080 20,203 Buckingham 13,837 18,786 Culpeper 12,282 11,393 Cumberland 9,751 10,399 Charlotte 13,055 11,595 Caroline 18,456 17,813 Chesterfield 17,489 17,148 Charles City 5,200 4,774 Campbell 23,245 21,030 Dinwiddle 25,118 22,558 Essex 10,206 11,309 Elizabeth City 4,.'i86 3,706 Fauquier 20,868 21,877 Franklin 17,430 15,832 Fairfax 10,682 9,370 Fluvanna 9,487 8,812 Greene 4,400 4,232 Greenville 5,639 6,366 Goochland 10,352 9,760 Gloucester 10,527 10,715 Henrico 43,572 33,076 Hanover 15,153 14,968 Halifax 25,962 25,936 Henry 8,872 7,3.35 James City 4,020 3,679 Isle of Wight 9,353 9,972 King and Queen 10,319 ig,862 King George 5,971 5,927 King William 8,779 9,258 Louisa 16,691 15,433 Lunenlmrs 11,692 11,055 Lancaster,'" 4,708 4,628 Loudoun 22,079 20,431 Madison 9,331 8,107 Meckl iiburg 20,630 20,724 Matthews 6,714 7,442 MiJaii^scx 4,394 4.392 Northumberland 7,346 7,924 Nansi'mond 12,283 10,795 Northampton 7,498 7,715 Counties. 1850. New Kent 6,064 Nottoway 8,437 Nelson 12,758 Norfolk 33,036 Oranse 10,007 PatriSk 9,609 Pittsylvania 28,796 Powhattan 8,178 Prince Edward 11,857 Prince George 7,596 Prince William 8,129 Princess Ann 7,669 Rappahannock 9,752 Richmond 6,448 Spottsylvania 14,911 Southampton 13,521 Staflford 8,044 Surry 5.679 Sussex 9,820 Warwick 1,546 Westmoreland 8,080 York 4,460 1840. 6,230 9.719 12,287 27,569 9,125 8.032 26,398 7,924 14,069 7,175 8,144 7,285 9,257 5,969 15,161 14,525 8,454 6,480 11,229 1,4.56 8,019 4,720 Counties 18.50. 1840. Hardy 9,543 7,622 Harrison 4... 11,728 17,669 Highland... 4,227 new co. Jackson 6,544 4,890 Jefferson 15.357 14,,082 Kanawha 15.353 13,567 Lee 10,267 8,441 Lewis 10,031 8.151 Loffan 3,620 4.309 Marion . . 10.5.52 new co Total E. Virginia. 856,698 806,942 WESTERN VIRGINIA. Alleghany 3,515 2,749 Augusta 24,610 19,628 Barbour 9,005 new co. Bath 3,426 4,300 Berkeley 11,771 10,972 Brooke 5,054 7.948 Braxton 4,212 2,575 Boone 3,237 ne w co. Botetourt 14.908 11,679 Cabell 6,299 8,163 Carroll 5.909 new co. Clarke 7,352 7,353 Doddridge 2,750 new co. Fayette 3,9,55 3.924 Floyd 6,4.58 4,453 Frederick 15,975 14,242 Giles 6,.570 5,307 Gilmer 3,475 new co. Grayson 6,677 9,087 Greenbrier 10,022 8,695 Hampshire 14,036 12,295 Hancock 4,050 new co. Marshall 10,138 6,937 Mason 7,5.39 6,777 Mercer 4,222 2.233 Mononaalia 12,387 17.368 Monroe 10.304 8,422 Montsomery 8,359 7,405 Morgan 3,557 4 253 Nicholas 3,963 2,515 Ohio 18.006 13.3.57 Page 7,600 6,194 Pendleton 5,795 6.940 Pocahontas 3,598 2,922 Preston 11.708 6.866 Pulaski 5,118 3,739 Putnam 5,335 new co, Riileigh 1,765 new co. Randolph 5,245 6,208 Ritchie 3,902 new co. Roanoke 8,477 5,499 Rockbridse 16,045 14.284 Rockinsham 20,294 17,344 Russell". 11,919 7.878 Scott 9,829 7.303 Shenandoah 13,768 11,618 Smyth 8.162 6,522 Taylor 5,367 new co. Tazewell 9,942 6.290 Tyler .5.498 6.954 AVanen 6,607 5,627 Washimrton 14^612 13,001 Wayne ." 4,760 new co. Wetzel 4,284 new co. Wirt 3.353newco. Wood 9,450 7,923 Wyoming 1,645 new co. Wythe 12,024 9,375 Total W. Virginia. 564.963 432,8.55 Total population of Virginia : In 18.50, 1,421,661; in 1840, 1,2.39,797. Number of slaves in 1790, 203,427 ; in 1800, 345,796 ; in 1810, 392, 518 ; in 1820, 425,153 ; in 1830, 469,757 ; in 1840, 448,987 ; in 1&50, 472,528. THE UNITED STATES.— VIRGINIA. ] 37 Educatiox. — The principal literary institutions of Virginia are, William and Mary college, at Williamsburg ; Hampden Sidney college, in Prince Edward county; Washington college, at Lexington; the university, at Charlottesville ; Randolph college, at Boylestown ; Emory and Henry college, at Glade Spring; Rector college, in Taylor county; Bethany college, at Bethany; and Richmond college, at Richmond. There are, also, a military institute at Lexington ; med- ical schools at Richmond, Charlottesville (attached to the university), and Winchester ; law schools, attached to the university and William and Mary col- lege, and theological seminaries in Fairfax and Prince Edward counties, and at Richmond. There are also about 500 academies, and 2,500 common schools in the state. The permanent literary fund of Virginia is over $1,500,000. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, of 50 members, chosen for four years, one half biennially, and a house of delegates, of 152 members, chosen biennially. The executive power is vested in a governor, elected by the people, for four years, who is ineligible for the succeeding term; and a lieutenant-governor, elected for a like term. The legislature meets bien- nially, at Richmond. A secretary of state, treasurer, and auditor, are elected by the assembly. The judiciary power is vested in a supreme court of appeals, district courts, and circuit courts, all the judges of which are elected by the people. The right of suffrage is extended to every white male citizen twenty- one years of age, who has resided two years in the state, and one year in the place where he offers to vote. Votes, in all elections, are t;iuo uoce; dumb persons may vote by ballot. History. — The present state of Virginia embraces but a portion of the an- cient "Virginia," as granted to Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1584, which included all the lands he should discover between the thirty-third and fortieth degrees of north latitude, and which name became finally restricted to what now consti- tutes this state. Under this charter Raleigh planted a colony on the island of Roanoke; but, after repeated trials and disasters, the patent was vacated, and the country was again left to the quiet possession of the Indians. The first permanent settlement in America, by the English, was made at Jamestown, in 1607, by 105 adventurers. A second charter was granted to the London com- pany, in 1609, radically changing the constitution, and enlarging the territory of the colony along the coast, within the limits of 200 miles north and 200 miles south of Old Point Comfort ; that is, from the southern limits of North Carolina to the northern boundary of Maryland, and extending westward from sea to sea. But so vague were the views of the company, or the adventurers, under this patent, that discord and wretchedness compelled the settlers to break up their establishment, in 1610. The year following. Sir Thomas Gates ar- rived with 300 emigrants, and assumed ihe government of the colony, which then numbered 700 men. In 1612, a third charter was granted to the London company; but the colony remained under anarchy and tyranny until 1619, when martial law was abolished, and the first provincial assembly was convened at Jamestown. In 1621, the company granted to their colony a " written consti- tution," which, with singular liberality, ordained that a general assembly, chosen by the peo[)le, should be convened annually, its acts to be subject to the super- vision of the company in England. The acts of the company, also, were not binding, till ratified by the assembly. It established the right of trial by jury. These rights and privileges were ever after claimed by Virginia, and formed the basis of her civil freedom. In 1622. a general massacre of the English was attempted by the Indians, and 347 of them perished. The res.* were saved by the timely warning of Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, the Indian king. She was like a preserving angel to the feeble settlement. In 1624, the Lon- don company was dissolved, and the colony was again subject to the crown. In 1644, another general massacre of the whites was attempted, but without 138 THE UNITED STATES.— VIRGnflA. success, the blow having bepii fortunately averted by the skill, prudence, and courage of Captain John Smith, one of the most efficient men in the colony. During the commonwealth, under Cromwell, to the restoration of Charles II., in 1660, she was left almost entirely to her own independence. Her governors during this period were' chosen by the burgesses, who were the representatives of the people. In 1G73, Charles II. granted to Lord Culpeper, and the Earl of Arlington, " all the dominion of land and water called Virginia," for thirty- one years. Within tAvo years after this event the representative system was virtually abolished, and the liberties of the people were otherwise seriously abridged. This, together with the pressure of increasing grievances, resulted in open rebellion, followed by Indian aggressions, which continued for four years. In 1677, Culpeper, after purchasing the rights of Arlington, was ap- pointed governor over the colony for life, and Virginia became a proprietary government, which remained in force until 1684, when the grant was recalled, and Culpeper expelled from office. The remaining portion of the history of this state is marked with few incidents of importance, down to the periofl of the revolution, except those in the French and Indian war, between 1754 and 1763. In 1786, that part of Virginia now constituting the state of Ohio, was erected by act of Congress into the " Western Territory," the name of which was after- ward changed to the "Territory northwest of the river Ohio." The same year, the district of Kentucky was also set apart, by act of Congress, into a new ter- ritory, but the separation from the " Old Dominion" did not take place before 1792. The first constitution of Virginia was adopted in 1776, which was re- vised and amended in 1830, and continued in operation till October, 1851, when a new one was adopted. The constitution of the United States was ratified in 1788. Motto of the seal. Sic semper tyrannis : " So be it ever to tyrants ;" in allusion to the emblem on the seal of an Amazon, resting on a spear with one hand, and holding a sword in the other, with his foot on Tyranny, which is rep- resented by a prostrate man, with a crown fallen from his head, a broken chain in his left hand, and a scourge in his right. GOVERNORS AND PRESIDENTS UNDER THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. Ed. M. WintrfipW, Pros. Conn.. 1607 ■John Radditt^, Pros. Council. .1607 .lohn Smith, Prn.«i(]ent Council. 1608 •Georffc Percy, Pros. Council. ..1610 Xiord Dclavvaro. Gnvornor 1610 Sir Thomas Dnlo, Governor.. .1611 Sir Thomas Gates, Governor. .1611 Sir Thomas Dale, Governor . . .1614 'Georcre Yeardley, Governor.. .1616 Samuel Argnll, Governor 1 617 .Sir George Yeardley, Governorl618 Sir Francis Wyatt, Governor. .1621 Sir George Yeardley, Governorl626 'Francis West, Governor 1627 John Pott, Governor 1628 Sir John Harvey, Governor.. ..1629 John West, Governor 161)5 ■Sir John Harvey, Governor 1636 Sir Francis Wyatt, Governor.. 1639 Sir William Berkeley, Governorl641 Richard Keiiipo, Governor 1644 Sir William Berkeh-y, Governorl645 Richard Bennett, Governor. . ..16.'i2 Edward Dicrgos, Governor 165.3 Samuel Mathews, Governor. ..16.56 Sir William Berkeley, Governorl659 Francis Morrison, Governor. ..1661 Sir Willinni Berkeley, Governorl662 Herhert Jeffrevs, Li'eut. Gov... 1677 Sir Henry Chicheley. Dep. Gov . 1 678 Lord Culpepi^r, Governor 1680 Nicholas Spencer, Pros. Coun..l6e3 Lord Howard, Governor 1684 Nathani<'l Bacon, Pros. Coun ..1688 Francis Nicholson, Lieut. Gov. 1690 Sir Edmund Andros. Govcrnor.1692 Francis Nicholson, Governor.. Edward Nott, Governor.. Edmund Jennings, Governor.. Alexander Spotswond, D. Gov. Huffh Drysdale, Dep. Governor. Roliert Carter, Pros. Council.. William Gouch, Governor Thomas Lee C Presidents ) Lewis Burwell. ( of Council, 5 Rohert Dinwiddle, Governor.. Francis Fauquier, Dep. Gov John Blair, President Council.. Lord Botetoute, Governor William Nelson, Pros. Council. Lord Dunniore. Governor Prnvi.'ional OoFcrnmerit. Peyton Randolph, Pros. Conv. . Edmund Pendleton, Pre.s. Con. 1698 1705 1706 1710 1722 1726 1727 1749 17.'i2 17,58 17tT7 1768 1770 17T2 177." 1775 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. Patrick Henry 1776 'Thomas Jefterson 1779 Thomas Nelson 1781 Benjamin Harrison 1781 Patiick Henry 1784 Edmund Randolph 1786 Bevorlv Randolph 1788 Henry I.oe 1791 Rolurt Brooke.. 1794 James Wood 1796 Jam"." Monroe 1799 .John Page .1802 William H. Cabell 1805 John Tyler 1808 •Tames Slonroe 1811 George W. Smith 1811 James Barbour 1812 Wilson C. Nicholas 18)4 .Tames P. Preston 1816 Thonias M. Randolph 1819 James Pleasants 1822 John Tyler 1825 William B Giles 1826 John Tloyd 1829 Littleton W. Tazewell ISX^ W. Rohertson. Acting Gov Ift'fi David Can-.pliell .". 18."«> Thomas W. Gilmer IKIP J. Rutherford. Actinof Govenior18II •T, M. Gre-iory, Actina; Govern. 18-12 James M-Dowel! .\ 1 84 4 AVilliam Smith 18<<5 .Tohn B. Floyd 18J9 Joseph Johnson ^9'^i THE UNITED STATES.— NORTH CAROLINA. 139 NORTH CAROLINA.* North Carolina is situated between 33° 53' and 36^ 33' north latitude, and 75° 45' and 84° west loii- flitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Virginia, east and southeast by the Atlantic, south by South Carolina and Georgia, and west and north- west by Tennessee. Its superficial area is 43,800 square miles. Physical Aspect. — This state, like South Caroli- na and Georgia, presents a great diversity of surface, soil, and climate. It may be physically divided into three zones ; first, the flat sea border, including numerous small islands ; sec- ond, the sand-hill zone, spreading by an indefinite outline between the sea bor- der, and the third, a hilly and partly mountainous tract, beyond the lower falls of the rivers. The maritime section, which extends from 80 to 100 miles in- land, is nearly a dead level, varied only by deeply-indented, though shallow sounds, and occasional openings in the immense forests of pine, with which it is covered, and extensive glades, marshes, or swamps. In the northeastern part, extending into Virginia, lies the Great Dismal swamp, thirty miles long, and ten broad, thickly wooded with pine, juniper, cypress, and in the drier portions with red and white oak. Between Albemarle and Pamlico sounds is the Alligator, or Little Dismal swamp, which contains a lake. Here the soil is generally sandy and poor, though on the banks of some of the streams, particularly those of the Roanoke, it is remarkably fertile. In other instances, there are ridges of oak- land, of a dark-colored and fruitful soil. After traversing this tedious plain, we are relieved by the appearance of the sand-hills, in the middle section, which, in general, presents an indifferent soil. But the third, the hilly and mountainous section, abounds in excellent soil, pure fountain water, and salubrious air. Those portions of the state lying west of the mountains are also exuberantly fertile, and will richly reward the planter's toil. Mountains. — The Blue ridge constitutes the main range through the west- ern part of the state ; but on most maps is made to represent the outer chain of the Appalachian system, as in the contiguous states. Strictly speaking, there are two other chains, between the Blue ridge and the ocean. Black mountain, in Yancey county, is the highest land in the United States, east of the Rocky mountains, being 6,476 feet above the level of the sea. Roan mountain is 6,038 feet high, and Great Father mountain 5,556 feet. The chain in the ex- treme western part of the state, in which Roan mountain is situated, is known by different names, as Smoky, Unica, Bald, Yellow Iron, and Stone mountains. Rivers, Lakes, Bays, and Sounds. — The jjrincipal rivers are, the Chowan, Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, Waccamaw, Lumber, Catawba, Broad, Yad- kin, North, Pungo, Hiwassee, Pamlico, and the Little Tennessee. Lake Phelps, Alligator, Mattimuskeet, and Waccamaw, are situated in this state. The principal sounds and bays are, Pamlico and Albemarle sounds, and Onslow and Raleigh bays. Islands and Capes. — The chief islands are, Roanoke, Smith's, Brodie's. Cur- rituck, Hatteras, and Cove. Capes Lookout and Fear are much dreaded by mariners ; and Hatteras is considered the most dangerous headland on the American coast. Climate. — Like most of the other southern states, North Carolina is some- what varied in its climate, occasioned by physical peculiarities of its dilferenr *The CaroUnas were eo nnmed by Ribault, in honor of Charles IX.. of Francf THE UNITED STATES.— NORTH CAROLINA. 141 parts. In the lower districts, inlermittents are frequent during the summer and autumn, and the countenances of the inhabitants often have a pale yellowish hue, occasioned by the prevalence of bilious disease. In winter, pleurisies are frequent, as well as inflammation of the lungs. In the western and hilly parts of the state the air is elastic, salubrious and pure, which renders the country as healthy as any part of the United States. The summers are hot, though the evenings are refreshing and cool. Autumn is temperate and serene ; and in some years the winters are so mild, that autumn may be said to continue till spring. The winters in the mountains, however, are visited by frost and snow, and the rigors of the climate are nearly as severe at the north. Chief Towns. — Raleigh is the seat of government. The other populous towns are, Fayetteville, Newbern, and Wilmington. Productive Resources. — The great staples of the south, tobacco, cotton, and rice, are extensively cultivated. Other products are, silk, wool, lumber, turpentine, spirits of turpentine, resin, pitch, tar, hay, hemp, flax, wine, sugar, wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, and Indian corn ; also, horses, mules, neat cattle, swine, and poultry. Of the mineral resources, gold, coal, and iron, are the most important. The gold region lies on both sides of the Blue ridge, and extends to the eastward of the river Yadkin. It occurs in fine grains, in small masses, or lumps, weighing from one to two pounds, and in veins. Manufactures. — North Carolina being an agricultural state, but little atten- tion has been paid to manufactures. There are, however, about thirty cotton factories in the state, which consume about 5,000,000 pounds of cotton annually. There are also a few woollen factories. Other manufactures are, paper, leather, furniture, cutlery, carriages, &c., though none of them are carried on to any great extent. Railroads and Canals. — There are some 600 miles of railroads in opera- tion and under construction, in North Carolina, The principal roads completed at present are, the Raleigh and Gaston, 87 miles, and the Wilmington and Wel- don, 167 miles, which connect the towns indicated by their titles. The only canals wholly within the state are, the Weldon, extending around the falls of the Roanoke, 12 miles, and a short one connecting Harlow and Clubfoot creeks. Population.— In 1790, 393,751; in 1800, 478,103; in 1810, 555,500; in 1820, 638,829; in 1830, 737,987; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows:— Counties. 1850. 1840. Alamance 11, 444 new co. Alexander 5,2-20 new co. Anson 13,4«9 15,077 Ashe 8,777 7,467 Beaufort 13.816 12,225 Bertie 12,851 12,175 Bladen 9,767 8,022 Brunswick 7.272 .5,265 Buncombe 13.425 10,084 Burke 7,772 1.5,799 Cabamis 9,747 9,259 Caldwell 6,317 new co. Camden 6.049 5.663 Carteret 6,803 6,501 Ca-swell 15.269 1 4,693 Catawba 8,862 new co. Chatham 18.449 16.242 Chowan 6.721 6,690 Clejiveland 10,396 new co. Columbus 5.909 3,941 Craven 14,709 13,438 Cumberland 20.610 15,284 Currituck, 7,2.16 6,703 Cherokee GSi» 3.427 Duplin 13,.')14 11,182 Davie 7.866 7,.574 Davidson. 15,320 14,606 Counties. 1850. 1840. Edgecomb 17,189 15,708 Franklin 11,713 10,980 Foreythe 11,168 new co. Gates 8,426 8,161 GranviUe 21,249 18,817 Greene 6,6W 6,595 Guilford 19,754 19,175 Gii-i^ton 8,073 new co. Halifax 16,589 16,865 Haywood 7,074 4,975 Henderson 6,85.3 5,129 Hertford 8,142 7,484 Hyde 7.636 6,458 Iredell 14,719 1.5,685 Johnston 13,726 10.599 .Jones .5,038 4,945 Lenoir. 7.828 7,605 Lincoln 7.746 2.5.160 Martin 8,307 7,6:i7 M DowelU 6,246 new co. Mocklenburs 13,914 18,273 Montgomery 6,872 10,780 Moore fl,342 7.988 Macon 6,389 4,869 Niu-h in,fOT 9,047 New Htmover 17,668 13,312 Northampton 13,335 13,309 Counties. 1850. 1840. Onslow 8.283 7,.527 Orange 17,055 24,356 Pasquotank 8,950 8,514 Perquimans 7,331 7,346 Person 10,781 9,790 Pitt 13,397 11,806 Randolph 15,832 12,875 Richmond 9,818 8,909 Rowan 1.3,870 12,109 Robeson 12,826 10,370 Rockingham 14,495 13,442 Rutherford 13,.550 19,202 Sampson 14,585 12, 1 57 Stokes 9,206 16,265 Surry 18,443 15,079 Stjuiley 6,'922 ne w co. Tyrrell 5,l.a3 4.6,57 Union. 10,051 new co. Wake 24.887 21,118 Warren 13,912 12.929 Wn^hington 5,666 4.525 Wilkes 12.099 12,577 Watflugn '3,400 new CO. Wnyn<' 13,486 10,891 Yancey 8.205 5,962 TrttiU 868,903 753,4 W Number of slaves in 1790, 100,572; in 1600, 133.296; in 1810, 168,824; in 1820, 295,017 ; in 1830, 235,601 ; in 1840, 345,817; in 1850, 288,412. 142 THE UNITED STATES.— NORTH CAROLINA. Commerce, — North Carolina has but a limited foreign commerce, its imports and exports being less than a million annnally. Its coasting trade, however, is considerable. The shipping owned within the state is about 50,000 tons. Education. — The literary institutions are, a university at Chapel Hill, Da- vidson college, in Mecklenberg county, and Wake-Forest college. There are about 200 academies and 1,500 common schools in the state. History. — North Carolina embraces a portion of the ancient territory of Florida, as named by Ponce de Leon, in 1512, and was, more recently, a por- tion of South Virginia, as granted by James I., of England, in 1606. It was within the limits of this state that Sir Walter Raleigh's unsuccessful attempts at settlement were made, in 1584. to 1590. In about the year 1630, another grant was made to Sir Robert Heath, of the tract lying between the thirtieth and thirty-sixth degrees of north latitude, which was erected into a province, under the name of " Carolina." No settlements were made under this grant, however, aiid consequently it was declared void. The first permanent settlement in the region now called North Carolina was made on the east bank of the river Chowan, near the present village of Edenton, in about the year 1650, by a company of emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious persecution. In 1661, U small English colony, from Massachusetts, purchased a tract of land, on Cape Fear river, from the Indians, and formed a settlement on Old Town creek, a few miles below Wilmington ; but the enterprise was abandoned, from the hostility of the Indians. Two years later the province was granted, by Charles II., to Lord Clarendon and seven others, and a government was established over the infant settlement on the Chowan, which was called the " Albemarle County Colony," in compliment to one of the proprietors, the duke of Albemarle. In 1665, their grant was enlarged, embracing the territory between 31° and 362-° north latitude, extending westward to the South sea. In 1667, a new settlement was estab- lished on Cape Fear river, near the abandoned site of the New England colony, called " Clarendon county," which was again surrendered to the Indians before the year 1690. In 1707, a company of French protestants, who had previously settled in Virginia, removed to Carolina, and two years later were followed by 100 German protestant families, who were driven from their homes by religious persecution. In 1729, the crown of England purchased the whole of Car- olina, which had hitherto been vinder the superintendence of the same board, for jG 17,500 ; and the king divided it into two provinces, " North" and "South," which have ever since been continued separate. A convention, or a kind of Congress, composed of military oflicers, assembled at Charlotte, in the county of Mecklenburg, in 1775, and declared the people independent of British rule. In 1776, this state formed a constitution, which, with subsequent modifications, continues to the present time. In 1789, it ratified the constitution of the United States and was admitted into the Union as an independent state. PRESIDENTS AND GOVERNORS UNDER THE PROPRIETARY GOVERNMENT. William Drummond, Governor 1663 Samuel Stevens, Governor 1667 James Cartvvright, Pres. of Co.l675 William Miller, Pre8. of Coun..l677 John Culpepper, Pres. of Coun. 1678 John Harvey, Pres. of Council. 1680 John Jenkins, Go%'emor 1681 John Wilkinson, Governor 1682 Seth Sothel, Governor 1683 Philip Ludwell, Governor 1689 Alex. Livingston, D(^p. Gov 1693 Thomas Harvey. Dep. Gov 1695 Henderson Walker, Pr. of Co.. 1609 Robert Daniel, Pres. orCoun..l704 Thomas Carey, Pres. of Coun..l705 William Glover, Pres. of Conn. . 1709 Edward Hyde, Governor 1710 Thomas Pollock, Pres. of Coun. 1712 Charles Eden, Governor 1714 Thomas Pollock, Pres. of Coun. 1722 William Reed, Pres. of Coun.. 1723 Georsje Burrington, Governor . 1724 Sir Richard Everard, Govern.. 1735 Boyal Governors. Sir Richard Evi^rard 1729 Gahriol Johnston 1734 Matthew Rowan 1 7,53 Arthur Dobbs 17.54 Will iam Try on 1766 Joseph Martin 1773 Richard Caswell 1777 Abnor Nash 1780 Thomas Burke 1782 Alexander Martin 1784 Richard Caswell 1785 Samuel Johnston 1788 Alexander Martin ...1790 Richard D. Spaight..l793 GOVEBNOKS UNDER Samuel Ashe 1796 Benjamin Williams. .1799 James Turner 1802 Nathaniel Alexander. 1805 Benjamin Williams. .1807 David Stone 1808 Benjamin Smith 1810 William Hawkins.. ..1811 THE CONSTITUTION. William Miller.....:. 1814 .Tohn Branch 1817 Jesse Franklin 1829 Gabriel Holmes 1821 Uutchins G. Burton. .1824 James Iredell 1827 John Owen 1828 Montford Stokes 1830 David L. Swain .1832 Edward B. Dudley. . .1806 J. M. Morehi>ad .18:?9 William A. Grali.iin. .lf<15 Charles Manly .184!. David S. Reid .18.-.1 THE UNITED STATES.— SOUTH CAROLINA. 143 Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate of 50, and a house of commons of 120 members, both elected biennially, on the first Thurs- day in August, by the people. The executive power is vested in a governor, elected biennially by the people, who is not eligible for more than two terms in succession. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, of three judges, and a superior, or circuit court, of seven judges, besides inferior courts. The judges of the supreme and superior courts are elected by the legislature, and hold office durirtg good behavior. All free white males, of 21 years of age, who have resided in the state one year, are entitled to vote for governor, and members of the lower house ; to qualify to vote for senators, a freehold of fifty acres, of six months' possession, is also required. SOUTH CAROLINA. South Carolina lies between 32° 2^ and 35"^ 10' north latitude, and 78'^ 24^ and 83° 30' west longitude from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by North Car- olina, southeast by the Atlantic, and westerly by Georgia, from which it is separated by Savannah river. Its superficial area is 28,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — This state, like North Caro- lina and Georgia, presents a great diversity of surface, as well as of soil and climate, and may also be physi- cally divided into three zones. The first, bordering on the Atlantic, is that of sea-sand alluvion, below the lower falls of the rivers, about sixty miles wide, and in most places penetrated by the tide. The second commences along or near the lower falls and primitive ledge. The sea-sand zone is very nearly a dead plain, but at its interior margin hills begin to appear, springs of water become plentiful, the soil meliorates, and the whole face of na- ture assumes an agreeable diversity of surface. The third, or what may be called the mountain zone, though but little of it is really mountainous, comprises the northwestern part of the state, and lies based on the Blue Ridge chain. The first of these zones, which includes the " Sea islands," is covered with ex- tensive tracts of pine "barrens," open plains without wood, savannas, swamps,, and salt marsh, presenting the most fertile and the most sterile extremes of soil. The second zone displays, amid a series of hills, bold, swelling, and varied in their form, a rapid succession of rich cotton lands, meadows, orchards, and fields of small grain, interluded by extensive forests, barrens, and swamps. As we approach the mountainous zi)ne, we are gratified by the pleasant alternation of hill and dale ; the lively verdure of the hills is contrasted with the deeper tints of the forests which decorate their sides ; and in the valleys, broad rivers roll their waters through the varied beauties of the luxuriant and cultivated' fields. From these delightful regions the surface still continues to rise, till we reach the western limit of the state. Mou.NTAiNS — The Blue Ridge, or Appalachian chain, traverses this state in, its northwest part, of which Table mountain is the most conspicuous. The- other mountains are Olenoy, Oconee, Paris, Glassy's, Hog-Back, and King's. Rivers, Bays, and Sounds. — The principal rivers are, the Savannah, Podrc, Black, Santee, Cooper, Ashley, Stono, Edisto, Ashepos, Catawba, Coosmw. Broad, and Waccamaw. Besides Bull's and W'inyaw bays, this slate contain.^ numerous estuaries, and sounds, the principal of w hich are, Port Royal and Georgetown entrances, and Tyree and St. Helena sounds. THE UNITED STATES.— SOUTH CAROLINA. Hf) Islands. — The coast is bordered by a chain of fine islands, the most import- ant of which are, Port Royal, St. Helena, Edisto, Ladu's, Trench's, Hunting, and Racoon Keys. Climate. — The climate along the seaboard is moist, very changeable, and, during summer and autumn, is extremely unhealthy. The middle region, partic- ularly in winter and spring, is regarded as the most healthy part of the state. In short, all the districts of the upper country enjoy as salubrious a climate as is found in the Union. Chief Towns. — Columbia is the seat of government. Charleston is a city. The other populous towns are, Beaufort, Camden, Georgetown, and Orangeburg. Productive Resources. — The principal products of this state are, horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, sugar, wax, hay, lumber, pitch, tar, turpentine, cotton, wool, silk, tobacco, rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats, sweet pota- toes, and Indian corn. Of the mineral and fossil resources of the state, gold is found in considerable abundance, but the "diggings" are less numerous than in Georgia and North Carolina. Marble, limestone, granite, oil and soap stone, iron and lead ores, talc, asbestos, plumbago, pyrites, ochres used for painting, potters' clay, and fullers' earth, also occur in greater or less abundance. Manufactures. — The manufactures of South Carolina are limited in extent. There are about 20 cotton-mills, which consume about 4,000,000 pounds of cotton annually. There were, in 1850, over 1,400 manufacturing establish- ments of all kinds in the state. Railroads and Canals. — The aggregate length of railroads in operation in the state is about 300 miles, and about the same amount in process of construc- tion. The longest canal in the state is the Santee, from Charleston to Santee river, 22 miles. There are several other shorter ones, amounting in the aggre- gate to about 30 miles. Commerce. — The foreign commerce of South Carolina is quite large, its ex- ports and imports amounting to about $17,000,000 annually. The shipping owned in the state is about 40,000 tons. Charleston is the principal port, and enjoys about nine tenths of the commerce. Education. — There are three colleges in South Carolina. The Charleston college, founded in 1785 ; the college of South Carolina, founded in 1804 ; and the Erskine college, in Abbeville district. There are three theological semi- naries in the state. There is also a medical college at Charleston. There are about 1,000 public schools, and 200 academies, in various parts of the state. Population.— In 1790, 249,073; in 1800, 345,591; in 1810, 415,715; in 1820, 502,741 ; in 1830, 581,185; in 1840 and 1850, by districts, as follows: — Districts. 1850. 1840. Districts. 1850 1840. Districts. 18.m 1840. Abbeville 32,318 29.351 Fairfid.i 21,404 20.165 Newbury 20,143 18,350 Anderson 21,475 18,493 Georgetovra 20,647 18,274 Orangeburg 23.582 18,519 Barnwell 2G,608 21,471 Greenville 20,156 17,839 Pickens 16,904 14,356. Beaufort 38,805 35.794 Horrey 7,646 5,755 Richland 20,243 16.397 Charleston 72,805 82,661 Kershaw 14,473 12,281 Spartanburg 26,400 2.3,669 Che-stcr 18,038 17,747 Lancaster 10,988 9,907 Sumter 33,220 27,892 Chesterfield 10,790 8,.574 Laurens 23,407 21,584 Union 19,852 18,936 Colleton 39.505 25,548 Lexington 12,930 12,111 Williamsburg 12,447 10,327 Darlington 16,830 14,822 Marion 17.407 13,9,32 York 19,43;} 18,,383 Edgefield 37,262 32,852 Marlboro'. 10,789 8,408 . Total 668.507 594,398 Number of slaves in 1790, 107,094 ; in 1800, 146,151 ; in 1810, 196,365 ; in 1820, 258,475 ; in 1830, 315,401 ; in 1840, 327,038 ; in 1850, 384.984. History. — The state of South Carolina embraces a portion of the ancient territory of Florida, as first discovered by Ponce de Leon, in 1512 ; as well as a part of Carolina, as colonized by Coligni with Huguenots, in 1562-'65 ; or a part of Virginia, as granted tc Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1584. In about the year 1630, another grant was made to Sir Robert Heath, of the tract lying between 30° and 36° north latitude, which was erected into a province, under the name 10 146 THE UNITED STATES.— SOUTH CAROLINA. of " Carolina. As no settlements were made under this grant, the charter was declared void. In 1663, the province of Carolina was granted, by Charles II., to Lord Clarenden and seven others. Two years later the grant was en- larged, so as to comprise all the territory between Sl-J and 36^° north latitude, extending westward from sea to sea. In 1670, a small body of English emi- grants, under William Sayle, commenced the settlement of Old Charleston, on the south side of Ashley river, which they called " Carteret County Colony," in honor of one of the proprietors. From this place they removed, in 1679, to the present site of Charleston.* In 1720, the proprietary government was thrown off, and that of the crown established. In 1729, after much controversy and difficulty between the proprietors and the crown, seven out of the eight sold all their claims to the soil and rents in both Carolinas to the king, for jC17,500, and the provinces then became royal governments, entirely unconnected, under which they remained until the Revolution. South Carolina early resisted Brit- ish oppression, and was one of the confederacy in 1776. It ratified the constitu- tion of the United States, and was admitted into the Union as a sovereign state, in 1788. Mottoes of the seal, Animis ophibusque parati : "Ever ready in spirit and achievement." Reverse — Dum spiro .spero : " While I live I hope." William Sayle 1669 Joseph West 1671 John Yeamana 1671 Joseph West 1674 Joseph Morton 1682 Joseph West 1684 Richard Kirk 1684 Robert Quan-y 1 684 Joseph Morton 1685 James Colleton 1686 John Rutledge 1775 Rawlins Lowndes 1778 John Rutledge 1779 John Matthews ...... 1782 Benjamin Guerard...l783 William Moultrie 1785 Thomas Pinckney 1787 Charles Pinckney 1789 Amoldus Vanderhost.1792 William Moultrie 1794 GOVERNOKS UNDER THE PROPRIETARY GOVERNMENT. Charles Craven 1712 Robert Daniel 171 6 Robert Johnson 1719 James Moore 1719 Arthur Middleton 1719 Seth Sothwell 1690 Philip Ludwell 1692 Thomas Smith 1693 Joseph Blake 1694 John Archdale 1695 Joseph Blake 1606 James Moore 1700 Nathaniel Johnson... 1703 Edward Tynte ] 706 Robert Gibbes 1710 GOVERNORS UNDER Charles Pinckney 1796 Edward Rutledge. . . . 1798 John Drayton 1806 James B. Richardson.1802 Paul Hamilton 1 804 Charles Pinckney 1806 John Drayton 1806 Henry Middleton 1810 Joseph Alston 1812 David R. Wilhams. ..1874 Under thr regal Governm't. Fra7ici9 Nicholson. ..1721 Arthur Middleton 1725 Robert Johnson 1730 THE CONSTITUTION. Andrew Pickens 1816 John Geddes 1818 Thomas Bennet 1820 John L. Wilson 1822 Richard J. Manning.. 1824 John Taylor 1826 Stephen D. Miller. . . . 1828 James Hamilton 1830 Robert Y. Hayne 1832 George M'Duffie 1834 Thomas Broughton..l735 William Bull 1737 James Glen 1743 William H. Littleton. 1756 William Bull 1760 Thomas Boone 1762 William Bull 1763 Charles Montague. -.1766 WUliamBuU 1769 Pierce M. Butler. 1836 Patrick Noble 1838 B. K Henneean, Act. 1840 J. P. Richardson 1840 James H. Hammond. 1842 William Aiken 1844 David Johnson 1846 W". B. Seahrook 18.50 John H. Means 18.52 J. L. Manning 1853 Government. — The governor is elected for two years, by -a joint vote of both houses of the assembly. After having served one term, he is ineligible for the next four years. A lieutenant-governor is chosen in the same manner, and for the same period. The senate consists of 45 members, elected by districts for Charleston occupies a point of land formed by the confluence of Ashley and Cooper rivers, which together enter tlie ocean by a spacious and deep harbor, extending seven miles below the city. It is 120 miles southeast of Columbia, the state capital, and 540 miles IVom Washington. Four channels of different depths afford an en- trance into the harbor, through a sandbar, which obstructs it ; the deepest of these admit ships with sixteen feet draught. The harbor is defended by Fort Moultrie, on .Sullivan's island, lying at its mouth, and by Forts Pinckney and Johnson. The city stands on ground somewhat elevated above tide-water, and may be said to resemble New York on a smaller scale. It is construct(>d with regularity and taste, and many rich and varied trees of Bouthem climes lend their charms. Besides the city proper, there are populous suburbs, which nrtbrd fine sites for residences, and are identified with its growth and interests. Charleston may be considered as the metropolis of the southern Atlantic states, as New Orleans is of those on the Mexican gulf and the Mississippi. Into this basin flow many of the products of North Carolina and Georgia. Its foreign commerce is extensive and valua- ble, especially in cotton and rice, as is also its coasting trade ; and packets, as well as splendid steamships, ply to New York and other maritime cities. The Santee canal connects the Santee with Cooper river, thus opening a communication from Columbia, the state capital, to Charleston. The pulilic buildings and institutions of this city indicate the wealth, intelligence, and liberality of the people. There are a number of banks, churches, and hotels, some of them splendid and costly. Other prominent build- ings are, the customhouse, guard-house, exchanse, city-hall, state citadel, almshouse, orphan asylum, jail, and college of Charleston. The literary and scientific institutions and libraries are generally respectable and flour- ishing. No city is more justly noted for hospitality and refinement. Its climate is more salubrious than that of most southern cities, afFunling a delightful and safe summer resort for the planters from the low country and West Indies, and .1 ])leasant winter residence for people from the north. The great fire in 1837. by which 1,200 houses, eoveiing one filtli of the city, were destroyed, retarded for a time its growth. The South Carolina railroad extends to Augusta, on the Savannah, 1.37 miles, where it communicates with the ■Georgia railroad. At Branchtown, 62 miles from Charleston, the Columbia branch diverges to Camden and Columbia. The population of Charieston in 1790 was 16,359 ; in 1800, 18,712 ; in 18X0, 24,711 ; in 1820, 24,480 ; in 1830. 30,289 ; in 1840, 29,261 ; in 1850, 42,985. JKeferencea. X College €if Charleston OMarJcet* iOiv^oM lOJUeciicdlCollege 3 CoiirtMottae ■xlJtaiVRoeta.Jiepot tV.S.Court x2 Charle^onJBTotel aCujrtoniBbu^eStPostOtfiee 13 JPUtnter* Tio- OJ^ireProofJRtiiUling 14 Pavilion 3>o- f eueircLBottre Jis Sl'ereha/ntt 2to- * Jail y\ w Victoria^ JDo. 17 JUantionBouse ■ja CasWorJe* JV,.Al7n*Sou^te to MtgTiSthool 32 TWaTineJIosiiitdi S2 JtopertVoxpitai i3 JUa^onieJZda 9£ oadjrellowsffalt 3S MibleMepotUorj 20 ArtetianWea [\ 8, '^. \ »■«■< t^) f^os^ A: cn ><^(' ic^ -id' H \ KC=:^' ^.^=i isnaJii'i tjlics JgSibS. Q) CHARLESTON 148 THE UNITED STATES.— GEORGIA. four years. The house of representatives consists of 124 members, apportioned among the several districts, according to the number of white inhabitants and taxation, and are elected for two years. The representatives and one half the senators are chosen every second year, in October. The chancellor and judges of the supreme court are chosen by the joint ballot of both houses of the as- sembly, and hold their offices during good behavior. Every free white male citizen, 21 years of age, who has resided in the state two years immediately preceding the election, and who is possessed of a freehold of 50 acres of land, or a town-lot, six months before the election ; or not possessing this freehold, who shall have resided in the election district in which he offers to vote six months before the election, and have paid a tax of three shillings sterling to the support of the government, has the right of suffrage. GEORGIA.* Georgia, the most southern of the original thirteen states, lies between 30° 19^ and 35° north latitude and 80° 50' and 85° 40' west longitude from Green- wich ; and is bounded north by North Carolina and Tennessee, northeast by Savannah river, which sep- arates it from South Carolina, southeast by the Atlan- tic, south by Florida, and west by Alabama. Its su- perficial area is 61,500 square miles. Physical Aspect. — This state occupies a large proportion of the great inclined plain, from which the peninsula of Florida protrudes, and down which several rivers flow into the Atlantic and the Mexican gulf. From the Atlantic border of this state, this acclivity gradually rises to an elevation of 1,200 feet above the level of the sea, without estimating the mountain ridges. Like the Carolinas, it may be divided into three zones. First, the flat sea-border, including numerous small islands ; second, the sand-hill zone ; and third, a hilly and partly mountainous tract, be- yond the lower falls of the rivers. The soil on the islands, called hummock land, is very rich, producing the celebrated Sea-island cotton. The seacoast on the main land consists of a belt of salt marsh, four or five miles in width. In the rear of this margin commence the " pine barrens," which extend 60 to 90 miles from the ocean. The rivers and creeks are generally bordered with swamps, or marshes, which, at every tide, are either wholly or partially overflowed, for 15 or 20 miles from the coast. These constitute the principal rice plantations. Beyond the pine barrens the country becomes uneven, diversified with hills and mountains, of a strong rich soil. The northwestern part of the state is moun- tainous, and abounds in beautiful scenery. The soil of Georgia, though varied, is, a large proportion of it, productive. At a distance from the sea it changes from gray to red ; in some places it is gravelly, but fertile ; and farther back in the country its color is gradually deepened, till it becomes what is called the " mulatto soil," consisting of black mould and reddish earth. This is succeeded in its turn by a soil that is nearly black, and very rich. In the southwest por- tion of the state is Okefenokee swamp, about 170 miles in circumference. Mountains. — This state is traversed on the north by a spur of the Allega- nies, among which are Yonah and Currahee mountains. Pine mountain lies near the western boundary. * Georgia was so called in honor of its royal grantor, George II., of England. 36 T E N A #i \Chat ..^ *iooga \^/ yiie \. ^FLOYD, i ,„, , ASS & I i 1 FOR ttWl,SYT 'I* /■" - ► ^^ ■^ ^ . — 1 .-.-^ yv A 3G ^ GEORGIA 10 Scale otmiles 30 . 50 70 \! C ® Si <. \pauldim;1 c^,° ?■ RANKijI t •CARROLL} j^ ' -^Tf- 33 jMERRI-) ®Zeb?tZon rUPSONiV ^,«>- — . i'ImadiV' ir/)ACKSdN\19N 'y^ GRctfeEii y^ALTOW rtens Jioroy £/ip Ni S I f *■ - '. '»>l^Qjr-'\C L U 1^ B I A^ " WAftREN^Jj'CHD^DV^ ^JEFFER .8 r yioj;» ^/&^Mal OUPlWETHE jf \JIamUmn I ^ ''rHAtiRlsiTAI.BO^ (i'SrumSuS T~ J^ JHOUSTOM (Icrsvt TOi miisvine j" ir. ^ ,■ B hft-K E M^A N U E 33 ■^^CRIVENl^ 150 THE UNITED STATES.— GEORGIA Rivers and Sounds. — The principal rivers are, the Savannah, Ogeechee, Alatamaha, Satilia, Ocmulgee, Oconee. St. Mary's, Flint, Chattahoochee, Talla- poosa, and Coosa. The coast of Georgia is indented by numerous sounds and inlets, which occur at the mouths of the principal rivers. Islands. — Along the Atlantic coast there is a chain of islands, which are separated from the main by rivers, creeks, and inlets, forming an inland navi- gation of more than 100 miles. The principal of these islands are, Tybee, Wassaw, Ossabaw, St. Catharine's, Sapelo, St. Simon's, Jykill, and Cumber- land. Climate. — The climate, from the difference of elevation, is varied, one sec- tion producing wheat, and another sugar-cane. The winters are usually mild and pleasant ; snow is seldom seen, nor is vegetation often interrupted by severe frosts. The temperature of winter usually fluctuates from flO'^ to 60° Fahrenheit, although it occasionally falls as low as 16°. In the low country, in the vicinity of swamps, fevers and bilious attacks are common, owing partly to the badness of the water, but principally to the noxious vapors which arise from stagnant water, and putrid matter in the rice swamps. In the " upper country" the air is pure and salubrious throughout the year, and the water is abundant and good. Cities and Chief Towns. — Milledgeville is the seat of government. Au- gusta, Columbus, Macon, and Savannah,* are cities. The other populous towns are, Athens, Darien, Greensborough, Louisville, Petersburg, St. Mary's, Sparta, and Washington. Productive Resources. — The staple products of this state consist of horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, silk, wool, butter, cheese, cotton, to- bacco, rice, sugar, wine, wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, and Indian corn. Among the mineral resources are, copper, iron, and gold. The latter occurs in considerable abundance in the northern part of the state, on both sides of Chat- tahoochee river, as far north as the Blue Ridge. Manufactures. — The people of Georgia are more engaged in manufactures than those of any other southern state. It has quite a number of large cotton factories, which are worked by slave labor. It has also extensive tanneries, and mills of various descriptions. Railroads and Canals. — There are about 1,000 miles of railroad already in successful operation in Georgia, and more in process of construction. The cost of the railroads already completed in this state is over $15,000,000. The principal canals in Georgia are, one from Savannah to the Ogeechee river, 16 miles, and another from Altamaha to Brunswick, 12 miles. Commerce. — The foreign commerce of Georgia amounts to about $9,000,000 annually. The coasting trade is also considerable. Education. — The university of Georgia, founded in 1785, at Athens, is the * Savannah, the chief commercial town in Georgia, is situated on the eouth side of the river fi'om which it de- rives its name, 16 miles from the ocean, and 90 miles southwest of Charleston. The banks of the river rise about 40 icet, at the foot of which are the stores and warehouses, while the principal residences extend over the level, at the top of the eminence. The streets are broad, are reijularly laid out, ornamented along their sides, and through the middle, with the " Pride of China" and other shade trees, while airy and verdant parks are inter- spersed more frequently than in most American cities, atlording delightful walks at all times of the day. Sa- vannah has an excellent harbor, with a safe and easy entrance from the ocean. Several islands are formed by the embouchures of the river, affording both protection and ornament. Upon Tybee island a lighthouse marks the entrance to the port, while the forts protect the city from outward assault. Vessels of 13 feet draught anchor at the wharves of the city; those oi larger size at a point several miles below. Above Savannah, tlie river is navigable for steamboats of 150 tons to Augusta, 150 miles. By this and other channels most of the cot- ton, tobacco, sugar, lumber, and other staples of Georgia, are conveyed to Savannah, where they lind a market, or are exported. This city, iVom its favorable commercial situation, on a coast not well supplied with good harbors, is the receptable of productions from an extensive region. Late improvements by railroads, and (>lher channels of communication, have added largely to its growth and prosperity. A canal connects Ogeechee river with the Savannah, Steamboats navigati^ tlie principal rivers of the state, and sail to Charleston, and other cities on the coast, and regular steam and sailing packets communicate with New York. The Central railroad extends 191 miles to Mncou, whence the Macon aud Western railroad proceeds 101 milf.s In B northwesterly dircx-tion to Atlanta. Through this place passes the Georgia and Westeni and .-Vtluntie rail- road from Autrusta to Chatham, on Tennessee river, in Hamilton county, Tennessee. The population of the city in 1810 was 5,595 ; in 1820, 7,523; in 1830, 9,748; in 1840, 11.214 ; in 1850, 17,841. THE UNITED STATES.— GEORGIA. 151 principal literary institution in the state. There are "also, the Oglethorpe uni- versity, at Medina, near Milledgeville. The Mercer university, at Penfield, the Georgia Female college, near Macon, and the Georgia medical college, at Augusta. There are about 250 academies scattered through the state, and some 1,500 primary and common schools. Population.— In 1749, 6,000; in 1790, 82,584; in 1800, 162,686; in 1810, 252,433 ; in 1820, 348,989 ; in 1830, 516,567 ; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows : — Counties. 1850. 1840. Appling 2,949 2,052 Baker, 8,120 4,226 Baldwin 8,148 7,250 Bibb 12,699 9,802 Bryan 3.424 3,182 Bullock 4,300 3,102 Burke 16,100 15,176 Butta 6,488 5,308 Camden 6,319 6,075 Campbell 7,232 5,370 Carroll 9,357 5,252 Cass 13,309 9,390 Chatham. 23,901 18,801 Chartoog-a 6,815 3,438 Cherokee 12,800 5,895 Clifrke 11,119 10,.522 Cobb 1.3,843 7,539 Columbia 11,961 11,356 Coweta 13,633 10,364 Crawford 8,984 7,981 Dade 2,680 1,364 Decatur. 8,262 5,872 Da Kalb 14,338 10,467 Dooly 8,361 4,427 Early 7,246 5,444 Effingham 3,864 3,075 Elbert 12,959 11,125 Emanuel.. 4,577 .3,129 Fayette 8,709 6,191 Floyd 8,205 4,441 Forsyth 8,850 5,619 Franklin 11,513 9,886 Counties, 18.50. 1840. Gilmer 8,440 2,536 Glynn 4,933 5,302 Gordon 5,984 new co. Greene 13,068 11,690 Gwinnett 11,257 10,804 Habersham 8.895 7,961 Hall 8,713 7,875 Hancock 11,578 9,659 Harris 14,721 i:i,933 Heard 6,923 5,329 Henry 14.726 11,756 Houston 16,450 9,711 Irwin 3,334 2,038 Jackson 9,768 8,-522 Jasper 11,486 11,111 Jones 10,224 10,065 Jefferson 9,131 7,254 Laurens 6,442 5,585 Lee 6,659 4,520 Liberty 7,926 7,241 Lincoln 5,998 5,895 Lowndes 8,351 5,574 Lumpkin 8,954 5,671 Macon 7,052 5,045 Madison 5,603 4,.510 Marion 10,280 4,812 M'Intosh 6,028 5,360 Meriwether 16,476 14,1.32 Monroe 16,985 16,275 Montgomery 2,154 1,616 Morgan 10,744 9,121 4,695 Counties. 1850. Muscogee 18,578 Newton 13,296 OgMhorpe 12,259 Paulding 7,039 Pike 14,305 Pula.'^ki 6,627 Putnam 10,794 Rabun 2,448 Randolph 12,868 Richmond 16,246 Scriveii 6,847 Stewart 16,027 Sumter 10,322 Talbot 16,.534 Taliaferro. . ^ 5,146 Tatnall 3,227 Telfair 3.026 Thomas 10,103 Troup 16,879 Twiggs 8,179 Union 7,234 Upson 9,424 Walker 13,109 Walton 10,821 Ware 3,888 Warren 12,425 Washington 11,766 Wayne 1,499 Wilkinson 8,212 WUkes 12,107 1840. 11,699 11,628 10,868 2,556 9,176 5,389 10.260 1,912 8,276 11,932 4,794 12,933 5,759 15,627 5,190 2,724 2,763 6,7ft3 15,733 8,422 3,152 9,408 6,572 10,209 2,323 9,789 10,565 1,258 6,842 10,148 Total 905,999 691,392 in 1830, 217,531 ; in 1840, Murray 14,433 Number of slaves in 1790, 29,264 ; in 1800, 59,404 ; in 1810, 105,218 ; in 1820, 149,656 280,944; in 1850, 381,681. Government. — The governor is elected by the people, and holds his office two years. The senate consists of 47 members, elected from forty-four districts of two counties each, two districts of three counties each, and one district com- prising but a single county. The house of representatives is composed of 130 members : the 35 counties having the largest number of inhabitants are entitled to two members each, and the remainder one each. State election biennially, first Monday in October The legislature meets biennially, on the first Mon- day in November (odd years), at Milledgeville. The judges of the superior court are elected for three years by the legislature, and the judges of the infe- rior courts and justices of the peace are elected quadrennially by the people. All the free white male inhabitants, who shall have resided within the county in which they vote six months preceding the election, and shall have paid taxes in the state for the year previous, have the right of sufirage. History. — The state of Georgia embraces a part of Virginia, as granted to Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1584; or a portion of South Virginia, as granted by James I., of England, in 1606. A portion of its present territory also embraces a part of the ancient Georgia colony, chartered in 1732, to a corporation " in trust for the poor," for twenty-one years, including the country between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers, extending westward from their sources to the " South sea ;" also a portion of the northern part of Florida, as claimed at the- time by Spain. The first permanent settlement in Georgia was made under this grant at Savannah, by Oglethorpe, in 1732, who brought out a band of colo- nists, collected from among the poor and vicious population, as an experimental effort for their reformation, by providing them with the means of self-support. 152 THE UNITED STATES.-GEORGIA. This benevolent design failing of success, the trustees of the colony sent out a better class of emigrants in 1735 from Scotland, Switzerland, and Germany. In the year following Oglethorpe extended his settlements as far south as St. John's river, in Florida, but was repulsed by the Spaniards. He retained his fortification at the mouth of the St. Mary's, and this river afterward became the boundary between Georgia and Florida. In the year 1752, the trustees of the colony surrendered their charter to the king, and the province was forced into a royal government. A gen- eral representative assembly was established in 1755 ; and in 1763, all the territory between the Altamaha and St. Mary's was annexed. In 1775, Georgia acceded to the union of the col- onies, and sent deputies to Con- gress. When military operas tions were transferred to the southern states, from 1779 to 1781, Georgia became a portion of the bloody arena. It was at the siege of Savannah, Sept. 23, 1779, that Count Pulaski,* the brave and patriotic Pole, was killed. In 1777, the first state Pulaski and Greene Monument, Savannah, Ga. constitution was adopted, and the parishes then existing were formed into counties. A second constitution was adopted in 1785, and the one now in force in 1798. In 1788, it adopted the constitution of the United States by a unanimous vote. By different conven- tions, all of the new states, Alabama and Mississippi, lying north of thirty-one degrees, have been yielded to the general government. Motto of the state seal of Georgia, " Constitution" supported by "Wisdom" "Justice," "Moderation," and "Agriculture and Commerce." GOVERNORS OF GEORGIA. John Reynolds 1754 Henry Ellis 17r)7 Jame8 Wright 1760 James Hsibershani. Act. Go v ... 1761 Under the British Croum. Jnmes Edward Oglethorpe 1732 William Stephens, Act. Gov. ..1743 Henry Parker, Act. Gov 1751 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CONSTITUTION, During the Revolution. Willinm Cawin, Pres. Council .1775 Archibald Bullock, Pres Coun.1776 Button Gwinnett, Pres. Coun..l777 John A. Treuilen 1777 John Houston 1778 John Werriatt 1778 George Walton 1779 Richard Ho wley 1780 Stephen Heard 1781 Nathan Brownson 1781 John Martin 1782 Lyman Hall 1783 John Houston 1784 Samuel Elbert 1785 Edward Telfair 1786 George Matthews 1787 George Handley 1788 George Walton 1789 Edward Telfair 1790 George Matthews 1793 Jared Irwin 1796 James Jackson 1798 David Emanuel 1801 Josiah Tatnall 1801 John Milledge 1802 Jared Irwin 1806 David B. Mitchell 1809 Peter Earlv 1813 David B. Mitchell 1815 William Rabun 1817 Matthew Talbot 1819 John Clarke 1819 George M. Troup .... 1823 John Forsyth 1827 George R. "Gilmer.... 1829 Wilson Lumpkin ia31 William Schley 1835 George R. Gilmer. . . .1837 Charles ,T. M'Donald.ia39 George W. Crawford.1843 Georire W. Towns. ..18-19 Howell Cobb 1851 * The comer-stone of a monument, to the memory of Generals Pulaski and Greene, was laid by Lafayette, in March, 1825. The monument is a neat and simple obelisk of white marble, 53 feet high. The base of the ped- estal is ten feet four inches by six feet eight inches, and its height thirteen feet, the needle which surmounts the pedestal being thirty-seven feet in height. It is built upon a platform of granite, three feet above the grouud, and the whole is enclosed by a cast-iron railing. It has a very advantageous position, in the middle of John- son square, Savannah. Another monument to Pulaski, from a beautiful design, is in course of erection on Chippewa square. THE UNITED STATES.— FLORIDA. 1 53 FLORIDA.* Florida, the most southern state in the Union, lies between 25° and 31° north latitude, and 80° and 871° west longitude from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by Alabama and Georgia, east by the Atlantic, south by the gulf of Mexico, and west by the gulf of Mex- ico and Alabama. Its superficial area is 59,000 square miles, of which but about one half is yet surveyed and occupied. Physical Aspect. — The face of the country is generally level, and not much elevated above the sea, though we find along the whole northern boundary considerably diversity of sur- face. A base of calcareous rock commences in the northern part of the state, and probably extends under the whole peninsula. This friable stone outcrops the surface at St. Augustine, and other parts on the main, and reappears again on the southern keys, as well as on the Bahamas, and the northern shores of Cuba, on the opposite side of the gulf. In Florida, this formation is generally overlaid by deep super-strata of clay, shells, and sand. The soil, however, generally is sandy, except in places called "hummocks," where it consists either of reddish-yellow or black clay, mixed with sand. These hummocks, which are numerous and much scattered throughout the state, vary in extent from a few acres to several miles in extent, and constitute no small part of the penin- sula. Another inconsiderable portion of Florida consists in what is generally known in the south by the name of " pine-barrens," much of the soil of which is exceedingly poor ; though there are extensive tracts of hummock, table-land, and swamp, of the richest character, and well adapted to cultivation. These barrens, wherever intersected by streams of pure water, however poor they may be, afford excellent ranges for grazing. The southern portion of the state presents singular alternations of savannas, hummocks, lakes, and grass-ponds, called collectively " everglades," which extend from Cape Sable into the heart of the country for several hundred miles. This region, including two large swamps, one named Atsenahooffa, on the western side, and the other Halpabe- oka, on the northeastern side, embracing the large lake Okeechobee, covers an area of 7,000,000 acres, 4,500,000 of which are usually submerged in water, from two to seven feet deep. The " Pahhayokee," or " grass-water," as the Indians call the everglades, comprises from l,00p,000 to 1,500,000 acres of sub- merged lands. The basin of the everglades is surrounded by a rim of soft lime-rock, from half a mile to five miles in width, and its bottom is represented to be some 12 or 15 feet above the level of the sea. Deep tide rivers extend from the ocean and gulf quite up to the margin of the river ; and comparatively, at a small outlay, millions of acres of land, now worthless, could be drained by canals, and brought into the highest state of improvement. Within this basin are thousands of islets, of the richest class of land, and the glades are often filled with tall grass, from six to ten feet in height, the annual decay of which has occasioned a deposite in the water from two to six feet thick. This tract lies south of 27^° of north latitude, where there is seldom or no frost ; and if it were reclaimed, as suggested above, it would be adapted to the cultivation of the orange, the pineapple, rice, sugarcane, and other tropical plants. Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — The principal rivers are, the St. John's, Appa- lachicola, Suwanee, St. Mark's, St. Mary's, Ocklocony, Escambia, Withlacoo- ' So called by Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, from having discovered the coast on Pascua Florida, the name> in Spanish, for Easter. SaSavaiihi'il' i' \ 3i FLORIDA esvUle % 3(xszS/xu'X '*> ScaiJc of Miles 10 :io 50 ;«en. 70 ^t4Xf3n^ 5^ '|j£MS,% 1::?^^ faetcs wiTss '^J'!2 Wi (Mlltgator JDUVgA L O -iW.r. h L U M B I A ^ ^L^ r. pir/ iiffj:- v^iS 30 ^^% ^Y(U L A C H u A 1/ ^-'"^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^Georg^ 29 f O R A N G ■(_ , I , (j. -Poiiis Tohofteyimga^ X, \. ^% "^ '•^^ ifei51jl»_/-f |--.4:^;l- £- ^_ "^ v»^ 'S; O //^ A '*F*j \/ f HOLM M £S '/lit// .i//° \<<^ CJ»*\ WALTON'® ^ 2/^^Aftggf^POl /^if>" I WALTON'^ J- ^'. THE UNITED STATES.— FLORIDA. 155 chee, Oscilla, Choctawhatchee, Yellow-Water, Amasura, Anclota, Hillsborough, Charlotte, Gallivan's, Young's, Kissimee, and the Perdido ; the latter of which forms the western boundary between this state and Alabama. The St. John's is an anomaly among the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Its source is rather uii- definuble, being derived from the flat grassy plains, or savannas, in about lati- tude 28° north, probably not more than 20 miles from the sea. It is exceed- ingly winding in its course, running in a northerly direction, to a distance of nearly 300 miles. In some places it has more the appearance of a lake, or sound, than a river, swelling out from three to five miles in breadth ; while in other parts it dwindles down to a quarter of a mile wide. Vessels drawing eight feet of water ascend to Lake George, a beautiful expansion of this stream, 150 miles from its mouth. The chief lakes are, the Great Okeechobee, George, Dunn's, Cypress, Monroe, Orange, Istopoga, Tobokopoligia, Weeok, Yakapka, Jessup, Harney, Eustis, Poinsett, Beresford, Ashey, Winsor, Gardiner, Griffin, and Gentry. There are numerous bays on the western side, some of which form good harbors. Among these are, Perdido, Pensacola, ChoctaAvhatchie, St. Andrew's, St. Joseph's, Appalachicola, Appalachee, Tampa, Charlotte, and Gallivan's. In front of Pensacola bay is a long, shallow lagoon, called Santa Rosa sound. On the east coast of the state there are but few bays, properly speaking. Fernandina bay forms the mouth of the St. Mary's river. Mosquito and Indian river, or St Lucia sounds, are situated near Cape Canaveral, which are entered by inlets of the same names. Many of the rivers on this side of the peninsula form good harbors for coasting vessels. IsLA.NDS AND Keys. — Florida is remarkable for the great number of small low islets which lie in the vicinity of its shores, called "Keys." The most noted of these are. Key West (formerly called Thompson's island), Indian, Sand, Pine, and Cedar keys. The most not^ islands are. Merit's, and Hutch- inson's, near Cape Carnaveral; Amelia island, near St. Mary's sound; Sanybel, Pine, Captive, and Gasparilla islands, near Charlotte harbor ; Mullet island, near Tampa bay; St. George's, and Dog islands, near Appalachicola bay; Santa Rosa island, near Pensacola bay; and Drayton island, in Lake George. Cape Sable is the southernmost point of the United States. Climate. — Florida presents some diversity of seasons ; but the difterence of relative level being small, and surrounded as it is by water on three sides, it enjoys a climate peculiar to itself. On the seaboard it is generally healthy for eight or nine months in the year, and in some parts remarkably so the whole year round. In the interior, it is quite as salubrious as it is in either of the other southern states, unless it be in the vicinity of marshes, or stagnant waters, where fevers and other epidemics invariably prevail. The winters are mild, and usually without frost, though the mercury occasionally sinks to 30° Fah- renheit, and sometimes as low as 26°; in summer, the temperature seldom ex- ceeds 92°. The climate of the southernmost keys is truly tropical. Chief Towns. — Tallahassee is the seat of government. The other popu- lous towns are, Appalachicola, Jacksonville, Key West, Monticello, Pensacola, Quincy, and St. Augustine. Productive Resources. — The staple products consist of horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, hay, wool, tobacco, cotton, wheat, oats, potatoes, oranges, sugar, molasses, and Indian corn. The forests produce an abundance of live-oak timber, cedar, and yellow pine. Turtle and other fisheries are car- ried on somewhat extensively among the keys. Salt is made in small quanti- ties, and granite is quarried to some extent. Manufactures. — Florida being mostly an agricultural state, but little atten- tion as yet has been paid to manufactures. In 1850 there were but 121 manu- facturing establishments, producing to the extent of $500 and upward each annually. 156 THE UNITED STATES.— FLORIDA. Railroads and Canals. — The legislature of Florida has granted several charters for railroads in this state, but thus far there are neither railroads nor canals within its borders. Commerce. — The direct foreign commerce of Florida amounts to about $3,000,000 annually. Shipments are also extensively made through New Orle- ans and the Atlantic ports. The coasting trade of Florida is also considerable. The shipping owned within the state amounts to about 12,000 tons. Education. — The constitution of Florida provides for the establishment of common schools throughout the state, but thus far but little progress has been made in affording facilities for elementary education. There are academies and grammar-schools in the more populous towns, but no collegiate institution. Population. — In 1830, 34,723; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 18.50 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Alachua 2,524 2,282 Hillsborough 2,377 .452 Nassau 2,164 L892 Benton 926 new co. Holmes 1,644 new co. Orange 466 new co. Calhoun 1,377 1,142 Jackson 6,639 4,681 Putnam 687newco. Columbia 4,808 2,102 Jefiferson 7,718 5,713 St. John 2,525 2,694 Dade 159 446 Leon 11,442 10.713 St. Lucie 139 new co. Duval 4,539 4,156 Levy 465newco. Santa Ross 2.883newco. Escambia 4,351 3,993 Madison 5,490 2,644 Wakulla l,955newco. Franklin 1,561 1,030 Marion 3.338newco. Walton 1.379 1,461 Gadsden 8,783 5,992 Monroe 2,643 688 Washington. 1,950 859 Hamilton 2,469 1,464 Musquito dropped 73 Total 87,401 54,477 Number of slaves in 1830, 1.5,501 ; In 1840, 25,717 ; in 1850, 39,309. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives. The senate consists of 19 members, elected by the people, in districts, for two years. The representatives are elected by the people, by coun- ties, biennially, their number never to exceed sixty ; present number, 30. Bien- nial election, first Monday in October. The executive power is vested in a governor, who is chosen by the people once in four years, and is not eligible the succeeding term. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, having appellate jurisdiction only ; also in circuit courts, the state being divided into four circuits, in each of which a judge of the supreme court has jurisdiction. The judges are elected by the legislature, at first for five years ; after that term, during good behavior. There are also courts of probate. The right of suffrage may be exercised by every free white male, aged 21 years, or upward, who h^s resided in the state for two years, and in the county for six months, and who shall be enrolled in the militia, or be by law exempted from serving therein. History. — ^The present state of Florida embraces a portion of the ancient Florida, which extended from its southernmost cape to the river Panuco, in Mexico, and westward to the Pacific, and the undefined regions on the north. It was first explored by Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, in search of a spring called the " fountaia of youth," which was supposed to have the power of re- newing the vigor of youth in the aged. In 1526, it was formally taken posses- sion of, in the name of the king of Spain, by Phainphilio de Narvaez, who had been sent out as governor. The first permanent settlements were made at St. Au- gustine, in 1565, and at Pensacola, in 1699 ; though an unsuccessful attempt had been made, by a colony of Huguenots, in 1562-64, under Ribault. Though often invaded by the English and French, this territory remained a part of the Span- ish dominions until 1763, when it was ceded to Great Britain, but restored again to Spain in 1783. From the year 1699 to 1763 the acknowledged boun- dary between Florida and Louisiana was the river Perdido, but when the latter came into the possession of the Spaniards, for convenience, West Florida was extended to the Mississippi. From this circumstance arose the difiiculties be- tween Spain and the United States, on their purchase of Louisiana of the Freiicli, in 1803. In 1781, Governor Galvez, of Louisiana, invaded and conquered West Florida ; but by the treaty of Paris in 1783, it fell as before stated to Spain, who held it until 1798, when this portion of Florida, which was claimed as far THE UNITED STATES.— ALABAilA. 157 north as Altamaha river, in Georgia, was relinquished to the United States. By virtue of their claims to that portion of Louisiana lying between the Missis- sippi and Perdido rivers, as held by France prior to 1763, the United States, in 1811, seized Baton Rouge, and all other parts of the disputed territory west of Perdido, except Mobile, which also surrendered in 1812. After a protracted and uninterrupted negotiation, Florida was ceded to the United States, in 1819, ratified by Congress as a territory in 1821, and admitted into the Union as an independent state in 1845. Motto of the seal, "Let us alone." GOVERNORS OF FLORIDA. William P. Duval 1892 Robert B. Roid 1839 Under the Constitution. John H. Eaton WM Richard K. Call 1841 William D. Moseley ..1845 Richard K. Call 1836 John Branch 1 844 Thomas Brown 1849 ALABAMA. Alabama lies between 30° M' and 35'^ north lati- tude, and 84° 58' and 88° 26' longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by Florida and the Mexican gulf, and west by Mississippi. Its superficial area is 50,722 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The face of Alabama is some- what varied. Near the gulf of Mexico the country is low and level, embracing numerous swamps and sa- vannas. A large portion of the upland, toward the centre, consists of pine-barrens, thinly wooded, or covered with coarse grass. The soil here is generally sandy and thin. The central part of the state con- sists of a table-land, with a deep, rich, productive soil. Toward the north, the surface becomes mountainous and hilly, beyond which lies the valley of the Tennessee, where the soil is highly fertile. Mountains. — The Cumberland or Appalachian range extends into this state from the northeast, and are believed to abound in mineral wealth. Rivers and Bays. — The principal rivers are, the Alabama, Tombigbee, Black Warrior, Coosa, Tallapoosa, Tennessee, Chattahoochee, Perdido, Ca- hawba, and the Mobile. The chief bays are. Mobile, and Bon Secour, which are situated at the southwest part of the state. Islands. — At the mouth of Mobile bay is a chain of low islands, the three principal of which are, Dauphine, Hurricane, and Horn. Climate. — The climate of the uplands is generally salubrious, with mild winters, and pleasant summers ; but in the southern parts, and along the borders of the streams, it is unhealthy. The extremes of the seasons greatly vary. Those portions of the state lying along the gulf may be regarded as sub-tropical, while those situated in the more elevated and northerly parts, are more or less subject to excessive frosts, and abiding snows. Although the navigation of the rivers is sometimes impeded by ice, it is more frequently the case that it is sus- pended by excessive droughts. Cities and Chief Towns. — Montgomery is the seat of government. Mo- bile* and Tuscaloosa (the late capital) are cities. The other populous towns are, * Mobile, the principal city, and only port of ontry, of Alabama, lies on Mobile bay, 30 miles north of the gulf of Mexico, 160 milf s east of New Orleans, and 1,013 miles from Washington. It occupies an (.'levated pliiin overlooking the pleasant bay, and is fanned by its breezes. Fires have several times injured the city, but it has been rebuilt with improved appearance and solidity. From its position in the state, it is the receptacle of the commerce of Alabama. Vast quantities of cotton are annually exported. The harbor is difficult of access, being THE UNITED STATES.— ALABAMA. 159 Athens, Cahawba (the former capital), Carrohon, Canton, Erie, Haynesville, Hunisville, Jacksonville, Livingston, Linden, Lafayette, Talladega, and Wash- in ot on. Productive Resources. — No part of this state will admit of the profitable cultivation of the sugar-cane, unless we except a narrow strip along its extreme border on the southwest. The staple products are, cotton, rice, tobacco, wheat, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Indigo was formerly ranked among the staple crops, but its cultivation has long since ceased. The farms under cultivation in 1850 were 41,964. Mines of gold, silver, and iron, are successfully worked in the county of Randolph. Gold also occurs in Tallapoosa, Coosa, Talladega, and Chambers. Silver is found in Tallapoosa ; iron in Benton, Clarke, and Talladega ; nitre in Blount; and lead in the bed of the Tennessee, on Muscle shoal. Coal abounds in Tuscaloosa, and on the Cahawba, and Black Warrior ; marble, granite, limestone, &c., in Clarke, which also produces salt. Manufactures. — There are upward of 1,000 manufacturing establishments in this state, producing $500 and more each aimually. There are several cot- ton factories estal)lished, though they produce only the more common fabrics required for domestic use. Tanneries, and flouring, grist, and saw mills, are numerous ; and the products of individual industry in the mechanic arts are considerable. Railroads and Canals. — There are as yet but about 150 miles of railroad completed in Alabama. But new lines are projected, and some of them will be carried through at an early day. The principal canals are, the Muscle Shoal canal, 36 miles long, and the Huntsville canal, 16 miles. Commerce. — The foreign trade of Alabama (mostly exports of domestic prod- uce) amounts to about $18,000,000 annually. The shipping engaged in the foreign trade is about 1 00,000 tons, and about as much more in the coasting- trade, principally with the northern Atlantic ports. Education. — Of the educational institutions in Alabama, the university at Tuscaloosa, founded in 1828, is the principal ; besides this are, La Grange college, founded in 1831 ; Spring-Hill college, founded in 1830; and Howard college, at Marion, founded in 1841. A law-school is attached to the univer- sity; and theological seminaries to Spring-Hill and Howard colleges. There are in the state about 200 academies and grammar-schools, and about 1,000 primary and common schools. Population. — In 1800, estimated at 2,000 ; in 1810, at 20,845; in 1820, it was 127,901 ; in 1830, 309,527; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 18.50. Fayette 9,681 1850. 1840. Autiiu :h 15,023 14,342 B.Wvvin 4,414 2,951 Barbour 23,632 12,024 Benton 17,163 14,260 Bibb 9,969 8,284 Blount 7,362 5,570 Butlor 10,836 8,685 ChRmhi-re 23,960 17,:«3 Cherokee 13,884 8,773 Choctaw 8,.389 new co. Clarke 9,786 8,640 Colli.'e 5,940 new CO. Conecuh 9,322 8,197 Coosa 14,543 6,995 Covington 3,645 2,4:« Dale 6,346 7,.397 Dallas 29,727 25,199 De Kalb 8,245 5,929 1840. 6,942 Franklin 19,610 14,270 Greene 31,441 24,024 Hancock l,.542ncwco. Henry 9,019 5,787 Jackson 14,088 15,715 Jefferson 8.989 7,1.31 Lauderdale 17,172 14,48.5 Lawrence 15,2.58 13.31 3 Limestone 16,483 14,374 Lowndes 21,915 19,.539 Macon 26,898 11,247 Madison 26,427 2.5,706 Marengo 27,831 17,264 Marion 7,833 5,847 Marshall 8,846 7,.5.53 Mobile 27,600 18,741 10,680 Counties. 18.50. Montsoraery 29,795 Morgan 10,12.5 Perry 22,285 Pickens 2L.512 Pike 15,920 Randolph 11,581 Russell 19,.548 Shelby 9.530 St Clair 6,829 Sumter 22,2.50 Talladega 18,624 Tallapoo,'!a 1 5..5.S4 Tuscaloosa 18. 056 Walker 5,124 Washington 2,713 Wilcox 17,3.52 1840. 24,574 9,841 19,086 17,118 10.108 4,973 13,513 6,112 5.638 29.937 12,587 6,444 16.583 4,0.32 5,300 15,278 Total 771,671 590,756 in 1830, 117,549 ; in 1840, 253,532 ; in 1850, 342,892. MonrfX! 12,013 Number of .slaves in 1820, 41,879 ; obstructed by marshy islands and shoals, but within, deep and spacious enough for larce vessels. These, by a rjrcuit around an i.-ilimd, in front of the city, anchor at its wharves. The entrance to the bay is defi'ndid by a f )rtilirjition, and marked by a lighthouse. Good wat^ > ^"^ '^ColdSpr I Hu^itrmale j I c/HaaGrov^ | j AM I r WILKINSON ! eZilfertv t-N. J, M 30 U I S I A' MISSISSIPPI io S rale of miles JO 30 40 VonMclsotiY I ' K EM P ERl ffe j Gaj-lttjiil *^\l'atifttJng ^ ^JASJPER , I \ ' Vi" i N * '/' ' |l ViHfanisbwrfJ DERDALE/ iro))ii(i ^^*«^ mi^^jim^ ^rO Jl h9= 31 30 Lou. U'c.vr fintii W'lishiiiiirtin THE UNITED STATES.— MISSISSIPPI. 163 Population.— In 1800, 8,850; in 1810, 40,352; in 1820, 75,448; in 1830, 136,621 ; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows : — COUNTIES. 1850. 1840. Adams 18,622 19,434 Amite 9.694 9,5l'l Atrila 10,999 4,303 Bolivar 2,577 1,356 Carroll 18,491 10,481 Chickasaw 16,368 2,955 Choctaw 11,402 6,010 Claiborne 14,941 13.078 Clarke 5.477 2,986 Coahoma 2,780 1,290 Copiah 11,794 8,945 Covineton 3,338 2,717 De Soto 19,042 7,002 Franklin 5,904 4,775 Gi-een 2.018 1,6.36 Hancock. 3,672 3367 Harri.oon 4.875 new co. Hinds 2^^.340 19.098 Holmes 13,928 9,452 Issaquena 4,478 new co. Counties. 185a 1840. Itawamba 13,528 5,375 Jackson 3,196 1,965 Jasper 6.184 3.958 Jefferson 13,193 11,650 Jones 2,164 1,2.58 Kemper 12,517 7,663 Lafayette 14,069 6,5.31 Lauderdale. 8,717 5,3,58 Lawrence 6,478 5.920 Leake 5,533 2,162 Lowndes 19,544 14,513 Madison 18,173 15,530 Marion 4,410 3,630 Marshall 29,689 17,526 Monroe 21,172 9,250 Neshoba 4,728 2,437 Newton 4,465 2,527 Noxubee 16,299 9,975 Oktibbeha 9,171 4,276 4,657 Counties. 1850. 1840. Perry 2,438 1,887 Pike 7,360 6,151 Pontotoc 17,112 4,491 Rankin 7,227 4 631 Scott 3,961 1,6.53 Simpson 4.734 3,380 Smith. 4,071 1,961 Sunflower 1,102 new co. Tallahatchee 4,643 2,985 Tippah 20,741 9,444 Tishemingo... 15,490 6,681 Tunica, 1,314 821 Warren 18.121 15.820 Washington 8,389 7,287 Wayne 2,892 2,120 Wilkinson 16.914 14,193 Winston 7,956 4,650 Yallabusha 17,258 12,248 Yazoo 14,418 10,480 Panola 11.444 Total 606,555 375,651 Number of slaves in 1800, 3,489; in 1810, 17,088; in 1820, 32,814; in 1830, 65,659; in 1840, 195,211; in 1850, 309,898. GovERNMEXT. — The governor is elected by the people for a term of two years, and can not hold office more than four years out of six ; and in case of his death, resignation, or other inability, it is provided that the president of the senate shall perform the duties of governor, until another shall be duly qualified. The senate is composed of 32 members, elected for four years, half of the number being chosen biennially. The representatives are elected biennially, on the first Monday in November ; the present number is 98, and can not exceed 100 members. The legislature meets biennially at Jackson, on the first Mon- day in January. The judicial power is vested in a high court of errors and ap- peals, consisting of three judges, chosen by the people for six years, one being chosen biennially ; in a circuit court held in each county, the judges chosen by the people for four years ; in a superior court of chancery, the chancellor chosen by the people of the whole state for six years ; in a court of probate, the judge elected by the people of each county for two years. Every free white male citizen of the United States, 21 years of age, and who has resided in the state one year next preceding the election, and four months in the county, city, or town, in which he offers his vote, is deemed .a qualified voter. History. — De Soto traversed the Mississippi region in 1542, but made no settlement. La Salle visited it in 1681, having proceeded down the great val- ley from the lakes of the north. In 1698, D'Iberville, who was appointed gov- ernor of Louisiana, arrived with a colony, chiefly Canadians, and settled on Ship island. The next year he built Fort Biloxi, on the eastern side of Biloxi bay, which became the headquarters of the province. D'Iberville gave the name of Rosalie to the spot now called Natchez. That settlement was sur- prised and destroyed by the Natchez Indians, in 1729. The French were avenged, and destroyed or dispersed the whole tribe. The northern part of Mississippi was ceded to England by France, in 1763. The southern portion was ceded to England by Spain, and attached to Florida. A portion was retro- ceded to Spain in 1783, A large portion of the present state was erected into a territory in 1798. The Alabama territory was separated from it in 1817, and toward the close of that year Mississippi was admitted into the Union. The first constitution was adopted in 1817, and revised in 1832. GOVERNORS OF MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. Wm. C. C. Claibomp.1802 Robert Williams 1805 David Holmes 1809 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CONSTITTJTION. Girard C. Brandon . . . 1828 A. O. M'Nutt ] 838 AbramM Scott 1832 T. M. Tucker 1842 Hiram G. Runnels... ia34 AlbertG Brown 1844 Charles Lynch 1836 Joseph W. Matthews . 1848 Winthrop Sargent. . .1798 Da^•id Holmes 1818 George Poindexter, . . 1820 Walter Leake 1822 David Holmes 1826 John A. Quitman 1850 John J. Guion, Act. G.1851 Henry S.Foote 1852 ] 61 TIIE UNITED STATES.— LOUISIANA- LOUISIANA.* Louisiana is situated between 29<^ and 33° nortli latitude, and 88° 40' and 94° 25' west longitude from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by Arkansas and Mississippi, east by Mississippi, from which it is sep- arated by Mississippi and Pearl rivers, southeast and south by the gulf of Mexico, and west by Texas, from which it is separated in part by Sabine river. Its su- perficial area is 46,341 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The entire border of the state, from Pearl river to the Sabine, presents itself in a vast tract of irreclaimable sea marsh, from 20 to 30 miles in width, extending far- thest inland in the regions between the streams ; for it is a singular feature, in all the rivers which flow into this part of the Mississippi, that narrow strips of arable land, of greater or less width, occur on their banks, extending far beyond the interior limits of the sea-marsh ; none, however, retain these elevated bor- ders to the Mexican gulf. Contiguous to the sea-marsh are vast prairies, with which the former has often been confounded, in consequence of their similarity in appearance. On the waters of the Sabine, Calcassieu, and Mermentau, the prairies have generally a thin, sterile soil, while on the Vermilion, Teche, and Courtableau, they are almost uniformly good. The alluvial banks of the rivers of Louisiana, in their natural state, are more or less subject to inundation ; but in many cases, where valuable tracts are situated in the rear of the elevated strips on their borders, in order to prevent them from being overflowed, artificial embankments, or dikes, called "levees," are raised, on the margins of the streams. These arable river-borders are usually composed of a fine, loose, rich soil ; but the interior plains are hard, stiff", and less fertile. In some instances, when these plains are laid dry, the soil becomes almost as hard as stone. Taken as a whole, Louisiana consists of inundated and non-inundated lands. Above the mouth of Red river, the tract liable to periodical inundation is nar- row ; but below that stream it widens and expands like a fan, and finally em- braces the whole gulf border. All of the soil, suflliciently elevated for cultivation within the inundated region, is of superior quality. The northern part of the state has an undulating surface. Northward from the prairies of Opelousas, and westward of the inundated border near the Mississippi, lies what has been denominated the " pine region." The surface has been somewhat broken into hills, though of moderate elevation, and within the tract some snow, and even waterfalls appear. The banks of the Vermilion, which are generally fertile, are high, broken, and diversified, above the termination of the timber near the sea-marsh. The country between the Mississippi, Iberville, and Pearl rivers, is an important part of the state. The southern or level portion is highly pro- ductive of the staple crops, and the northern portion, which is undulating, has been considered as the "garden of Louisiana." Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — Louisiana is intersected by numerous rivers, creeks (bayous), and lakes, dividing the state into a great number of islands, or "deltas," similar in some respects to those at the mouths of the Ganges, the Nile, and the Parana. The principal rivers are, the Mississippi, Pearl, Bogue Chitto, Chifuncte, Tangipao, Tickfoha, Lafourche, Teche, Vermilion, Tensas, Red, Mermentau, Atchafalaya, Amite, New, Calcasieu, Black, Bodcau, Da- cheet, Sahne, Wachita, Plaquemine, and the Sabine. The principal lakes are, * So called by La Salle, who passed through this region in 1682, in honor of his royal patron, Louis XIV., of France. 166 THE UNITED STATES.— LOUISIANA. Ponchartrain, Maurepas, Borgne, Chetimaches, Mermentau, Calcasieu, and Sa- bine. The chief bays are, Vermilion, Cote, Blanche, Atchafalaya, Timbalier, West, and Chandeleur. Climate. — In the southern part of the state the climate, in the summer, is hot, sultry, and unhealthy; in the northern part it is more temperate and salu- brious. The winters are usually mild, though snow sometimes falls at Ope- lousas, from ten to tweh^e inches deep ; such instances, however, are rare. The creeks and ponds at New Orleans are sometimes closed with ice, and snow has been known to fall sufficiently deep for sleighing. Cities and Chief Towns. — Baton Rouge is the seat of government. New Orleans* is a city. The other populous towns are, Alexandria, Concordia, Jackson, Natchitoches, Opelousas, and St. Francisville. Productive Resources. — The staple products are, cotton, sugar, molasses, tobacco, and rice. This state also produces to some extent, horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, wool, hay, lumber, tar, turpentine, wheat, rye, oats, potatoes, Indian corn, wine, oranges, and figs. Manufactures. — The manufactures of Louisiana are confined chiefly to the eastern portion of the state. In 1850 there were 1,021 manufacturing es- tablishments producing $500 and upward annually. The articles manufactured are principally to supply the immediate wants of the community. Railroads and Canals. — Louisiana is so well provided with navigable channels, that little attention has been given to artificial means of internal com- munication. The public mind, however, has recently been awakened to the subject, and we may confidently predict that this state will ere long be traversed by iron bands, connecting New Orleans with important points within her own borders, and extending to other states. At present there are but about 50 miles of railroad and 100 miles of canal in the state. Commerce. — The exports and imports of Louisiana are about $70,000,000 * New Orleans, sometimes called the " Crescent City," from its fonn, bending parallel with the Mississippi, is situated on the north bank of that river, lOU miles from its entrance into the gulf of Mexico, 1,185 miles below themoiitli of the Mi:^so>iri, and 1,17.! miles from Washington. Its position and appearance are both singularly diiferent from those of other American cities. The ground, as it recedes Irom the river, descends by a gentle inclination, causing the houses, when .viewed from a point not mucli aboYe the level of high-water, to seem to rise immediately from it. A " levee," or dike, forms a margin between the city and the river, and protects the for- mer from inundation by the latter. It is built of wood, 200 feet wide, and extends for four miles, presenting a most animated scene of commercial prosperity. Within, not only the houses, but the inhabitants, are of many descriptions. Except New York, no city includes Americans from so many diiferent states, while tlie number of blacks, with the French and Spanish Creole.s, and the foreigners, is still greater. These representatives of many nations are drawn to New Orleans by its geographical and commercial relation to the West Indies, South -Ameri- ca, Mexico, and the southern parts of North America. The Creole citizens are descendants of the French, Span- ish, and Germans, who originally founded and peopled the city, and constitute a large portion of the population. The position of New Orleans, with regard to the interior of the United States, is still more important. Situated near the mouth of the great river of the American continent, the Mississippi, with its immense confluents, the Ohio and the Missouii, almost the whole trade of those streams, and of their thousand tributaries, flows toward this point, as to a vast receiving and distributing reservoir. Hence the exports of New Orleans are exceeded by those of no other American city. New York excepted. The great staples of the southern and western states, sugar, cotton, wheat, tlour, and corn, are the articles chiefly shipped from this port. The harbor is excellent, deep, and spacious. Ships, and vessels of every description, from the flatboat of the Mississippi to the niagniti- cent ocean-steamer, here congregate, or enliven the scene, as they move from point to point. From the city to the bar, near the gulf, 100 mileslielow, the river has an average depth of 100 feet, aftbrding anchorage for seve- ral miles along the wharves. The bed of the river, and its banks toward the mouth, are gradually rising. Id 1722 thei-i' were 25 fei't of water on the bar. In 1767 there were but 20, and now there are but 9 feet The^pres- ent mouth of the river is three miles beyond the mouth of 1724. The city is gradually extending toward Lake i'ontchartrain on the north, which communicates with the Missis- sippi by a canal, the Bayou St. John, and a railroad six miles long, and with the gulf of Mexico, by Lake Borgne and intennediatc passages. The Mexican Gulf railroad communicates with Proctorsville, 27 miles distant. From the nature of the eomniercial advantages which New Orleans possesses, it is apparent that its prosperity is almost unlimited, and is the necessary result of the settlement of the vast region of the valley of the Mississippi. It is now the sixth city in population, and the third in commerce, in the Union, and perhaps would already have held a higher rank, but from the check it receives from the pre^•alence of yellow fever, and other maladies, con- sequent upon its situation. There were form(>rly three nnmicipalities and the city of Lafayette, with distinct councils for the nianagenieut of iiiternal affairs, in the geographical limits of the city ; these were consolidated in 18152 under one muuicipnl govm-nment. This city was also the capital of Louisiana until 1849, when the seat of government was removed to Hatcm Rouge. It contains churches of various ages and styles of architecture : hos. pitals, charitable institutions, theatres, banks, warehouses, hotels, and the United States branch mint, a Ir.r^re building, 108 feet deep, 2,S2 leet long, and three stories nigh ; also the University of Louisiana, and many excl- lent schools. The city is supplied with water, elevated "by steam from the Mississippi into a reser\-oir, and thence distributed through iron pipes. The population of New Orieana in 1763 was 3.190 ; in 1785, 4.980; in 1810, 17,242; in 1820, 27,176; iu ISoO. 46,310; in 1840, 102,193; in 1850, 116,348. It was first settled in 1722. ?^ DSDn^syi 5CZI CBSlEaBd CZl [f|] f7TFl!.t5Hi r~|fFl^ raonnczil EDDDCigaBaaanF/ IT VercaitlaJi Jloul ^ 19 Orleans Jloul 19 BanhsAjcajde !0 CitstontMouse ix^ OrU'€i7is Theatre mcricaii „ s[iniE[MSBa[iniinD[\ Dn[ini[iDSQaniiDD[i\Vi 31c no 8 Za. State Jlcaik 9 Jlacnk afJ-otasiimtL JO City JJari/c 11 CaavilHanh iXlfer. (^Trailer a, \l St. Charles Hotel 1.5 &7. Louis Ho(€/ 16 COTIC a 168 THE UNITED STATES.— LOUISIANA annually. Its coasting and river trade amounts to about double that sum. Shipping owned within the state is about 250,000 tons. Education. — The principal collegiate institutions in Louisiana are, the St. Charles college, at Grande Coteau, founded in 1833, the Baton Rouge college, in 1838, the Franklin college, at Opelousas, in 1839, the Centenary college of Louisiana, at Jackson, in 1841, and the University of Louisiana, at New Or- leans. There are about 100 academies and 600 common schools in the state. Population.— In 1732, about 7,500; in 1810, 76,556 ; in 1820, 153,407; in 1830, 215,739 ; in 1840 and 1850, by parishes, as follows :— Parishes. 18.'50. 1840. Parishes. 18.^0. 1840. Parishes. I8.i0. 1840. Ascension 10,752 6,951 Feliciana W 13,245 10,910 Sabine 4.515 newp. Assumption 10,538 7,141 Franklin 3,251 newp. St. Bernard 3,802 3,237 Avoyelles 9,326 6,616 Iberville 12,279 8,495 St. Charles 5,120 4,700 Baton Rouge E 11,977 8,138 Jackson 5,566 newp. St. Helena 4,.561 3.525 BatonRougeW 6,270 4,688 Jeiferson 2.%091 10,470 St. James 11.098 8.548 Bienville 5,539 newp. Lafayette 6,720 7,841 St. John Baptist 7,317 5.776 Bossier 6,962 newp. La Fourche 9,533 7,303 St. Landry 22.253 15,233 Caddo 8,884 5.282 Livingston 3,385 2,315 St. Martin's 11.765 8.674 Calcasieu 3,914- 2,057 Madison 8,773 5,142 St. Mary's 13,700 8,950 Caldwell 2,815 2,017 Morehouse 3,913 newp. St. Tammany 6..364 4,.';98 Carroll 8.789 4,237 Nachitoches 14,201 14,350 Tensas 9,040 newp. Catahoula 7,132 4,955 Orleans 119,461 102,193 Terrebonne 7,724 4,410 Claiborne 7,471 6,185 Ouachita. 5,008 4,640 Union 8,203 1,838 Concordia 7,758 9,414 Plaquemines 7,390 5,060 Vermilion 3,409 newp. DeSoto 8,019 newp. Point Coupee 11,339 7,898 W^ashington 3,408 2,649 Feliciana E 13,598 11,893 Rapides 16,561 14,132 Total 517,739 352,411 No. of slaves in 1800, 3,489 ; in 1810, 34,660; in 1820, 69,064 ; in 1830, 109,588 ; in 1840,168,452 ; in 1850,244,786. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of rep- resentatives. The senators, 32 in number, are elected by the people, by districts, for the term of four years, one half being chosen every two years ; the representa- tives are elected by the people, by parishes, for a term of two years. The num- ber of representatives can not be more than 100, nor less than 70, divided among the parishes, according to their total population, but each parish is entitled to a representative. The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected by the people, for a term of four years, and is ineligible for the next four years. The elections are held in November, and the legislature meets biennially at Baton Rouge the third Monday in January. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court of five judges, which has appellate jurisdiction only, and such inferior courts as the legislature may establish. The chief justice is elected for ten years, and the associate judges for eight years. The right of suffrage is extended to all white males, above 21 years of age, who have resided in the state one year, and in the parish six months, next preceding the election. All citizens are disfranchized, both as to voting and holding office, who may fight, or in any way be connected with fighting, a duel, with a citizen of the state, either in or out of it. The constitution provides for the establishment of free public schools throughout the state. History. — Louisiana embraces a part of the ancient territory bearing this name, once so comprehensive, including the entire valley of the Mississippi and its tributary streams, consisting of all the present states of Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Wis- consin, Minnesota, Illinois. Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and California, a portion of Mexico, North Carolina, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, and all the undefined regions between the Rio del Norte and the northern sources of the Mississippi, extending westward to the Pacific. It also constitutes a portion of Florida, as named by Ponce de Leon, in 1512. The first permanent settlement in the present Louisiana was made at New Orleans, in 1718, by the emigrants of the " Mississippi Company," under the auspices of John Law, who received a royal grant the year before of a complete monopoly of the trade and mines of the ter- ritory for twenty-seven years. In 1732, for the want of success, this company surrendered its chartered rights to Louisiana, and the control of its commerce reverted to the king. In 1763, France was compelled to cede to England, not THE UNITED STATES.— TEXAS. 169 only Canada and Acadia, but all of Louisiana east of the Mississippi, as far south as the river D'Iberville, and thence all their territory north and east of a line running along that stream and Amite river, through Lakes Maurepas and Ponchartrain, to the Mexican gulf. The same year she formed a treaty with Spain, surrendering the remaining portion of Louisiana, not ceded to England, and thus deprived herself of all her possessions on the continent of North Amer- ica. In 1800, it was retroceded to France by a secret treaty, who formally took possession of the country, in 1803, and immediately sold it to the United States for $15,000,000. In the meantime the Revolution had occurred, and all of the former territory of Louisiana, lying east of the Mississippi, which had been ceded to England in 1763, had also become a part of the Union. By an act of Congress, in 1804, Louisiana was definitely subdivided ; the northern part, above latitude 31°, was called "The Territory of Mississippi," and the lower division, "The Territory of Orleans." In 1811, the latter was author- ized to form a constitution of government, which, together with that portion of West Florida west of Pearl river, was formally received into the Union, in 1812, under the name of Louisiana, as a sovereign state. Subsequently to this other lands were annexed to this state, until it received its present bounds. The original constitution was revised in 1845, and a new one adopted in 1852. Motto of the seal, " Union and Confidence." GOVEKNORS OF LOUISIANA. William C. C. Claiborne, appointed 1804, Governor of the Territory of Louisiana UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. Wm. C. C. Claibonie.1812 James Villere 1816 Thos. B. Robertson.. 1820 Henry Johnson 1834 Peter Derbieiiy 18-:38 A. Bauvais, Act. Gov. 1829 Jacques Dupre, do.. 1830 Andre B. Roman 1830 Edward D. White ...1834 Andre B. Roman 1838 Alexander Mouton...l842 Isaac Johnson 1846 Joseph Walker. Paul O. Hebert. .18.50 .1853 TEXAS.* The state of Texas lies between 26° and 36° 30' north latitude, and 93° 20' and 107° w^est longitude from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by New Mex- ico, and the Indian Territory, the latter of which is separated in part by Red river, east by Arkansas and Louisiana, the latter being separated in part by the Sabine, southeast by the gulf of Mexico, and southwest by Mexico, from which it is separated by the Rio Grande. Its superficial area is 225,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The general aspect of this state is that of a vast inclined plain, gradually sloping eastward from the moun- tains on the westerly side to the coast. From the borders of the Mexican gulf, and ranging inland from 30 to 75 miles, the surface is even ; but, unlike any of the other southern states, it is remarkably free from marshes, or swamps. The country between the Sabine and Galveston bay consists mostly of barren prairies, except along the streams, where it is woody and flat. The remaining portion of the coast, southwestward, is low and sandy, and, for some distance inland, the eye is relieved by beautiful prairies, insulated groves, and meander- ing streams. The soil of this region is mostly, if not wholly, made up of allu- * According to tradition, so called, from the Camanches, who, upon discovering the country, exclaimed, " Tehas ! Tehas ! !" which, in their lanjruacre, signified, "The happy hunting-ground." According to other au- thority, it was named Texas, by the Spai.ish commander, De Leon, who visited the Asimais Indians of this re- gion in 1689, to commemorate the kindness he received from them, the appellation, in their dialect, signifying "friends." THE UNITED STATES.— TEXAS. 171 vion, which is often remarkably fertile, and of great depth Next in order comes the "rolling comitry," which extends inland from 150 to 200 miles further, presenting a delightful country, diversified by fertile prairies, pleasant woodlands, and numerous rivulets, fed from the purest springs. Limestone and sandstone form the common sub-strala of this region, the surface soil being a rich, friable loam, mixed more or less with sand. The upper, or mountainous region, situated chiefly in the western section of the state, forms a part of the great Sierra Madre, or Mexican Alps, the remotest extremity of which consists of an elevated table-land, " where the prairies not unfrequently resemble the vast steppes of Asia, except in their superior fertility." Mountains. — The chief mountains are, the Guadalupe and Organ ranges, which lie in the western part of the state. Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — The principal rivers are, the Rio del Norte or Rio Grande, Neches, Trinity, Brazos de Dios, Colorado, Guadalupe, La Vaca, San Antonio, Nueces, Salado, Sabine, Red, and San Jacinto. Sabine and Caddo lakes lie partly in this state. The chief bays are, the Galveston, Matagorda, Copano. Espiritu Santo, and Corpus Christi. Islands. — The principal of these are, Galveston, Matagorda, St. Joseph, Mustang, and Padre. Climate. — The climate is decidedly more healthy than that of Louisiana, or of any of the other gulf states ; still, on the low, alluvial coast, intermit- lents are prevalent in summer and autumn, but the yellow fever is rarely known. From March till October but little rain falls, though gusts of wind, with thun- der, frequently occur. During the rest of the year wet weather generally pre- vails. The winters are warm and mild on the coast, and for some distance inland snow is seldom seen, except on the higher mountains, or table-lands. From April to September the thermometer near the coast ranges from 63° to 100° Fahrenheit. The greatest heats, however, are tempered by strong and constant breezes, which begin to blow soon after the rising of the sun, and continue until afternoon. The nights throughout the middle region are re- freshing and cool during the year. Chief Towns. — Austin is the seat of government. The principal towns are, Galveston, Houston, Nacogdoches, San Augustine, Washington, Corpus Christi, El Passo, and San Antonio de Bexar. Productive Resources. — The chief products of this state are, horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, wool, cotton, tobacco, oranges, figs, wine, olives, dales, sugar-cane, wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, potatoes, and Indian corn. Cotton and sugar-cane are the agricultural staples. The mineral and fossil resources are, silver, iron, coal, bitumen, nitre, granite, limestone, slate, and gypsum. Salt may be manufactured from numerous lakes and springs. BuflTalo and wild horses are found in vast numbers on the prairies. Manufactures. — Texas at present is wholly an agricultural state ; but it possesses all the pre-requisites for becoming eminently a manufacturing one. Its water-power is abundant; its labor cheap; and in its cotton, wool, iron, &c., may be found material to supply the demand of a manufacturing industry to an almost unlimited extent. Railroads and Canals. — Texas is as yet without these important aids to internal commerce. Several railroads have been projected ; among them may be mentioned, one extending from Red river to the gulf of Mexico. Commerce. — The direct foreign commerce of Texas is small, amounting, in 1851, to but about $170,000. Its coasting-trade, however, is of more im- portance. The shipping owned within the state amounts to about 50,000 tons. Education. — The principrl collegiate institutions in Texas are, the Baylor university, at Independence, founded in 1844 ; the University of San Augus- tine ; Wesleyan college, at San Augustine ; Rutersville college, and University 172 THE UNITED STATES.— TEXAS. of Nacogdoches. Its public school fund is derived principally from the school lands, and common schools are being established throughout the state. Population. — In 1820, was about 3,000; in 1850, by counties, as follows: — ■Counties. 1850. AnderBon 2,884 Angelina 1,165 Austin 3,841 Bestrop 3,099 Bexar 6,052 Bowie 2,912 Brazoria 4.841 Brazos 614 Burleson 1,713 Caldwell 1,329 Calhoun 1,110 Cameron, ) g rA-i Starr & Webb 5 •••■°'^*^ Cass 4,991 Cherokee 6,673 Collin 1,950 Colorado 2,257 Comal 1,723 Cook 220 Dallas 2,743 Counties. 1850. Denton 641 Do Witt 1,716 Fannin 3,789 Fayette 3,756 Fort Bend 2,533 Galveston 4,529 Gillespie 1,240 Goliad .•-.. 648 Gonzalez 1,492 Grayson 2,008 Grimes 4,008 Guadalupe 1,511 Harris 4,668 Harrison 11,822 Hays 387 Henderson 1,237 Hopkins 2,623 Houston 2,727 Hunt 1,520 Jackson 996 Counties. 1850. Jasper. 1,767 Jefferson 1,8.36 Kaufman 1,047 Lamar 3,978 Lavacca 1,.571 Leon 1,946 Liberty 2,522 Limestone 2,608 Matagorda 2,124 Medina 909 Milan 2,907 Montgomery 2,384 Nacogdoches 5,193 Navarro 3.843 Newton 1,689 Nueces 698 Panola 3,871 Polk 2,349 Red River 3,906 Refugio 288 Counties. 1850. Robertson 93-1 Rusk 8,148 Sabine 2,498 San Augustine 3,647 San Patricio 200 Shelby 4,2.39 Smith 4.292 Titus 3,6,36 Travis 3.1.38 Tyler 1.894 Upshur 3,394 VanZant 1,348 Victoria 2,019 Walker 3.964 Washington 5,983 Wliarton 1,7.52 Willianwon 1,568 TotaL 212,592 Number of slaves in 1850, 50,161. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives. The senators are elected by the people, by districts, for the term of four years, one half being chosen biennially ; their number is not to be less than nineteen, nor more than thirty-one. The representatives are elected for two years, by the people, by counties ; the number is not to be less than forty-five, nor more than ninety. The executive power is vested in a governor, elected by the people, at the time and places of elections for members of the legislature ; he holds his office for the term of two years, but is not eligible for more than four years in any term of six years. At the same time, a lieutenant governor is chosen for the same term, who is president of the senate, and suc- ceeds the governor in case of death, resignation, &c., of the latter. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court of three judges, in district courts, and in such inferior courts as the legislature may, from time to time, establish. The judges of the supreme and district courts are appointed by the governor, and hold their offices for six years. The right of suffrage is granted to every free white male person over the age of 21 years, a citizen of the United States, who shall have resided in the state one year next preceding an election, and the last six months within the district in which he offers to vote. The creation, extension, or renewal of any banking or discounting company is prohibited. There is no imprisonment for debt. History. — The present state of Texas embraces a part of the extensive country of Louisiana, as claimed by France, prior to the year 1763. It also comprised a province of Mexico, in the Provincias Internas, and remained as such, under Spanish, and subsequently under Mexican rule, until it declared its independence, in 1836. The first post in this country was established at Bexar, by the Spaniards, in 1681. In the year 1685, La Salle, in attempting to estab- lish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi, was deceived by his reckoning, and landed at the head of Matagorda bay, within the present limits of Texas, where the settlement of St.- Louis was formed. Although this little colony was soon after broken up by the Indians, yet, as the standard of France had first been planted there, this region was thenceforth claimed as an appendage to Louisiana. With the exception of one or two unimportant missions, no other settlements were made in Texas until 1692, when a Spanish colony was planted at San Antonio de Bexar. Owing to various circumstances, it remained almost entirely unknown to the rest of the world, until the breaking out of the first Mexican revolution, in 1810. The only settlements of importance at that time were those of San Antonio de Bexar, Nacogdoches, and La Bahia, or Goliad. THE UNITED STATES.— ARKANSAS. 173 From the unsettled state of the country immigration was prevented, and it was not until after the second Mexican revolution, when she achieved her indepen- dence, in 1821, that any substantial advances were made toward further coloni- zation. From this period emigrants, in large numbers, mostly from the United States, continued to flow into Texas, under the encouragement of Mexico. When the federal constitution was overthrown, in 1 834, the people of Texas refused to acknowledge the new government. They had sued for admission into the Mexican confederacy, as an independent state in 1832, but were re- fused, as Mexico was jealous of the growing power of the province. In 1835, a Mexican army was sent to reduce them to submission. In March, 1836, Texas declared itself an independent republic, and elected David G. Burnett president. A constitution was formed, having for its basis that of the United States. The battle of San Jacinto was fought on the 21st of April, between the Texan troops, under General Houston, and the Mexican army, under President Santa Aiia, in which the latter was signally defeated. General Houston was elected president of the republic in September following. It sought for admission into the Union, which was granted by an act of Congress passed in February, 1845. On the 4th of July following the people of Texas, in convention, adopted a state constitution, and it became an independent state of our Union. PRESIDENTS OP THE KEPUBLIC OF TEXAS. Samuel Houston 1836 Mirabeau B. Lamar.. 1838 Samuel Houston 1842 Anson Jones 1844 GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF TEXAS. J. P. Henderson 1846 George T. Wood. ...1848 Peter H. Bell 1850 ARKANSAS. The state of Arkansas lies between 33° and 36" 30' north latitude, and 89° 30' and 94° 30' west lon- gitude from Greenwich ; and is bounded north and northeast by Missouri, east by Mississippi river, which separates it from Mississippi and Tennessee, south by Louisiana, southwest by Texas, and west by the In- dian territory. Its superficial area is 52,198 square miles. Physical Aspect. — In the eastern part of the state, say a distance of 100 miles from the Mississippi, the country is low and wet, and much of the land, except along the borders of the streams, is subject to inundation. With the exception of some prairie, the eastern portion is covered with dense forests. The soil here, where arable, is of the most productive kind. In the middle of the state the surface is uneven and broken, and in the western parts it is mountainous and hilly, interspersed by timber lands, prairies, and barren plains. In some respects, Arkansas may be regarded as a barren country, although along the margins of the streams the soil is generally fertile, but remote from these it is sterile and poor. Mountains. — The chief mountains in this state are the Ozark, which lie at its northwest corner, rising to a height of some 2,000 feet. A range of hills, called the Black mountains, runs between the Arkansas and White rivers, ex- tending from the latter to the western border of the state. Rivers and Springs. — The principal rivers that traverse this state are, the Arkansas, Wachita, White, and St. Francis. The Mississippi waters its almost entire boundary on the east. Toward the source of the Wachita there are hot springs, which are much resorted to by invalids. Their waters are pure and 10 37 T ARKANSAS ^ Scale oCndLes 30 SO TO Af o JSeosTio McDonald. o ^^n^^T^orsyth 1 Senmrvi V I B E N T OJ -^FajTttr ARR'OLLjMAl J ®r WeUviUe S%ilphttrSprr__Y_ SE, i]V A N rCRITTENl THE UNITED STATES.— ARKANSAS. 175 limpid, possessing little or no mineral properties, and, though varying conside- rably in the range of their temperature, sometimes rises nearly to the boiling point. Climate. — The climate of the easterly part, particularly on the borders of the rivers, is generally moist and unhealthy ; but in the middle and westerly por- tions it is regarded by the settlers as salubrious. The climate of the southerly part resembles that of Louisiana, while that at the north is similar to Missouri. Cities and Chief Towns. — The city of Little Rock is the seal of govern- ment. The other populous towns are, Arkansas, Batesville, Columbia. Fay- etteville, Helena, Benton, and Jackson. Productive Resources. — The staple products are, cotton, wool, lumber, peltry, wheat, oats, potatoes, tobacco, Indian corn, cattle, horses, and mules. The southern portion of the state is well adapted to the cultivation of cotton. Its mineral productions consists of iron ore, lead, gypsum, salt, and coal. Manufactures. — The manufactures of Arkansas are confined principally to supplying the immediate wants of the people. The number of manufacturing establishments in the state in 1850 was 271, producing $500 and upward an- nually. Commerce. — Arkansas has no direct foreign commerce, its staples being shipped principally at New Orleans ; but its river trade is considerable. Education. — There is no collegiate institution in Arkansas. It has about 15 academies and 200 common schools. Population.— In 1820, 14,273; in 1830, 30,388; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows : — Counties. 18.50. 1840. Arkansas 3,245 1,346 Ashley 2.0.58 new co. Benton 3,710 2,228 Bradley 3,829 new co. Conway 3.583 2,892 Crittenden 2.648 1,561 Chicot 5,115 3.806 Clark 3,995 2,309 Crawford 7,960 4,266 CarroU 4,614 2,844 Dallas 6,877 new co. Desha 2,900 1,598 Drew 3.275 new CO. Fulton 1,819 new co. FrankUn 3,929 2,665 Greene 2,593 1,586 Hempstead 7,672 4,921 Hot Springs 3,609 1,907 Counties. 18.50. 1840. Independence 7.767 3,669 Izard .... 3,213 2,224 Jackson 3,086 1.540 Jefler.'^on 5,834 2,366 Johnson 5,227 3.433 Lawrence .5.274 2,835 Lafayette 5.220 2,200 Madison 4,823 2,775 Marion 2,302 1,325 Mississippi 2,368 1,410 Monroe.-. 2.049 936 Montgomery 1,958 new co. Newton 1,758 new co. Perry 978 new co. Phillips 6,935 3,547 Pike L861 969 Poinsett 2,308 1,320 Counties. 1850. 1840. Pope 4,710 2.8.50 Pulaski 5,658 5,350 Prairie 2.097 new co. Randolph 3,2 Saline 3,901 Scott 3.083 Searcy 1,979 Sevier 4,240 St. Francis 4,479 Union 10,298 Van Buren 2,864 Wachita 9,591 new co. Washington 9,849 7,148 Vi'hite 2,619 929 Yell 3,341 new CO. 2,196 2.061 1,694 936 2,810 2,499 2,889 1„518 Total 209,639 97,574 Polk 1,263 new co. Number of slaves in 1820, 1,617 ; in 1830, 4,576; in 1840, 19,935 ; in 1850, 46,982. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a general assembly, con- sisting of a senate and house of representatives. The senators are elected by the people, by districts, for the term of four years ; the representatives by coun- ties, for two years. The senate consists of not less than 17, nor more than 33 members ; the house of representatives of not less than 54, nor more than 1 00 members. The general elections are holden every two years, on the first Mon- day in October. The executive power is vested in a governor, elected by the people once in four years ; but he is not eligible for more than eight years in any term of twelve years. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, of three justices ; in circuit courts ; in county courts, and justices of the peace. The judges of the supreme and circuit courts are chosen by the general assem- bly, of the former for eight, of the latter for four years. Justices of the peace are elected by the people for two years. Judges of the county courts are chosen by the justices of the peace. Every white male citizen of the United States, (excepting soldiers and seamen of the army or navy), a resident of the state six months, is entitled to vote at elections. History. — Arkansas was originally a part of the province of Louisiana, and constituted a portion of that undefined region lying west of the Mississippi, 176 THE UNITED STATIB.— TENNESSEK which received not the tread of the white man until the present contury, unless visited by De Soto, who explored the valley of the Mississippi in 1541, In the arrangement of territories it was separated from Louisiana and attached to Missouri. It remained in this connection till 1819, when it was erected into a distinct territory, under its present name. The Rocky mountains were its west- ern limits ; but by congressional acts in 1824, and by subsequent treaties with the Cherokee Indians, its area was curtailed. In 1836, a convention of the representatives of the people assembled at Little Rock, and adopted a state con- stitution ; and the same year Arkansas was admitted into the Union as an inde- pendent state. G0VEKN0B3 OF ARKANSAS TERBITOBT. James MiUer 1819 George Izard 1825 John Pope 1829 William S. Fulton . . . 1835 GOVERNORS OF THE STATE. James S. Conway 1836 Samuel Adama, Acting Gov 1844 John S.Roane 1848 Archibald Yell 1840 Thomas S.Drew 1844 Elias N. Conway 1852 TENNESSEE. The state of Tennessee lies between 36° and 37° 42' north latitude, and 8P 30' and 90° 10' west lon- gitude from Greenwich; and is bounded north by Ken- tucky and Virginia, southeast by North Carolina, from which it is separated by the Iron and Unaka moun- tiins, south by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and west by Arkansas and Missouri, from which it is sep- arated by the Mississippi river. Its superficial area is 45,600 square miles. Physical Aspect. — This state is widely diversified in surface, soil, and climate. The eastern portion abounds in mountains and hills, some of them lofty, and presenting scenery peculiarly grand and pictu- resque. The middle section is less bold in its features, though hilly, and grad- ually becomes undulating, and even level, as we approach the Ohio. The geological formation is wholly secondary, except a small portion of the eastern part, which is transition, and numerous spots of alluvion on the banks of the streams. The soil of the western division is black and rich ; in the middle there are large quantities of excellent land ; and in the eastern or mountainous parts the soil is generally thin, except in the valleys, where it is exuberantly fertile. Mountains. — Of these, the Cumberland, or Great Laurel ridge, is the most remarkable. Stone, Yellow-Iron, Smoky, and Unaka mountains join each other, and form in a direction nearly northeast and southwest, the boundary between North Carolina and this state. Northwesterly of these, and separated from each other by valleys from five to fifteen miles wide, are Bay's, Clinch, and Powell's mountains, and Copper and Welling's ridges. Rivers. — The principal rivers are, the Mississippi, Cumberland, Tennessee, Clinch, Holston, Duck, French, Broad, Hiwasse, Nolichucky, Reelfoot, Tel- lico, Obion, Elk, Forked Deer, and Wolf. Climate. — The climate is comparatively mild, and generally healthy. On some low grounds, however, in the western part of the state, bilious attacks and agues prevail more or less during the summer and autumn months. In the east- ern division, the temperature is so modified by the mountain air on one side, and the breezes from the Mexican gulf on the other, that its climate, perhaps, 'V kT J -0 »■)■< TiT L 1 y"^ JJg Co r<»; s 2 <5\. i; Co -U ^sr ' ^; 2«! 2 5/1 i^//. I 'Or.\ •^^a- S-'^?KlDi o s ?f^ .^.' 3 ZWAjrS-gNE i_^» ©5* .U^^V "sr T^ ^S>1 s&^ NT; H >o^: bj H '-va i^^Arl S i ro) iscJ I '2 ' 5 21 _/21 eoj t^a » SZtyi mc ^^V^sws I s: 5 es ri? :tS- ^ZP^ •:?&. C> U R I ^^/>, 7^ ^"si %• ; ^ a.V?. Ml. ^1 Z-' vfl [«7^ .>»^->./ -i^-p?^ mi =?tr- vis"' w,~- S CO m ,' '^A Z I i 3t M M. S^o )0.\?*'; sKV ^^^ fr t i 12 35 178 THE UNITED STATES.— TENNESSER is as desirable as any in the Union. The winters are by no means severe, and snow seldom falls to a greater depth than ten inches, or lies upon the ground longer than ten days. Cities and Chief Towns. — The city of Nashville is the seat of govern- ment. The other populous towns are, Blountville, Bolivar, Columbia, Clarkes- ville, Franklin, Fayetteville, Gallatin, Jonesborough, Jackson, Knoxville, Ma- rysville, Murfreesboro', Memphis, Pulaski, Paris, Rogersville, Shelbyville, Lebanon, and Winchester. Productive Resources. — The chief products are, horses, mules, neat cat- tle, sheep, swine, poultry, sugar, wax, silk, wool, cotton, hemp, flax, hay, pitch, tar, tobacco, rice, wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Of the mineral and fossil resources, iron, gold, bituminous coal, salt, marl, marble, buhr-stone, and saltpetre, are the principal. Nitrous earth is ob- tained from the caverns, of which there are several in the state. Manufactures. — In 1850, there were in Tennessee 2,789 manufacturing establishments, that produced goods to the value of $500 and upward each an- nually. The principal manufactures are, cotton and woollen goods, leather, pot- tery, machinery, carriages, cordage, &c. Railroads. — The principal roads in Tennessee now in operation are, the Charleston and Memphis, and one from'the Georgia state line to Chattanooga; but there are several other roads in rapid process of construction, and still others projected. Commerce. — Tennessee has no direct foreign commerce, but its internal and river trade is large. Education. — There are in Tennessee two universities, and six colleges, namely: East Tennessee college, founded in 1792; Greenville and Washington colleges, in 1794; Nashville university, in 1806; Jackson college, in 1833; Cumberland university, in 1844 ; Franklin college, in 1845 ; and Union college, in 1848. There are also two theological seminaries, a law and a medical school, about 200 academies and high schools, and 1,500 common schools in the state. Population.— In 1790, 30,791; in 1800, 105,602; in 1810, 261,727 : in 1820, 422,813 ; in 1830, 681,904; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — eastern tennessee. Counties. 1850. 1840. Anderson 69,38 5,6.'58 Blpdsoe 5,959 5,676 Blount 12,382 11,745 Bradley 12,259 7,385 Campbell 6,068 6,149 Carter 6,296 5,372 Claiborne 9,369 9,474 Cocke 8,300 6,992 Granger 12,370 10,572 <5reene 17,824 16,076 Hamilton 10,075 8,175 Hancock — 5,660 new CO. Hawkins .....". 13,370 15.035 Jefferson 13,204 12,076 Johnson 3,705 2,658 •Knox 18,7,55 15,485 Marion 6,314 6,070 Meigs 4,879 4,794 Monroe 10,874 12,056 Morgan 3,430 2,660 M'Minn 13,906 12,719 Polk.. 6,338 3,570 Rhea 4,415 3,985 Roane 12,185 10,948 Scott 1,905 new CO. Sevier 6,920 6,442 Sullivan 11,742 10.736 Washington 13,861 11,751 Total 260,303 224,259 middle tennessee. Counties. 1850. 1840. Bedford 21,512 20,546 Cannon 8,982 7,193 Coifee 8,351 8,184 Davidson 38,881 30.509 Dickson 8,404 7,074 DeKalb 8,016 5,868 Fentress 4,454 3,5.50 Franklin 13,768 12,033 Giles 25,949 21,494 Grundy 2,773 new co. Hickman 9,397 8,618 Humphreys 6,422 5,195 Jackson 15,673 12,872 Lawrence 9,280 7,121 Lewis 4,438 new co. Lincoln 2,3,492 21,493 Macon 6.948 new co. Marshall 1.5,616 14,.555 Maury 29,.520 28,1 86 Montgomery 21,045 16,927 Overton 11,211 9.279 Robertson 16,145 13,801 Rutherford 29,122 24,282 Smith 18,412 21,179 Steward 9,719 8..587 Sumner 22,717 22,445 Van Buren 2,674 new co. Warren 10,179 10,803 Wayne 8,170 7,705 Counties. 1850. 1840. ^Vhite 11,444 10.747 Williamson 27,201 27,006 Wilson 27,444 24,460 Total 477,359 411,710 western TENNESSEE. Benton 6,315 4,772 Carroll 15,967 12,362 Decatur 6,003 new co. Dyer 6,361 4,484 Fayette 26.719 21,501 Gibson 19.548 13.689 Haywood 17,2.59 13.870 Henderson 13,164 11,875 Hardeman 17.456 14,563 Hnrdin 10,328 8,245 Henry 18,233 14,906 Lauderdale 5,169 3,435 Madison 21,470 16.530 M'Nairy 21,864 9.385 Obion 7,633 4.814 Perry 5,822 7,419 Shelby .31,1.57 14,721 Tipton 8.887 fi.8(X) Weakley 14,608 9.870 Tobil 264,063 193,241 Total in the State. 1,002,625 829,210 Number of slaves in 1790, 3 417; in 1800, 13,584 : in 1810, 44,535 183,059 ; in 1850, 239,461. in 1820, 80,107 ; in 1830, 141,603 ; in 1840, t THE UNITED STATES.— TENNESSEE. 179 Government. — The legislative power is vested in a general assembly, con- sisting of a senate of 25 members, and house of representatives, of 75 members, and the executive power in a governor (eligible six years out of eight) ; all chosen biennially (the odd year), the first Monday in October. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, of three judges, elected by the legislature for twelve years, and inferior courts, whose judges are elected by the legisla- ture for eight years. Every free white citizen of the United States, of the age of 21 years, and a citizen of the county wherein he may offer his vote six months next preceding the day of election, is entitled to vote for civil officers. Ministers of the gospel are not eligible to a seat in the legislature. No person who denies the being of a God, or a future state of rewards and punishments, can hold any civil office. Lotteries are prohibited ; and persons who may be concerned in duels are disqualified for holding office in the state. History. — Tennessee was originally a part of the province of Louisiana, as settled and claimed by the French, prior to the year 1763 ; or a part of Caro- lina, as granted by Charles IL, of England, to Lord Clarendon and others, in 1663. The first settlement was made by Bienville, in 1740, who built Fort Assumption, on the site where Memphis now stands. The first permanent set- tlements, however, were not made before 1768-'69, and these were by emi- grants from North Carolina and Virginia. The country was included within the jurisdiction of North Carolina from 1729 to 1790, when it was placed under a separate territorial government, by the name of the " Territory South of the river Ohio." In 1784, North Carolina ceded this territory to the United States on condition that they should accept of it within two years from the passage of the act, retaining jurisdiction over it herself, until Congress should make provision for a territorial government. Upon this, the same year, the inhabit- ants resolved to organize a territorial government on their own responsibility ; and accordingly a convention of deputies formed a constitution for a new state, to be denominated " Frankland," and announced to North Carolina, that they considered themselves independent of her. A portion of the people adhering to North Carolina, two conflicting legislatures, with their subordinate courts, were exercising authority in the territory. In 1789, the legislature of North Carolina authorized and instructed its members in Congress to execute deeds of conveyance for the territory of Tennessee, which they did the following year. In 1796 the inhabitants, by a convention at Nashville, formed a constitution, and Tennessee was, the same year, admitted into the Union as an independent state. The original constitution of Tennessee continued in force till 1835, when the present constitution was adopted by the people. Motto of the seal, "Agri- culture," " Commerce." GOVEKNOKS OK TENNESSEE. William Blount, Governor of the Territory South of the Ohio, appointed 1790. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. John Sevier 1796 Joseph M'Minn 1815 Nevi'ton Cannon ia35 Noil S. Brown 1847 Archibald Roane 1801 William Carol! 1819 James K. Polk 18:19 William Trousdale. . .1849 John Sevier 1803 Samuel Houston 1827 James C. .Jones 1841 William B. Campbell.lSSl WiUe Blount 1809 WilUam Caroll 1829 Aaron V. Brown. . . . .1845 180 THE UNITED STATES.— KENTUCKY. KENTUCKY. Kentucky, formerly a district of Virginia, lies be- tween 36° 30' and 39° JO' north latitude, and 80= 35' and 82° west longitude from Greenwich ; and is bound- ed north by Ohio river, which separates it from Illi- nois, Indiana, and Ohio, east by Virginia, south by Ten- nessee, and west by Missouri. Its superficial area is 40,500 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Kentucky lies entirely in the valley of the Ohio, and is apart of an immense inclined plain, more or less broken in its surface, descend- ing from Cumberland mountain to the river Ohio. The Cumberland range divides this state from Virginia on the southeast. Descending from the foot of this mountain toward the northwest, to the distance of 100 miles, the country is hilly and rather mountainous. This broken section includes at least one third part of the state, and extends from Tennessee line to the river Ohio. A tract along this river, from five to twenty miles wide, is also broken and hilly, stretch- ing through the whole length of the state. But these hills are gently rounded, and are fertile quite to their tops, having narrow valleys between them of great fertility. Along the margin of this stream there are rich alluvial bottoms, of an average width of a mile, subject to periodical inundation. Between the hilly tract on the Ohio and the mountainous country on the Virginia line and Green river there is a tract, 100 miles long and 50 miles broad, beautifully un- dulating, with a black and rich soil, which has been denominated the "garden of Kentucky." The whole state below the mountains rests on a bed of lime- stone, in general about eight feet below the surface. The rivers have worn deep channels into this calcareous bed, forming stupendous precipices, particu- larly on Kentucky river, where the banks in many places are 300 feet high. Mammoth Cavk. — In the southwest part of the st;ite, between Green and THE MAMMOTH CAVE, KENTUCKY. 182 THE UNITED STATES.— KENTUCKY. Cumberland rivers, are several wonderful caverns. The " Mammoth Care," in Edmondson count}', 130 miles from Lexington, near the road leading to Nash- ville,, is some nine or ten miles in extent, whh a great number of avenues and intricate windings. Most of these caves yield an inexhaustible supply of nitrate of lime. During the late war with Great Britain, fifty men were constantly employed in lixiviating the earth of the Mammoth Cave, to obtain the saltpetre it contained ; and in about three years after the washed earth is said to have become as strongly impregnated with nitric acid as at first. Mountains. — The Cumberland range, before referred to, forms the southeast boundary of this state. Rivers. — The principal rivers are, the Ohio, Mississippi, Tennessee, Cum- berland, Kentucky (Kutawa), Green, Licking, Salt, Rolling, and Big Sandy. Climatk. — The climate through most of this state is generally healthy. The winters are mild, and usually of only two or three months' duration. Spring and autumn are delightfully pleasant. The extremes of season, however, are widened by the peculiar features of the country. The rivers in their descent have abraded the plains, and flow in deep chasms or vales, which receive the rays of the sun in various inclinations. In these situations the summers are hot, and the winters mild. Cities and Chief Towns. — Frankfort is the seat of government. Louis- ville, Lexington, and Maysville, are cities. The other populous towns are, Bardstown, Bowling-Green, Burlington, Covington, Cynthiana, Danville Eliza- beth, Flemingsburg, Glasgow, Greensburg, Georgetown, Harrodsburg, Hop- kinsville, Lebanon, Lancaster, Newcastle, Newport, Princeton, Paris, Richmond, Russellville, Shelbyville, Springfield, Stanford, Versailles, and Winchester. Productive Resources. — The staple products of this state are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, eggs, butter, cheese, wine, wax, sugar, tobacco, wool, cotton, hemp, flax, hay, lumber, wheat, barley, rye, oals, buck- wheat, rice, potatoes, and Indian corn. Tobacco and hemp are the great sta- ples of the state. Among the mineral resources are, iron, coal, salt, and lime. The salt springs are numerous, and not only supply this state, but a great part of Ohio and Tennessee, as well as other parts. Manufactures. — About half a million of dollars is invested in cotton and woollen manufactures in Kentucky, and about $200,000 in the manufacture of iron. Other principal manufactures are, cordage, cotton-bagging, hardware, tobacco, spirits, &c. In 1850, the number of manufacturing establishments in the state, producing $500 and over each annually, was 3,471. Railroads and Canals. — The principal railroads at present in operation in Kentucky are, the Louisville and Frankfort, 65 miles, and the Frankfort and Lexington, 29 miles. Several important railroads are projected, which, when completed, will render easily accessible all the important points in the state. Commerce. — In common with other inland states, Kentucky has no direct foreign commerce, but ships mostly at New Orleans. The river trade of this state is considerable. About 15,000 tons of shipping is owned in the state. Education. — There are several collegiate institutions in Kentucky; St. Joseph's, Centre, Augusta, Georgetown, and Bacon colleges ; and Louisville and Transylvania universities, to both of which law and medical schools are at- tached. There are also, a theological institution at Covington, and the Western Military college, at Blue-Lick Springs. There are also, asylums for the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the insane. The state has a school fund of $1,400,000. Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, which together are styled the general assembly. The senators are 38 in number, chosen by the people from single districts for four years. Representatives, 100 in number, are chosen by the people for two years. A governor and lieutenant-governor are elected by the people for a term of four THE UNITED STATES.— KENTUCKY. 183 years. The governor is ineligible the succeeding term. The governor may return a bill passed by the legislature, but a majority of the members elected to each house may pass the bill afterward, and it then becomes a law, notwith- standing his objections. The general election first Monday in August bien- nially. The state officers are elected by the people for a term of four years. The judicial power is vested in a court of appeals, circuit, and county courts; the judges of each elected by the people. Every free white male citizen. 21 years of age or over, resident in the state two years, and in the county where he offers to vote one year, next preceding an election, may vole at such elec- tion. Elections by the people are vwa voce. Population.— In 1790, 7.3,077; in 1800, 220,955; in 1810, 406,511; in 1820, 564,317 ; in 1830, 687,917 ; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows :— Counties. 1850. 1840. Adair 9.898 8,4fi6 Allen 8,742 7,329 Anderson 6.260 5,4.52 Ballard ,5,496 new co. Barren 20,240 17,288 Bath 12.115 9.763 Boone 11,185 10.034 Bourbon 14,466 14,478 Boyle 9,116 newco. Breathitt 3,785 2.195 Brecken 8,903 7,053 Breckenridge 10,593 8,944 Bullitt 6,774 6,334 Butler 5,755 3.898 Caldwell 13,048 1 0,365 Callaway 8,096 9,794 Campbell 13,127 5,214 Carroll 5,526 3,966 Carter 6.241 2,905 Casey 6,,5.56 4,939 Christian 19,580 15,587 Clark 12,683. 10,802 Clay 5,421 4,607 Clinton 4,889 3,863 Crittenden 6,351 new co. Cumberland 7,005 6,090 Daviess 12,3.53 8,331 Edmondston 4,088 2.914 Estill 5,985 5,535 Fayette 22.735 22,194 Fleming 13,914 13,268 Floyd 5,714 6,302 Franklin 12,462 9,420 Fulton 4,446 new co. Counties. 18.50. 1840. Gallatin ,5,137 4,003 Garrard 10.237 10.480 Grant 6,.531 4,192 Graves 11.397 7,465 Grayson 6,837 4,461 Green 9,060 14,212 Greenup 9.6.54 6.297 Hancock 3.8.53 2,.581 Hardin 14..525 16,357 Harlan 4.268 3.015 Harrison 12,964 12.472 Hart 9,093 7,031 Henderson 12,171 9,548 Henry 11,442 10.01 5 Hickman 4,791 8.968 Hopkins 12.441 9,171 Ji-fFerson 59,831 .36,3')6 Jessamine 10,249 9,396 Johnson 3.873 new co. Kenton 17,038 7,816 Knox 7,050 5,722 Laurel 4,145 3,079 La Rue 5.859 new co. Lawrence 6,281 4,7.30 Letcher 2.512 new co. Lewis 7,202 6..3()6 Lincoln 10,093 10,187 Livingston 6,.578 9,025 Logan 1 6,.581 13,615 Madison 15,727 16.3.55 Marion 11,765 11,032 Mason 18,344 15,719 Marshall 5,269 iie w co. M'Cracken 6,067 4,745 Counties. 18.50. 1840. Meade 7,393 5,780 Mercer 1 4.067 18,720 Monroe 7,756 6,526 Montgomery 9,903 9,332 Morgan 7,620 4,603 Muhleriburs: 1 809 6,961 Nelson 14,789 13,637 Nicholas 10.361 8,745 Ohio 9,749 6,.592 Oldham 7.629 7,380 Owen 10,444 8,232 Ow.sley 3.774 new co. Pendleton 6,774 4,455 Perry 2,192 3,089 Pike 5.365 3,567 PuliL-ki 14,195 9,620 Rockcastle 4.697 3,409 Russell .5.349 4,238 Scott 14.946 13.668 Shelljv 17,095 17,768 Simpson 7,7.33 6,537 .Spencer 6,842 6,581 Taylor 7,250 new co. Todd 12,268 Tries 10.129 Trimble 5,963 Union 9.012 Warren 15,123 Wa.shington 12,194 Wayne 8,692 %Vhitley 7,447 Woodford 12,423 9,991 7.716 4,480 6,673 15,446 10,596 7,399 4,673 11,740 Total 982,405 779,828 Number of slaves in 1790, 11,830; in 1800, 40,343; in 1810, 80,.561 ; in 1820, 126,372; in 1830, 165,213 ; in 1840, 182,258 ; in 1850, 210,981. History. — The first permanent settlement in Kentucky was made by Daniel Boone, in 1775, though the country had been visited by John Finley, and others^ as early as 1769. In 1777, the legislature of Virginia made it a county, and in 1782 a supreme court was established. In about the year 1776, the region, south of Kentucky river was purchased of the Cherokees, who called their do- main "Transylvania" (beyond the woods). In 1786, an act was passed by Congress, erecting the district of Kentucky into a new territory ; but the sepa- ration from Virginia did not take place before 1792, when it was admitted into the Union as an independent state. The first constitution was adopted in 1790^ which was superseded by a new one in 1799, and that by the present one in 1850. Motto of its seal, ''United we stand, divided we fall." Isnac Shelby 1792 James Gnrrand 1796 Christopher Greenup 1801 Charles Scott 1808 Isaac Shelby 1812 George Madison 1816 Gabriel Slaughter, Act Gov. -.1815 GOVERNORS OF KENTUCKY. John Adair 1820 Joseph Drsba 1824 Thomas Metcalfe 1828 John Bri'ftthitt 1832 Jas. T. Morehead, Lt. & Act. G. 18.14 James Clark ia36 C. A. Wicklitfe, Lt & Act Gov.1839 Robert P. Letcher 1840- William Owsley 1844 John J. Crittenden 1848 John L. Helm, Act Gov 1851 L. W. Powell 1851 5:1 fo 1 i«T^; ~i--t-«> Ss" *k« ! >r?V|--:^^:': '^ O I °so Nlt'V. I < ! SKSR -is SJoS-S® ~ ;s2 rri llll (ft, v> «»\' E ! ^IMt- 1 ■ .J o I i'oiia' ,\*«i I ^—1 &-» 2 1-.^- ■es S o ■SI ■f: ---! S = S z.« OC ^ cH" l^^_f_:^ i"^" « j .o ?! • s;i§uj p^ i-u. ?l ^^l' < I L'?iSS5?_?_L'^1J° )jS I 5:11 ft^sKQ b^^?"^ 111 ^1 A lb — 1 — T ► ~rt>, l-s 2«r .'I 2 * u^n p® 5 ■ ■■■ * ^M ■ Mk^>HH b ■■In ao fc fr' ^\ "^l rfO, 05 ^ THE UNITED STATES.— OHIO. 1 85 OHIO. The state of Ohio is situated between 38° 34^ and 42° north latitude, and 80° 35' and 84° 57' west lon- gitude from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by Michigan and Lake Erie, east by Pennsylvania, south- east by Virginia, from which it is separated by Ohio river, south by Kentucky, from which it is also sepa- rated by the same river, and west by Indiana. Its su- perficial area is 40,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — This state presents a conside- rable diversity of surface, as well as of climate. A THiige ol cuiupuratively high land divides the waters which flow into Lake Erie from those which descend into the Ohio, forming two inclined plains of unequal areas. The northern, or Erie plain, does not exceed 25 miles in width at the northeast extremity, but expands to 80 miles in width along the east boundary of Indiana. The mean elevation of the apex of this range is estimated to be 1,000 feet above the ocean tides ; so that, from its proximity to the lake, the descent of the streams, flowing in this direction, is somewhat precipitate, and all roll over direct cascades, or falls. On the other hand, the plain inclined to- ward the Ohio is very gradual in its descent, and falls of any kind are rarely to be found. The central portion of the state occupies an immense plateau, or table-land, comparatively level, and in part marshy, which consists of a diver- sity of soil, from rich alluvion and prairie, to wild oak "barrens." Along the Ohio river, for fifty or sixty miles back, the country is hilly, and in some parts quite rugged, caused by the abrasion of the streams ; but the chief part of the cen- tral table-land remains unchannelled, presenting a series of broad prairies and other plains. A similar feature is observable along the Ohio shores of Lake Erie, but the surface is less broken, and the hills are more moderate in their height. Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — The principal rivers of this state are, the Ohio, Muskingum, Hockhocking, Scioto, Great and Little Miami, Maumee, Sandusky, Huron, Vermilion, Black, Cuyahoga, Grand, Ashtabula, Auglaize, Tuscarawas, Walhonding, Olentangy or Whetstone, and St. Mary's. Lake Erie lies partly in Ohio, in the western part of which are Maumee and Sandusky bays ; there is also a good harbor at Cleveland.* * The enterprising and beautiful city of Cleveland, the emporium of northern Ohio, and, with Buffalo, the mart of the eieiit lakes, is finely situated on the south shore of Lake Erie, at the moutli of Cuyahoga river. It IB the seat of justice of Cuyahoga county, and is 200 miles southwest of Buflfiilo, 146 milos northeast of Columlnis, and 359 miles from Washington. The shore of Lake Erie here is a bold bluff, about eiirhty feet hijli, upon the level top of which the largest and best part of the city is built. The streets are straight and spacious, the buildings neat and pleasant, and an open park, shaded with trees, occupies the centre. Fronting this square are, the courthouse, a church, and other prominent buildings. Hitherto the rapid growth of Cleveland has ■caused it to want that aspect of permanence which is the result of slower increase ; but solid stores, hotels, and dwellings, are now rising in every quarter, making it as substantial as it is flourishing. Toward Cuyahoga river the ground descends steeply, affijrding a convenient locality for stores, warehouses, and places of business. Bere the plan of the town is less regular, and not so attractive. The mouth of the river constitutes the harbor, which is deep, spacious, and accessible. Two piers of masonry project 1,200 feet into the lake, and mark an entrance. At the end of one of these piers stands a lighthouse ; another occupies the brow of the hill on the lake. Vessels of the largest class enter the harbor, and proceed some distflnce up the river : but the Ohio and Erie canal, along the stream and through its l)cd, is the principal channel of inland navigation. This great canal connects Portsmouth, 307 miles distant, on the Ohio river with Cleveland, and traverses the rich interior of the state. It meets the Ohio and Pennsylvania canal at Akron, in Summit county, and thus communicates with Pittsburgh and the East. By these channels, and the facilities of intercourse with New York, Canada, and Michi- gan, which Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron afford, Clevi'land maintains a commerce sis varied as it is extensive. Here congregate steamboats and other vessels from every point on the vast shores of the great lakes, exchanging many foreign articles for the grain, and other agricultural products of Ohio. Here also terminate the Cleveland and Pittsburgh, and the Cincinnati, Columbus, and Cleveland milroads. The Lake-Shore railroad connects it with the Erie, at Dunkirk, the Central, at Buffalo, and the Southern Michigan, at Toledo. The manufacturing facilities of this city are not equal to its coranercial advantages. The only water -power is aftbrded by the Cuyahoga river and the Ohio canal, which serve to keep sevcrw establishments in operation. .Such articles as are neces- sary to supply the demand for domestic manufacture, existing in every flourishing city, are produced by the aid of steam and other mechanical powers. The population of Cleveland, in 1802, was about 200 ; in 1810, 547; in 1820, 606; in 1830, 1,076 ; in 1840, 6,071; in 1850, 17,974. 186 THE UNITED STATES.— OHIO. Climate.— The climate, in general, may be regarded as healthy, except in the vicinity of stagnant marshes and sluggish streams, where, in summer and autumn, intermittents usually prevail. Spring and autumn are pleasant ; but the winters, though comparatively mild, are subject to great fluctuations of tem- perature, varying from temperate to 16° Fahrenheit below zero. Cities and Chief Towns. — The city of Columbus is the seat of govern- ment. Cincinnati,* Cleveland, Chillicothe, and Dayton, are cities. The other VIEW OF CINCINNATI, OHIO. populous towns are, Athens, Batavia, Bellefontaine, Bucyriis, Burlington, Car- rolton, Coshocton, Chardon, Cambridge, Cadiz, Chester, Circleville, Canton, Delaware, Elyria, Eaton, Greenville, Gallipolis, Hamilton, Huron, Hillsbor- ough, Hardin, Jeff'erson, Lancaster, Lebanon, Lower Sandusky, Millersburg, Mount Vernon, Marion, Medina, Mansfield, Marietta, M'Connellsville, Norwalk, New Lisbon, Newark, New Philadelphia, Portsmouth, Perrysburg, Painesville, * Cincinnati, the " Queen City of the West," in population, commerce, and jreneral enterprise, is situated on the north bank of Ohio river, 494 miles frnm its entrance into the Mississippi, 1.447 miles from New Orleans, and 492 miles from Washinsjton. It occupies two terraces, or even surfaces, the higher rising by a regular grade about sixty feet above the lower. Great uniformity characterizes the streets, and the citi,' is more splendid than it appears from the water. The surrounding country is a pleasant, fertile valley, bounded by undulating slopes and hills, which command delightful views of the city, the river, and its banks. Near Cincinnati are sev- eral thriving villages and towns, which are connected with it in prosperity and interests. Like most rapidly increasing American cities, Cincinnati exhibits great diversity in the appearance of its buildings. Some are of wood and cheap material ; others are solid, duriilile, and splendid. Extensive warehouses, stores and dwellings adorn the compact central portions ; tovt'ard the outskirts the buildinjs are more scattered, and less comely. The public buildings are numerous, and generally elegant, consisting of lietween forty and tifty churches ; mar- ket-houses ; a courthouse. 120 feet high to the top of the dome ; several banks, asylums, and hospitals ; large and splendid hotels, public schools, libraries, the observatory, scientific and literaiy institutions. Cincinnati, St Xavier, Woodward colleges, and some seminarfes, are located in the city, and exhibit the high regard for edu- cation which is cherished in the West. The manufactories of Cincinnati include a great variety of articles of necessity, comfort, and luxury. Nature has supplied no remarljable water privileges ; yet enterprise has constructed extensive appliances for the pros- ecution of manufactures. Several canals, approaching the city from different points, by means of locks anii dams, perfonn the functions of rivers iu respect to industiy and trade. Cincinnati is the market and eni]ioriuni of a wide cxtrnt of country, exchanjing its manufactures for \Tist mnnhers of hogs, and other agricultural products. This extensive trade is facilitated by the numerous natui-al and artificial channels of conmuniication from various points. From its position on the Ohio, it commands the commerce of- its valley, with that of the Mi.«sissippi, while I/icking river enters the Ohio opposite the city, after meandering 230 miles in Kentucky. Whitewater aud Miami rivers, with their navigation improved by extensive canals, largt;ly contribute to the trade and pros- perity of the place. Tlie water-works of CiTicinnati consists of a steam-engine and reservoirs on the Ohio, which contain 1.600,000 gallons. From Cleveland and Sandusky City, sixty miles apart, on Lake Erie, two lines of railroad traverse the state, meet at Xenia, and terminate at Cincinnati. The population of Cincinnati in 1800 was 750 ; in 1310, 2,540 ; in 1820, 9,644 r in 1830, 24,a31 ; in 1840, 46,338 ; to 1850, 116,108. 188 THE UNITED STATES.— OHIO. Ravenna, Sandusky City, St. Clairsville, Springfield, Steubenville, Somerset, Toledo, Tiffin, Troy, Urbana, Wilmington, Washington, Warren, Wooster, Xenia, and Zanesville. Productive Resources. — The chief products are, horses, mules, neat cat- tle, sheep, swrine, poultry, eggs, butter, cheese, beef, pork, wax, silk, wool, wine, su^ar, hops, tobacco, madder, hay, flax, hemp, lumber, pot and pearl ashes, wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, and Indian corn. Of the mineral resources, coal, iron, and salt, are the principal, the latter of which is exten- sively manufactured from saU creeks and springs. Manufactures. — The manufactures of Ohio are already of considerable im- portance, and are rapidly increasing, in both variety and extent. The abun- dance of water-power, and the cheapness of coal, will make this section of the Ohio valley the seat of vast manufacturing industry. The more important arti- cles of manufacture are, machinery, cotton, woollen, flour, and mixed goods, leather, paper, ironware, agricultural and mechanical implements, cabinetware, hats, steamboats, &c. The number of manufacturing establishments in the state in 1850, producing each $500 worth or more annually, was 10,550. Railroads and Canals. — Ohio has an extensive system of railroads and canals, communicating with every important point. There are about 2,000 miles already in operation, or in rapid process of construction. The principal of them are, the Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati, 255 miles ; the Cincin- nati and Sandusky, 218 miles ; Cleveland and Pittsburgh, 100 miles ; the Ohio and Pennsylvania, running through the centre of the state, and connecting the Indiana with the Pennsylvania roads ; and the Lake-Shore road, uniting Illinois and Michigan with New York and the eastern states. The most important of the canals in the state is the Ohio canal, 309 miles long, connecting the waters of Lake Erie at Cleveland with those of the Ohio river at Portsmouth. The aggregate length of the canals is about 850 miles. The tolls collected are about $800,000 annually. Commerce. — With the exception of the trade with Canada, the direct foreign commerce of Ohio is trifling, the exports and imports of 1850 amounting to only $800,000. But the coasting and river trade is immense. Amount of shipping enrolled in the state about 65,000 tons. Population.— In 1790, about 3,000 ; in 1800, 45,365 ; in 1810, 230,760 ; in 1820, 581,434; in 1830, 937,903; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows:— Counties. 1850. 1840. Adams 18.883 13,183 Allen 12,109 9,079 Ashland 23,792 new co. Ashtabula 28,766 23,724 Athens 18,21.5 19,109 Auelaize 1 1,338 new co. Belmont 34,600 30,901 Brown 27,332 22.715 Butler 30,789 28,173 Carroll 17,685 18.018 Champaign 19,762 16,721 Clark .• ... .22,178 16,882 Clermont 30,455 23,106 Clinton 18,838 15,719 Columbiana 83.621 40,378 Coshocton 25,674 21 ,590 Crawford 18,177 13,152 Cuyahoga 48,099 26,506 Darke 20,274 13,282 Defiance 6,966 new co. Delaware 21,817 22,060 Erie 18,568 12,599 Fairfield 30,264 31 ,924 Fayette 12,726 1 0,984 Franklin 42,910 25.949 Fulton 7,781 new co. Gallia 17,063 13,444 Geauga 17,827 16,297 Greene 21,946 17,528 Guernsey 30,438 27.748 Counties. 1850. 1840. Hamilton 156,843 80,145 Hancock 16,751 9,986 Hardin 8,251 4,598 Harrison 20,157 20,099 Henry 3,435 2,503 Hii^hland 25,781 22,269 Hocking 14,119 9,741 Holmes 20,452 18,088 Huron 26,203 23,933 Jackson 12,721 9.744 Jefferson 29, 1 32 25, 030 Knox 28.873 29,579 Lake 14,654 9,738 Lawrence 1.5.246 13.719 Licking 38.846 35,096 Logan 19,162 14.015 Lorain 26,086 18,467 Lucas 12,363 9,382 Madison 10,015 9,025 Mahoning.. .23,735 new CO. Marion. . T 12,618 14,765 Medina 24,441 18,352 Meigs 17,971 11,452 Mercer 7,712 8,277 Miami 24,996 19,688 Monroe 28,351 18.521 Montgomery 38,219 31.938 Morgan 28,585 20,852 Morrow 20,280 now co. Muskingum 45,049 38,749 Counties. 1850. 1840. Ottowa 3,308 2,248 Paulding 1,766 1,034 Perry 20,775 19,344 Pickaway 21,008 19.723 Pike 10,9.53 7.626 Portage 24,419 22.965 Preble 21,736 1 9.482 Putnam 7.221 5,189 Richland 30,879 44,5:)2 Ross 32,074 27,460 Sandusky 14,305 10.182 Scioto 18,428 11,193 Seneca 27,105 18.128 Shelby 13.958 12,1.54 Stark 39,878 .34.603 Summit 27.485 22,.560 Trumbull 30.490 38,107 Tuscarawas 31,761 25,()31 Union 12,204 8,422 Van Wert 4,81 3 L577 Vinton 9.353 new co. Warren 2.5.561 2:1.141 Wa.«hini:ton 2i1,540 20,823 Wayne ." 32.981 35.808 Williams 8,018 4,465 Wood 9.157 r,357 Wyandott. 1 1 .292 new co. Total 1,980 408 1,519,467 THE UNITED STATES.— OHIO. 189 Education. — The facilities of education in Ohio are ample. The perma- nent school fund amounts to rising $600,000. The principal literary iustilu- tions are, the University of Ohio, at Athens, founded in 1804 ; the Miami uni- versity, in 1809 ; Cincinnati college, in 1819 ; Franklin college, at New Athens, in 1825; Western Reserve college, at Hudson, in 1826; the Kenyon college, at Gambia, in 1827 ; the Granville college, at Granville, and Woodward college, at Cincinnati, in 18.31 ; the Oberlin college, in 1834 ; the Marietta college, in 1835; the St. Xavier college, at Cincinnati, in 1840; the Ohio Wesleyan univer- sity, at Delaware, in 1842 ; and the Wittenberg college, at Springfield, in 1845. Law, medical, and theological schools are attached to many of the above. There are near 200 academies, and over 13,000 free common schools established throughout the state. The state has also provided liberally for the education and support of the deaf and dumb, blind, and lunatic. The buildings, with spa- cious grounds, for each class, are situated at Columbus. LUNATIC ASYLUM, COLUMBUS.* Government. — The legislative power is vested in a general assembly, con- sisting of a senate and house of representatives, elected biennially, on the sec- ond Tuesday in October. The senate consists of 35 members, and the house of representatives of 100 members. The legislature meets biennially at Co- lumbus the first Monday in January. The executive department consists of a governor, lieutenant-gqvernor (who is president of the senate), secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, and an attorney-general, who are chosen by the people at the biennial election. They hold their offices for two years, except the au- ditor, whose term is four years. The board of public works, consisting of three members, is elected by the people, one annually for the term of three years. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, in district courts, courts of common pleas, courts of probate, justices of the peace, and in such other courts, inferior to the supreme court, as the general assembly may establish ; the five supreme court judges hold their ofiice five years, the term of one of the judges expiring* annually. There are nine judges of the common pleas, elected by dis- trict for five years. All judges are elected by the people. The elective fran- chise is enjoyed by every white male citizen of the United States, of the age of 21 years, a resident of the state one year next preceding the election. History. — The French explored the region, and erected forts along the banks of the Ohio river, as far up as Pittsburgh, Penn., as early as 1754. In 1786, what now constitutes the state of Ohio was erected, by act of Congress, * The edifice of this institution stands upon an open space of ground, about one mile east of the etatehouse. It has thirty acres of land attached to it. The ranee prewnts a continuous front of 376 feet. The buildinss cover an acre of ground, and contain 460 rooms. It was erected for $150,000, including the labor of convicts. 190 THE UNITED STATES.— OHIO. into the " Western Territory," the name of which was afterward changed to the "Territory Northwest of the River Ohio." The first permanent settlement CAMPUS IMLASTmS, MABIETTA. was made at Marietta,* in 1788, by a small colony from Massachusetts, and the year following a settlement was made near Cincinnati ; this was followed by another at Cleveland, in 1796, the emigrants being mostly from New England. Soon after the treaty of Greenville, in 1795, Michigan was surrendered by Great Britain to the United States, and was annexed to the territory northwest of the river Ohio in 1800. The same year Connecticut relinquished her jurisdiction over the "Western Reserve."! In 1799, the first territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, and organized the government. In 1802, Ohio was detached from Michigan, and admitted into the Union as an independent state. Her constitu- tion was framed the same year, at Chillicothe (the capital of the state until it was removed to Columbus in 1812), and continued in operation till 1851, when a new constitution was framed at Columbus, by a convention of delegates, and adopted by the people. GOVERNORS OF OHIO. Arthur St. Clair, Governor of the Northwest Territory from 1789 to 180a Under the Constitution. Edward Tiffin 1803 Thomas Kirker, Acting Gov. ..1807 Samuel Hunting 1808 Return J. Meigs 1810 Othniel Looker, Acting Gov. ..1814 Thomas Worthington 1814 Ethan Allen Brown 1818 Allen Trimble, Acting Gov 1822 Jeremiah Morrow 1822 Allen Trimble 1826 Duncan M'Arthur 1830 Robert Lucas 1832 Joseph Vante 1836 Wilson Shannon 1838 Thomas Corwin 1840 Wilson Shannon 1842 Thos. W. Bartley, Act. Gov... 1843 Mordecai Bartley 1844 William Bebb 1846 Sealmrj- Ford 1848 Reuben Wood 1850 *Soon after the settlement of Marietta (so called in honor of Maria Antoinette, the queen of France), com- menced, the people began to build a stockade fort, and named it Campus Martins. It was completed in the vnnter of 1791. The wall formed a parallelogram, the sides of which were 180 feet. At each conier was a strong blockhouse, 20 feet square. Within were a number of dwelling-houses, which, with the fort, were con- structed of wood, whipsawcd into timber, four inches thick, and laid up as log-houses are. In the west and south fronts wore strong gateways. Tort-holes for musketry and artillery were made, and in the block-houses, sentries were posted every night. A row of palisades, sloping outward, extended from comer to comer of the block-houses. The dwellings contained nearly 300 persons. Outside of the whole was a row of strong pali- sades, about ten feet in height. t That part of Ohio called "New Connecticut," or " Connecticut Western Reserve," is .situated in the north- eastern part of the state, and embraces 3,300,000 acres, which was held by Connecticut, in consideration of it.-s original charter, and by way of compromise was ceded to the United States in 1796, when it was sold to tlie " Connecticut Land Company" for $1,200,000. It forms the chief basis of the present school fund of Connec- ticut. A valuable tract ol 4,204,800 acres, lying between Little Miami and Sciota rivers, belongs to the state of Virginia, called the " Military Lands." THE UNITED STATES.— MICHIGAN. 191 MICHIGAN. The state of Michigan consists of two distinct pen- insulas, and is situated between 41° 48' and 47° 30' north latitude, and 82° 20' and 90° 10' longitude west from Greenwich. Michigan proper, or the lower pen- insula, is bounded north by the straits of Mackinaw, which separate it from the upper peninsula, northeast by Lake Huron, which separates it from Canada West, east by Lake Huron, the river St. Clair, Lake St. Clair, the river Detroit and Lake Erie, which sepa- rate it from Canada West, south by Ohio and Indiana, and west by Lake Michigan, and contains 39,856 square miles. The upper peninsula, which is annexed to Michigan proper, merely for the temporary pur- poses of civil government, is bounded north by Lake Superior, easterly by St. Mary's river, which separates it from Canada West, southerly by Wisconsin, Lakes Michigan and Huron, and Mackinaw straits, and contains 20,664 square railes ; making the total superficial area 60,520 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The surface of Michigan proper is less varied than any other section of equal extent in the United States. The dividing ridge, or table land, which separates the sources of the Great Miami and Maumee from those of the Wabash, is continued in a northerly direction across the lower peninsula, dividing it into two inclined plains, more or less rolling, one sloping toward Lake Michigan on the west, and the other toward Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, on the east. This table-land is interspersed with marshes and small lakes, from which issue the head branches of the principal streams. Small prairies occur from the banks of the St. Joseph's to Lake St. Clair, the soil of some of which is excellent, while that of others is sandy, sterile, or wet ; but a greater portion of the country is covered with dense forests, the soil of which is well adapted to the production of most kinds of northern farm crops. The trans-peninsula, or northern division, is diversified by mountains, hills, valleys, and plains. A range of high lands run nearly throughout the length of the peninsula, rising gradually from the shores of Lakeis Michigan and Superior toward its summit. The surface in the region of Keweenaw point is broken and rolling, and some of the hills are elevated nearly 900 feet above the level of the lake. From its high latitude and sterile character, this division of the state does not promise much to agriculture ; though there are many fertile tracts, particularly in the prairies on the eastern part of this peninsula, as well as in the valleys, which are highly productive, when cultivated with appropriate crops. Isle Royale presents a broken and rugged outline on its coast, and is deeply indented by long and narrow inlets and bays. About one fourth of this island is sandstone and conglomerate rock. The remainder consists of trap-rock, which lies in ridges from 300 to 500 feet in height above the lake, and extending in a broken line throughout the isle. Mountains. — Porcupine mountains, which form the dividing ridge between Lakes Superior and Michigan, toward the western boundary of the state, are represented to be elevated from 1,800 to 2,000 feet above the lake. Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — The principal rivers of the lower peninsula are, the Raisin, Rouge, Detroit, Clinton, Black, or Delude, St. Clair, Sagi- nuw, Thunder Bay, Cheboygan, St. Joseph's, Kalamazoo, Grand, Marame, Barbice, White, Rocky, Beauvais, St. Nicholas, Marguerite, Manistee, Au Sable, or Sandy, Anx Betises, Belle, Tittibawasse, Grand Traverse, Aux Carpe, Maskegon, Flint, and the Pentwater. The chief rivers of the upper Zon.'We.ttJi-oniWiKshittfffon THE UNITED STATED.— MICHIGAN. 193 peninsula are, the Ontonagon, Huron, Menomonee, Dead, Montreal, St. Mary's, Eagle, Cedar, White Fish, Black. Sturgeon, Rapid, and the Manislic. The principal lakes are, Superior, Michigan, Erie, Huron, St. Clair, Long, Hough- ton, and Michigamme. The chief bays are. Green, Saginaw, Thunder, Great and Little Traverse, Tah-qua-me-naw, and Keewaiwona. Islands. — Grand, Isle Royale, Sugar. Drunimond's, Cockburn, Mackinaw, Boisblanc, Great and Little Beaver, Garden, and Hog. Climate. — The climate of Michigan is generally regarded as healthy, though near the lakes, swamps, and turbid streams, intermittents prevail to some extent in summer and fall. The seasons of the lower peninsula somewhat resembles those of western Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Canada West. In the northern peninsula the climate is colder and more severe. Lake St. Clair is usually frozen from December till March. Cities and Chief Towns. — l/nisin"- is the s!>;it of government. Detroit* is CITY OF DETKOIT. MiCHluAN. a city. The other populous town.s are, Adri;m, Ami Arbor, Bellevue, Branch, Centreville, Oassopolis, Flint, Grand Rapids, Howell, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Lapier, Marshall, Mackinac, Monroe, Palmer, Pontiac, Saginaw, and Ypsilanti. Productive Resources. — The chief productions are horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, eggs, butter, cheese, fish, sugar, wax, hops, hay, tobacco, wool, hemp, wheat, rye, barley, oat's, buckwheat, potatoes, Indian corn, and lumber. Among the mineral resources are rich veins of iron ore, in inexhaustible quantities, in the district of country extending from Dead river to * The commercial and rapidly increa-siii" city of Detroit occupies a pleasant and commandinsf situation on Detroit river, eislitofii miles from Lake Erie, iiiid .seven miles Irom Lake .•^t. Clair. Bitwivn tlio two great lakes. Huron anil Erie, upon both of which its ve.a.-cl.« carry on an extensive tradf ; throurrh Lakes Superior and Michigan, and with Canada, Penn-'^ylvnnia, and NewYork.it is an important metropolis of .the western states, and i.s destined to a still higher riink than it now hold>. Tlie city is agrcealily laid out with broad streets, some of which conversre at the •' Circus." n sjiacinus p\ililic ground. Among the otlier jiarks is the "Campus Martius," near tlie centra of the city. Parallel with tlie riv(»r, at thi' foot of the eminence upon which the town is built, is a street liin'd with warehouses and stores. Above this, another strcft runs in the same direction, and still further to the wi'st is the principal business street, which is closely built with stores, dwellings, and public buildings. Here, until 1847, when the seat of government was rcniovrMl to Lansing, stood the stateliouse, from the hiirh dome of wliieh appears an enchanting pros]>cct of the river. Lake St. Clair, and their picturesque and romantic shores. Otlier buildings are, the city-hall. Bank of Michigan, churches, markets, schools, and various scientific and literary institutions. Several hundred steamboats and other vessels, from various places on the lakes, visit Detroit during the season of n .vigation, whicli lasts about two thirds of the year. The Michigan Central railroad extends 281 miles, to Chicago, on Lake Michigan ; and the Detroit and Pontiac railroad ia 25 miles long. The population of Detroit, in 1810, was 770; in 1820, 1,422 ; in 1830, 2,222 ; in 1840, 9,102 j in 1850, 21,019. 13 1^4 THE UNITED STATES.— MICHIGAN. • the Menomonee. But what in more valuable, and of great importance to this country, are the rich veins of copper, blended more or less with silver, which occur at Keweenaw Point, Eagle river, Isle Royale, and other parts of the upper peninsula. Many of these mines have been opened to a considerable ex- tent, and have been sufficiently proved to show that they maybe advantageously wrought for centuries to come. From one of the veins of the Copper Falls mines a single mass of native copper has been taken, which weighed 30 tons. It was perfectly pure, and as dense as the best hammered copper of commerce, showing its perfect fineness. These ores frequently contain a sufficient quan- tity of silver to be of commercial value. To show the extent to which these veins are susceptible of being wrought, it may be stated that a single mine an- nually sends to market nearly 1,000 tons of ore, that will contain 60 per cent, of pure copper. In another instance masses of pure copper, of large size, weighing some thousands of pounds, have been obtained from an ancient ravine, that had been gullied out by the floods. In the same ravine large pieces of silver also were found. Manufactures. — The manufactures of Michigan are confined mostly to supplying the immediate wants of the people. Saw, planing, and flour mills are numerous, as also tanneries, &c. The number of manufacturing establishments in the state, in 1850, whose annual product amounted in value to $500 and up- ward, was 1,979. Railroads. — Michigan has several important railroads, which traverse the state. Among them are, the Central railroad, from Detroit to Chicago, 281 miles long, and the Southern, from Monroe to Chicago, 247 miles. The aggre- gate length of railroads in operation in the state is about 500 miles. Commerce. — Situated as Michigan is, on the four great lakes of Huron, Su- perior, Michigan, and Erie (furnishing a continuous water communication of nearly 1,000 miles navigable for vessels, and the opening of a canal around the falls of Ste. Marie, will add about 400 miles to this, through Lake Superior), it possesses superior advantages for an extensive commerce. Its foreign trade is confined to the British provinces. But its coasting-trade is large — its exports, from the single port of Detroit, amounting to over $4,000,000 in value annually. An immense traffic is carried on in lumber, consisting of pine, walnut, maple, and white-wood, with the eastern and southern states. Education. — The University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, founded in 1837, and the St. Philip's college, near Detroit, founded in 1839. are the principal collegiate institutions in Michigan. There are about 3,000 common schools throughout the state. Population. — In 1810, within the four districts of Detroit, Erie, Huron, and Mackinaw, was 4,762 ; in 1820, 8,896. In 1830, the whole population of the territory was 31,639 ; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows : — Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Allegan 5,125 1,783 Jackson 19,431 13,130 Oceana .300 208 Barry 5,072 1.078 Kalamazoo 13,179 7,.380 Ontonajon 389newco. Berrien 11,417 5,011 Kent 12,016 2,587 Ottowa 5.587 496 Branch 12,472 5,715 Lapeer 7,029 4,265 Sasinaw 2.609 2.103 Calhoun 19,162 10,599 Lenawee 26,372 17,889 Sanilac 2.112newco. Cass 10,907 5,710 Livingston 13.485 7,430 St. Clair 10.420 4,606 Chippewa 898 534 Macomb 15,5.30 923 St. Jo.seph 12,725 7.068 Clinton 5,102 1,614 Marquette 136newco. Schoolcraft 16newco. Eaton 7.0.58 2,379 Michilimacltinac 3,598 9,716 Shiawasse 5,230 2,103 Genesee 12,031 4,268 Mason 93newco. Tuscola a91newco. Hillsdale 16,159 7,240 Midland 65uewco. Van Buren 5,800 1,910 Houghton 708 new CO. Montcalm 891 new co. Washtenaw 28.167 2.'i,571 Huron SlOnewco. Monroe. 14,698 9,922 Wayne 42,7,56 24.173 Ingham 8,631 2,498 New.iygo 510 new co. Ionia 7,597 1,923 Oakland 31,270 23,646 Total 397,654 212.276 Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, of 32 members, and a house of representatives, of not less than 64, nor more than 100 members, Kjlected by the people, for two years, by single districts The executive power THE UNITED STATES.— MICHIGAN. 195 is vested in a governor, and lieutenant-governor, elected by the people for a term of two years. The general election is held on the Tuesday succeeding the first Monday in November, biennially. At each general election a secre- tary of state, superintendent of public instruction, treasurer, commissioner of the land-office, an auditor-general, and an attorney-general, are chosen by the peo- ple at large, for the term of two years. County officers are also .chosen every two years. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, circuit courts, probate courts, and injustices of the peace. The judges of the several circuit courts are to be judges of the supreme court for the term of six years, and thereafter, until the legislature otherwise provide. The right of suffrage is held by every white male citizen above the age of 21 years, every white male inhabitant residing in the state on the first of January, 1850, who has declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States six months preceding ai^ election, or who has resided in the state two years a^id six months, and declared his intention as aforesaid, who has resided in the state three months, and in the township or ward in which he offers to vote ten days next preceding such election. Slavery and imprisonment for debt are prohibited. The personal property of debtors, under $500, and every homestead not exceeding forty acres of land, and occupied dwelling, not exceeding $1,500, are exempt from sale on execution, or any other final process from a court, for any debt contracted after the adoption of this constitution. History. — Among the earlier settlements of this state were Fort Ponchar- train, at Detroit, in about the year 1660 ; the Jesuit mission on the island of Mackinaw, by Marquette, in 1665 ; and Fort Miami, at the mouth of St. Joseph's river, by La Salle, in 1678. Michigan remained as a portion of the British possessions in North America until the treaty of Grenville, in 1795. The year following it was ceded to the United States ; and in 1800 it was annexed to the "Territory Northwest of the River Ohio." In 1802, Ohio was detached and formed into an independent state ; but a territorial government was not es- tablished in Michigan before the year 1805. In 1812 it was invaded by the British, but was retaken by the Americans the next year.* In 1835 a constitu- tion was formed, and in 1837 it was admitted into the Union as an independent state. The present constitution of the state was adopted by a convention, at Lansing, August 15, 1850, and ratified by the people in November of that year. Motto of the seal, E plunhus unuin : "Many in one." Tuebor: "I will defend." Si quasris peninsulam amcBnam circumspice : " If thou seekest a beautiful penin- sula, behold it here." GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORY OF MICHIGAN. William Hull 1805 Gfiorgp B. Porter 1829 John S. Homer, Acting Gov. . .1835 Lewis Caas 1814 S. T. Mason, Actinc; Gov 1834 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. Stevpns T. Mason 1836 John S. Barry 1842 E. Ransom 1848 William Woodbridge 1840 Alphfus Folch 1846 John S. Barry 1850 J. W. Gordon 184 1 Wm. L. G reenley, Act. Gov ... 1847 Robert M'Clelland 1852 * On thfi 16th of August, 1812, General Brock, the British commander, crossed the river a few miles above Detroit, without opposition, and, with a force of about 700 British troops and 600 Indians, marched nfjiiinst the American works. While the American troops, under General Hull, advantageously posted, and numbering more than the combined forces of the British, were anxiously awaiting the ord<>rs to fire, great were their-mor- tification and rage, when all were suddenly ordered within the fort, and a white flag, in token of submission, waa suspended from the walls. Not only the army at Detroit, but the whole t<'rrifnry, with all its forts and, garri- sons, was thus basely surrendered to the British. Perry's victory on Lake Krie, Sept. 10, 1813, opened a passage to this territory, Rnd General Harri-'on immediately made preparation.s for rr'tjiking it. He entered De- troit on the 29th of Sepf'mber, which had been evacuated by the Enjrli,*h, met them at the Thames, the 5th of October, completely routed them, and thus more thaJi regained the territory which had been surrendered by Hull. 196 THE UNITED STATES.— INDIANA- INDIANA. The state of Indiana is situated between 37° 45' and 41° 52' north latitude, and 84'^ 42' and 88^ 12' longitude west from Greenwich; and is bounded north l)y Michigan lake and state, east by a small portion of Michigan, Ohio, and a small part of Kentucky, south- cast by Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky, and west by Illinois, from which it is separated in part by Wabash river. Its superficial area is 34,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — In features, soil, and climate, Indiana forms a connecting link between Ohio and Illinois. It is more hilly than the latter, but contains no mountains. A range of high land, called the " Knobs," extends from the falls of the Ohio to the Wabash, which in many places produces a broken surface. Bordering on all the principal streams, ex- cept the Ohio, are belts of " bottom" and prairie. Between the Wabash and Lake Michigan the country is generally level, abounding alternately in wood- lands, prairies, lakes, and swamps. A range of hills runs parallel with the Ohio, from the mouth of the Great Miami to Blue river, alternately approaching to within a few rods, and receding to the distance of two miles. Immediately below Blue river the hills disappear, and the country immediately becomes level. The prairies of this state are of two kinds, the " river" and the "upland." The former are bottoms, destitute of timber; the latter are from 30 to 100 feet or more in elevation, and are far more numerous and extensive. The soil of these plains, or table-lands, are often as deep and fertile as the best bottoms! The prairies bordering on the Wabash are particularly rich, varying from two to twenty feet in depth. In truth, no state in the Union can show a greater ex- tent of fertile land, in one body, than Indiana. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers are, the Ohio, which flows along the entire southern boundary ; the Wabash, which bounds the state partly on the west; the Patoka, Tippecanoe, Eel, Salamanic, Plein, Theakiki, St. Mary's, St. Joseph's, White, Whitewater, and Kankakee, a branch of the Illinois. Be- sides Lake Michigan, there are English and Beaver lakes, all of which lie at ^he northwestern part of the state. Climate. — The climate is generally healthy, and resembling that of Ohio and Illinois. In all places situated near stagnant waters or sluggish streams, fevers and bilious attacks prevail during the hotter months of the year. The Wabash is generally closed in the winter, and may be safely crossed on the ice. In the central and southern parts of the state snow seldom falls to a greater depth than six inches ; but in the northern parts it is sometimes from a foot to eighteen inches deep. Cities and Chief Towns. — The city of Indianapolis is the seat of govern- ment. Madison and New Albany are cities. The other populous towns are, Bedford, Bloomington, Brookville, Columbus, Charlestown, Covington, Cory- don, Crawfordsville, Centreville, Danville, Greensburg, Greencastle, Lafayette, Lawrenceburg, Martinsville, Mt. Vernon, Newcastle, Paoli, Rockville, Rush- ville, Shelbyville, Salem, Terre Haute, Vincennes, Vevay, and Winchester. Productive Resources. — The staple productions of this state are, horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, butter, cheese, wax, furs, skins, wool, sugar, wine, hops, hay, hemp, flax, tobacco, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Among the mineral resources may be mentioned, iron, coal, and Epsom salts. 40 Danvil ! Oxford ! — kvaua I Jz f/FOU ■ "tain ^. fOCOft^ taFt Mcl§^ 1^_ I 3jfo^^^^ I {CraivjgfSsTa Lebanon } W fiv i r RYi B OONE p''^^^ ^„ MnOersohSi -jR Chester I HENR Y }-- t»---T- 40 j^wjgorf loclivifle o IPUTl rerre i'titciCliA Uli —A CGreen, ,\ Danville l**"*!! AM /-® I ' •hendrick- - — 'L^ 1^"^ J-arVTesl^ ^•QR&AI NDJ I 'I ^^»=t!P f^hloamingxoii ^ HenxQn) I- J. _ Jfb*. _ {MONROt /L i-r 'dwards Jiorc ® KNOX juceanes '^■^}^ 'rtncetan ^ j \ 'g I B S(pNl5 ^^CwJBlirrnortv^lX ' ^.s«>^X\MARRICK iM- I j^OWliliBArt I OMI i J — -rH fi u s H { '/ /I Cormers^ ^!/shei/by!_ ®r ! iunionI ! \I'afrfU;UZ ■ I ZTllirSilin Li.__ ! WafrfUiUZ "^ ^mtooltviuc [GrveiisOurd'A^ I, __J ' ! V K 1' ^-hrr' /iR i P istownj iORANGEi 1^ {wash I y^radistnri — IDUBOISJCRAWFORDV,^ UL. i^r JFred/tnta «- j;^ •FLOYD A RKI Jtirersonvine Y/Lduisvifle ,PERRY^ illome 'a IHARR I- SC K \Itockporc N fnoiruHe VTesr from INDIANA Scale of ]\IiIos JO to ao 40 VTashJngron 1 98 THE UNITED STATES.— INDIANA. Manufactures. — In 1850 there were in Indiana 4,326 manufacturing es- tablishments, which produced $500 and upward each annually. The total amount of manufacturing capital then in the state was over $7,000,000, having more than doubled since 1840. Railroads and Canals. — Indiana has about 1,000 miles of railroad already completed, and in successful operation, and new lines projected. The princi- pal canal in Indiana is the Wabash and Erie, 459 miles long, connecting the waters of Lake Erie with those of the Ohio river ; next in importance is the Whitewater canal, extending from Lawrenceburg to Cambridge, 76 miles. Commerce. — Indiana has no direct foreign commerce, its exports being shipped at the ports of other states. Its river and lake trade is considerable, and increasing. Education. — The collegiate institutions of Indiana are, the State university, at Bloomington, founded in 1827 ; Hanover college, at South Hanover, in 1829 ; Wabash college, at Crawfordsville, in 1833 ; Franklin college, at Franklin, in 1837 ; Indiana Asbury university, in 1839 ; St. Gabriel's college, at Vincennes, in 1843. There is a law school attached to the state university, and medical schools at Laporte and Indianapolis. There are about 6,000 academies and high schools in the state. The permanent school fund is nearly a million of dollars. Population. — In 1800, 2,640; in 1810, 24,520, exclusive of Indians; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1830, 343,031 ; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — Counties. 1850. 1840. Adams 5,797 2,264 Allen 16,919 5,942 Bartholomew 12,428 10,046 Benton 1,144 new co. Blackford 2,860 1,226 Boone 11,631 8,121 Browne 4,846 2.364 Carroll 11,015 7,819 Cass 11,021 5,480 Clark 15,828 15.595 Clay 7.944 5,567 Clinton 11,869 7,508 Crawford 6,524 5,282 Daviess 10,352 6,720 Dearborn 20,166 19,327 Decatur 1.5,107 12,171 De Kalb 8.251 1,968 Delii ware 10,843 8,843 Dubois 6,321 3,632 Elkbnrt 12,690 6,660 Fayette 10.217 »,837 Floyd 14,875 9,4.54 Fountain 13,253 11,218 Franklin 17,968 13,.349 Fulton .5,982 1,993 Gibson 10,771 8.977 Grant 11092 4,875 Greene 12.313 8,321 Hamilton 12,684 9,855 Hancock 9,698 7,538 Harrison 15,286 12,459 Counties. 18.50. 1840. Hrndrieks 14,083 11,264 Henry 17,605 15,128 Howard 6,657 new co. Huntington 7,8.50 1,579 Jackson 11,047 8,961 Jasper 3,540 1,267 Jay 7.047 3,863 Jetierson 23,916 16,614 Jennings 12,096 8,829 Johnson 12,101 9,352 Knox 11,084 10,657 Kosciusko 10,243 4,170 LaGrange 8,387 3,664 Lake 3.991 1.468 La Porte 12,145 8.184 Lawrence 12,097 11,782 Madison 12,375 8,874 Marion...' 24,013 16,080 Marshall 5,348 1,651 Martin 5,941 3.875 Miami 11.304 3,048 Monroe 11.286 10,143 Montgomery 18,084 14,438 Morgan 14,576 10,741 Noble. 7.946 2,702 Ohio 5,308 new co. Orange 10,809 9.602 Owen 12,106 8,359 Parke 14.968 1,3,499 Perry 7,268 4,655 Pike.. 7,720 4,769 Counties. • 1850. Porter 5,234 Posey 12,549 Pulaski 2,595 Putnam 18.615 Randolph 14.725 Ripley 14,820 Rush 16,445 Scott 5,885 Shelby 15,502 Spencer 8,616 Stark 557 Steuben 6.104 St. Joseph 10.954 Sullivan 10.141 Switzerland 12.932 Tippecanoe 19.377 Tipton 3.532 Union 6.944 Vanderburg 11,414 Vermilion 8,661 Vigo 12.289 Wabash 12.138 Warren 7,387 Warwick 8.811 Washington 17.040 Wayne 25,320 Weils 6,152 White 4,761 Whitly 5,190 1840. 2.162 9,683 561 16,843 10.684 10.392 16.456 4,242 12,005 6.305 149 2.578 6.425 8.315 9.920 13.724 new CO. 8,017 6,2.50 8,274 12,070 2,756 5,656 6,:i21 i5,2a5 23.290 1,822 1,832 1,237 Total 988,416 685,866 Government. — The legislative authority is vested in a senate and house of representatives : the senate is not to exceed 50 members, elected for four years; the representatives, not to exceed 100 in number, are chosen for two years. The executive power is vested in a governor, elected by the people for four years, but not eligible the next four years. A lieutenant-governor is also cho- sen in the same manner, and for the same term. The elections are held once in two years, on the second Tuesday in October. All elections by the people are by ballot, and decided by a plurality of votes ; all elections by the legisla- ture are viva voce. The legislature meets biennially, at Indianapolis, the first Monday in January. The judicial power is A'ested in a supreme court of not less than three, nor more than five judges, elected by the people at large, for a term of six years ; in circuit courts, the judges of which (one in each) are elected by the people in each judicial circuit for a term of six years ; and in such inferior THE UOTTED STATES.— ILLINOIS. 199 courts as the legislature may establish. The right of suffrage extends to every white male citizen of the United States, of the age of 21 years and upward, who shall have resided in the state during the six months immediately prece- ding an election. History. — This state embraces a portion of the ancient territory of Upper Louisiana, as held by the French prior to 1763, when it was ceded to England, together with Canada and Acadia. The first permanent settlement was made at Vincennes, in about the year 1690. At the close of the revolutionary war, and by the treaty of 1783, the country was claimed under the charter of Vir- ginia, and held by that state until ceded to the United States, in 1787. It was then made a part of the territory northwest of Ohio river. When Ohio was made a separate territory, in 1800, Indiana and Illinois remained united, and continued under one government until 1 809, when each became a distinct terri- tory. In 1816 Indiana was admitted into the Union as an independent state. A new constitution was adopted in 1851. GOVEBNOBS OF INDIANA TERBITOBY. William Henry Harrison 1800 Thomas Posey 1813 GOVEBNOKS UNDEB THE CONSTITUTION. Jonathan Jennins:s ... 1816 James B. Ray 1825 David Wallace 1 837 James Whitcomb 1843 WUliam Hendricks. .1822 Noah Noble 1831 Samuel Bigger 1840 Joseph A. Wright. . .1849 ILLINOIS. ©Illinois, sometimes called the " Prairie state," is situated between 37° and 42^ 30' north latitude, and 87° 49' and 91° 30' longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by Wisconsin, east by Lake Michigan and Indiana, south by Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky, and west by Mississippi river, which separates it from Missouri and Iowa. Its superficial era is 55,400 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The general surface of this state may be regarded as a gentle plain, more or less rolling, inclined in 'the direction of its rivers. The northern and southern sec- tions, however, are somewhat broken, but no portion of the territory is traversed by ranges of mountains, nor hills. It is estimated that Illinois contains more arable land than any other state in the Union. In that portion north of Kas- kaskia river the prairie country predominates ; and it is computed that two thirds of the state are covered with this class of lands. Many portions of them are undulating, entirely dry, and abound in wholesome springs ; but as a gene- ral rule, ihey consist of plains ; and in the true meaning of the term, in French, they are " meadows," presenting every degree of fertility, down to extreme barrenness. Many of them exhibit alluvial deposites, which prove that they have once been morasses, and perhaps lakes. In numerous instances, there are thickets, or groves of timber, amid these prairies, containing from 100 ta 2,000 acres each, which resemble oases in the desert, or islands in the sea. Along the borders of many of the streams are rich " bottoms," or alluvial de- posites. The " American bottom" cqmmences at the confluence of the Missis- sippi and Kaskaskia rivers, extending northward to the mouth of the Missouri, a distance of about eighty miles, and comprises an area of 288,000 acres. It is bounded on the east by a chain of " blufl!s," some of which occur in parallel u 13 12 42 41 W '•J.ecuL/Mines AVIESSl re. T ~^fC% o or L E k H/i land , ry— J^— /_R b_C J2. I CaitrbrtOge Oquaw JCartJtaqe -gr-fGREENEifP«2'^too'{^ I ^ {CarroZUo}i\ Oca-Unjfwe^-y T- \r\ J q,,^Jr JMON/TGOM I s Y ■ — •- \JERSEYl — Jf o Lexington » I i ^^ I o ^ ^Ji^si^J-WrT^. /rrA/ZEWEJLLJ ^-"^ioomingmff .^«5!fL*il«^ V^/^«' 2«7iST~" Vi-;;^^ ^B^^fPlf^Ot '■^^H'J.iiU'j -•i'-i'-t-i-j / . ^ . .. — _ ,;,---.:/ .oTiCftiir*"' » J-) "" !M A|C O" "1 I®, I ^jfjtfl I Crceti I r _ IFAWETTEI-,''^ A '-- r-y — ImVoi: fST. CLAIR CLI;n ® |monroi_ VZil> ^msiWfe I, .riffle li /j A C l< S\0 ILLINOIS XJoti) Scale oUtCles 30 so L L -„4.J-i' J_ rage\r iTRIE_|C)OLE)s I—, ®_JJ ) } jCHRISTlANj^^l^jg:;;^^^^^^ L B5YI'^"WaER|j I jas\per|c DCA Paris 41 40 INGi rh R AWl Wi lesriiu: I I i ~\is^":gRicH IB ilMi? !f£^^\w A Y N E and], if TDOLPH ©7"^ IT 7 1 ^ ' ®/ f <5l sTrasldaP E R\r Y LBr^iptn iHAilwr;>jL|Cayi^t^ ■' 1 ^-JFRaNKLIN! TONl^ y f^^T 39 OR,D Ua w" ENl^El ^Carmel ? N|Sj-=*-_- THE UNITED STATES.— MISSOURI. 209 Education. — There are several collegiate institutions in Missouri : the Masonic college, in Marion county, founded in 1831 ; University of St. Louis, in 1832; St. Charles college, in 1837; Missouri university, at Columbia, in 1840 ; St. Vincent's college, at Cape Girardeau, in 1843 ; and Fayette college, in 1846. Medical schools are attached to the two universities. There are nearly 2,000 common schools and about 100 academies in the state. Population.— In 1810, 19,833; in 1820, 66,586; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows : — Counties. 1850. Adair 2,342 Andrew 9,433 Atchison 1,678 Audrain. 3,506 Barry 3,467 Bates 3,669 Benton 5,015 Boone 14.979 Buchanan 12,975 Butler 1,616 Caldwell 2,316 Callaway 13,827 Camden 2.338 Cape Girardeau 13,912 Carroll 5,441 Cass 6,090 Cedar 3,361 Chariton 7,514 Clarke 5,527 Clay 10,332 Clinton 3.786 Cole 6,696 Cooper 12,950 Crawford 6,397 Dade 4,246 Dallas 3,648 Daviess 5,298 DeKalb 2,075 Dod2;e 353 Dunklin 1,229 Franklin 11,021 Gasconade 4,996 Gentry 4,248 Greene 13,785 Number of slaves in Counties. 1850. 1840. Ozark 2,294newco. 5,760 2,930 10,646 8,913 8,449 6,529 1840. 1,949 new CO. new CO. new CO. 4,795 new CO. 4,200 13,561 6,237 new CO. 1,458 11,765 new CO. 9,359 2.428 4,693 new CO. 4,746 2,846 8.282 2,724 9,286 10,484 3,561 new CO. new CO. 2,736 new CO. new CO. new CO. 7,515 5,330 new CO. 5,372 Osage 6,704 new co. Total 682,044 383,702 1810, 3,011 ; in 1820, 10,222 ; in 1830, 24,990 ; in 1840, 58,240 ; in 1850, 87,422 Counties. 1850. 1840. Grundy 3,006 newco. Harrison 2,447 new co. Henry 4.052 4,726 Hickory 2,329 new co. Holt 3,957 new co. Howard 13,969 13,108 Jackson. 14,000 7,612 Jasper 4,223 new co. Jefferson. 6,928 4,296 Johnson 7,464 4,471 Knox 2,894 new co. Laclede 2,498 newco. Lafayette 13,690 6,815 Lawrence 4,8.59 newco. Lewis 6,578 6,040 Lincoln 9,421 7,449 Linn 4,0.58 2,245 Livingston 4,247 4,325 Macon 6,565 Madison 6,003 Marion 12,2.30 Macdonald 2.236 new co. Mercer 2.691 new co. Miller 3.834 2,282 Mississippi 3, 123 new co. Moniteau 6,004 new co. Monroe 10,541 9,505 Montgomery 5,489 4,371 Morgan 46,50 4,407 New Madrid 5,541 Newton 4,268 Nodaway 2,118 new co. Oregon l,432newco. Osage 6,704 new co. 6,034 3,395 9,623 4,5.54 3,790 Perry 7,215 Pettis .5,1.50 Pike 13,609 Platte 16,845 Polk 6,186 Pulaski 3,998 Putnam 1,657 new co, Rollis 6,151 5,670 Randolph 9,439 7,198 Ray 10,373 6,553 Reynolds 1,849 newco. Ripley 2,830 2,856 Saline 8,843 5,258 Schuyler 3,287 new co. Scotland 3,782 newco. Scott 3,182 5,974 ."Shannon 1,199 new co. Shelby 4,253 3,056 St. Charles 11,454 7,011 St. Clair 3.556 newco. Ste. Genevieve 5,313 3,148 St. Francois 4,964 3.211 St. Louis 104,978 35,979 Stoddard 4,277 3,153 Sullivan 2.983 new co. Taney 4,373 3,264 Texas 2,312 new co. Warren 5,860 4.253 Wa.shington 8,811 7.213 Wayne 4,518 3,403 Wright 3,387newco. Government. — The governor is elected by the people for four years, but is ineligible for the succeeding four years. A lieutenant-governor is chosen at the same time, and for the same term, who is president of the senate. Every county is entitled to send one representative, but the whole number can never exceed 100, and are elected for two years. The senators are elected every four years, one half retiring every second year ; and their number can never be less than 14, nor more than 33, chosen by districts, and apportioned according to the number of free white inhabitants. The elections are held biennially, in August. The legislature meets once in two years, the last Monday in Decem- ber, at Jefferson City. Every white male citizen, over 21 years of age. who has resided one year in the state, and three months in the county in which he offers his vote, has the right of suffrage. The judges of the various courts are elected by the people for the term of six years. One bank only, with not more than five branches, may be established in the state. History. — Father Marquette, a Jesuit missionary, and Jolyet, a citizen of Quebec, visited the territory of the present stale of Missouri in J 673, and soon afterward the Canadian trappers and Jesuit missionaries penetrated the coun- try in every direction. The lead mines of Missouri were worked by the French as early as 1720. The first permanent European settlement was made at St. Genevieve, in 1763, by a lead mining company, under the name of " Laclede,. Maxam, & Co." St. Louis was founded the next year. In 1800, Spain retro- ceded all her claims to Louisiana to France, who formally took possession of the country, and sold it to the United States in 1803. In 1805, that portion of Louisiana lying east of the Mississippi, and all of the country bearing that name 14 21 THE UNITED STATES.— IOWA- west of that river, was erected into a territorial goA'ernment, under the name of the " Territory of Louisiana." In 1 81 2, a part of the present state of Louisiana was separated from the rest of the territory, and admitted into the Union as an independent state, and the remainder was reorganized under the name of the " Territory of Missouri," which was supposed to contain all the lands west of the Mississippi to the " South sea," except a part of the state of Louisiana. In 1821, a part of this territory was admitted into the Union as' the present state of Missouri. On the subject of its admission along debate ensued in Congress, it having been proposed to prohibit slavery in the new state. It was finally admitted by what is called the Missouri compromise, which tolerated slavery in the state, but prohibited it in the territory north of it. Mottoes of the seal, Salus populi suprema lex esto : " The welfare of the people is the first great law." " United we stand, divided we fall." G0VEKN0R9 OF MISSOURI TERKITOBY. James W^ilkinson 1805 Merriweather Lewis 1807 William Clark. 1813 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. Alexander M'Nair 1820 Daniel Dunklin 1832 John C. Edwards 1844 Frederick Bates 1824 L. W. Boggs 1836 Austin A. King 1848 John Miller 1828 Thomas Reynolds 1840 SterUng Price 1852 IOWA. Iowa, formerly a portion of the Louisiana territory, is situated between 40° 30' and 43'-' 30' north lati- tude, and 90° 20' and 96° 50' west longitude from Greenwich, and is bounded north by Minnesota, east by Mississippi river, which separates it from Wiscon- sin and Illinois, south by Missouri, and west by the Indian territory. Its superficial area is 50,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The general surface of this state is moderately undulating, without mountains or high hills, except in the northern part, where the hills are of considerable height. Along the margins of the rivers there are frequent ranges of bluffs, which vary in height from 40 to 130 feet. In other instances, the streams are skirted by rich "bottoms," covered with trees. A large proportion of the territory consists of prairies, some of which have a level, others a rolling sur- face. The soil on the bottoms, as well as on the prairies, is generally good, the former consisting of a deep rich black mould, and the latter of a sandy loam, sometimes intermingled with gravel, or red clay. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers are, the Mississippi, Des Moines, Iowa, Keosauque, Little Iowa, Turkey, Skunk, Red, Cedar, Maquekota, and Wabsipinecon. At the north part of the state there are numerous small lakes. Climate. — The climate is pleasant, and generally healthy, except near the 'Ijorders of stagnant waters, or sluggish streams, where, during the summer, bil- ious complaints, fevers, and agues, usually prevail. Snow rarely falls to exceed eight or ten inches in depth ; and the Mississippi, at Prairie du Chien, is not frozen sufficiently strong to be crossed more than five or six weeks in the year. The summers are warm, but not oppressively so, and are refreshed by frequent showers. Citv and Chief Towns. — Iowa City is the seat of government. The principal towns are, Andrew, Boonville, Burlington, Council Bluff, Delhi, Dubuque, De Witt, Edinburgh, Fairfield, Fort des Moines, Keokuk, Keosauque, 212 THE UNITED STATES.— TO WA. Knoxville, Madison, Marion, Marengo, Mount Pleasant, Muscatine, Newton, Ottiimvva, Oskaloosa, Prairie la Porte, Tipton, Trenton, and Washington. Productive Resources. — The staple products of this state are, horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, butter, cheese, wax, wool, hay, hemp, flax, skins, furs, sugar, tobacco, wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, and Indian corn. Among the mineral resources are found lead, iron, copper, zinc, and coal ; but lead is the most abundant, and the mines are extensively worked in the vicinity of Dubuque. Manufactures. — The manufacturing and mechanic arts have as yet but a slight foothold in Iowa ; but with its abundant water power, and other resources, it undou*btedly will not long remain as now almost entirely an agricultural state. Commerce. — From its position, lying upon the Mississippi river, with nu- merous navigable streams traversing its interior, Iowa possesses commercial advantages equal to those of any other western state. It contributes largely to the valuable cargoes that are floated down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Education. — There are two collegiate institutions in this state ; the Iowa university, at Iowa City, and the Franklin college, at Franklin. The constitu- tion makes it imperative that a school shall be established in each district. All lands granted by Congress, and other specified avails, constitute a fund to be applied to education. A special fund is also provided for the support of the state university. Population. — In 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Allamakee 777 new co. Fremont 1,244 new co. Monroe 2,884 new co. Appanoose 3,131 new co. Henry 8,707 3,772 Muscatine 5,731 1,942 Benton 672newco. Iowa 822newco. Paee 551newco. BlackHawk 135newco. Jackson 7,210 1,411 Pott 4,515newco. Boone 735newco. Jasper l,280newco. Pottawatomie 7,828newco. Buchanan 517 new co. Jefferson 9,904 2,773 Poweshiek 615 new co. Cedar 3941 1,253 Johnson 4,472 1,491 Scott 5,986 2,140 Clark 79newco. Jones 3,007 471 Tama 8newco. Clayton 3,873 1,101 Keokuk 4,822newco. Taylor 204newco. Clinton 2,822 821 Lee 18,860 6,093 Van Buren 12,270 6,146 Dallas 854newco. Linn 5,444 1,373 Wapello 8,471ncwco. Davis 7,264newco. Louisa 4,939 1,927 Warren 961newco. Decatur 965 new co. Lucas 471 new co. Washington 4,957 1,594 Delaware 1,759 168 Madison l,179newco. Wayne 340newco. Des Moines 12,987 5,575 Mahaska 5,989newco. Winneshiek 546newco. Dubuque 10,841 3,059 Marion 5,482 new co. Fayette 825newco. Marshall 338newco. Total 192,214 43,111 Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate, consisting of not more than one half, nor less than one third, of the number of representatives, and who are chosen for four years, one half biennially ; and in a house of rep- resentatives, not less than thirty-nine, nor more than seventy-two in number, chosen for two years. The executive power is vested in a governor, chosen for four years. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting of a chief justice and two associates, elected by the legislature for six years ; in district courts, the judges of which are elected by the people for five years ; and in justices of the peace. Every white male citizen, twenty-one years old (idiots, insane, or infamous persons, excepted), having resided in the state six months, and in the county twenty days, has the right of suffrage. State elections first Monday in August ; the legislature meets biennially, first Monday in December. History. — Iowa embraces a portion of the ancient territory of Upper Louis- iana, the eastern border of which was explored by Marquette and Jolyet, in 1673. It remained under the jurisdiction of France until 1763, when it wa-s ceded to Spain. In 1800 it was retroceded to France, who formally took pos- session of the country, and sold the whole to the United States in 1803. Sub- sequently to this, Iowa constituted a part of the Territory of Louisiana, and afterward of that of Missouri. Until as late as the year 1832, the whole of this territory north of Missouri, which was admitted into the Union as a state in 1821, was in undisputed possession of the Indians. By a treaty made in 1830. THE UNITED STATES.— WISCONSIN. 213 the Sacs and Foxes, then the principal tribes, had ceded to the United States the last of their lands east of the Mississippi. In consequence of not leaving the territory, in compliance with the treaty, arose the " Black Hawk war," which resulted in the total defeat of the Indians at the battle of Bad Ax, in Wisconsin, in 1832. In the autumn of that year a belt of country along the west side of the Mississippi, extending northward from Missouri for nearly 300 miles, and 50 miles in width, commonly known as the " Black Hawk purchase," was ceded by the Indians to the United States. In 1 836-37 further purchases were made, and in 1838 Iowa was erected into a territory. By another treaty in 1842, a tract of some 15,000,000 acres more were purchased of the Sacs and 'Foxes for $1,000,000. From that time the Indian title became extinct in the whole country lying within the limits of this state, which was admitted into the Union in 1846. This state is being rapidly settled, and the tide of emigra- tion now flowing westward will, at no distant day, make this one of the most populous states in the Union. OOVEENOBS OF IOWA TERRITORY. Robert Lucas 1838 John Chambers 1841 James Clarke 1846 UNDER THE STATE GOVERNMENT. AnsellBriggs 1846 Stephen H. Hempsted 1850 WISCONSIN. The state of Wisconsin is situated between 42° 30' and 47° north latitude, and 87° and 92° 40' west longitude from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by Lake Superior, northeast by the peninsula of Michi- gan, from which it is separated in part by Menomonee river, east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois, and west by Iowa and Minnesota, from which it is sepa- rated in part by the Mississippi river. Its superficial area is 53,924 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The face of the country is rather undulating, than either hilly or flat, though both extremes exist. The highest lands in the state are those forming the dividing ridge between the Mis- sissippi and Lake Superior. From this ridge, toward the south and southwest, the descent is gradual, until the inclination is interrupted by another ridge, in the region of the Wisconsin and Neenah rivers, which extends across the state. From the latter ridge proceeds another gentle inclined plain, down which flow the waters of Rock river and its branches into the Illinois. Along the Missis- sippi, Wisconsin, and Helena rivers, there are numerous hills and bluffs, vary- ing from 300 to 1,000 feet in height above the surface of these streams. The country bordering directly on Superior has a very precipitous descent Joward the lake. From the entrance of Green bay there is another ridge of broken land, running in a southwesterly direction, more or less uninterrupted, until it passes the confines of the state. The soil is generally of great fertility, and productive of all northern crops, in most situations that are not marshy, or too wet. In Dane county, it is stated that the soil is composed, for the most part, of the black deposite of decayed vegetation, which for countless ages has flourished in wild luxuriance, and rotted upon the surface ; of loam, and in a few localities, of clay mixed with sand. The deposite of vegetable mould has uniformly several inches of thickness on the tops and sides of hills ; in the val- leys it is frequently a number of feet. A soil thus created, of impalpable pow- 15 ^ 13 48 IVISCONSIN 10 30 50. |7I ' 1 ' ' I 1 '^ ' CchiriOreU .-"'. IS ZtOneSt. Crif ix h Q.SCCroixPfl.B A[ N ^} jyt ^. 46 M^BiOLimiF^^ ^ . /i— T, 4J «» :rAai J^ Grtgrunts^i !^ I A D 43 Trf •JbwalB-' /)r_ I \ — (--/ — {liANDi >-2J?*\iJ {'.\'AUP TVt / I A JM 9 j WAUSHARA |WT^^E^^j^£(""«^'^ Tirie* iL Xirwrtili DfDces '^lBACO_J A U kT ;t ^ i^^^ 'tte '^Jar, IJCR ££>',-*» , ® -kiiU: IwALV/OFtnj/latine [levxie rlcstan JR OjnC K,|£7Aj^<7/i>r|UeTF?a o CM ^^^ Jtocklsland s^^nkj;. U5 Jill /;o7tTl}*5r*=rom 1 iM'ashtnmon 12 11 THE UNITED STATES.— WISCONSIN. 215 der, formed of the elements of organic matter — "the dust of death" — we need scarcely remark, is adapted to the highest and most profitable purposes of agri- culture ; yielding crop after crop, in rank abundance, without any artificial ma- nuring. Rivers, Lakes, and Bays. — The chief rivers are, the Mississippi, Wiscon- sin, Rock, St. Louis, Montreal, Baraboo, Wolf, Fox or Neenah, Black, Chippe- wa or Ojibwa, Catfish, and the Menomonee. The principal lakes, besides Su- perior and Michigan, are, Winnebago, Four Lakes, Wingra, Koshkonong, Pack- awa, Buffalo, Green, Little Green, Pevvaugone, Great and Little Butte-des-Morts, Maquanago,Wissaua, Kanchee, La Belle, Nagowicka, Oconomewoc, Nashotah (Twin Lakes), Como, Delavan, Geneva, Deer, Sarah, Swan, Mud, Katakitte- kon, or Lac Vieux Desert. The chief bays are the Chegowawegon and Fond du Lac, in Lake Superior, and a part of Green bay in Lake Michigan. Islands. — These are, Bartlett's, Apostles', Stocton's, and Madeline, in Lake Superior, and Doty's islajid, in Fox river. Climate. — The climate of this state, notwithstanding its high northern lati- tude, is more favorable than that of corresponding parallels in New England and New York. Yet its winters are severe and long, with continued deep snows for several months, and the lakes and streams are strongly locked up in ice. The harbor of Milwaukie is usually closed from the middle to the end of No- vember, and is opened in the spring, sometimes as early as the first week in March, while in other seasons it is closed as late as the middle of April. Dur- ing the growing season, however, vegetation springs up as if by magic, and puts forward with astonishing rapidity and luxuriance. Spring and autumn are usually mild, and are less liable to destructive frosts than the more easterly states. Chief Towns — Madison is the seat of government. The other populous towns are, Beloit, Green Bay, Dodgeville, Elkhorn, Fond du Lac, Manitouwoc, Fort Winnebago, Mineral Point, Prairie du Chien, Jefferson, Jamesville, Lan- caster, Milwaukee,* Marquette, Manchester, Monroe, Oshkosh, Potosi, Platte- ville, Racine, Sheboygan, Tacheda, Washington, and Waukesha. Productive Resources. — The chief products of this state are, horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, butter, cheese, wax, sugar, wool, hemp, flax, wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, potatoes, and Indian corn. Of the mineral wealth, lead, copper, and iron, are found in considerable abundance, but have not, as yet, been extensively wrought. Manufactures. — This state is yet too young in years to have made much progress in manufactures. More than nine tenths of the people are engaged in agriculture, and a portion of the remaining tenth are engaged in mining. In 1850, there were in the state 1273 manufacturing establishments, which pro- duced $500 and upward each annually. Railroads and Canals. — There are several railroads being constructed, or are already in operation, in Wisconsin. Among them are, one from Milwaukee to Galena, 70 miles long, forming a junction with the Chicago and Galena Union railroad ; and the Rock River road, extending from Chicago, Illinois, to Fond du Lac, in this state. Plank roads are also constructed here to a consid- * Milwaukee, the chief city of Wisconsin, and next to Chicago, the largest on Lalce Michigan, is finely located for commerce on both sides of Milwaukee river, at its entrance into the lake, 90 miles north of Chicago. 90 miles east of Madison, and 805 miles from \Va8hine;ton. It is the market of a lar^e part of the productions of the state. Steamboats and other vessels navigatin;; LHki> Michigan touch here on their way to and from Detroit, and points on Lake Eric, and the St. Lawrence, Erie, and VVelland canajs. The business part of the city lies almost on a level with the lake, but a hundred yards hack the ground rises rapidly to the north, presenting a fine view of the city and lake. The heights are fast improving, by the erection of handsome dwellings. The surrounding re- gion is rich, and rapidly increa-'ins in an industrious and enterprising population, of which Milwaukee is the nu- cleus, and the centre of trade. The rich clay beds along the lake afford abundant material for brick, of an ex- cellent quality, of a bright straw color, lar^e quantities of which are now exported. They are also used for the majority of the buildings, some of which, m large and uniforrti rows of dwellings or stores, present a beautiful and splendid effect. Here are churches, a jail, courthouse, and otherprominent edifices. The Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad is completed to Palmjrra, 43 miles westward. The population of Milwaukee in 1840 was 1,700 ;ia 1850, 20,061. THE UNITED STATES.— WISCONSIN. 217 erable extent, the abundance of lumber, and level surface of the country, offer- ing ready facilities for their construction. The Portage canal, connecting the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, and through them the great lakes with the Missis- sippi river, is an important internal improvement. Commerce. — Lying, as this state does, with two of the great inland seas for its northern and eastern boundaries, and the Mississippi upon its western bor- der, Wisconsin possesses commercial facilities not exceeded by that of any other of the western states. Education. — The principal educational institutions of the higher class in this stjrte are, the Wisconsin university, at Madison, founded in 1849, and the Beloit college, founded in 1847. There is also a theological seminary (Roman catholic) at Milwaukee. The educational resources of the state are extensive. The school fund consists of the proceeds of about 2,000,000 of acres of lands, five per cent, of the proceeds of all United States lands in the state, and moneys arising from several minor sources. Population. — In 1840 and 1850, by counties, as follows: — Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Counties. 1850. 1840. Adams ]87newco. Iowa 9,530 3,978 Richland 903newco. Brown 6,212 2,107 Jefferson 15,317 914 Rock 20,708 1,701 Calumet 1,743 275 Kenosha. « ]0,732newco. Sauk 4,371 102 Chippewa 614 new co. Lafayette 11,541 new co. Sheboygan 8,378 133 Columbia 9,.565newco. La Pointe 489newco. St. Croix 624 801 Crawford 2,498 1.502 Marquette 8,642 18 Walworth 17,861 2,611 Dane 16,641 3,114 Marathon 508newco. Washington 19,484 343 Dodge 19,138 67 Milwaukee 31,077 5,605 Waukesha 19,174newco. FondduLac 14,468 139 Manitouwoe 3,702 235 Winnebago 10,125 135 Grant 16,170 3,926 Portage 1,250 1,623 Greene 8,563 933 Racine 14,973 3,475 Total 305,191 30,945 Government. — The legislative power is vested in an assembly, of not fewer than 54, nor more than 100 members, chosen annually ; and in a senate, num- bering not more than a third, nor less than one half the members of assembly, chosen for two years, one half each year. The executive power is vested in a governor and lieutenant-governor, who are chosen by a plurality vote for two years. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, circuit courts, probate courts, the judges of which are all chosen by the people ; supreme and circuit judges for six years, and probate judges and justices of the peace for two years. State election the Tuesday succeeding the first Monday in November. All white male citizens of the United States, or white foreigners, who have declared their intentions to become citizens, who have resided in the state one year, have the right of suffrage. History. — The first European settlement made within the limits of the pres- ent state of Wisconsin, was by the French missionary, Claude Allouez, and others, at La Pointe, on Madeline island, in the western end of Lake Superior, in 1665. This state embraces a part of the territory of Upper Louisiana, as claimed by the French, prior to 1763, when it was ceded to England, together with all their territory east of the Mississippi, under whose jurisdiction it re- mained until the treaty of Grenville, in 1795. The year following it was ceded to the United States, and in 1800, it was annexed to the " Territory Northwest of the River Ohio." In 1802, Ohio was detached, and formed into an indepen- dent state ; and in 1805, a territorial government was established in Michigan, under whose jurisdiction for civil purposes Wisconsin remained until 1836, when it was erected into a distinct territory. In 1847, Wisconsin, with its present boundaries, was formally admitted into the Union as a sovereign state. Motto of the seal, Civilitas successit Barbarum: " Civilization has succeeded Barbarism. OOVERNORS OP WISCONSIN TKBKITORy. Henry Dodge 1836 James D. Doty 1840 N. P. TaUmadge.....l844 Henry Dodge 1845 G0VERN0B3 OF THE STATE. Nelson Dewey 1847 Leonard J. Farwell . . 1851 218 THE UNITED STATES.— CALIFORNIA. CALIFORNIA. The state of CalTfornia lies between 42° and 32° 40^ north latitude, and 120^ and 124° 30' longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by Ore- gon, east by Utah and New Mexico, from which it is separated in part by Rio Colorado, south by^Sonora and Lower California, in Mexico, and west by the Pa- cific. Its superficial area is 190,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The general features of this state are mountainous and hilly, with the exception of the great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, which covers an area 500 miles in length, and 50 or 60 miles in width. Here the surface is level, and the soil fertile along the borders of the streams ; but further back it is either arid and unproductive, or consists of extensive, low, alluvial marshes [tulares), thickly covered with rushes, which are traversed by numerous navigable creeks, or streams. This valley is bounded on the east by the Sierra Nevada, the most prominent range in the state, which run nearly par- allel with the coast, at a distance of 100 to 200 miles. On the west of this val- ley lies another range of lesser mountains called the Coast range, some of them rising to the height of 3,000 feet, which also run parallel with the coast, at a dis- tance of 30 to 60 miles. Among these hills are numerous valleys, some of which are highly fertile, and are surrounded by scenery of great beauty and picturesque effect. The soil which appears to be best adapted to the purposes of tillage, is that embraced within the abovenamed valleys, and those adjacent to Eel river, Humboldt harbor, and San Francisco bay. Mountains. — The most prominent range of mountains in this state is the Sierra Nevada, along the western slope of which lie the far-famed gold regions, extending over an area 400 or 500 miles in length, and 30 to 60 miles in breadth. This slope is intersected by numerous gorges, or ravines, which afford egress to the tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, and presents to the landscape an aspect extremely picturesque, ragged, and rough. In the coast range the most prominent are, Carnero, Diablo, and Santa Cruz mountains. Rivers, Bays, Harbors, and Lakes. — The principal streams are, the Sac- ramento, San Joaquin, Klamath, Trinity, Feather, Yuba, Eel, Nappa, Calave- ras, Salinos, Guadalupe, Tuolumne, Moquelumne, Pajaro, Merced, Mariposa, Stanislaus, Fall, and American rivers. The bays worthy of note are, San Fran- cisco, San Pablo, and the Suisun, all entered through the Golden-Gate, which together form a harbor sufficient for the collected fleets of the whole world. They afford good anchorage, and are completely land-locked, and conseqiiently are safe at all seasons. Humboldt and San Diego harbors, and Trinidad bay, are well protected from the ocean winds, and afford safe anchorage. The harbor of Monterey is good, but is subject to the swell of the Pacific at all times. This country has some lakes, the most noted of which aTe, the Tulares, Owen's, Clear, and Rhett. Climate. — The climate of California, with the exception of that in the great valley of Sacramento, and San Joaquin, from June to October, may be regarded as salubrious. The dry season, in which little or no rain falls, lasts generally from April to November. The rainy months occur from November to May, during which period it is estimated that nearly one third of the days are stormy. In the region near the coast, snow rarely falls to remain in the valleys, but oc- casionally caps the mountains and larger hills ; but further inland it is more fre- quent, and the Sierra Nevada is often capped with snow till snow falls again. 220 THE UNITED STATES.— CALIFORNIA. The annual inundations of the valley of Sacramento and San Joaquin occur in the winter and spring, and the streams are frequently at great height in April and May, in consequence of the melting of the mountain snows. The tem- perature of the coast, particularly in the northwestern part of the state, is mild during the year ; but the climate of the coast at the south is much warmer, and in summer it often is exceedingly hot. A few miles from the coast the breezes from the ocean become tempered to mildness, and the climate is pleasant and healthy. Still further inland, beyond the reach of the ocean breeze, particu- larly in the great valley, the summer temperature is often intensely hot. The nights, however, are usually cool. The winter temperature in the valley of Sacramento and San Joaquin, and of the coast, is usually remarkably mild, ice seldom forming over an eighth of an inch thick, and the morning frosts commonly disappear under the midday sun. Cities and Chief Towns. — San Francisco, Sacramento City, Stockton, Marysville, Monterey, and San Diego, are the principal cities ; and San Jose (the former capital of the state), Benicia, Nevada, Grass Valley or Centre- ville, Downieville, Culloma, Sonora, and Mariposa, together with many others, are populous and busy places. Vallejo, the present capital of the state, is as yet a city on paper. Productive Resources. — Although California is not generally adapted to the purposes of profitable agriculture, yet there is land enough of the finest quality to supply a large population with their ordinary vegetable wants. The val- leys are exceedingly fertile, and will produce all of our common grain crops, without irrigation, with the exception of Indian corn. Most of the ordinary vegetables require irrigation, and when properly cultivated, their yield and size are truly enormous. The lands, however, in the vicinity of Humboldt harbor, are represented to be highly fertile, and in consequence of occasional showers, which occur in the course of the dry season, they need no artificial watering to produce the finest crops. The rich alluvial soil of the Tulares, if reclaimed by dikes, so as to afford the requisite inundation, doubtless would prove well adapted to the cultivation of rice. The vine flourishes in different parts of the state, and wine has long been made at Los Angelos, and in other places. Many of the recent settlers have commenced the cultivation of our northern fruits. In the southern counties the orange, castor-bean, and some other tropical pro- ductions, are cultivated with success. This country seems by nature to be pe- culiarly well adapted for grazing. The valleys, in spring and summer, are covered with luxuriant vegetation, consisting of various wild grasses, and the hills generally furnish good pasturage during a large portion of the year. The cattle of the country, though small, afford excellent flesh, and were formerly slaughtered in immense numbers for their tallow and hides, being the chief * San Fbancisco, the " Empire city" of the Pacific, etands on a narrow neck of land between the bay of San Francisco and the ocean, fronting eastward on the bay, and having the ocean five miles on the west. The bay is safe and commodious, bcins capable of holdinj; the combined navies of the world. It extends south- ward some fifty miles, parallel with the sea, from which it is siparated by a narrow strip of land, varying from five to twenty miles in width. The city of San Francisco is on the extreme point of this promontory. Its site is handsome and commanding, being on an inclined plane half a mile in extent from the water's edge to the hills in the rear. Two points of land— Clark's point on the north, and Rincon point on the south— one mile apart; project into the bay, forming a crescent between them, which is the water-front of the city, and which has already been filled in and covered with buildings to the extent of half a mile. Those points, and the lofty hills north and west, upon which the city is rapidly climbing, afford a most extensive and picturesque view of the surrounding country. For growing importance, commercial advantages, and the entei^priee of its citizens, San Francisco deserves the rank of one of the great cities of the Union. Although it has been repeatedly destroyed by fire, it has each time risen, phoenix-like, from its own ashes, with new beauty and with greater splendor than before. It contains a large number of elegant brick fire-proof stores and banking-houses, and the streets are paved with heavy timber and pliink, which will soon give phice to more durable material. There are several daily lines of steamers to Sacramento, Marysville, Stockton, San Joaquin city, and other points on the rivers, while ocean steamers ply from San Francisco to I'anama and San Juan del Sur the port ol Nicaragua. The population in 1847 was 375; in IS-IS. 34.876. t Sacramento City, 125 miles from San Francisco, on the east bank of Sacramento river, is the second city in California. It is the principal depot for the greater part of the northern mining district, and the highest point to which steamers and other vessels can ascend at low water. A good and substantial levee has been constructed around the city, to protect it from the overflow of the river, during the annual and occasional freshets. Sacramento is rapidly increasing, and must become a large commercial town. A considerable portion of the city was destroyed by fire in 1852. The population, in 1852, was estimated at 10,000. SAN FRANCISCO Beferences A-PostOCeiee E Teleffraph. a CifyMaU "E Marine nbspntdl C CustomJLause G MhrbarMiuttei'x 1> Mo7tdeaWareB9,W. JaU T<15 «109 OK ani nni JDI ][ sac :]□[: DC ]□□ :Dac on Chf! 3k_l \Z Greep) ^□□Bi^Dappffll L_jaDa[Z]sanDa^ Mlnrf^c-nfnniinnirn[j □ nc — 30 DEgeor EZHiaL JL_ □□□□Bn^^-QS BBnninSPSi d LJJ UULl L^ L^ LJUa L-^ L_.^ g^^^ ^^ j__, j_, ^^ ^ ■anacD'[zim|n"||!a laaocD^ HEIlOBf □□BQ®P □DBpaBSI] naEQBffiarac ^ \PubUc \S(piare I lar tii 222 THE UNITED STATES.— CALIFORNIA. source of wealth of the inhabitants. This state is not well timbered, except on the mountains. On the range along the coast are extensive forests of cedar, which grow to an immense size, and furnishes a durable material for building. Toward the north and east, at the base of the Sierra Nevada, are immense for- ests of gigantic pines, cedars, firs, and other valuable timber trees, some of which are said to exceed 15 feet in diameter, and 200 feet in height. Omitting the lead, copper, and silver mines, which have been discovered, but not worked, in Cal- ifornia, its gold, and cinnabar, or quicksilver mines, may be said to constitute its principal resources. The latter, though not much worked as yet, are re- garded by many as the most valuable mining property in the state. That at New Almaden, a few miles south of San Jose, is one of the richest veins in the world, yielding from 40 to 75 per cent, of pure quicksilver. It is the opinion of good judges that, if properly worked, this mine would yield full $1,000,000 per annum. Although the existence of gold in this country had long been known, it never attracted general attention before 1848, when it was discovered near Sutter's Mill, on the south fork of American river. Since that time it has been found on all of the principal eastern branches of the Sacramento and San Joaqum, as well as among the coast range on the tributaries of the Trinity and Klamath, in the northern part of the state. In the spring of 1850 a new impulse was given to the enterprise, from the discovery of numerous veins of auriferous quartz in Mariposa county, since which others, richly im- pregnated with the precious metal have been successfully worked in various parts of the golden belt. The discovery of quartz veins in Mariposa, led to a more careful examination of other parts of the state, when gold-bearing quartz was found in almost every county along the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, as far north as the northern branches of the Feather river ; and the county of Ne- vada has probably more quartz-mills now in operation than all the state besides ; while El Dorado county has produced the richest quartz yet discovered, w^ith perhaps the exception of the Carson creek vein. The product of the gold mines in 1852 is estimated at $70,000,000. The gold is found under two gen- eral forms — -interspersed in irregular veins of quartz in the mountain rocks, and in lumps and scales, of all sizes down to " golden pebbles," metallic gravel, and sand, mingled with the alluvion, or drift, which occurs in the bottoms of valleys and ravines, and in the beds of the streams. In general, the loose gold, or ph' cers, is found at no great distance from the parent veins, from which it has been disintegrated, and washed down the slopes by mountain torrents or rills. The scale or lump gold is found in the greatest abundance in the bottoms of the " gulches," or ravines, and in the banks and beds of the streams, particularly in the bars of sand and gravel, formed by the eddies, or counter-currents. Most of the gold hitherto dug has been taken from such localities, the river banks and beds yielding .the most abundantly at the lowest stage of the water, which usually occurs during the first two months of fall. Sometimes the courses of the streams are diverted into new channels, by the erection of dams, in order to obtain the gold deposited in their beds. This is termed " wet digging," and can best be performed during summer and fall. The "gulches," or ravines, are usually free from water in the dry season, and hence the operations carried on in them, during spring and summer, are called " dry-diggings," which maybe divi- ded into three classes : 1st, the sand or earth in which the gold exists is collect- ed in the dry ravines, or plains, and conveyed to some lake or stream, for wash- ing ; 2d, where lumps and scales are obtained, by means of shovels, picks, &c., from the sides of mountains, distant from water; 3d, the old Spanish method, by winnowing, from a large wooden bowl, the fine earthly particles, after the ore has been dried and pulverized, leaving the gold in the bottom. The modes of washing, or separating the gold from the earth, are various. The simplest method is the use of the wooden bowl. Some employ small wooden cradles, THE UNITED STATES.— CALIFORNIA. 223 three or four feet long, with cleats, or rockers, on the bottom, and a riddle at one end ; others are made of sheet iron, with rounded bottoms and wooden rockers. Some use the "long torn," a structure eight or ten feet lonj^, while others use the " Virginia rocker," amalgamating the gold with quicksilver. A great variety of other apparatus and expensive machines have been invented for separating the gold, some of which answer an admirable purpose ; but the " burke" and the " long tom" are the general favorites, wherever an abundance of water is at command. In cases, however, where the gold occurs in fine par- ticles, blended with black sand or alluvion, it can not be separated to advantage without the use of mercury. Railroads. — California has no railroad in operation as yet, though one has been projected from San Jose, the recent capital, to San Fr;incisco. Commerce. — San Francisco is the principal commercial port of California. Its commercial resources are at present based upon its metallic wealth. Gold supplies the medium of domestic exchange, and of foreign commerce. San Francisco, therefore, is a mart for the competing trade of the whole world. The number of arrivals and departures of vessels at this port are more numerous than those at any other port in the United States, New York alone excepted. There are now about twenty ocean-steamers traversing the Pacific, and connect- ing with ports on the Atlantic, about sixty engaged in the river trade, and some four hundred other craft of various kinds navigating the rivers and bay. It has also considerable direct trade with the South American states, China, and the East Indies. Education. — The constitution of California makes the following provision for the support of common schools throughout the state : " The legislature shall encourage, by all suitable means, the promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral, and agricultural improvement. The proceeds of all land that may be granted by the United States to this state for the support of schools, which may be sold or disposed of, and the 500,000 acres of land granted to the new states, under an act of Congress distributing the proceeds of the public lands among the several states of the Union, approved A. D. 1841 ; and all estates of deceased persons who may have died without leaving a will, or heir, and also such per cent, as may be granted by Congress on the sale of lands in this state, shall be and remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, together with all the rents of the unsold lands, and such other means as the legislature may pro- vide, shall be inviolably appropriated to the support of common schools through- out the state. The legislature shall provide for a system of common schools, b}' which a school shall be kept up and supported in each district at least three months in every year." The legislature is also required to provide for the elec- tion of a superintendent of public instruction ; and to take measures for the im- provement and permanent security of any funds arising from the sale of lands, or from any other source, for the endowment and support of a university. Population. — The population of Upper California, in 1802, was estimated at 17,000 ; in 1831, 23,024; and by the state census, taken in 1852, was Cou.NTiES. 1852. Counties. 1852. Counties. 1852. Counties. 1852. ButtP 8,572 Mendocino 416 San Luis Obispo 984 Sutter 1,207 Calaveras 20,092 Monterey 2,728 Santa Clara 6,664 Trinity 1,764 Coluei 620 Nftpa 2,116 Santa Cruz 1,219 Tuolumne 17,657 Contra Costa 2,745 Nevada 21.365 Santa Barbara 2,131 Tulare 8575 El Dorado (estim'd)30,000 Placer 10,784 Shasta 4,050 Yolo 1,307 Klamath 5.30 Sacramento 12.589 Sierra 4,855 Yuba. 22,005 Los Angeles 7,831 San Diego 2,932 Siskiyou 2,240 Marin 1,036 San Joaquin 5.029 Solano 2.8.35 Total 254,435 MariposR 8,969 San Francisco 36,151 Sonoma 2,337 Government. — The legislative power is vested in a senate and assembly. Senators not less in number than one third, nor more than one half the number of members of assembly, are elected by the people in districts, for a term of two years, so classifies! that one half may be chosen annually at the general election, 224 THE UNITED STATES.— CALIFOR^^A. on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Members of the assembly are elected by the people annually in districts. There shall never be more than eighty, nor less than thirty. The executive power is vested in a governor and lieutenant governor, elected by the people for a term of two years. They must be over twenty-five years of age, citizens of the United States, and residents of the state two years next before the election. A secretary of state is appointed by the governor. A comptroller, treasurer, attorney and surveyor general, are to be elected by the people at the same time, and for the same term as the gov- ernor. In elections by the legislature, the members vote viva voce — by the people by ballot. The judicial power is vested in a supreme, district, and county courts, the judges of all of which are elected by the people. Every white male citizen of the United States, and every citizen of Mexico under the treaty of Queretaro, twenty-one years of age, resident in the state six months, and of the district where he offers to vote thirty days preceding the election, is entitled to vote. History. — California was first settled by the Spaniards, in 1602, but prior to the year 1697, the colonists were all expelled by the ill-used natives, when Charles II., of Spain, granted the country to the Jesuits, with the view of con- verting the Indians to Christianity. Under their guidance, and the protection afforded by military posts in the vicinity of their missions, by the end of the last century numerous flourishing towns had sprung up, around which gathered thousands of the natives, by whose labor in rearing herds, and cultivating the most fertile parts of the soil, the wealth and prosperity of the Jesuits became immensely great. In 1824, California constituted one of the provinces of the new republic of Mexico, by whose acts the missions were virtually broken up, the reclaimed Indians dispersed, many of them joining the wild mountain tribes, and in the course of time, from the superior knowledge and bad habits they had acquired from the whites, they became notorious for their thievish and marauding character. In this state the country remained until 1846, when it was sub- jugated by the United States, under the joint efforts of Stockton, Kearney, and Fremont. In 1848, it was ceded to our government by Mexico. In September of the year following its constitution was formed, by a convention of delegates at Monterey, and ratified by the people in November following; and in 1850 it was admitted into the Union as an independent state. The following is an ex- planaticm of the design on the state seal : Around the bevel of the ring are rep- resented thirty-one stars, being the number of the states of the Union, on the ad- mission of California. The foreground figure represents the goddess Minerva, having sprung full-grown from the brain of Jupiter. She is introduced as a type of the political birth of California, without having gone through the pro- bation of a territory. At her feet crouches a grisly bear, feeding upon clus- ters from a grape-vine, which, with a sheaf of wheat, are emblematic of the pe- culiar characteristics of the country. A miner is engaged at work, with a rocker and bowl at his side, illustrating the golden wealth of the Sacramento, upon whose waters are seen shipping, typical of commercial greatness ; and the snow-clad peaks of the Sierra Nevada make up the background. Above, is the Greek motto, "Eureka" (I have found it), applying either to the principle in- volved in the admission of the state, or the success of the miners at work. GOVERNORS OF CALIFORNIA. Peter H. Burnet 1849 John Biglcr 1851 THE UNITED STATES.— TERRITORy OF OREGON. 225 TERRITORY OF OREGON. The territory of Oregon is situated between 42° and 46° north latitude, and 109° and 124° longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by the newly-organized territory of Washington, from which it is separated in part by Columbia river, east by the Rocky mountains, which separate it from the Northwest or Nebraska territory, south by Utah and California, and west by the Pacific, Its superficial area is about 200,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Most of the surface of this territory is mountainous and broken. Westward of the Rocky mountains the country is divided into three sections, separated from each other by ranges, running nearly parallel with the shores of the Pacific, each of which have a distinction of soil, climate, and pro- ductions. The region between the Rocky and Blue mountains is rocky and ster- ile, traversed in various directions by stupendous spurs, and affords but little level ground. The middle section generally consists of a light sandy soil, though in the valleys it is of rich alluvion, and barren on the hills. The soil along the coast is less broken, and for the most part is well adapted for agricultural pur- poses, wherever it can be properly irrigated. Mountains. — Along the easterly boundary lie the Oregon or Rocky moun- tains, several of the spurs of which traverse the upper region of this territory, and are of stupendous height. About 250 miles at the westward is the Blue mountain range, which is irregular in its course, and occasionally interrupted, but generally extends from a point east of north to the south of west. About 80 to 110 miles from the coast, and about 200 miles at the westward of the Blue mountains, is the Cascade or President range, the highest peaks of which are called Mount Jefferson, Mount Rainier, Mount Baker, Mount St. Helen's (an extinct volcano). Mount Pitt, and Mount Hood. Some of these are elevated from 12,000 to 17,000 feet above the level of the sea, and are perpetually crowned with snow. In the south part of the territory is the Klamath range, which forms the northern boundary of California. Rivers and Harbors. — The chief river is the Columbia, which takes its rise near the sources of the Missouri, along the western dividing ridges of the Rocky mountains. Its principal tributaries are, the Lewis or Saptin, Flathead or Clark's, Kootanie or Flatbow, Chute or Falls, John Day's, Willamette, and Okonagon. The Klamath and Umpqua are considerable rivers, which empty into the Pacific. The Columbia river and Puget's sound afford the only good harbors at present on the coast of Oregon. The trade of that territory is prin- cipally through the former. Puget's sound is one of the best harbors on the Pacific coast. It has numerous narrow bays or inlets, all of them capable of floating the largest vessels, extending back into the surrounding country in every direction, and is accessible at all seasons of the year. Climate. — The climate of the region between the coast and the first range of mountains, though not regarded as unhealthy, is temperate during the year, and is not subject to the extremes of heat and cold that are experienced in cor- responding parallels on the eastern coast. The mean annual temperature i& about 54° Fahrenheit. The rain begins to fall in November, and usually con- tinues at frequent intervals till March. Snow sometimes falls, but rarely en- dures more than two or three days. From the proximity to the mountain winds frosts sometimes occurs in August. The climate of the middle region, though colder than that along the coast, is favorable to the growth of the small grains and grass. In the higher mountain regions the climate is severe, the tempera- ture often varying 40° between sunrise and noon. Here it seldom rains, and 15 226 THE UNITED STATKS.— TERRITORY OF OREGON. dews are rarely known. On the most elevated parts deep snows occur, and abide during the year. Chief Towns. — Salem is the seat of government. The other populous towns are, Oregon City, Astoria, Clackmas City, Canema, Milwaukee, and Portland. Productive Resources. — The chief products are, horsfs, mules, neat cat- tle, sheep, swine, furs, wool, lumber, wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, and Indian corn. Oregon is peculiarly adapted to grazing, butter and cheese- making, for the cattle range all winter, and feed upon the grass, which is never entirely killed by frost, nor covered with snow. The mineral resources of the country are as yet unknown. Commerce. — Since the discovery of gold in California, a great demand has ayisen for the agricultural productions and lumber (which can be furnished to an almost unlimited extent) of Oregon, and, as a consequence, a commercial trade has sprung up. Commercial intercourse is also maintained with the Sand- wich islands, and the Russian settlements on the north. Education. — A female seminary is established at Portland, and three acad- emies at Oregon City, and well-regulated schools in all the principal settlements. Population. — In 1850, by counties, as follows : — Counties. 1850. Counties. 18.50. Counties. 1850. Counties. 1850. Benton 814 Clatsop 462 Marion 2,749 Yam Hill 1,512 ClaAamas l.S.M Linn -294 Polk 1,051 Cliirk 643 Lewis 558 W^ashington 2,651 Total 13,293 History. — Oregon embraces Oregon as claimed by Spain, prior to 1820, or a, part of the territory claimed by Russia, prior to 1824, or a portion of the coun- try claimed by Great Britain prior to 1846. Although this coast was explored by the Spaniards, in about the year 1542, and by Sir Francis Drake, in 1578, it would appear that no one penetrated far into the interior before 1792, when Captain Robert Gray, of Boston, Massachusetts, entered Oregon, or Columbia river, in the ship " Columbia Redivina," and gave to this river the present name it bears, after that of his vessel. In 1805, Lewis and Clarke were sent out by the United States government, with the express object of exploring the sources of the Missouri, and the region beyond the Rocky mountains, and descended the river Columbia to the Pacific, and returned the following year by the same streams. In 1808, a trading-house was established by the " Missouri Fur Com- pany" on Lewis river, the first white settlement of any kind ever made on the waters of the Columbia. In 1810, a private expedition, called the "Pacific Fur Company," was undertaken, at the expense and under the direction of John Jacob Astor, of New York, who, in 1811, established a colony of one hundred and twenty men, near the mouth of the latter, and called the principal depdt " Astoria," after his own name. Two years after, settlements w-ere made on 'the Multnomah and Lewis rivers, and other places in the interior. Soon after the commencement of the war between Great Britain and the United States, in 1813, Astoria was sold to the Hudson Bay Company, but was restored to the original proprietors in 1818, agreeably to the first articles of the treaty of Ghent. The sovereignty of Oregon was for a long time subject to a tedious and vexa- tious controversy by France, Spain, Great Britain, and Russia, with our gov- ernment. In the convention of 1818, between the United States and Great Britain, the right of both parties to the country was mutually conceded. After much controversy the northern boundary was finally established in 1846, and a territorial government was organized, under an act of Congress, in 1848. THE TERRITORY OF WASHINGTON is situated between 46° and 49'^ north latitude, and hounded on the iioitli by the British Possessions, east by the Rocky mountains, south by the Oregon territory, and west by the Pacific. Columbia river formrits, give it an imposing appearance from the sea. It is, however, surrounded by barren sand-hills, and ponds of stagnant water, and is excessively unhealthy, being, in fact, the principal seat of the yellow fever. The older inhabitants and those accustomed to the climate are not so subject to this formidable visitation as strangers, all of whom, even if coming from Havana and the West India islands, are liable to the infection. No precautions prevent its attack, and numerous individuals have died at Jalapa, on the road to Mexico, who merely passed through this pestilential focus. The badness of the water at Vera Cruz is supposed to have some share in producing the complaint. The houses of Vera Cruz are mostly large, some of them being three stories high, built in the old Spanish or Moorish style, and generally enclosing a square court, with covered galleries. They have flat roofs, glass windows, and generally wooden balconies in front, their interior arrangement being the same as in old Spain. The town and castle are built of madrepore, the lime that forms the cement being of the same material. There is one tolerably good square, of which the government-house forms one side, and the principal church the other. The footpaths are frequently under arcades. No fewer than sixteen cupolas or domes used to be counted from the sea, but only six churches are now in use ; and most of the religious build- ings have been neglected or abandoned since the Spaniards were expelled from the town. Rain-water is care- ftilly preserved hi rnnks ; iind most sorts of provisions, excepting fish, are dear. Crowds of vultur.'S and buz- zards perform the office of scavengers. CASTLE OF SAN JUAN DE ULLOA. The castle of San Juan de Ullon, which commands the town, is built on the small island of the same name, about 400 fathoms from the shore. It is a strong citadel, and its northwest angle supports a lighthouse, with a THE UNITED STATES OF MEXICO. 239 ico, and Acapnlco, San Bias, and Mazatlan, on the Pacific, and Guayomas, on the gulf of California. Population. — The population given in the following table of the Mexican states and their capitals, is from a report of the " National Institute of Geogra- phy and Statistics," made for the use of the supreme government in 1 839 ; it is the latest, ami (heiug official) may be regarded as the nearest approximation to the actual jiopulation of Mexico that can be obtained. It is composed of In- dians, Spaniards, half-bloods, negroes, Europeans, and other foreigners. States. Area in square miles. Populaticm. Capitals. Pop. of Capitals. Agiias Calientp." new state* Aguas Calientrs 20,000 California (Lower) 57,029 33,439 Loreto. SOO Chiapas 18,750 141,206 Cuidad Real 3,000 Chihuahua 107,.')00 147,600 Chihuahua 30,000 Coahuila 93,600 7.=i,340 Coahuila 4,000 Durango 54,500 162,618 Durango 25,000 Federal District ) 100) i ^oQ eon ( Mkxico 200.000 Mexico S 25,450^ i,.ie»,D-u ^ Tlalpan 12,000 Guanaxuato 8,000 513,666 Guanaxuato 60,000 Mechoacan 22,468 497.906 Valladolid 25,000 Neuvo Leon 21,000 101,408 Monterey 1.5,000 Oajaca 32,650 500,278 Oajaca 40,000 Pnebla 18,440 661.992 Pu'ebla 95,000 Q.ueretaro 7,500 120.560 Ctueretaro 40,000 San Luis Potosi 19,000 331,840 Sau Luis Potosi 50,000 Sinaloa 54,700 1 47,000 Sinaloa 1 3,000 Sonora 200,000 124,000 Arippe 5,000 Tamaulipas 35,100 100,068 Neuvo Santander. . . 4,000 Tobasco 14.676 63,580 Villa Hermosa 5,000 Vera Cruz 27,660 254,380 Vera Cruz 1 5,000 Xalisco 73,000 679,1 11 Guadalaxara 60,000 Yucatan 79,500 580,984 Merida 15,000 Zacatecaa 19,950 273,,575 Zacatecas 25,000 Total 990,573 6,898,071 Cities and Towns. — The principal cities and towns in Mexico (in addition to the capitals of the respective states, which are named in the above table) are the following : in the state of Tamaulipas, Tampico, and Soto la Marina ; in NuEvo Leon, Linares, Revilla, and Natividad ; in Coahuila, Saltillo,t Parras, Salado, Santa Rosa, and Aguaverde ; in Chihuahua, San Bartolomeo, El Par- ral. and Parras ; in Sonora, Guayamas, Arispe, and Pitic ; in Sinaloa, Ma- zatlan, Culiacan, Villa de Fuerte, and Alamos ; in San Luis Potosi, Catorce, San Juan, Charcas, and Guadalupe ; in Zacatecas, Sombrerete, Fresnillo, Jerez, and Pinos; in Guanaxuato, Salamanca, Zelaya, and Irapuato ; in Xa- lisco or Guadalaxara, Tepee, and San Bias ; in Mechoacan, Tzinzontzan ; in Vera Cruz, Jalapa, and Alvarado ; in Mexico, Acapulco ; in Queretaro, Pasco, San Juan del Rio, San Miguel, and Alpujarras ; in Puebla, Cholula, Hunmaritla, and Napolucan ; in Tabasco, Frontera de Tabasco, and Tonala ; in Chi.m>a.s, Chiapa dos Indies; in Yucatan, Campeache, Bacalar, Vittoria, and Valladolid. Capital. — The city of Mexico, the capital of the republic, in situated in the state of the same name, in latitude 19° 26' north, and longitude 101^" 26' west, and 7,400 feet above the level of the sea. The present city occupies only a brilliant revolving light, seventy -nine feet above the sea. Tlie harbor of Vera Cruz is a mere roadstead between the town and cawtli', and is exeeedinsly insecure, the anchorHire boinp so very bad that no vessel is considered safe, unless made fiipt to brass riiies fixed for the purpose, in the CHatl(^ wall ; nor arc these always a sufficient protection durins stronc northerly winds. But notwitlistandin^ernors appointed re- spectively by the nations to which they belong. In the Spanish, Dutch, &c., islands, the government is of a military character, but in those belonging to the crown of Great Britain, civil constitutional governments prevail, and the insti- tutions of the mother-country, when suitable to the condition of the colonies, are the laws of the land. The following table exhibits the area, population, capital towns, &c., of the principal of the West India islands, with the nations to which they pertain : — Name of Island, and to Area in , ; whom belonging. square milefl. Whites. Indkpk.xdknt : — Havti 28,000 80,000. Gkkat Britain : — Janiflica. 6,400 35,000. -Ponulation." Colored. Total. .820,000 900,000.. Capital Towns. ..Port au Prince. PopolatioiL . 18,000 166 14,950... 1,600 5,000.., 93 1,980.. 109 1,000.. 131 1.500.. 70 1,700.. 29 850.., 225 1,000.. 400.., Barbailoes. Trinidad Antigua Grenada St. Vincent St- Christopher's. Dominica 8t. Lucia Tobago 140 Nevis 20 800.. Montserrut 47 500.. Virgin Islands 90 280.. Anguilla 30 369.. Bahamas 5,500 4,650.. Barbuda 90 Spain : — Cuba 54,000 425,770 . Porto Rico 4,140 127,399., France: — GuBdaloupe 675 12,324.. Martinique 370 13,417.. Mariegalante 90 1,938.. Deseada. 25 Denmark : — Santa Cruz 100 2,500.. St. Thomas 40 2,000.. 40. 150... 3,000. St. John Holland : — St. Eustatia 22 Curaqoa 600 St. Martin's 90 Saba 8 Sweden :— St. Bartholomew... 60 3,000 Venezuela: — Margarita 354 2,000 .325,000. .100,050. . 42,000. . 35,000. . 28,000. . 27,000. . 26,000. . 19,150. . 15,000. . 14,600. . 11,000. . 8,000. . 6,720. . 3,235. . 15,350. .482,992. .229,687. .107,339. .106,299. . 10,347. 31,500. 10,000. 2,850. ... 10,000... . .. 12,000... . .. 13,000... .360,000.. .115,000.. . 47.000.. . 36,980.. . 29,000.. . 28.500.. . 27,700. . 20,000.. . 16,000.. . 15,000.. . 11,800.. . 8,500.. . 7,000.. . 3,604. . 20,000.. . 1,500 .908,762. .357,086. .119,663.. .119,716. . 12,285., 34,000. 12,000. 3,000 12,3.50. 13,000. 3.500 5,000 15,000. 1.5,000. .Kingston 32,000 .Bridgetown 20,000 .Port Spain 13,000 .St John's 15,000 .St. George 3,000 .Kingston 4,769 .Basse Terre 6,.500 .Roseau 5.000 -Castries 2,400 -Scarborough 3,000 - Charlestown 1,800 -Plymouth .Tortola .Nassau 7,000 . Havana 135,000 -St. John's 30,000 .Basse Terre 12,414 .St Pierre 12,000 .Basse Terre ,. .Christianstadt 5.000 .St Thomas 10,000 .The Bay 6,000 .Willelm'stadt 7,000 .Gustavia 2,000 .Assumpcion Total 103,354 743,477 2,512,119 3,277,946 Commerce. — The colonial state of the West India islands acts unfavorably on their prosperity, and retards that development of their resources that would otherwise be brought about ; nevertheless, even in a dependent state, their com- merce is immense, and a source of wealth to those engaged in it, and of reve- nue to the governments to which they respectively belong. History. — The discovery of America by Columbus has been noticed on a previous page. The first land seen by this great navigator on the 11th of Oc- tober, 1492, was one of the Bahamas, which he gratefully named San Salvador. Cuba was the next island of importance seen, then Hayti (the native name), or San Domingo, which he termed Hispaniola. In September, 1493, Columbus dis- covered St. Christopher, Dominica, Mariegalante, Guadaloupe, Montserrat, Porto Rico, and other islands. In 1498, on his third voyage, he discovered Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent, and Margarita. Nearly all the islands were seen by Columbus in the course of his several voyages ; and he gave them the name of West Indies, thinking he had reached the islands on the coast of India. THE WEST INDIES.— HA YTI. 247 During the middle of the seventeenth century, the West India islands were in- fested by a band of pirates termed " buccaneers," whose exploits haA'e rendered them notorious, and whose efforts were chiefly directed against the Spanish settlements, in consequence of the Spaniards having expelled from St. Christo- pher's a body of English and French planters, who at first employed themselves in hunting wild cattle, and trading ; but when pursued to Tortuga by the Span- iards, who barbarously murdered their women and children, the buccaneers as- sailed the Spanish towns and ships, plundered, burnt, and destroyed in every direction, and took ample vengeance on their foes. After the peace of Rys- wick, in 1697, the freebooters' power was broken, and their union dissolved. The West Indies, although granted in full title to the monarch of Spain by the pope, were occupied by various European nations, without much reference to the rights accorded by the papal decree, and with still less regard for the nu- merous aborigines settled on the islands. The precise period when Europeans commenced colonizing the islands is not accurately recorded. Hayti had its first settlement A. D. 1496; Jamaica, about 1509; Cuba, 1511 ; Porto Rico, 1514 ; Trinidad, 1595, all by the Spaniards; Curaqoa and St. Eustatia (Dutch), 1600 ; St. Cbristopher, Nevis, and Barbadoes, 1624 ; Montserrat (English), and Tobago (Dutch), 1632 ; Guadaloupe, Martinique, and St. Lucia, by the French, 1635; Virgin Isles (Dutch), and St. Bartholomew (French), 1648; Grenada (French), 1650; Bahamas, 1672; Antigua and St. Vincent (English), 1674. HAYTI. Hayti, second only to Cuba, in point of size and population, forms one of the most interesting of the West India islands. It lies between 17° 40' and 19° 58' north latitude, and 68° 24' and 74° 35' longitude west from Greenwich, with Cuba and Jamaica on the west end, and Porto Rico on the east. Physical Aspect. — The surface of Hayti (as its name implies*) is generally mountainous ; but there are some extensive plains, especially on the east. A great mountain-knot, the Cibao, occupies the centre of the country, from which two parallel chains, running east and west, extend through the island in its en- tire length. The loftiest summits of the Cibao are considerably more than 6,000 feet in height. In the southwest is an additional mountain chain, which stretches west to the extremity of the long and narrow peninsula terminating in Cape Tiburon. Between this peninsula and the northwest promontory of the island is the spacious bay of Gonaive, including the island of the same name, and having at its head Fort Republicain (or Port au Prince). Tortuga is oppo- site the northwest promontory. The shores of Hayti are in general bold, except on the east, where low and swampy islands prevail. They are almost every- where surrounded by small uninhabited islands and dangerous reefs, but they have, notwithstanding, many excellent harbors, especially along the north and west coasts. Rivers and Lakes. — Hayti is in most parts profusely watered ; it has nume- rous rivers, the largest being the Yaque, Yuna, Nieve, and Artibonite, which disembogue on the north, east, south, and west coasts. These rivers are navigable for a great part of their course ; they are generally deep, and two or three of them are, near their mouths, of considerable width. Three lakes of considerable size exist at no great distance from the south coast of Henri- * Hayti is the oripinal Carihbee name of the ieland, and significs, the mountamous country. Columbus named it Hiepaniola ; and it has also been known under the name of San Domingo. 248 THE WEST INDIES.— BRITISH ISLANDS. quillo ; the largest is about fifty miles in circuit, and has salt water, while the adjiicent lake of Azney is fresh. Climate. — The climate is tropical, and subject to the influences of locality. The low lands are unhealthy, but the more elevated regions are bland and balmy. The year, as elsewhere between the tropics, is divided between the wet and dry seasons. The change of the seasons is accompanied by stormy weather ; but hurricanes are not so frequent as in most of the other Antilles, nor are earthquakes common, though in 1770 a convulsion of that kind de- stroyed Port au Prince. Chief Towns. — Port au Prince (the capital), San Domingo, Cape Haytien, Aux Cayes, Jeremie, and Gonaives, are the principal towns of Hayti. Productive Resources. — The principal productions of the island are, cat- tle, cofTee, the sugar-cane, and cotton ; mahogany, logwood, lignum-vitae, honey, wax, and fruits, .are also important articles of commerce. History. — Hayti was discovered by Columbus in 1495, and was soon con- quered by the Spaniards, who treated the natives with great cruelty. In 1691, Spain ceded one half of the island to France, and so prosperous did that portion of it become; that in 1789 its produce and commerce were equal to all the other West India islands. In 1791, the slaves revolted and drove out the French, under circumstances of great cruelty and slaughter. After various conflicts a military republic was formed, under the title of the republic of Hayti.* Hitherto the Spanish section had remained quiet, but in 1821 claimed to be independent, and in 1822 was compelled by the president of Hayti to annex itself to that re- public. The whole island thus became a consolidated government, and so re- mained until the death of Boyer, when the political connection was dissolved, and the Spanish portion again formed itself into the independent " Republic of Dominica,'" and has been able to sustain itself ever since against the forces of Hayti. Soulouque, a mulatto, born a slave, was the last president. On the 26th of August, 1849, he caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, under the title of Faustin I., and the republic was changed into a monarchy. THE BRITISH WEST INDIES. Jamaica. — This is the largest and most important of the English West In- dia colonies. It lies between 17° 3.5' and 18° 30' north latitude, and 76° and 78° 40' longitude west from Greenwich. Physical Aspect. — Jamaica is somewhat of an oval shape, with an elevated ridge called the Blue mountains (towering in some places to nearly 8,000 feet above the level of the sea), running longitudinally through the island east and west, and occasionally intersected by other high ridges, traversing from north to south ; approaching the sea on the south coast in gigantic spines, of sharp ascent — difficult of access, and clothed with dense and sombre forests ; — on the north declining into lovely mounds and undulating hills, covered with groves of pimento, and all the exquisite verdure of the tropics, — the roup-d^oeil presenting a splendid panorama of high mountains, embosomed in clouds, and vast savarmas or plains, hills, and vales, rivers, baj's, and creeks. The middle part, called Pedro's Cockpit, is spread, for an extent of many miles, with an infinite number of round-topped hills, whose surface, covered with loose lime- stone, or honeycomb rock, is clothed with fine cedar and other trees, of enor- *Tou9SHint L'Ouverture, who had been a Blave, gained an ascendency, and, for a brief period, ninintained n government. He was beg:uilcd by the French, however, and, hein^r taken to France was left to die in prison. A French army of 20,000imen was now sent to conquer the bland ; but the enterprise proved al)ortiv(\ THE WEST INDIES.— BRITISH ISLANDS. 249 mons bulk; the dales or cockpits meandering between tbese hummucks contain a rich soil, of great depth, where the succulent Guinea grass forms a perfect carpet of ever-verdant beauty. Rivers. — The island is well-watered. There are about 100 rivers, none of which are navigable, except for boats. Black river, on the southwest coast, is the largest, but this is only available for flat-bottomed boats and canoes for about thirty miles. Like all the other streams, its current is very rapid. The other chief rivers on the south side are, the Rio Cobre and Rio Minho ; and on the north, Marthabrae, White, Ginger, Great river, &c. Harbors. — Jamaica has sixteen principal secure havens, besides thirty bays, roads, or shipping stations, which afford good anchorage. Climate. — From the geographical position of the island, so near the equa- tor, the climate in the low grounds is necessarily very hot, with little variation throughout the year ; it differs in intensity, however, with the elevation. The medium of temperature of the year near Kingston ranges between 70° and 80° Fahrenheit. As the country is ascended of course the heat decreases ; and at an elevation of 4,200 feet the average range is from 55^ to 65°. The seasons are divided into four : the vernal and rainy season in April and May ; the hot and dry, June, July, and August ; the hurricane and rainy, September, October, and November ; and the serene and cool, December, January, February, and March. Counties and Chief Towns. — Jamaica is divided into three counties — Middlesex, Surrey, and Cornwall. St. Jago de la Vega, or Spanish Town, is the capital, and Kingston the chief mart of commerce. The other principal towns are, .Port Royal, Port Antonio, Falmouth, Maroon Town, Montego Bay, Lucca or Fort Charlotte, and Savannah le Mar. Productive Resources. — The great staples of Jamaica are, sugar, coffee, indigo, cotton, and rum. The cultivated vegetables of Europe arrive at great perfection. The native and exotic grasses thrive here luxuriantly, and all the fruits of the tropics are produced in abundance. Commerce. — The trade of Jamaica is extensive. The exports amount to nearly $20,000,000, and the imports to about $3,000,000, annually. The prin- cipal exports are, sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, spices, and tropical fruits ; the imports, British manufactures and colonial produce. Government. — The local government of Jamaica is vested in a governor or captain-general, appointed by the crown, aided by an executive and legislative council, and house of assembly. The system of jurisprudence is identical with that of England, only differing as affected by local and conventional interests. History. — Jamaica was discovered by Christopher Columbus, on the 2d May, 1494, during his second expedition. In 1503, the Spaniards first began to colonize Jamaica. In 1558, the aborigines had entirely perished, and slaves were then introduced. In 1655, Jamaica was conquered from the Spaniards by a large armament, fitted out by Oliver Cromwell, and comiuanded by General Venables and Admiral Perm. From that period to the present time Jamaica has remained in the possession of Great Britain. The institution of slavery, which for a long series of years existed, not only in Jamaica, but in all the British colonies, was, in 1834, by act of parliament, for ever abolished. To indemnify the slaveholders, £20,000,000 was granted by parliament to be ap- portioned among them, in accordance with the number and value of their slaves. The Caymans. — These are three small islands, which are dependencies of Jamaica, in 19^ 20' north latitude, about 200 miles north-northwest from that island. Grand Caymans, the most remote, and the only one inhabited, contains about 1,000 acres. The inhabitants are employed catching and feeding turtle for the market. Columbus discovered these islands on his return from Porto 250 THE WEST INDIES.— BRITISH ISLANDS. Bello to Hispaniola, and observing the coast swarming with turtle, like ridges of rocks, he called them Los Tortugas. Trinidad. — The island of Trinidad, separated only by the gulf of Pari a from the coast of South America, is situated between 90^ 20' and 10° 51' north lati- tude, and 60^ 30' and 61° 20' longitude west from Greenwich. Physical Aspect. — The mountain chains run from west to east, and may be regarded as continuations of the chains on the opposite coast of Venezuela, from which this island has most probably been detached by some convulsion of nature. Along the northern shore a bold range of mountains rises to the height of 3,000 feet, broken into the most rugged and abrupt forms, and clothed to the summit with forest trees. Toward the south extends a chain of hills of less elevation, and of a more pastoral character, while the centre of the island is occupied by a group of flat or round-topped hills, dividing it, as it were, into two extensive valleys, which are occasionally intersected by a succession of hill and dale. The greater part of the interior of this island is uncultivated, and, indeed, in a considerable degree unexplored. The low grounds are in parts marshy, while the more elevated portions are, for the most part, covered with a dense vegetation of forest and underwood. The accounts best entitled to credit represent the island as being naturally extremely fertile. The soil is, in general, deep, stiff", and tenacious. It is estimated that only about one thir- tieth part of this island is incapable of cultivation. Rivers and Harbors. — The whole island is well-watered by numerous streams in every direction. The principal are on the west coast : the Caroni, navigable for six leagues from its mouth ; and on the east the Oropuche and Nariva, which last is said to be navigable for vessels of 250 tons to a league from its source. The north and east coasts are not well furnished with har- bors ; which is unfortunate, as the winds blow from those quarters for three fourths of the year. But the west coast has numerous bays and inlets ; and the gulf of Paria is an extensive inland sea, in which ships of alL sizes may ride securely, and anchor anywhere without the smallest risk and in any convenient depth of water. Climate. — This island is exempt from those destructive droughts so common to the other West India islands. The dry season commences in December, and ends in May. The nights are generally cool and pleasant. Chief Towns and Ports. — Puerto d'Espana, or Port Spain, is the capital, and is one of the finest towns in the West Indies. Other ports are. Port Royal, Maquerbe, Los Cuevos, Balandra bay, Guias Neck, Mayaro bay, and Guai- guaire. Productive Resources. — The principal productions of Trinidad are, sugar, cocoa, coff'ee, cotton, and indigo. Cocoa is grown more extensively here than in any other of the British Antilles, and is oT superior quality. Here are also all the fruits and vegetables of the adjacent tropical qlimates. The minerals found in Trinidad are, iron, copper, arsenic, plumbago, sulphur, and bituminous coal. A remarkable mineral phenomenon is a lake of asphaltum, three miles in circumference. The asphaltum obtained from it, mingled with grease or oil, has been found useful in protecting the bottoms of ships from rot. Government. — The administrative powers arc vested in a lieutenant-gov- ernor, appointed by the crown, and an executive and legislative committee, half of which is composed of official persons, and half taken from among the people. History. — Trinidad was discovered by Columbus, in 1498, who found it inhabited by Carihs, and was taken possession of by the Spaniards in 1588, an event followed by the almost total extermination of the Indians. Ral- eigh visited it in 1595. The French took it in 1696, but soon afterward THE WEST INDIES.— BRITISH ISLANDS. 251 restored it to the Spaniards, who held it till captured by the English, under Abercrombie, in 1797, and it has since that period remained a British colony. The Bahama Islands. — The Bahamas consist of several hundred islands of various magnitudes, extending in a southeast and northvj^est direction, betvv^een Hayti and Florida, nearly 600 miles, from Turk's island, 21° 23' to the Manta- nilla reef, in 27° 50' north latitude, and from 71° 5' to 79° 5' longitude west from Greenwich. They are mostly of coral formation, low, flat, and but scantily covered with soil, and the greater number of them uninhabited. Principal Islands. — The principal islands forming the group are, New Providence and keys ; Andross island. Green and Grassy keys, Grand Baha- ma and the Berry islands ; Great and Little Abaco and keys, Harbor island, Eleuthera, Royal island and keys ; St. Salvador and Little island ; Watling's island and Rum key ; Great and Little Exuma and keys ; Ragged island and keys ; Long island ; Crooked island. Fortune island, and Acklin's island ; Great and Little Heneagua ; Mayaguana, French, and Attwood's keys ; the Caicoss Turk's island. Key Sal, and Auguilla. New Providence. — The most important island of the group, from its harbor and situation with respect to the Florida channel, is New Providence ; and, as this is the residence of the governor, the seat of the legislature, and the head- quarters of the troops, and as it differs from the other islands in no essential degree, we shall confine ourselves to an outline of its geographical features and general appearance, deeming it uimecessary to dwell upon any of the others. It lies in latitude 25° 29' north, and in longitude 76° 34' west, and extends about 21 miles from east to west, and 7 miles from north to south. It is nearly covered with large trees and brushwood, and much intersected with marshes and lagunes. A range of slightly-elevated hills runs along a part of the island, at a very short distance from the sea ; and upon the face of this ridge stands Nassau, the capi- tal, and the seat of government. Another range of hills runs parallel to the for- mer, at the distance of about two and a half miles ; the whole of the intervening space forms an extensive marsh. Climate. — The climate varies very considerably, both in temperature and salubrity, according to the geographical position and local peculiarities of the the islands. At New Providence the weather, during the cold season, which extends from November to May, is extremely pleasant ; the thermometer in the shade being generally from 60° to 70°, the midday heat tempered by a constant breeze ; and the evenings cool and agreeable. From May to November the heat increases or decreases, as the sun advances or retires from the tropic of Cancer, and during this period the range of the thermometer is from 75° to 85°, seldom rising above 90°. The spring rains commence about May, and continue for a few weeks : those of autumn commence in September, and generally ter- minate in November or December. During the autumnal months fogs are very frequent in the -mornings and evenings ; but from December to May the weather is generally fine, clear, and dry. Productive Resourcks. — The chief articles of produce are, Indian and Guinea corn, potatoes, yams, beans, peas, pineapples, salt, dyewoods, cotton, ochres, casa, pumpkins, arrowroot, onions (of which a great quantity are raised), oranges, limes, and lemons. There are about 12,000 acres of pasturage, which give support to horses, horned stock, sheep and goats, and swine. Commerce. — The principal article of export is salt, amounting to half a mil- lion of bushels annually. Other articles of export are sponge, dye and other woods, ochres, arrowroot, lemons, oranges, &c. Population. — The population is about 20,000. The inhabitants are divided into two classes of residents and wreckers. The latter are mostly employed in rescuing vessels, with their crews and cargoes, shipwrecks being frequent in 252 THE WEST INDIES.— BRITISH ISLANDS. these intricate, shallow, and dangerous seas. They sail in small, flat-bottomed sloops, admirably fitted for the waters they navigate. They are excellent sail- ors ; are familiar with all the keys, shoals, and breakers ; and encounter danger with alacrity and courage. Their great places of rendezvous are, the Florida gulf, the Hole-in-the-Wall, and the Hog-sties. Their vessels are very nume- rous. They are licensed by the governor, and receive a salvage on all prop- erty rescued from the waves. History. — New Providence was settled in 1629 by the English, who kept possession of it till 1641, when they were expelled by the Spaniards, who mur- dered the governor, and committed many acts of barbarous cruelty. It was re- colonized in 1666 by the English a second time ; but they were again expelled by the French and Spaniards in 1703, and from that period it became a rendez- vous for pirates, till formally ceded to the English in 1783, in whose possession, with the other islands, it has since remained. Tobago or Tobasco, — This is a small island to the north of Trinidad ; it has a fine climate, and fertile soil. This island was discovered by Columbus, in 1498 ; it was colonized by the Dutch, and next by the Courlanders. After- ward it came to the French, who ceded it to Great Britain in 1763. Grrenada. — This is another small island, whose capital, Georgetown, has a good harbor. It was first discovered by Columbus, in 1498, settled by the French in 1650, and taken by the British in 1762. St. Vincent. — This is a rugged and mountainous island, and is well- watered. It has been exposed to great ravages by the eruptions of a volcanic mountain, called the Souffriere, or Sulphur Mountain. The island was discov- ered by Columbus, in 1498, at which time the natives were numerous, consist- ing of two races — one of Caribs, and the other resembling negroes, supposed to be the descendants of Africans wrecked on the coast. The island was colo- nized by the French, but came to the English in 1763. The natives revolted, and 5,000 were removed to Honduras. Barbadoes. — This is the most easterly of the West India islands ; it has a fertile soil. The capital, Bridgetown, is a flourishing place. This island had no aboriginal population, though it appears the Caribs occasionally visited it. Its discovery is uncertain. The English took possession of it in 1605, and colonized it in 1624. During the civil wars in England, about the year 1650, the population rapidly increased. Although afflicted at different times with earthquakes, pestilence, insurrection, and conflagration, the colony increased, and the island is now one of great importance* St. Lucia. — This fine island has a healthy and agreeable climate, and the soil yields cocoa, fustic, sugar, and coflee. It was first discovered by the Eng- lish, in 1635, but they were driven away by the Caribs. A settlement was effected by the French in 1650. After having changed hands several times between the English and French, it finally was taken by the English, in 1804, and has since remained subject to the British crown. Dominica. — The island of Dominica contains several volcanic mountains, and its forests produce a variety of ornamental woods. Roseau, the capital, has a fine harbor. Six miles from here, on the top of a high mountain, is a fresh-water lake, with an area of several acres, in some parts unfathomable. This island, was discovered by Columbus, in 1493. It was for a long time claimed by both France and Spain, till the English gained possession of it in THE WEST INDIES.— .BRITISH ISLANDS. 253 1759. It was taken afterward by the French, and belonged to them till 1783, when it was restored to the British, and has since remained in their possession. Antigua. — This fertile island contains a great number of excellent harbors. It was discovered by Columbus, in 1493. The first settlement was made in 1632, by the English. In 1666, the French laid it waste, but it was resettled in 1674, by the English, in whose possession it has since remained. Barbuda. — This is a flat, fertile island, producing corn, pepper, and tobacco. It belongs to the Codrington family, and has a proprietary government — the only one in the West Indies. It was settled from St. Christopher's, soon after that island was colonized. Montserrat. — This island is mountainous, with a light, volcanic soil, and healthy' climate. It produces excellent coflee and sugar. It was discovered by Columbus, in 1493, colonized by the English in 1632, and confirmed to them in 1713. St. Christopher's or St. Kitt's, called by the Caribs Licmuiga, produces sugar, cotton, coffee, &c. It is healthy, but subject tb earthquakes. It was discovered by Columbus, in 1493, and confirmed to Great Britain, by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. Nevis. — This delightful little island is separated from St. Christopher's by a strait about ten miles broad, and full of shoals. It is a conical hill, with a marshy, fertile soil, and healthy climate. It produces sugar, molasses, and rum. It was discovered by the English, and settled by them in 1628. Angtlilla. — Anguilla, called Snake island, from its crooked form, is flat, chalky, and not fertile, producing cotton, sugar, maize, and provisions. It has a salt lake, furnishing salt. It was colonized by the English in 1650, and has since been held by them. Tortola is one of the Virgin islands, which belong to the English, Danes, and Spaniards. These are all small. Tortola is mountainous, with a thin soil, producing cotton, fruits, sugar, molasses, &c. A few other of the Virgin isles belong to Great Britain. They were discovered by Columbus, in 1433, and named in honor of the 10,000 virgins in the Roman ritual. The Dutch bucca- neers were the first occupants of these islands, having settled at Tortola in 1648. A stronger party of English buccaneers drove them out in 1666, and they were shortly afterward annexed to the Leeward government. COTTON CaLlIVAIION. 254 THE WEST INDIES.— SPANISH ISLANDS. THE SPANISH WEST INDIES. Cuba. — This is the largest and most important of the West India islands. It lies between 19^ 40' and 23° north latitude, and extends from 74° 15' to 84° 57' longitude west from Greenwich. Its figure is long and narrow, approach- ing to that of a crescent, with its convex side toward the nort,h. Its western portion lying between the peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan, leaves two en- trances into, and, in a military point of view, is the key to, the gulf of Mexico The greatest length of the island, following the curve, is about 800 miles, and its breadth, which is very irregular, varies from 25 to 130 miles. Physical Aspect. — Mountain chains traverse the whole length of the island, giving off lateral ridges on both sides, with extensive intervening valleys, well- watered by numberless fine streams, and fertile beyond exaggeration. Savan- nas and plains stretch from the mountains to the sea, and present a scene of cultivated fields clothed in perennial verdure, and producing all the staples and fruits of tropical countries. During the whole year vegetation is strong, and no season is without its peculiar fruits. So prolific indeed is the soil, that two, and sometimes three crops of grain are produced annually. Climate. — In the western part of the island the climate is such as is to be expected along the northern limit of the torrid zone, presenting many inequali- ties of temperature, from the near neighborhood of the American continent. The seasons are spoken of as the rainy and dry, but the line of damarkation is not very clearly defined. The warmest months are July and August, when the mean temperature is about 84° Fahrenheit. The coldest months are December and January, when the thermometer ranges about 10° less than at the equator. It never snows, but hail and frost are not uncommon. Hurricanes are not so common as in other West India islands. Earthquakes are not unfrequent. Chief Towns. — Havana, the capital, is situated on the northwest of the island. It is one of the most flourishing cities of the New World. Havana is renowned for its harbor. The entrance is narrow, but deep, without bar or ob- struction of any kind, and expands into a magnificent bay. Vessels of the largest dimensions ride safely upon its waters. Other important towns are, Santiago de Cuba, Matanzas, Puerto Principe, Neuvitas, Cardenas, Trinidad, Cienfuegos, Manzanillo, Bayamo, Holguin, El Cobre, and Baracoa. Productive Resources. — The principal articles of export are, tobacco, cof- fee, sugar, wax, hides, and fruits. The common cereal or bread grasses are cultivated with success, and the various tropical plants are abundant. The mountains are rich in minerals, particularly iron, copper, silver, and gold. Commerce. — The exports of Cuba amount to about $25,000,000 annually, and its imports to about $10,000,000. More than one half of the commerce of Cuba is with the United States. History. — Cuba was discovered by Columbus, October 28, 1492, and was first called Juan, in honor of Prince John, son of Ferdinand and Isabella ; afterward Ferdinandina, in memory of the king ; then successively SantiagS and Ave Maria, in deference to the patron saint of Spain and the Virgin ; and by Spanish geographers, La lengua de pajaro, as descriptive of its form. The name Cuba was that' in use among the aborigines at the time of its discovery. In 1 511, the Spaniards began their settlements here ; and in a few years they ex- terminated nearly all the mitWes. Havana was founded early in the sixteenth century, and soon became a thriving commercial place. This city was for a long period the chief mart of the Spanish West India trade, and was repeatedly at tacked by enemies. The buccaneers laid it under contribution in the sixteeiiih century. The most memorable capture of the place was by the British, in THE WEST INDIES.— SPANISH ISLANDS. 255 1762, when the conquerors obtained a booty of $15,000,000. Hnvana was re- stored to Spain in 1762. Since this time, Cuba has remained in the posses- sion of that power. Its fertility renders it invaluable as a source of revenue to the mother country. The Creole portion of the inhabitants are dissatisfied with the government; and relying upon this, in 1850, a band of about a thousand men, led by a Cuban exile, named Lopez, sailed from New Orleans, for the purpose of invading and revolutionizing the island. A party of about 400 landed at Cardenas in June, but were soon forced to depart. A similar attempt iu July, 1851, was wholly broken up ; and General Lopez and many of his men were executed. That a desire exists to free their beautiful island from the oppression of the Spanish rule, which will ultimately compel Spain to relin- quish control over it, and establish it as an independent nation, or bring it into the American Union, can not be doubted. Porto Rico. — Porto Rico (Spanish, Puerto Rico), the smallest and most eastern of the great Antilles, is situated between 17° 55' and IS"^ 30' north lati- tude, and 65"^ 40' and 67° 20' longitude west from Greenwich. It is about 100 miles long, and 38 broad. Physical Aspect. — A mountain chain runs east and west through the centre of the island, the highest summit of which is about 3,000 feet. The surface of the island, which is finely diversified, is well-watered, and the soil is generally rich and fertile. Rivers, Bays, &c. — Numerous rivers having their sources in the mountains, flow on either side into the sea, some of which are navigable for two or three leagues from their mouths for schooners and coasting vessels. The coast line is indented with numerous bays and creeks, some of which form excellent har- bors for ships of large burthen. Islands. — Several small islands, lying contiguous to Porto Rico, belong to Spain, namely, Bieque or Crab, Serpent, Great and Little Passage, the Tropic keys, and several others. Climate. — The climate is supposed to be less unhealthy, and better adapted to foreigners, than in most of the Antilles : it varies widely, however, in differ- ent parts ; the northern coast being especially subject to heavy rains, and the southern to droughts. Violent hurricanes often do immense damage. Chief Towns. — San Juan de Porto Rico is the capital of the island. The harbor has a striking resemblance to that of Havana, to which it is but little inferior. The other towns of Porto Rico are, Mayaguez, Aguadilla, Arecibo, Ponce, and Guayama. Productive Resources. — The staples of Porto Rico are sugar, coffee, and tobacco. Other products are, wax, honey, hides, and the tropical fruits. No minerals are found, and no manufactures exist. Commerce. — The imports and exports of Porto Rico amount to about five millions each annually, about one fourth of which is with the United States. Government. — The government, laws, and institutions, are nearly similar to those established by Spain in the rest of her transatlantic colonies. History. — Columbus discovered this island in 1493, at which period it is said (though not on very good grounds) to have had a population of 600,000, all of whom were, in no very long time thereafter, exterminated by the Span- iards. In the latter part of the 17th century it was taken by the English ; but from the prevalence of dysentery among the troops, they were soon after obliged to abandon it, since which time it has remained in the hands of Spain. A rev- olution broke out in 1820, but was suppressed in 1853 : the object of the people was separation from the mother-country, and an independent existence. All, however, is now quiet, and a spirit of improvement has taken the place of rev- olutionary ideas. 256 THE WEST INDIES.— FRENCH ISLANDS. THE FRENCH WEST INDIES. Previous to the Revolution, the possessions of France in the West Indies were more valuable than those of any other nation. The exports from Hayti alone amounted to $25,000,000 annually. That valuable island is now entirely lost to her. During her war with England all her islands were captured. By the peace of 1815, England relinquished some of the captured West India islands, and at the present period, the French government owns only the retro- (feded islands of Guadaloupe and its dependencies, Martinique, and the north side of St. Martin's. These, with three small islands at the north, mentioned on a previous page, and the colony of Cayenne, in Guyana, comprise the entire French colonial possessions on or near the American continent. Slavery was tolerated in these islands until the establishment of the republic in France, in 1848, when the immediate and absolute emancipation of slaves in all the French colonies was proclaimed. Q-uadaloupe. — This island is situated between 15° 58' and 16° 13' north latitude, and 61° 15' and 61° 55' longitude west from Greenwich. It is divi- ded into two parts by the river Salee or Salt river, which crosses the isthmus by which its western and eastern portions are united. The western, called Basse- Terre, contains a chain of lofty Rocky volcanic mountains, running through its centre. Its plains are copiously watered, and fruitful. The eastern division, called Grande-Terre, differs remarkably in its features from Basse-Terre. It is almost a level plain, with only a few scattered hills, destitute of woods, and labors under a deficiency of water. The only towns worthy of notice in Guad- aloupe are, Basse-Terre, the capital, Capis-Terre, and Point-a-Pitre, the latter of which has an excellent harbor. Point-a-Pitre was, a few years since, almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake. Guadaloupe and adjoining islands were discovered by Columbus, in 1493. The French took possession of them in 1635. Guadaloupe has, on several occasions, been captured by the English, and was occupied by British troops from 1810 till 1815, when it was restored to the French. Dependencies of G-uadaloupe. — These are, Les Saintes, Deseada, Mariegalante. and a portion of the island of St. Martin's. The first-named, Les Saintes, consist of three small islands, situated between Guadaloupe and Mariegalante. Deseada or Desirade is ten miles long, and five broad. It lies twelve miles northeast of Point Chateau, the eastern extremity of Guada- loupe. Mariegalante is of a circular form, fourteen miles in diameter. It is situated fifteen miles east of Guadaloupe, and is traversed from east to west by a chain of hills, which, like those of Guadaloupe, abound in timber. It is very fertile, and produces large quantities of sugar, coffee, cotton, &c. St. Martin's is one of the Virgin islands, and belongs partly to the French and partly to the Dutch. The island was first colonized by Spaniards, but they abandoned it in 1650; after which it became an object of contention between the French and Dutch, who subsequently divided it between them. Martinique.— This island lies between 14° 24' and 14° 52' north latitude, and 60° 46' and 61° 15' Iqpgitude west from Greenwich. The surface of Mar- tinique is generally broken into hillocks, and in the centre rise three lofty mount- ains, the streams descending from which copiously water the island. The highest of these mountains, the Montague Pelee, is 4,429 feet in height. They are all extinct volcanoes. The climate of Martinique is healthy, and the heat THE WEST INDIES.— DUTCH AND DANISH ISLANDS. 257 is tempered by the sea and land breeze. The productive resources of Martin- ique are pretty much the same as those of the West India islands generally. The great staple is sugar. Its imports and exports average about $4,000,000 each in value annually. Port Royal, the capital, (population, 11,000), St. Pierre (population, 15,000), and La Trinite, (population, 6,000), are the only towns worthy of mention. Martinique was discovered in 1493, and settled by the French in 1635. It was captured by the English in 1794, but restored the following year. It was again taken by the English in 1794, who restored it in 1802 ; and again taken in 1807, and restored in 1815. The empress Josephine and her first husband, Beauharnois, were natives of this island. THE DUTCH WEST INDIES. The colonial possessions of the Dutch in the West Indies consist only of a few small, but somewhat important islands. They are, Cura^oa, St. Eustatius, Saba, the southern part of St. Martin'a, and two smaller islands. St. Eustatius is cultivated with great care, and abounds particularly with tobacco ; also in cattle and poultry, of which it affords a surplus to the neighbor- ing islands. The capital is well-fortified, and forms a species of entrepot of both regular and contraband trade. Saba, only twelve miles in circuit, and destitute of a harbor, is a pleasant island, but of no commercial value. St. Martin's. — The Dutch share with France the small island of St. Mar- tin's, valuable almost solely for its salt-works. CuRA^OA is a larger island, far to the southwest of the others, and only about seventy miles distant from Venezuela. It is about thirty miles long and ten broad ; but the greater part of its surface is arid and unfertile, and its importance was chiefly derived from the contraband trade, which its situation enabled it to carry on, while the continent was exclusively possessed by Spain, and stu- diously shut against the vessels of other countries. Since Colombia became in- dependent, and threw open her ports to all nations, Cura9oa has sunk into a secondary station. Williamstadt, its capital, however, with a fine harbor, has still a considerable trade, and a population of 7,000. BuEN AvRE, and Oruba, two smaller islands, one on either side, also belong to the Dutch. Their inhabitants are chiefly cattle-breeders. THE DANISH AND SWEDISH WEST INDIES. Danish Isles. — The Danish colonial possessions in the West Indies com- prise the three small islands of Santa Cruz or St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John's. Santa Cruz. — This island, the most southerly qf the Virgin islands, is situ- ated in 17° 45' north latitude, and 64° 40' longitude west from Greenwich. The northern portion is traversed by a chain of hills, but the island is generally level, and its soil is extremely fertile. During a portion of the year the rivulets are dried up, and water is scarce and bad, and climate unhealthy. It is pro-^ 17 258 THE WEST INDIES.— DANISH AND SWEDISH ISLANDS. ductive, in proportion to its extent, in the usual West India articles. The value of its sug.'ir amounts to a million and a half of dollars annually. Its capital and principal town is Christianstadt. Santa Cruz was discovered by Columbus, in 1493. The Dutch, English, French, Spanish, and Danes, alternately possessed it till 1814, when it was finally ceded to Denmark. St. Thomas. — This island lies in latitude 18° 20' north, and longitude 65° west from Greenwich. Its surface is mountainous, and soil less fertile than that of Santa Cruz. St. Thomas has long been, and still continues to be, one of the principal emporiums in the West Indies. It owes this distinction partly to its convenient situation, partly to its spacious and safe harbor at St. Thomas, on the south side of the island, and partly and principally to the moderation of the import duties, which vary from 1 to 1^ per cent. St. Thomas has, in consequence, become a dep6t for the supply of the neighboring islands ; goods being sent to it to be warehoused till opportunity offers for conveying them to their final destination. The great articles of importation are, manufactured goods, provisions, lumber, &c. St. John's. — This island is situated about six miles east of St. Thomas. Its soil is fertile, and its productions are, sugar, coffee, tobacco, &c. St. Bartholomew. — This is the only colonial possession of the Swedes in the West Indies. It lies in 17° 53' north latitude, and 62° 54' longitude west from Greenwich. Its superficial area is about sixty square miles. Its products are, sugar, tobacco, &c. Its trade is considerable with the United States, where it is generally called " St. Barts." Margarita. — This island belongs to Venezuela, and is situated in 11° 10' north latitude, and 64° 10' longitude west from Greenwich. The coast-lands are arid and barren ; but the interior is comparatively fertile, producing maize, bananas, and various fruits, with sugar, coffee, cocoa, and other West India products, though not in sufficient quantities for the demands of the inhabitants. A good deal of poultry, and other live stock, is reared, and exported to the con- tinent ; and Margarita has an active fishery, and some salt-works. It was for- merly much celebrated for its pearl-fishery ; but this has greatly declined, and the pearls now found are said to be of inferior size and quality. The pearl- fishery was principally conducted at the rocky island of Coche, between Mar- garita and the main land. The inhabitants have some manufactures of cotton stockings and hammocks, of very good quality. Assumpcion, the capital, and residence of the governor, in the centre of the island, is pretty well built. There are three ports, the principal one of which is Pampatar, on the southeast side of the island, where are fortifications. It was discovered by Columbus, in 1498. It formerly belonged to the Spanish, and was the scene of several bat- tles between them and the Columbians, the latter being finally successful. ISLANDS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC. 259 OTHER ISLANDS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC. The Bermudas. — The Bermudas, or Sotners' isles, exceeding 300 in num- ber, lie in the Atlantic ocean, in latitude 32° 20' north, longitude 64° 50' west, about 600 miles east of South Carolina, the nearest point of North America, and contains 12,424 acres, and a population of 8,450. Physical Aspect. — The surface of these islands is very irregular, seldom presenting any lofty elevations, the highest land not exceeding 200 feet. The principal islands (St. George's, Ireland, St. David, Somerset, Paget, Longbird, and Smith's), together with the minor islands, lie in such a manner as to form several deep and capacious bays. St. George's, the main island, Somerset and Ireland, form a chain, with very little interruption, for about thirty miles long, seldom exceeding in breadth two miles (resembling a shepherd's crook). It appears, in fact, as if an extensive island had disappeared in some convulsion of nature, leaving above water only a long narrow ridge, without either moun- tains or valleys, rivers, forests, or plains. Groves of cedars are here and there detached on little plateaus of rising ground ; and the numerous basins (some sixteen miles in circumference) formed by the islands, give very much the ap- pearance of lake scenery. St. George's, the military station of the colony, and formerh' the seat of government, lies at the entrance of the only passage for ships of burden. Its harbor, when once entered, is said to be one of the finest in the world. It is completely landlocked. The entrance is narrow, and is protected by a fort called Cunningham. After passing this entrance, the town presents one of the most beautiful landscapes the eye ever rested on. Geology. — The whole group is composed of calcareous sand and limestone, derived from comminuted shells and corals, and the different varieties are asso- ciated without any definite order of position, the harder limestones occasionally resting upon loose sand. The arrangement of the beds is often dome-shaped, but in many instances the strata are singularly waved. Climate. — The climate of the Bermudas is favorable to health, and may be said to be a perpetual summer. Productive Resources. — The principal produce and manufactures of the islands are, arrowroot, potatoes, onions, and palmetto and straw hats, in produ- cing which the people excel. All the ordinary products of tropical climates, both animal and vegetable, are found in abundance: the fruits are various and excellent. The arrowroot of Bermuda has a world-wide celebrity, and is fully equal to that brought from the East Indies. Beef and mutton may gene- rally be procured, and large quantities of poultry are fed for supplying the ship- ping that call at these islands. History. — These islands were discovered in 1522, by J. Bermudez, a Span- iard, who found them uninhabited. Sir George Somers was wrecked upon them in 1609. They were settled shortly after from Virginia and England, and have ever since remained in the uninterrupted possession of England. The Madeiras. — The celebrated island which gives the title to this group is in 32° 38' north latitude, 16° 56' longitude west from Greenwich. The island is, in its greatest length, 45 miles, greatest breadth 15, and has an area of 407 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Decidedly mountainous ; the land rises from every part of the coast toward a central ridge, which passes from one extremity of the island to the other. Ruivo peak, the highest point, is about 6,000 feet above the sea. The scenery is very varied and picturesque, and the steep ravines and 260 ISLANDS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC. beautiful valleys have been the admiring theme of many travellers. The south part of the island is not clothed with forests like the north, and gives the ap- pearance at a distance of a rugged, barren, volcanic island ; but near the shore, and in the openings of the ravines, there are numerous villas and cottages. There are several craters, and volcanic eruptions have occurred on several oc- casions. Climate. — Every variety of temperature is obtained. Funchal, the chief town, a place of about 15,000 inhabitants, is the favorite residence of foreign invalids, or of persons of a consumptive tendency. The equable distribution of heat throughout the year is remarkable, the mean difference of successive months being only 2°, and the variation of successive days averaging only 1°. Productive Resources. — Wine, corn, oil, honey, and fruits. About 25,000 pipes of wine, of 120 gallons each, are made annually. Population. — About 120,000. The inhabitants are of a dark complexion and low stature. History. — The island of Madeira was first seen in 1344, by an English ves- sel, and next visited in 1419 by the Portuguese, who bestowed on it the present name,, in consequence of the abundance of timber with which it was covered. The Portuguese saw the value of such a possession, which soon yielded a rev- enue adequate to the maintenance of a government ; its peculiar wines became famous throughout Europe, and returned an ample profit for the cultivation of the viae. In 1801 the British government sent troops to occupy Madeira, but evacuated it at the peace of Amiens. In 1807, Portugal being then under the control of France, General Beresford was sent from England to re-occupy the island ; but in 1808 it was restored to Portugal, although garrisoned by Eng- lish troops until 1814. Porto SantOu — This island, lying northeast of Madeira, is about 15 miles in circumference, and gradually rises from the coast to a height of 1,600 feet above the sea. It has a parched appearance, owing to the absence of trees, but it yields about 1,500 pipes of wine annually, besides a quantity of corn and or chilla weed. Population, 2,000. The D-esertas are a few small detached islets. The Canary Islands, under the dominion of Spain, are seven in number, and lie between 27° 47' and 29° 14' north latitude, and 13° 26' and 17° 50' longitude west from Greenwich. Teneriffe, the largest, 70 miles long by 22 miles broad, is extremely moun- tainous, and contains the celebrated peak which rises like a sugar-loaf upward of 12,000 feet above the sea. It is a volcanic cone, and has at its summit a sulphurous crater, 300 feet long by 220 feet broad. Santa Cruz, the chief town, is pleasantly situated, and contains about 10,000 inhabitants, who form one tenth of the people of the island. Wine is the principal product ; 25,000 pipes are shipped annually from Santa Cruz. Grand Canary, from which the group derive their name, is forty-two miles long by twenty-seven broad. It is comparatively well-cultivated, and yields an excellent wine, together with abundance of oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, and other fruits. Palmas, the chief town, containing 10,000 inhabitants, has a handsome appearance. Population of the island, about 60,000. Fuerta-Ventura, about fifty miles in length, with an unequal breadth, may be said to consist of two peninsulas, connected by an isthmus. Population 12,000. Palma is hilly, fertile on the coast, contains about 25,000 inhabitants, and has a good chief town. A volcano broke out in 1625, causing great devastation. Lauzerota is lofty and volcanic. Products, grain, and goat's flesh. Popu- lation, about 15,000. ISLAOT)S IN THE NORTH ATI. ANTIC. 261 Ferro (the first meridian of geographers) is a dry and barren island. Popu- lation about 5,000. GoMERA, with a population of 10,000 is cultivated, and abounds in corn, sugar, wine, and fruits ; it has an excellent harbor and neat town. The Azores, or Western Islands, nine in number, occupy a line of 300 miles from the west-northwest to the east-southeast, between 36° 59' and 39^ 44' north latitude, 25° 10' and 31*^ 7' longitude west from Greenwich. They are divided into three distinct groups, and received their title of Ilhos dos Acores, or islands of hawks, from their discoverers (in 1445) the Portuguese, to whom they still belong. They are of volcanic origin, and generally rugged and mountainous, with a bold mural coast line. The craters are numerous, vary in depth from 50 to 2,000 feet, and are clothed with verdant heaths and shrubs. The scenery is very beautiful. Terceira, the chief island of the central group, is 250 miles west of the coast of Portugal, 20 miles in length, with a medial breadth of 13. It is sur- rounded by lofty precipitous rocks, which form a natural stronghold for 40,000 inhabitants. Augra, the chief town is well built. St. GeoRGE is 35 miles long by 5 broad, intersected longitudinally by a nar- row mountain chain 2,000 feet above the sea. Population, 20,000. Chief town, Vellas. Graciosa, 12 miles long by 6 broad, with 12,000 inhabitants ; runs up to a peak in the centre. Chief town, Santa Cruz. Population, 3,000. Fayal, 12 miles long and 10 broad, has a volcanic peak 3,000 feet high. Scenery beautiful, and cultivated. Pico, 35 miles by 8, has a mountainous volcanic ridge, and peak 6,700 feet high. It contains 30,000 inhabitants, scattered in towns along the coast, where there is some good land. St. Miguel, or St. Michael, celebrated for its fine oranges, is 45 miles long by 6 to 12 miles broad, and contains 110,000 inhabitants. Pont Delgado, the principal town, is the most flourishing city of the Azores, and is well de- fended by three large forts, mounting more than 100 pieces of cannon. Popu- lation, 22,000. St. Mary, 13 miles long by 7 miles broad, is chiefly composed of high, slaty rocks, in perpendicular layers, forming on all sides mural precipices, covered with a scanty soil. Population, 5,500. Flores, and the North group islets, are little known. Cape Verd Islands, ten in number, lie between 15° and 17° north latitude, and 23° and 25° longitude west from Greenwich. They belong to Portugal, and contain 45,000 inhabitants. They are generally mountainous. St. Jago, the principal island of the group, contains about 12,000 people, mostly a mixed race of Portuguese and negroes. They were first discovered in 1450, by An- tonio de Voli, a Genoese navigator. ^ Imtu fewest SOUTH AMERICA. The southern portion of the American continent is situated between ll"^ 20' north and 56° 30' south latitude, and 35° and 83° longitude west from Green- wich, and includes the several republics and divisions of New Grenada, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Uruguay, the empire of Brazil, Guiana, and Patagonia, all of which will be described in subsequent pages. South America is bounded on the north by the isthmus of Panama, which connects southern with Guatimala and Central America, and by the Caribbean sea, Trinidad, and some of the West India islands ; on the northeast by the Northern Atlantic ocean, on the southeast and south by the Southern Atlantic, and on the west by the Pacific ocean. According to geograph- ical writers, South America contains a superficial area of 6,500,000 square miles. The length, from north to south, is about 4,600 miles ; and at the widest point, between Cape St. Roque in Brazil and the most westerly point in Peru, the distance is about 3,200 miles. Physical Aspect. — This continent is marked by two striking features ; the whole west coast consists of a plateau or table-land, averaging 10,000 feet in height, from which arises the great Andes chain of mountains ; eastward of this tract lies an expanse of level country, intersected by three great rivers, the Amazon, La Plata, and Orinoco, with their numerous tributaries, besides many minor streams ; further east another less elevated plateau stretches in what is termed a cordillera, nearly across the centre of the continent, and has several spurs and ridges in Brazil. Mountains. — The Andes (derived from Anta, copper, or Antes, an Indian tribe) extend along the west coast from the isthmus of Panama, in 9° 25' north latitude, to the straits of Magellan, in 55° 54' south latitude. This immense rampart narrows toward the southern extremity ; becomes suddenly broader to the north of Chili ; between the parallels of 10° and 20° south attains its great- est breadth ; and at Popayan divides into several lesser chains. In Patagonia, and as far north as the parallel of 41° south, the name given to the range is Si- erra Nevada de los Andes ; in Chili, Andes of Chili ; in Peru, Royal Cordillera of the Andes, or Grand Cordillera of Peru ; thence to the parallel of 2° north, the chain of Quito ; and throughout Colombia the Andes receive distinctive names from the districts which they traverse. North of Quito, the summit of the Andes forms a great plain, whence arises the lofty peaks and volcanic cones of Cotopaxi, Chimborazo (21,440 feet high), and others, which are noticed in future pages. Plains or Llanos. — These are immense savannas on the east of the Andes, whose level surface and profound solitude are likened by Humboldt to a tran- quil ocean covered with sea-weeds. In a space of ninety square miles there is frequently not an eminence of a foot high. This equality of surface continues without interruption from the mouths of the Orinoco for 550 miles, and from San Carlos to the savannas of Caquitee on a meridian of 600 miles. Occa- sionally there are bancos, or banks of twelve or fifteen miles in length, four or five feet higher than the rest of the plain, with a horizontal surface, and com- posed of fractured strata of sandstone or compact limestone ; sometimes mesa, or small convex eminences. Some of the llanos are destitute of trees, but cov- ered with fine grass during the rainy season, which in time of drought is en- tirely dried up, and the verdant beauty of the scene gives place to gloomy deso- lation. These steppes have but few inhabitants of the human race, but are ten- anted by numerous herds of wild horses and oxen, which multiply with greai rapidity. These plains are also known under the name of pampas. 264 SOUTH AMERICA. Rivers. — The Amazon or Marinon ranks first ; it extends from 3° north to IS'^ south latitude, and has a length of about 3,000 miles. The absolute course, including its windings and sinuosities, is about 4,000 miles. The mam trunk is composed of three rivers, the Ucayale, Tunguragua, and Madeira; and most of the streams which descend from the east side of the Andes (including the Rio Negro, of 1,260 miles, the Caqueta or Yupara, of 800 miles long) swell the mighty volume of waters which disembogue into the Atlantic near the equa- tor. The island of Joannes, at its mouth, is 175 miles long and 125 broad ; there are many other islands, and the entrance or passes are in number upward of eighty. The islands vary in size from 30 to 300 miles in circumference. The breadth of the chief mouth of the river is 150 miles ; and the depth there more than 1,000 feet. The river waters are there impelled with such velocity that they repel the tides of the ocean, and carry their own stream pure and un- mixed into the sea, a distance of 120 mile§. The extent of country watered by this noble river is about 2,500,000 square miles. The Rio de la Plata, or river of silver, composed of the Paraguay, Parana, and Uruguay, receives the waters of the Chilian Andes, and those of the southwest and west faces of the Brazilian mountains. The Parana, the longest of the three great tributaries, has a course of 1,050 miles from its source to the junction, when the united streams takes the name of La Plata. It is navigable for 1,000 miles. The Orinoco combines most of the rivers that water the Caraccas and the eastern part of New Grenada ; its direct course is about 1,200 miles, but its remarkable windings give it a length of more than 2,000 miles ; and, with its confluent streams, it drains a country of 400,000 square miles. At 600 miles from the sea the breadth of the river is three miles, and the depth 717 feet. Toward the delta the whole of the flat country, for 600 miles' distance from east to west, and for ninety miles in breadth, is, during the inundations from April to Octo- ber, one sheet of water. There are several cataracts, and much picturesque scenery. The Orinoco and the Amazon communicate by means of the river Cassiquiare, by which M. Humboldt passed from the Rio Negro into the Ori- noco. Climate. — The frigid, the temperate, and the torrid zone, are found at differ- ent elevations above the sea, but the salutary vicissitudes of the season are un- known. On the higher ridges of the Andes there is an absence throughout the year of all vivid heat, a continuous, intense, and humid cold, which prevents vegetation. The permanent field of snow is defined with an almost unvarying border ; and in the equatorial regions of South America there is not that alter- nate thawing and freezing which produces the beautiful glaciers seen in the mountains of Europe and Asia. The temperate region of South America, adja- cent to the equatorial Andes, possesses a constant, moderate warmth like that of a hothouse, and has its own peculiar vegetation. The equatorial countries of the South American continent experience excessive heat, with extreme hu- midity ; and the atmosphere is rendered noxious to man by the miasmata arising from an immense mass of vegetable putrefaction. In Patagonia and on the eastern coasts there are, of course, latitudinal modifications of climate. Vegetable Kingdom. — The gradations of plants and trees is regulated by the diflference of latitude and the elevation above the sea. The researches of Humboldt, Bonpland, and other scientific travellers, have shown that equatorial America and the adjacent regions are rich in vegetable productions. The Alpine plants appear in abroad zone of 6,000 to 12,600 feet; they are succeeded by the grasses, which extend from 1 ,800 to 2,400 feet higher, and in many places the mountains have the appearance of being spread with a gilded carpet. At 18,225 feet the phojnogamous plants disappear, and thence to the boundaries of perpetual snow lichens cover the rocks. Among the tropical Andes the cultivation of wheat commences at 3,000 feet ; barley is most thriving at a SOUTH AMERICA. 265 height of 4,800 to 6,000 feet ; the cocoa abounds between 4,920 and 5,160 feet ; the banana does not easily ripen above 5,400 feet; sugar-cane grows at 7,500 feet, and coffee and cotton extend over the Cordilleras, at 3,000 to 7,000 feet. At 6,000 to 9,000 feet the various^ grains of the United States are cultivated. The Indian corn ceases at 7,000 feet, barley at 10,000, and the potato about 12,000 feet. Oaks do not commence in the equatorial regions at a lower elevation than 5,526 feet. The cinchona or Peruvian bark is found between 2,100 and 8,700 feet. A single variety of the palm tribe inhabits the heights of 5,400 to 8,700 feet. As the southern extremity of the continent is approached the num- ber and variety of the vegetable kingdom diminish, until, at the barren coast of Terra del Fuego, vegetation almost ceases, as it does on the loftiest Cordillera of the Andes. On the eastern coasts of America, and along the margins of the great rivers, vast forests exist, interlaced with varieties of parasitic plants, and abounding with the strange forms and beautiful colors of the OrchidcB family, while on the lakes are found water-lilies, and other aquatic plants. Animal Kingdom. — This department of nature is by no means equal in va- riety and size to the vegetable kingdom. The crocodile and boa-constrictor are masters of the river margin ; the jaguar, tapir, agouti, deer, lama, peccavi, opos- sum, squirrel, and monkey, inhabit the forest without molestation from man. The condor, toucan, hocco, green, blue, and red parrots, oriole, kingfisher, fly- catcher, humming-bird, doves, and numerous birds of brilliant plumage, tenant the air. Butterflies, moths, and beetles, rivalling in splendor the colors of the rainbow, and innumerable insects, fill the atmosphere with life. Serpents, snakes, lizards (of all sizes and colors), bats, toads, and frogs abound ; and that singular fish, the electric eel, is only found in the rivers of Southern America, which teem with varieties of fine fish. Horses and horned cattle, in herds of thousands, roam at large over vast plains which might be inhabited by man, and are capable of furnishing food for millions of the human race. Minerals. — The basis of the vast Andes is granite, with superincumbent gneiss, then mica slate containing garnets ; next, primitiA'e slate, with beds of native alum, succeeded by slate, mixed with hornblende ; above this, greenstone, or primitive trap, followed by amygdaloid ; and last, porphyry. These primary rocks are flanked by beds of the older limestone, mica slate, hornblende, gyp- sum, and calcareous sandstone. The grand ridge is, in many places, covered with porphyry, basalt, phonolite, and greenstone, often broken into columns, and appearing like ruined castles. A silicious limestone, enclosing cinnabar, coal, and a calcareous limestone cementing the secondary rocks, are found of enor- mous thickness near the base of the chain. The depth of some of the forma- tions is very great, and the immense fissures, or valleys, have facilitated geo- logical inquiry. The sandstone near Cuenca is 5,000 feet thick, and a mass of pure quartz, on the west of Caxamarca, measures 9,600 feet perpendicular. The frozen summits of the highest peaks consist almost wholly of porphyry, and on the flanks form a mass of 10,000 or 12,000 feet in depth. Granite, which crowns the highest summits in Europe, is not found 14,500 feet above the sea; but basalt exists at an elevation, in Quito, of 15,500 feet, while its greatest known height in Europe is in Silesia, at an altitude of 4,225 feet. Fossil shells are found in the Andes 12,800 feet, at Micuipampa. and at Huan- cavelica, 14,120 feet in height, where also sandstone appears ; while in Europe fossil shells have not been seen higher than the tops of the Pyrenees, 11,388 feet above the sea. Coal is found in New Grenada at 8,650 feet, and near Gu- anuco, in Peru, at 14,700 feet altitude. Gold, silver, quicksilver, and other metals, abound. There are several active volcanoes, even amidst the regions of perpetual snow. History. — The southern portion of the American continent was discovered by Christopher Columbus. In 1492, on his first voyage, he made San Salva- 266 SOUTH AMERICA.— NEW GRENADA, dor, one of the islands in the West Indies ; on his second voyage, Cuba, His- paniola or Hayti, Jamaica, and other islands ; on his third voyage, in 1498, the Honduras coast, part of Mexico, &;c. Vasco Munez de Balboa, in 1513, dis- covered the isthmus of Panama, crossed it, and formed a settlement at Darien, the first European town on the American continent. In 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral discovered the coast of Brazil. In 1525, Pizarro discovered, and subse- quently conquered Peru, by a series of treacherous, though intrepid acts, scarcely paralleled in the history of mankind. In 1535, Don Diego de Alma- gro discovered and conquered part of Chili ; and in 1540, Magellan discovered the straits which still bear his name, at the southern extremity of America, sailed through them, circumnavigated the world, and was the first who reached the East Indies by a westerly course. The whole peninsula of South America fell into the power of European governments. Spain took possession of the greater part, and Portugal of a large tract on the east. For three centuries the country remained in the possession of these two powers, with the exception of Guiana. The Spanish portions have lately become independent. The Portu- guese part of South America, Brazil, is now under the dominion of a legitimate sovereign. He is the first European monarch that has established the seat of his empire in the Western continent. When discovered, at the close of the fifteenth century. South America was densely peopled, and possessed many large cities ; but the ruthless policy of the Spanish conquerors, and the vices and diseases they introduced, caused the destruction of millions of the Indians. Of their present number we know nothing certain. NEW GRENADA. New Grenada, formerly a vice-royalty of Spain, extends from 12° north to 20° south latitude, and from 68° to 82° longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded on the north by the Caribbean sea and a part of Venezuela, on the east by Venezuela and Brazil, on the south by Ecuador, and on the west by the Pacific. Area, 450,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The northern part of the great Andes chain, which here divides into three ranges, forms the leading feature. The table-lands, formed between the several ranges of the Andes, constitute the most valuable portion of the country. The llanos or plains commence at the foot of the eastern range, and extend thence into the Venezuelan territory. On an exten- sive table-land, remarkable for very many striking and picturesque features, 7,000 feet above the sea, Bogota, the capital, stands encircled by lofty mountains. Rivers. — The majestic Magdalena river, or Rio Grande, traverses the coun- try from south to north, and empties into the Caribbean sea. For some dis- tance the Cauca river runs parallel, and joins the Magdalena below Mompax, after a course of 500 miles. The scenery at the junction of these noble streams is very beautiful. Numerous rivers with short courses descend from the west face of the Andes to the Pacific. The Funzha river, called the Rio de Bogota, has a fall of 650 feet in depth, composed of two leaps down a nearly perpendic- ular rock. The deep solitude, the richness of the surrounding vegetation, and the roar of the cataract, produce one of the most striking scenes in the Andes. Doubloon, $15,60. i SOUTH AMERICA.— NEW GRENADA. 267 Climate. — The climate of New Grenada is as diversified as the surface. On the Pacific, and in the valleys of the great rivers, it is hot and unhealthy, intermittent, putrid, and bilious diseases, fevers, and dysenteries, being preva- lent ; but the table-lands are salubrious. Goitre prevails in the mountains. Chief Towns. — Bogota, the capital; Carthagena, on the north coast, the finest harbor in the country ; Santa Martha, also a good harbor ; Porto Bello, Rio Hacha, Papayan, Panama, Chagres, Gorgona, Cruces, and Aspinwall. Productive Resources. — Wheat, maize, rice, tobacco, plantains, cotton, cocoa, indigo, and sugar, are the principal agricultural products. Cedar, ebony, mahogany, and dyewoods, tolu balsam, cochineal, sarsaparilla, sassafras, licorice, cassia, aloes, and vanilla, abound in various parts of the country. Domestic animals are extensively bred. The soil of New Grenada is rich in minerals ; among which are gold, silver, platina, quicksilver, copper, lead, and iron. Its manufactures are of the simplest kinds, mainly of leather, hammocks, baizes, &c. Railroad. — The isthmus of Darien, uniting the continents of North and South America, is only 28 miles wide at the narrowest part. A railroad is nearly completed from Aspinwall to Panama, 46 miles, connecting the .\tlantic and Pacific oceans. The gulf of Darien lies on the east side of the isthmus, and the bay of Panama on the west. Population. — The population of N. Grenada is about 1,700,000 and is com- posed of Creoles, Indians, negroes, and the different mixed races, and bears a general resemblance to that of the Mexican states. The whites, however, are less numerous (except on the isthmus, which has lately been considerably aug- mented by emigration from the United States), and there is a greater proportion of negroes. The great mass are buried in ignorance, indolence, and superstition. History. — The dis- covery and occupation of this country by Bal- boa has been already noted. The dominion of the Spaniards was jiradually extended over tlie country from Guia- na to the Pacific. This section was subsequent- ly divided into the three Eiirht reals (.lia»e), 65 cents. prOvinceS of Couacas Eight roals (base), Co cents. (New Venezuela), New Grenada, and Quito, these being governed by captains- generals, or viceroys, from Spain'. The province of New Grenada declared itself independent of Spain in 1811; and by the memorable victory of Carabobo, in 1821, completed the downfall of the Spanish authority. In 1819, it formed a union with Venezuela, under the title of the Republic of Colombia, and Quito subsequently acceded to the confederacy. In 1831, Colombia was divided into the three republics of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Real, Id cents. i Pistole, 90 cents. Doubloon, fl5,Ga 268 SOUTH AMERICA.— ECUADOR. ECUADOR.* The territory of the republic of Ecuador is situa- ted between 2° north and 6° south latitude, and 68° and 82° longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded north by New Grenada, east by Brazil, south by Peru, and west by the Pacific ocean, and comprises an area of 300,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Ecuador is traversed, on its western side, from north to south, by a chain of the Andes, presenting two ridges of colossal peaks. Be- tween these ridges is an elevated table-land, from thirty Doubloon, $15,60. to fifty miles in width, and 9,000 feet above the level of the sea. The table-lands of Ecuador are clothed with perpetual verdure. Mountains. — The Andes, in Ecuador, attain their highest elevation. The highest peak is Chimborazo, 21,440 feet. There are three peaks of more than 19,000 feet; one of 18,889 ; two, more than 17,000; four more than 16,000 ; and seven more than 15,000 feet. Volcanoes. — Cotopaxi is an active volcanic cone ; the inferior limits of its snowy zone is 14,472 feet, or 4,417 below the summit of the cone. The crater has a diameter of 258 feet, surrounded by a circular wall, like a parapet. In 1738, the flames rose 2,953 feet above the brink of the crater. In 1744, the roarings of this volcano were heard 600 miles distant. In 1803, the mantle of snow on the cone melted, and the roarings were heard at Guayaquil, distant 156 miles. Prodigious quantities of mud are ejected, and such an abundance of fish, two to four inches long, as sometimes, by their putrefaction, to infect the air. Pichincha is another great volcano. The height of this mountain is 15,936 feet. The mouth of the volcano forms a circular hole, of nine miles in circumference, the sides of which, a perpendicular precipice, are covered above with snow to their very edge. From one point of view eleven volcanic cones may be discovered, clad in perpetual snow. Rivers. — The rivers of Ecuador are divided by the Andes, in which they take their rise, those on the west flowing into the Pacific ocean. The southeastern portion of the country is traversed by the Tunguragua, one of the main branches of the Amazon. It receives the Napo, the Putumayo, and the Tigre, from the north, and the Huallaga, the Ucayale, and the Javari, from the south, within the limits of the republic. The other most important river is the Guayaquil, which is navigable for the largest vessels the distance of forty miles from the sea, and empties itself into the fine bay of the same name, at which point stands the city of Guayaquil. The gulf is a fine body of water, and would afford a safe anchorage to a large amount of shipping. Climate. — The climate is that of a continual spring, at once benign and equal, and even during the rainy season the mornings and evenings are clear and beautiful. Vegetation never ceases ; the trees and meadows are crowned with perpetual verdure. Chief Towns. — The city of Quito, situated 9,500 feet above the sea-level, is the capital of the republic. Guayaquil, before referred to, is the principal port of Ecuador. Other important towns are, Cuenca, Riobamba, Latacunga, Valladolid, Loxa, and Ibarra. PaoDucTivE Rrsources. — The principal occupation of the Ecuadoreans is agriculture. Cotton, coffee, sugar, yams, tobacco, maize, wheat, and fruits, both of tropical and temperate regions, are produced. The plains yield wax, gums, * Or Equador, so called from the equator crosaing its territory. SOUTH AMERICA.— VENEZUELA. 269 resins, and sarsaparilla. Fish are plentiful, and extensively taken on the Pa- cific coast. Gold and silver mines exist here, but at too high an elevation to render the working of them practicable. Animals. — Jaguars, tapirs, and other wild animals, roam in vast numbers through the solitudes ; vultures and other birds of prey inhabit the mountains ; and the forests are alive with an aggregation of monkeys and parrots, and swarm with myriads of beautiful creations belonging to the bird and insect tribes. Reptiles are the dangerous denizens of the eastern departments, and exhibit themselves in great variety. Political Divisions. — The republic of Ecuador is divided into the three departments, Ecuador, Guayaquil, and Assuay. Population. — The population of Ecuador is estimated to be 600,000, divi- ded as follows : whites and Creoles, 160,000 ; Indians, 390,000 ; and negroes, 50.000. ipistolu, $J,80. History. — The discovery and early history of Ecuador has been noticed under the history of New Grenada, with which it was connected until its final separation in 1831. Since that period the course of events are little known. Personal ambition and civil war have been pre- dominant, and its history is but a record of successive dynasties. Real, 8 cents. VENEZUELA. The republic of Venezuela lies between 2"^ and 12° north latitude, and 60'^ and 72° longitude west from Greenwich. It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean sea, on the east by the Atlantic and Guiana, on the south by Brazil, and on the west by New Grenada. Its superficial area is about 450,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Mountains, plains, and valleys, comprise the physical features of Venezuela. The Andes extend across its northern portion. Some of the peaks are 18,000 feet high. The city of Caraccas has an elevation of 8,750 feet. The Parima mountains form the boundary between Venezuela and Brazil. The most remarkable feature is the vast plain, constituting a large part of its surface, which, including a part of New Grenada, has an area of 350,000 square miles. Rivers and Lakes. — The Orinoco, with its tributaries, traverses the country from west to east, about 1,600 miles, and empties into the Atlantic through numerous mouths. Its principal tributaries are, the Guaviare, Apure, Meta, Ventuari, and Caroni. There are several lakes in Venezuela, the largest of which is Maracaibo. This lake furnishes mineral pitch, which, mixed with tallow, serves for paying vessels. This lake, which is 200 miles in length and ninety broad, communicates with the sea, but its waters are constantly fresh. Other lakes are, the Valencia, 40 miles long by 12 broad, and the Ipava, the source of the Orinoco. Climate. — The climate of Venezuela is intensely hot and moist in the val- leys, but in the mountains the temperature is delightful, and the weather equa- ble. This country has been frequently visited by earthquakes. March 16, 1812, an earthquake laid Caraccas, Laguayra, St. Carlos, and other towns, in ruins, and destroyed about 10,.000 persons. 270 SOUTH AMERICA.— GUIANA Chief Towns. — The city of Caraccas is the capital; Laguayra and Porto Cabello the principal seaports. Other important towns are, Cumana, Valencia, Varinas, Angostura, Maracaibo, and Merida. Productive Resources. — The principal products of the soil are, coffee, cot- ton, sugar, cocoa, indigo, sarsaparilla, dyewoods, and various medicinal plants and edible roots. Rich tropical fruits are abundant. Gold and copper mines exist, but the products are small. Manufactures are confined to a few simple articles of domestic use. Commerce. — The exports and imports of Venezuela amount to about eight millions of dollars each annually. Education. — The wretched system bequeathed to all South America by the Spaniards still exists in Venezuela; but the state has made some provision for elementary education. Primary schools are established in every parish, and Lancasterian schools exist in the principal cities. Population. — The population of Venezuela, according to a recent census, was 1,267,692. Government. — Venezuela is nominally a republic, but in reality a despot- ism. The president of Venezuela is in fact a monarch, and all powers are sub- servient to him. The legislative power is nominally vested in a senate and house of deputies ; but the influence of the executive is such, that the legisla- ture is but the shadow of a power. History. — The early history of Venezuela, and its union with New Gren- ada and Quito, as the republic of Colombia, has been previously mentioned. In 1829, Venezuela was separated from the republic of Colombia, and again became an independent republic, under the presidency of General Paez. In 1830, after the resignation of Bolivar, it again joined the Colombian republic, but this union was of short duration. In November a new separation took place, and Colombia was finally divided into the three republics of Venezuela, New Grenada, and Ecuador. Since this period the country has enjoyed ex- ternal peace ; but, within her own borders, the caldron of political strife has been in constant ferment ; and civil wars have reduced the energies of the re- public, and operated heavily on its progress and prosperity. On the 30lh March, 1847, a treaty was concluded at Madrid, by which Spain renounced all sovereignty over Venezuela, and acknowledged her to be a free and indepen- dent nation. The following persons have been successively presidents of the republic since its separation in 1830.; General Jose Antonio Paez; Dr. Vargas; General Soublette ; Jose Tadeo Monagas ; who was succeeded by his brother, Jose Greg. Monagas, the present president, whose term of service will end in 1854. GUIANA. Guiana consists of three provinces, belonging respectively to England, Hol- land, and France. It lies between 4° and 8° 40' north latitude, and 57° 30' and 60^ longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded on the north and northeast by the Atlantic ocean, on the east, south, and southwest by Brazil, and on the west by Venezuela. Its superficial area is about 136,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The general aspect of Guiana is an alluvial flat, extend- ing from the coast inland, varying in breadth from 10 to 40 miles, and termina- ting at the foot of a range of sand-hills from 30 to 130 feet high. The inland country is traversed by three ranges of mountains, which frequently rise 1.000 to 5,000 feet above the ocean. These chains form many rapids and cataracts i SOUTH AMERICA.— GUIANA. 271 in the greater rivers, and contain the sources of the Berbice and Mazaruni rivers. The highest point is Mount Roraima, which has an elevation of 7,500 feet. Between the first and second chains of hills are some extensive savannas, which approach the seashore, east of the river Berbice. With the exception of these savannas, and the swamps of the Berbice, the interior is mostly covered with hill ranges and dense forests. The soil is generally exceedingly fertile. Rivers. — The principal rivers of Guiana are, Essequibo, Corentyn, Berbice. Demerara, Mazaruni, Cuyuni, Surinam, Maroni, and Oyapok. Climate. — Along the coast it is a low, flat, and unhealthy region, with a hot. oppressive climate. But the hill and mountain country of the interior possesses as salubrious a climate as is found in any tropical country. Two wet iiiid two dry seasons constitute the changes of the year. The dry seasons are from Au- gust to November, and from January to April, the intermediate portions of the year being rainy. Hurricanes are unknown, and gales unfrequent. Thunder- storms occur at the changes of the seasons, but, like the occasional sliocks of earthquake, are not attended with danger. Productive Resources. — Sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, maize, and indigo, are produced in abundance. There is also a profusion of various delicious fruits. The orange and lemon trees, with many others, are at all times in bloom, and loaded with ripe and ripening fruit. It is on account of the great fertility of this unhealthy spot, that it is valued by the European governments. History. — According to some, Columbus discovered Guiana in 1498 ; others give that honor to Vincent Pinzon ; and others accord it to Vasco Nunez, in 1504. The Dutch, who were the first European settlers, established some col- onies near the Pomeroon, and elsewhere, in its neighborhood, in 1580, and sev- eral farther to the east a few years afterward. The first English settlement was made in 1630. Most of Guiana, however, remained in the hands of the Dutch, until 1796, when Essequibo and Demerara were surrendered to Eng- land. They were restored to the republic in 1802, but recaptured by the Brit- ish during the subsequent year. The present territory, called " British Guiana," has remained in the hands of the English ever since, but Surinam was relin- quished at the general pacification in 1814. The first French settlement was made in the island of Cayenne, in 1604, and with but few short interruptions from the English and Dutch, that nation has held this station ever since, and the rest of the colony till 1809, when it was taken by the British and Portu- guese, and annexed to the dominions of the latter : but at the peace of Paris, it was again given up to its present owners. British Q-uiana. — Upward of half of Guiana is comprised in the British possessions. It lies on the east, and is separated from the Dutch colony by the river Corentyn. Its area is estimated at 76,000 square miles, though about 64,000 square miles of this is claimed by Venezuela and Brazil. Political Divisions. — British Guiana includes three colonies : Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo. The only towns worthy of note are, Georgetown, the capital, and New Amsterdam. The former lies on the east bank of the Deme- rara river, and has a population of 20,000, of whom 16,000 are colored. New Amsterdam is situated on the Berbice, and has a population of about 3,000. Commerce. — The principal exports of British Guiana are, sugar, rum, coffee, and cotton. The commerce of the country has materially declined from that of former years. The colonists use the English imperial measures in all com- mercial transactions, but those of Holland in the retail trade. The moneys of England, France, and Holland ; in fact, the moneys of all nations, pass current, or are taken as bullion. Government. — The goveinment is vested in a governor and court of policy, consisting, beside the governor, of the chief-justice, and attorney-general, collec- 272 SOUTH AMERICA,— GT7LA.NA. tor of the customs and government secretary, and an equal number of official persons elected by the colonists, through the college of electors. The laws are chiefly a modification of English common law. Population. — British Guiana has an aggregate population of about 120,000, consisting of but 5,000 whites, 95,000 black and mixed races, and 20,000 na- tive Indians. Dutch GrUiana. — The present Dutch possessions in Guiana consist of Sur- inam, which lies between the English and French settlements, separated from the former by the Corentyn, and from the latter by the Maroni. Its superficial area is about 38,500 square miles. Commerce. — The exports are similar to those of British Guiana, being prin- cipally confined to sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, cabinet woods, gums, balsams, and drugs. The imports are mainly arms and manufactured goods from Hol- land, and provisions from the United States. Chief Town. — Paramaribo is the capital of the colony, and the only town worth noticing. It is situated near the mouth of the Surinam river, and has about 20,000 inhabitants, 15,000 of which are negroes and mulattoes. Government. — The government is vested in a governor-general and privy council. The governor resides at Fort Zeelandia, a little north of Paramaribo. Population. — The population of this territory, exclusive of Indians and ma- roons, is probably 6,500, chiefly Dutch, French, and Jews ; the remainder ne- groes. The maroons are the descendants of runaway negroes, who estab- lished a species of independence in the interior, and were very troublesome during the last century ; they have now, however, adopted more settled habits, and receive annual presents from the government of weapons, arms, &c., and form a kind of military frontier to the settled parts of the colony. French Gruiana. — Cayenne, the French province of Guiana, is the most easterly of the three colonies, extending from the Maroni to the Oyapok, and comprising an area of 21,648 square miles. The settled or cultivated lands do not extend over more than one eightieth part of the territory ; the rest being left to the native Indians and wild beasts. Productive Resources. — Sugarcane was introduced soon after the colony was settled, and since 1829 has been extensively cultivated. Cayenne is noted for the production of the pungent red pepper which takes its name from the province. Other products are, coffee, cotton, cocoa, manioc, rice, corn, ba- nanas, cloves, arnatto, cinnamon, nutmegs, and vanilla. Chief Towns. — Cayenne, the capital, is situated on the island of the same name, and has about 5,000 inhabitants, of whom four fifths are negroes. Kau- sou, Sinnamaree, and Oyapok, are small settlements, scattered along the coast. Commerce. — The exports and imports amount to about $600,000 each an- nually. The imports are principally from France, and her other colonies. Political Divisions. — French Guiana is divided into two districts, and four- teen communes, composing six electoral arrondissements, and sending sixteen deputies to the colonial council. Government. — The government is vested in a governor, assisted by a privy council of seven members and the colonial council, elected by the people, for five years. Population. — The inhabitants of Cayenne consist of 5,000 whites and 25,000 blacks, making a total of 30,000, exclusive of the native Indians. Cayenne has attracted considerable attention of late years, as a penal colony for political offenders, sent thither from the mother-country. SOUTH AMERICA.— BRAZIL. 273 BRAZIL. This country (so called from braza, a valuable indige- nous wood) stretches along about two thirds of the eastern coast of South America, while its superficial area occupies nearly half its whole extent. It lies between 4° 17' north and 33° south latitude ; its most easterly point is Cape San Roque, in 34° 58' west longitude; its western limit is uncertain — it probably reaches the 75th meridian. The length, from north to south, is 2,500 miles, and its breadth, Moiiioie, $6. from east to west, over 2,000 miles. The coast on the Atlantic is more than 3,500 miles long, and its area has been estimated at from 3,000,000 to 3,400,000 square miles. The Atlantic forms its eastern and south- eastern boundary ; Guiana and Venezuela, from which it is separated by a chain of mountains, under the various names of Acaray, Parimo, Pecaraima, &c., and the Rio Oyapok, lie on the north, and its western boundary is formed by the republics of Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and New Grenada. Physical Aspect. — Nearly two thirds of Brazil consists of high land and mountains. The interior of the country is principally a vast forest, except that in the centre there is a barren table-land (the Campos Geraes), 300 miles in extent from east to west. The soil n6ar the coast is rich in the extreme, and literally teems with exuberant vegetation. Estimates have been given of the comparative quantity of the country under tillage, and that still in a wild state, or occupied by rivers, lakes, swamps, &c. ; but, from the limited knowledge possessed of this empire, even by the Brazilians themselves, such estimates must be entirely futile. It is, however, abundantly certain that the extent of cultivated land bears but a very small proportion indeed to that of the whole country — perhaps not more than two or three per centum. Mountains. — Brazil is traversed by three chains of mountains. On the east side, extending north and south, is the Cerro do Mars or Coast range, whose aA'^er- age height is about 3,000 feet. This is by far the most picturesque of the Brazil- ian chains, and in some parts approaches within a few miles of the sea, while in others it sweeps inland for 120 to 140 miles. The central chain, the Cerro do Mantequeira or Espinhaco, is more extensive than the former, and comprises the highest points in Brazil, namely, the Itacolami, the Cerro do Carassa, and the Itamba. The third chain is the Cerro dos Vertentes, or Water-separating mountains, so called because it divides the eastern tributaries of the rivers Am- azon and La Plata from the river San Francisco. This chain is sometimes called the Brazilian Pyrenees. Its loftiest summits are those of the Cerro do Canastra, and Marcella, where, on one side, the river San Francisco, and on the other, the most important tributaries of the Rio Grande, take their rise ; and the Pyrenees, in the province of Goyaz, where the tributaries of the Parana are found. Rivers. — The principal rivers in Brazil are, 1, the Amazon, generally con- sidered the largest river in the world. It is formed by the junction of the mod- ern Maraiion (Tunguragua) with the Ucayale or ancient Maraiion. Its princi- pal tributaries are, the Madeira, the Xingu, the Rio Negro (itself the recipient of forty tributaries), the Tapajos, and about sixty others of less importance and magnitude. 2. The Rio Pardo, which traverses a portion of the province of San Paulo, rises in the district of San Joao del Rey, and empties itself into the Parana. 3. The Rio Doce, traversing the province of Espiritu Santo, and serv- ing as a sort of means of uniting the interior of Minas Geraes with the coast. 18 274 ■ SOUTH AMERICA.— BRAZIL. 4. The Para* or Tocantins, formed by the junction of the Araguay and Tocan- lins, properly so called ; the former is the principal branch. 5. The Rio San Francisco, one of the largest of the Brazilian rivers. Its course is interrupted by the cascade of Paolo Affonzo. 6. The Rio Grande do Sul, in the province of San Pedro. 7. The Parana, which separates Brazil from Paraguay and the Argentine republic. Its chief tributaries are the Rio Pardo, the Itahy, and the Aguapehy. In addition to the above, may be mentioned the Parnahyba, the Oyapok, dividing French Guiana from Brazil, the Paraguacu, the Rio Itape- curi, the Rio Grande do Norte, the Jiquihona, so celebrated for its diamonds, the Jaquaribe, &c., &c. Many of the rivers of Brazil, especially the Amazon, like the Nile, overflow their banks, and subject the country to extensive inunda- tions, attended with an injurious effect upon the health. The navigation of many is interrupted at a distance from the coast by dangerous falls and rapids, and the mouths of many of the smaller rivers are subject to winds and currents, which render them extremely unsafe to the navigator. The lakes of Brazil are of little account ; they are few in number, and small in extent. The principal are, the Los Patos, and Mirim, the former of which is merely a widening of the Rio Grande de San Pedro. There are also those of Juperanam, Jiguiba, Man- guaba, Parapetinga, Jaguarassu, &;c., &;c. Climate. — The climate of Brazil varies with the latitude and altitude, and presents all the transitions of the temperate and torrid zones. Winter is severe in the southern provinces, and it even freezes at Rio Grande de San Pedro and San Catarina. The west wind, in the interior, passing over vast marshy for- ests, is unhealthy. Pernanibuco, and a few other provinces, suffer occasionally from drought. The spring commences in September, the summer in Decem- ber, the autumn in March, and the winter in June. The rainy season is gene- rally from October to March. Political Divisions. — Brazil is divided into eighteen provinces, which, with the chief town of each, are as follows : — Provinces. Chief Towns. Provinces. Chier Towns. San Pedro do Rio Grande.. Porto Alegre. Parahiba Parahiba. San Catarina Desterro. Rio Grande do Norte Natal. San Paulo San Paulo. Ceara Fortaleza. Rio Janeiro Rio Janeiro. Piauhi. Oeiras. Eepirito Santo Victoria. Maranham Maranham. Bahia Bahia (San Sftlvador) Para Belem. Sergippe del Rej- Sergippe, or San Christovao. Matto Groeso Cuyaba. Alagoas Macayo. Goyaz Gov az. Fernambuco Recife. Minas GeracB Ouro Preto. Productive Resources. — The vegetable products of Brazil are unrivalled, in regard to luxuriance and variety, by those of any other nation of the world. Among them are, coffee, sugar, cotton, cocoa, rice, tobacco, maize, wheat, ma- nioc, beans, cassava-root, bananas, ipecacuanha, ginger, yams, oranges, figs, &c. Of these, the most important are, coffee and sugar, which are now, in fact, the staple products of the empire, and the cidture of which has increased with almost unexampled rapidity. Cotton ranks, next to coffee and sugar, as one of the principal products of Brazil. It is mostly grown in the province of Pernani- buco, and, in respect of quality, is inferior only to sea-island cotton. The for- ests of Brazil, which are of vast extent and luxuriance, furnish almost every variety of useful and ornamental wood, their products being adapted alike to ship-building, carpenters' and cabinet work, dyeing, &c. Drugs of a great vari- ety are found in Brazil. The mineral products of the country are chiefly confined * At the mouth of the Parn. the phenomenon of the bore, to which the Indians have sriven the nnme of pororoca, manifosta it.snlf in a very striking mannpr. Three days previous to the new or full moon, when th(» tidi's an- highest, an immense wave, upward of fifteen feet in perpendicular height, rushes from shore to shore with n tremendous noise, and is succeeded immediately by a second and third, and sometimes by n fi)urth. The tide, instead of occupying six hours to flow, attains its greatest height in a few minutes. The roaring of t]iBporoToca la heard distinctly at the distance of two leagues. SOUTH AilERICA.— BRAZIL. 275 to the more rare and valuable descriptions. The most noted of these are dia- monds.* Gold mines in Brazil have been extensively wrought. Among the other mineral productions of this country are, iron, platina, and copper. Pre- cious stones, especially topazes, of a great variety, abound in Brazil. Manufactures. — Unless we call the preparation of sugar and caoutchouc manufactures, they can hardly be said to exist in Brazil, and are restricted to the production of the coarsest cloths, the tanning of leather, and a few of those that are most simple and necessary ; but a great number of trades are carried on. There is great demand for mechanics to build sugar and other mills, to construct machines for working the gold mines, &c., and very high wages are paid them. Commerce. — The commerce of Brazil is very extensive ; her existing com- mercial system is one of great freedom and liberality, and is well calculated to accelerate the development of her resources. The duties on exports and im- ports are moderate, and are imposed for the sake of revenue alone, and not for prohibition. The imports comprise all sorts of manufactured goods, suitable for the people and climate, particularly cottons, linens, woollens, and hardware, from England ; flour, provisions, and coarse cottons, from the United States ; wines, silk, salt, brandy, &c., from France and Portugal ; linens, lace, &c., from Hamburg, &c. Education. — The greatest want of Brazil at the present moment seems to be that of good elementary instruction. Hitherto most schools established in the country have been under the control of ecclesiastics, alike ignorant and big- oted. The influence of the clergy, however, is every day becoming less pow- erful ; and several respectable academies have been opened in most of the large towns, by parties not under their guidance. But, speaking generally, there are as yet no means in Brazil by which even the children of the middle classes can acquire anything like a really good and useful education. Till some efiicient measures be taken to supply this defect, but little improvement need be looked for, in either the morals or literature of the people. Population. — The actual population of the Brazilian empire can only be approximately given. It has been variously estimated at from 5,000.000 to 7,000,000, one half of which are slaves, and a mixed race of negroes and Indians. PIiSTORY. — The discovery of Brazil has been attributed to Martin Behem, who is said to have visited the coast in 1494 ; but the better opinion has allowed the merit of having first seen this part of South America to Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, who made the discovery on Easter Sunday, 1500. It was occupied by the Portuguese in 1504, was made a penal set- tlement until 1549, and and thrown open for col- ozination in 1624. St. Salvador, the then capi- tal, was taken by the Dutch, and recaptured by the Portuguese in 1626. They were much har- DoUai-, si. assed by the Hollanders, who, in 13 years, cap- * The most colehratpd dinmond mines in Brazil are thoBe of Serrada Frio. They are wrought by accuirnilating the cascalhao, a kind of ferniginous earth (in which the diamonds are found mixed with flints), and washing it. The former operation is generally perfonned during the hot season, at a time when the beds of the rivers and torrents are dry, and the diamond-sand can be easily extracted. When the wet season arrives, the operation of washinfr commences. It is performed in the open air, and frequently under sheds, where the action of the sun is least likely to injure the health of the negroes At the bottom of the shed glides a small stream, which occu- pies one of its sides. Seats, raised, and without backs, are arranged along the shed, in such a manner that the Bubaltem officers (feitores) are enabled to watch the negroes at work. One feitor superintends eight negroes. Each negro works in n compartment of t'.ie shed, separated or walled off, as it were, from the others. The cascalhao to be examined is placed in troughs close to the stream, and the negroes are introduced entirely naked, excepting in time of extreme cold, when they are allowed a kind of waistcoat, but without either pock ets or lining. They are furnished with an alavanco, a kind of handspike, by means of which they separate the earth from tlie flint, and then, taking the largest stones in their hands, they proceed to search for the diamonds. X^^"^. 276 SOUTH AMERICA.— BRAZIL. tured from the Spanish and Portuguese 545 vessels, the value of whose pro- ceeds was $37,000,000. In 1635, the Dutch conquered the whole of Brazil to the north of Rio Francisco, Para and Maranham excepted. In 1654, they were entirely driven out of Brazil by the provincials alone. At the beginning of the 17th century, the English and French made some feeble attempts to form set- tlements at the mouth of the Maranon and in Maranham, but were soon expelled. The Brazilian colonies rose to great importance, and in 1807, when a French army was approaching Lisbon, the regent prince quitted his European domin- ions, and, under protection of Sir Sidney Smith and a British squadron, reached Rio de Janeiro,* where he was received with great enthusiasm, the inhabitants offering to build a palace, &c., if the city were made the capital of the Portu- guese dominions ; accordingly, in December, 1815, the colony of Brazil was integrally joined to Portugal, under the title of the United kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarva. In 1819, the Brazilians, assisted by an English man-of- war, recovered possessions of Portuguese Guiana. In 1821, the cortez of Lis- bon invited their sovereign to revisit his ancient capital, and Don John VI., on the 22d of April, previous to departing for Europe, nominated his eldest son, Don Pedro, regent of Brazil. On the 1st of December, 1822, the Brazilians, provoked by the impolitic proceedings of the cortez at Lisbon, proclaimed their independence, and conferred the imperial crown on Don Pedro. In 1824, the present constitution was promulgated and sworn to. The spirit of this consti- tution is monarchical. The legislature consists of two chambers ; a senate, ap- pointed by the emperor, and a house of representatives, elected by the people. On the 7th of April, 1831, Don Pedro abdicated in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., then a child of five years of age, consequently a regency was appointed. The present emperor is a grandson of the late emperor of Austria ; the empress is a Neapolitan princess, and a sister of Queen Christina of Spain. Excepting British and Russian America, Brazil is the only country under royal govern- ment on the continent of America. Notwithstanding the precaution of making the negroes work naked, robberies of diamonds are of frequent oc currence. VSTien a negro discovers a diamond, having first shown it to the feitor, he dcposites it in a large wooden vessel suspended in the middle of the shed. If any negro is fortunate enough to discover a diamond weighing 17 carats, he is purchased by the government, and receives his liberty. The discovery of a stone of less weight also confers liberty upon the finder, but with some restrictions. Various premiums are distributed, according to the value of the stone, even to a pinch of tobacco. Notwithstanding every imaginable precaution, negroes find means to purloin diamonds, which they dispose of to smugglers (contrabandista^') at a very low price. The latter dispose of them chiefly at Tijucu and Villo do Principe. They obtain a higher price at the latter, because their risks are greater in transporting them thither. The negroes frequently contrive to impose upon the contrabandistas, as they have the means, by some simple process, of giving crystals the appearance of rough diamonds, so as effectually to deceive them. About 20,000 negroes are employed in these diamond mines. The value of the diamonds found in these mines, since their discovery in 1728, is estimated at $30,000,000. * Rio de Janeiro, or Rio, as it is frequently called, is the capital of Brazil, and the largest and most important commercial city of South America. It is situated on the west side of one of the finest bays in the world. The city, which is in the shape of a parallelogram, is situated on level ground, at the foot of hills, and has a fine appear- ance from the bay. The older portion, or that adjoining the sea, is divided on the west from what may be called the new town by a large open space, the Campo da Honra. The style of architecture is in general mean, re- sembling that of the older parts of Lisbon ; and though great improvements have been effected since the emigra- tion of the court of Portugal to Rio in 1807, a great deal must be done before it will be entitled to rank even vdth a second-rate European tovni. The streets, which are mostly straight, and intersect each other at right ancles, are pretty generally furnished with trotloirs, and paved with blocks of granite. But although many of them have been widened of late years, and otherwise improved, they are still, for the most part, narrow and dirty, with a watercourse in the centre, the usual rccejitacle of the filth from the houses. The houses, which are mostly of granite, or of granite and wood, are seldom more than two stories in height, rough, or whitewashed, with red tile roofs. They are narrow, but deep in proportion to the height ; the lower story is commonly occu- pied by the shop or workhouse, and, in the houses of people of distinction, by the stable and coachhouse ; the second story (and third if there be one) comprising the fiunily apartments. The mildness of the climate, which is here a perpetual spring, rendering artificial heat here unnecessary, there are no fireplaces except in the kitchens, and, consequently, very few chimneys, which, to a stranger from the north, gives the city a bald, «i;d, as it were, truncated appearance. There are about forty churches, the most important of which is the cathe- dral of Nossa Senhora da Gloria, on a lofty bill, making it a.conspicuous object for a great distance. The royal palace forms two sides of an oblong space, opening on the bay. There are a number of educational institutions, a botanical garden, and a large public library. Water is conveyed into the city from a neighboring hill (2,308 feet high), called the Corcovado, by a nisgnificent aqueduct, constructed in 1740. The water is thence conveyed to public fountains in different parts of the city ; and many persons earn a livelihood by carrying water from tnese fountains to private families. The commerce of Rio is very extensive, and has rapidly in- creased during the Inst few years. The exjiort of coffee is nearly equal to that from all the other ports of the world. The other great articles of export from Rio are, sugar, hides, rice, tobacco, rum, tapioca, ipecacuanha, manioc flour, and other inferior articles. The population of Rio is about 200,000 one half of which are slaves and mixed races. SOUTH AMERICA.— PERU. 277 PERU. The republic of Peru extends from 3° to 22° south latitude, and from 69<5 to 81° 20' longitude west from Greenwich. It is bounded on the north by the republic of Equador, on the east by Brazil and Bolivia, on the south by Bolivia, and on the west and southwest by the Atlantic ocean. The form is irregular, in gene- rnl not exceeding 240 miles in breadth ; the tract on the south, termed Arica, is about 600 miles along the coast, with a medial breadth-of 70 miles. Its superficial area is about 500,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The Andes form the Eigiit reals, $1. prominent feature ; their highest summit in this region is the dome of Chuquibamba, which rises north of Arequipa to the height of 21,000 feet. Omati, the celebrated volcano of Arequipa, is 18,000 feet high; to the southward there are several other volcanic cones, of great altitude. Six other chains, of lesser height, run parallel with the Andine chain, for four or five hundred miles. Exclusive of the narrow strip of land between the Andes and the Pacific, there are broad and extensive valleys between the several ranges, and immense plains, or pampas, extend from Montana Real for 600 miles to the eastward, containing 60,000 square miles. These plains are abundantly wa- tered, clothed with dense forests, and very fertile. The seacoast is but little indented with bays or havens. Callao, in Lima, is the principal maritime station. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers of Peru have their source in the Andes, and are, the Tunguragua, or upper portion of the Amazon, and its con- fluents, Huallaga, Ucayale, Paro, and some other tributaries. The rivers of the coast are small, shallow, and incapable of navigation. The principal lakes are, Titicaca, Lanri, Vilque, Villafro, Chincay, Chinquiacobo, and Cocama. Titicaca, the largest in South America, is in the immense inter-Alpine valley of Desaquadero, being partly within the boundaries of Bolivia. It is 13,000 feet above the sea, and its extensive and beautiful shores may be considered the birthplace of Peruvian civilization. The lake is 150 miles long, and about 50 miles broad, with many bays or recesses connected with the main body of the lake by narrow necks. Its centre is 400 to 500 feet deep, and is navigated by large ships ; it is, however, subject to storms, and fearful gusts of wind. Ten rivers fall into Titicaca, and its only visible outlet is the river Desaquadero, in Bolivia. The country around is highly picturesque, and thickly planted with villages. There are several islands on the lake, on one of which stood a mag- nificent temple, dedicated to the sun, and enriched with incalculable wealth, the pious offerings of the Peruvians for ages. Climate. — There are four climates in Peru : that of the coast, constantly dry and temperate; that of the sierras, mild, moderately humid, and variable ; that of the Andes, piercingly cold ; that of the pampas, warm, and excessively humid. The dews of night are heavy. At Lima, spring begins with December, summer with February, autumn with May, and winter with August. Political Divisions. — Peru is divided into seven departments or intenden- cies, four of which, viz., Lima, Truxillo or Libertad, Junin, and Arequipa, are on the Pacific coast, and three, Ayacucho, Cuzco, and Puno, in the interior. Cities and Chief Towns. — Lima, the most magnificent city of South Amer- ica, is the capital of Peru. Its population, by a late census, is 54,094, having 278 SOUTH AMERICA.— PERU. been almost stationery for the last sixty years. If was founded by Francisco Pizarro in 1535. For many years it was the largest and richest city in South America, but it has suffered severely from earthquakes, viz., in 1586, 1630, 1687, and 1746 ; in the last-named year, two thirds of the houses and churches were thrown down, the crops destroyed, and the country around rendered un- productive for several years. In 1828, Lima suffered another visitation, and although it lasted only thirty or forty seconds, many buildings were prostrated, and thirty persons killed. Other principal cities and towns are, Truxillo, Hu- anuco, Arequibo, Ayacucho, Cuzco (the ancient capital), Puno, Callao, Sechura, Payta, Pasco, Junin, Banot, Asica, Huancavelica, Abancery, Tinta, Urubaraba, Tampa, and Chucuila. Productive Resourcks. — Agriculture is much neglected. Its principal pro- ducts are, cotton, cocoa, coffee, cochineal, cinnamon, pimento, twenty-five spe- cies of pepper, tobacco, saltpetre, cinchona or Peruvian bark, jalap, copal, seven different sorts of wax, sugarcane, turmeric, ginger, many aromatic balsams, gums, and herbs; immense forests, especially on the maritime plains, abound with useful timber, among others the Fenula, or gigantic fennel, which grows to a surprising size, and affords a wood four times lighter than the lightest pine, and yet of considerable strength. But great as are the vegetable riches of this fine country, they are surpassed by the extensive mines of gold, silver, and quicksilver, which have been worked for ages, and are still inexhaustible. Indeed, many of the richest known to the ancient Peruvians have as yet been successfully concealed from the Spaniards and their descendants. Gold is found in lumps, pure, or mixed with quartz ; silver in ore ; from one mine $50,000,000 of the precious metal has been extracted. Humboldt estimates the total produce of the Peruvian mines, from the period of the occupation of the Spaniards, at $1,000,000,000. Since the obtainment of national independence the produce has diminished. Copper and lead mines, are also worked to some extent. The auriferous discoveries in California will probably give an increased stimulus to the working of gold and silver mines throughout South America. Commerce. — The principal exports from Peru are, gold, silver, quicksilver, and other metals ; Peruvian and other medicinal barks ; nitrate of soda or salt- petre, drugs ; chincilla, seal, and other skins ; wool, hides, tallow, &c. Its im- ports are chiefly manufactured goods from England and the United States. Education. — Education is limited to a few of the higher classes. There are Lancasterian schools in some of the larger towns, and a university, and several collegiate schools, at Lima. The sciences are little cultivated, and or- namental takes the precedence of useful instruction. Population. — Peru must, at one period, have possessed numerous inhabit- ants, or its great temples, extensive roads (four, each 1,500 miles in length), and enormous cemeteries, could not have been made. The present population, consisting principally of Spaniards, native Indians, Africans, and the several commixtures from their original sources, is estimated vaguely at 2.000,000. Government. — The basis of the present government of Peru is republican. The con- stitution recognises execu- tive, legislative, and judicial functions, each independent of the others. Congress con- sists of two branches, chosen from the peojile, through elec- toral colleges. The president Four reals (base), 35 cepts. jg chosen bv CoUffress for six Four reals (bii.-e), 3.'> cents. years. Jiulgo-s are appointed during good behavior, by the president. SOUTH AMERICA,— PERU. 279 DoublDoii, $15,60. rbtoio, S:i,7j. History. — According to De la Vega, the Peru- vian empire flourished under the adnimislnition oC twelve incas or sovereigns, for 400 years before the arrival of the Spaniards, under Pizarro, 1 532, in the bay of Guayaquil. The country was distracted by civil war, and, after a slight resistance, fell an easy prey to the Spanish adventurer, whose force consisted of three vessels, carrying 185 soldiers, 37 horses, and several pieces of ordnance. This is not the place to detail the treacheries, massacres, and barbarities, practised by the Spaniards on the helpless and unoffending Peruvians, whose armies, some of which numbered 200,000 men, were unable to oppose a few hundred Spaniards, provided with firearms. The wealth of the temples and palaces, which was immense, became an easy prey to the swarms of adventurers that followed the footsteps of Pizarro ; for a time the Spaniards preserved the form of an In- dian or native government ; this, at a convenient opportunity, was laid aside, and a viceroy, sent direct from Madrid, administered the affairs of the country. The acquisition of riches being the sole object of the European conquerors, was pursued with the most ruthless indifference as to the means employed ; every attempt for the recovery of their freedom was suppressed with unmitiga- ted severity ; the great mass of the population was sent to work in the mines, where, according to General Miller, 8,285,000 Indians perished ; and there is probably no other part of the world where, within the space of 300 years, so much human blood has been shed as in Peru. The Spaniards at length met the reward of their atrocious conduct; the invasion of Spain, by Napoleon, en- couraged the Spanish colonies in South America to revolt. Peru remained quiet after other parts of Spanish America had raised the standard of indepen- dence. In 1820, a Chilian army, under San Martin, en- tered the country, and captured Lima. Peru was declared independent on the 28th of July, 1821. But the royalists afterward gained ground, and Bolivar entered Peru with a Colombian army in 1822. Through his exertions the cause of independence regained the ascendency, and the deliverance of Peru from Spanish dominion was finally accomplished by the victory of Ayacucho, in December, 1824. Since this period, the government of Peru has gone through many changes. The country has a repubii- Qu"rto'" foliar, ^>o cenu. can constitution, but is a prey to ambitious aspirants struggling for power. Eight real*-, $1 K'^al, lUcciita. 280 SOUTH AMERICii BOLIVIA. BOLIVIA. The republic of Bolivia is situated between 12° and 250 30' south latitude, and 56° 30' and 71° longi- tude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded on the north by Brazil, on the east by Brazil and Paraguay, on the south by Buenos Ayres, and on the west by Peru and the Atlantic ocean. Its superficial area is about 320,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The western part of Bolivia is traversed by the great central chain of the Andes. Another chain passes to the east and northeast of Lake Titicaca. The great valley between these ridges Doubloon, $15,60 ig 13^000 feet above the sea. Some of the mountains of the eastern are the loftiest on the American continent. Sorato, near Lake Titicaca, is 25,400, and lUimani, 24,250 feet above the level of the sea. The eastern portion is very little above the level of the sea. A few isolated ranges of hills are scattered over it. The whole of this region is extremely fertile, but it is nearly in a^state of nature, being covered with vast primeval forests. Deserts. — The desert of Atacama occupies the country between the Andes and the Pacific : it extends for about 250 miles along the coast, having a varia- ble breadth of from 30 to 60 miles. It is seldom refreshed by rain, and is almost as sterile and worthless as the Zahara : the only habitable parts are the narrow strips which skirt the rivers. To the west of Potosi is also a broad desert plain, and another to the southeast. ^Rivers and Lakes. — The head-waters of the Amazon and the Plata descend from the table-lands of Bolivia. The Beni, Mamore, and some others, unite to form the Madeira, the principal confluent of the Amazon. The Pelcomayo, one of the principal tributaries of the Plata, waters the southern section of country. Another important river is the Desaguadero, the outlet of Lake Titicaca, and which, taking a southerly course, loses itself in the salt plains of Potosi. Lake Titicaca, which lies partly in Peru, occupies an area of 4,100 square miles, and is 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. In the eastern part of Bolivia are nu- merous lakes, some of them fifty and sixty miles in length. Climate. — The climate of Bolivia is greatly diversified by elevation. In the desert of Atacama it seldom rains, and thunder and lightning are not known. In the vast plains east of the Andes the rainy season lasts from October to April ; the remainder of the year has a cloudless sky. Hail-storms are fre- quent in the mountains, and earthquakes on the coast. Political Divisions. — Bolivia is divided into the following departments : Potosi, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Tarija, Cruro, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra ; and these are subdivided into districts and parishes. Cities and Chief Towns. — Chuquisaca (the capital), Potosi, Orepesa, La Paz, Tarija, Atacama, Cotagaita, Pomabamba, Toraina, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Zorota, Moja, Vehan, Tupiza, Lipiz, Torapaca, Cobija, and Oruro. Productive Resources. — Agriculture in Bolivia is in a backward state. The products of the soil are similar to those of Peru. The mineral resources are extensive, and much celebrated. Gold is found in large quantities on the sides of the eastern chain of the Andes, and in the sands of the rivers flowing thence into the Beni and its tributaries. The famed silver mine of Potosi is in a conical-shaped mountain, 20 miles in circumference, and 4,475 feet above the surrounding country. It was discovered in 1545, and has been worked ever since. There are about 300 pits excavated, few more than 70 SOUTH AMERICA.— CHILL 281 feel deep. Vaults 6 feet high, and 8 feet broad, are now dug horizontally into the mountain to meet the veins of silver. The enormous amount of silver ex- tracted therefrom, since its discovery, is estimated at $2,000,000,000 ! Since the revolution, the produce has much diminished ; but steam-engines are not here known, and it is supposed that by proper skill and management, Potosi might yield twenty to thirty million dollars' worth of silver annually. Commerce. — The commerce of Bolivia is mostly inland. Its trade is prin- cipally with Peru, Buenos Ayres, and Paraguay, and its exports confined to the precious metals, the finer descriptions of wools, and other valuables. Education. — Education in Bolivia is at a low ebb. A school system, how- ever, has been lately introduced and organized, which it is hoped will dispel the clouds of ignorance and superstition which now enshroud ihe ponu];tr mind. Population. — The population of Bolivia is estimated at 1,716,000, more than three fourths of which are abori- gines, and the remainder foreigners of Spanish descent, Creoles, and negroes. History. — This region for- merly belonged to Peru, and subsequently was attached to the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres. The present name of the republic was given in 1825, in honor of General Simon Bolivar, the South American liberator, and to him was intrusted its desti- nies. Generals Sucre, Ve- Ei-ht itHis $1. lasco, Blanco, Santa Cruz, &c., have since successively filled the executive chair, but the country has continued to the present day the scene of constantly-recurring revolutions. Four r«.k (bai.;, 35 com? CHILL This republic, including Araucania, extends along the coast of the Pacific, from the desert of Atacoma on the north, in a direct line between the parallels of 25*^ and 43° 40' (including the Chilian Archipelago), in length 1,230 miles ^in its remotest extremities. In- land it is separated from the pampas of the Argentine Republic by the Cordilleras of the Andes. The breadth varies from 122 to 230 miles, according to the distance of the Andes from the seacoast. Its area is about 170,000 square miles. Doubiuon, S!5,co. Physical Aspect. — A plain of vast extent, rising gradually from the sea toward the Andes, watered and fertilized by innumera- ble streams or torrents. Between the foot of the Andes and the Pacific the country is divided into two parts, the maritime and the midland. The midland country is generally level, of great fertility, and possesses a delightful climate. The maritime is intersecteu by three minor mountain ridges, running parallel with the Andes. 282 SOUTH AMERICA.— CHILI. MorNTAiNS. — The Andes, forming its eastern boundary, traverses the coun- try from north to south. This chain, some of the summits of which here reach the altitude of 24,000 feet, exhibits every variety of grand, wild, and beautiful scenery. There are fourteen volcanoes in the Chilian Andes, in a constant slate of eruption, and a large number which discharge only at intervals. Bays, Rivers, and Lakes. — Chili has an extensive marine on the Pacific, which is indented with bays, affording safe harbor and anchorage. The most important harbors are those of Valparaiso, Valdivia, Conception, and Coquimbo. Few countries are so well watered as Chili. The melting of the snow on the Andes causes a perpetual flow of water down their slopes, and forms numerous rivers, serving the important purpose of irrigating the lands. They are more than one hundred in number, and about fifty disembogue into the ocean. The principal navigable rivers are, the Huasco, Lospentos, Maypu, Maule, Chilian, Ilata, Biobio, Callacatta, Imperial, and Valdivia. There are some small lakes, or rather lagunes, scattered over the country. ^ Islands. — The islands of the archipelago of Chiloe and Chonas belong to Chili. Those of the former are forty-seven in number, about two thirds of which are inhabited, the remainder being sterile, and unfit for cultivation. The islands of Juan Fernandez (the reputed residence of Juan Fernandez, whose adventures furnished the hint for the popular tale of Robinson Crusoe), about 400 miles from the coast, are also an appendage to Chili. Climate. — Extending from north to south for sixteen degrees, with a very irregular surface, the temperature of the climate of Chili is consequently varia- ble. In the valleys, especially in that of Copaibo, years pass over without rain falling. Further south, showers occur only during three or four years, after which a rainy season drenches these southern valleys. In Aconcagua, still further south, the number of rainy days do not generally exceed fourteen to tweiity-one. South of the river Maypii rain falls sufficient for the cultivation of grain. At and near the river Biobio, rain falls regularly in winter, otherwise the sky is cloudless during six or seven months of the year ; south of that river the rains are irregular, and fall heavily. The regions where rain falls are covered with forests ; many of the trees afford excellent timber. Political Divisions. — The republic is divided into eight departments, viz.: Santiago, Aconcagua, Coquimbo, Conchagua, Maule, Concepcion, Valdivia, and Chiloe. Chief Cities and Towns. — Santiago is the capital of Chili. It is situated in a delightful plain, 90 miles from the seaboard. The population is about 80,000, chiefly of Spanish descent. The other principal cities and towns are, Valparaiso,* Copiapo, Curico, Cauquenes, Conception, Valdivia, San Carlos, Rosario, Colorado, Coquimbo, Ballenar, Caldera, Huasco, Lora, La Constitu- tion, Negunche, Baluco, San Fernando, Castro, &c. Productive Resources. — The principal are, grain, wine, oil, hemp, skins, horns, and fruits ; copper, gold, silver, iron, lead, and tin, and cubic nitre, are also obtainable. The copper mines are numerous, and, like those of gold, con- fined to no particular province. At least 1,000 copper mines are now open be- tween Copiapo and Coquimbo. The quantity of this metal annually exported is in value about $1,500,000. The Spaniards derived immense sums from the gold mines of Chili. A railroad, from the excellent port of Caldera, extends to the rich mines of Copiapo, fifty-two miles. * Valparaiso is the great eoaport of Chili, and contains about 30.000 inhabitants. It is divided into two parts, one of which is known by the name of the Port, and is the old town ; the other by that of the Almendral, occupying a level plain to the east. Its location is by no means such as to show it to advantage. The priiu-ipal buildings are, the customhouse, two churches, and the houses occupying the main street. Most of the buildinsis are of one story, and are built of adobes, or sun-dried brick. The walls of the buildings are from four to six feet thick. The reason of this mode of building is the frequent occurrence of earthtjuakes. The streets are well paved. The plaza has not much to recommend it. The government-house is an inferior building. Great improvements are now making, and many buildlnga in course of erection. SOUTH AMERICA.— CHILI. 283 Manufactures. — The fficility with which foreign mamifactured goods can be imported into Chili, has discouraged the establishment of any important man- ufactures. A large portion of the population, however, wear homemade stuffs, especially i'eii to twenty feet above the level of the river. Inchidin" its suburbs, it extend.-i north and south for upward of two miles, with a breadth in it^ centre of about one and a half mil"s. It is built on a uniform plan ; the street.«. whirli are all .straicht, iuteisict each other at right angles at every 150 yard^, dividing it into a number rif squares, each havinsr an area of about four acres. The principal streets, which were once all but impassabli- in wet weather, while in the dry eeiL^on they were obscured with clouds of dust, arc now well paved, and provided with footpaths on either side. Tn8t<> and opulence are manifested in the streets ai.d houses. Buenos Ayres is very defective as a commercial port ; there Is no harbor, and the water is so shallow that a frigate can not approach within eight or ten miles. It has neither moles nor docks, nor any facilities for landing. In general carts with high wheels are used for landing persons from boats. It has about 80,000 inhabitants. 286 SOUTH AMERICA.— PARAGUAY. cordingly granted him, and from that day he became the absolute dictator of the Argentine Republic. He succeeded in affirming his power, affecting always to hold it only at the will of the people. He would often repeat the ill-disguised farce of sending his resignation to the chamber of representatives, when a sin- gle vote in favor of its acceptance would have been followed by the assassina- tion of him who had the temerity to cast it. His despotic and tyrannical sway, and particularly his arbitrary attempt to force a governor upon the independent republic of Uruguay, incited a powerful feeling against him, and a determination to drive him from power. On the 3d of February, 1852, being defeated in a battle with the forces under General Urquisa, he fled the country, leaving Ur- quisa in complete and absolute control of the destinies of the coimtry. This country has been known, since its independence, under the various names of United Provinces of South America, United Provinces of La Plata, Buenos Ayres, and Argentine Republic. PARAGUAY. This province is situated between 19*^ and 28° south latitude, and 53° and 59° longitude west from Greenwich ; and is bounded on the north and east by Brazil, on the south by Uruguay and the Argentine Republic, and on the west by the Argentine Republic and Bolivia. Its superficial area is about 80,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Paraguay is an inland peninsula, enclosed east and south by the Parana, and its tributary the Yajuari, and west and northwest by the rivers Paraguay and Blanco. A mountain chain, the Sierra Amambahy, enters Paraguay on the north, runs through it near its centre to near latitude 26° and then divides into two branches, including the basin of the Tibiquari. Extensive marshes abound in the west. Paraguay, in point of fertility, forms a striking and favorable contrast to the adjacent parts of the Argentine Republic. It is well-wooded, and diversified with undulating hills and verdant vales. Rivers. — From the undivided mountain chain many rivers flow on either side to join the Parana or Paraguay; but none of them require any special notice, though in the rainy season they are all swollen so as to inundate a considerable extent of country. There is but one lake, that of Ypao, worth mentioning. Climate. — The climate is temperate, but damp, resembling, in a great meas- ure, that of Buenos Ayres on the seaboard. Chief Towns. — Assumption, or Asun9ion, situated eighteen miles above the junction of the Pilcamayo with the Paraguay, is the capital. The other prin- cipal towns are, Villa Rica, and Neembucu. Productive Resources. — Among the agricultural products are, cotton, to- bacco, sugarcane, rice, Indian corn, and the Yerba mate, or Paraguay tea.* Horse and cattle breeding is carried on to a considerable extent. The prohi- bition of foreign comtnerce has excited the exercise of ingenuity, and manufac- tures of cotton, wool, &c., are now produced to some extent. No mines are wrought. Commerce. — While a dependency of Spain, 8,000,000 pounds of Paraguay tea, and about 1,000,000 pounds of tobacco, besides large quantities of timber, cotton, sugar, &c., were exported. But under the dictator Francia trade was * Thr- Yorba mr,tp, or Pnrnguay tea, ia the leaf of the Ilex Piira;;ii!iyen.=ip, an evergreen about the size of an orange-trei^, growing wild, and in great abundance, in tlie dense forests in the north and east provinces, to which the natives resort in great numbers for its collection. It is difficult to penetrate the country where it l^s found ; but the i)r(>fits derived from the articles are ample, Paraguay tea being in as general demand through the Argen- tine Republic, Chili, and many parts of Peru, as the teas of China are in Europe and the Uuited States. .ji SOUTH AMERICA.— URUGUAY. 287 almost wholly suspended, he wishing to make the people depend entirely on their own internal resources for support. Education. — Public schools are distributed throughout Paraguay, and it is a rare occurrence to find a freeman who can not read and write. Population. — The population of Paraguay is variously stated. By some authorities it is placed as low as 150,000, and by others as high as 300,000. The true figure probably lies between these numbers. The inhabitants consist of Spaniards, Indians, negroes, and the mixed races springing from the amal- gamation of these original stocks. History. — Paraguay was discovered in 1526, by Sebastian Cabot, The Jesuits afterward established many missions in the southern part of the coun- try ; and were supposed to have effected astonishing improvements in the con- dition and habits of the natives ; but no sooner had they been expelled in 1768, than the Indians relapsed into their former barbarism. In 1776, Paraguay be- came a province of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. In 1810, the Buenos Ayrean revolutionary troops were defeated by the Paraguayans ; but the latter soon afterward deposed their governor, and, in 1813, proclaimed Paraguay a republic under two consuls. In 1814, the second consul, Dr. Francia was made sole dictator for three years, and at the expiration of that term, fur life. In 1826, Francia declared Paraguay independent, and its independence was for- mally recognised by the emperor of Brazil in 1827. Francia introduced order, industry, and the arts, but excluded foreigners from the country. This extraor- dinary man ruled over Paraguay with despotic sway till 1842, when he died, at about eighty years of age. After the death of Dr. Francia, the government of a junta of five was established. Subsequently that number was reduced to three, and now to a dictator, named Lopez, who is said to be a man of great ability. URUGUAY. The republic of Uruguay, sometimes known by the designation of Monte- video, its capital city, is situated on the northeast bank of the Plata river, be- tween 26'^ and 35° south latitude, and 52° and 59° longitude west from Green- wich. It is bounded on the south by the Plata river for 335 miles, on the east by the Atlantic for 240 miles to the Rio Grande de Sul de San Pedro, on the north and northeast by the Brazilian territory, and on the west by the Uruguay river. Its superficial area is 75,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The coast presents the aspect of a low, flat plain, with- out wood of any kind, and as far as the eye can reach quite level in appearance with the water. Inland, however, and particularly in the north, the country is intersected by many hill-ranges, alternating with valleys, traversed by conside- rable aflluents of the Uruguay. In this territory, the humidity of the soil, which is watered by numerous rivers, is corrected by the painpero, a remarkably dry wind. Rivers. — The country is traversed by the Rio Negro, and other tributaries of the Uruguay. Climate. — The climate of Uruguay is proverbially healthy, and it is evident that the thinness of the population must arise from the mode of life followed by the settlers, or from political causes, and not from any deficient fertility of the soil, or other natural or necessary cause. Departments and Towns. — It is divided into nine departments, and pos- sesses three principal towns, Montevideo, La Colonia, and Maldonado, fifteen 288 SOUTH AMERICA.— PATAGONIA. small towns, and eight hamlets, without including estancias or farms, and ran- chos or cottages. Montevideo, having a better port and as good a government, bids fair to become a city of greater trade and wealth than its opposite rival, Buenos Ayres. Productive Resources. — The agricultural products are, wheat, maize, beans, melons, and most of the fruits of temperate climates. Cattle and horses form the principal wealth of the inhabitants, and their hides, hair, jerked beef, tallow, &c., the principal exports. Granite and limestone rocks prevail in the more elevated regions, aad jasper and chalcedony are met with. In manufac- tures no progress has been made. Population. — The population of Uruguay is variously estimated at from from 120,0(K) to 200,000, chiefly of Spanish descent, although many foreigners are now naturalized in the republic. History. — This country was formally known by the name of the Banda Oriental, or Eastern Shore, in relation to its position on the eastern bank of the Rio de la Plata. It was first settled by Spaniards from Buenos Ayres, and re- mained a province under that government till 1821, when it was taken by the Brazilians, and incorporated with Brazil under the title of province Cisplatina. In 1825, however, it declared itself independent ; and its independence was re- cognised in 1828, by a treaty between Brazil and La Plata. A constitution was then formed, erecting Uruguay into an integral republic. Fructuoso Rivera was the first president. He was succeeded, in 1835, by Manuel Oribe, who rendering himself obnoxious to the people, was obliged to resign, and Rivera reassumed power, and proclaimed himself dictator. In 1840, war broke out between Uruguay and the Argentine Republic, in consequence of the dictator Rosas attempting to replace Oribe in the presidential chair of Uruguay. This was continued with varjang success down to 1852, when the invasion of the Argentine Republic by Urquisa, the total defeat of Rosas, and his flight from the country, restored peace and quiet again to the Uraguayans, PATAGONIA. This extensive and little known region is bounded on the east by the Atlan- tic, west by the Pacific, and south by the straits of Magellan, which separate the main land from Tierra del Fuego and the adjacent islands, and on the north by the Buenos Ayres territory. Its superficial area is estimated at 200,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Little is known of these regions beyond the mere out- line of the coast. The west coast is abrupt, very much broken, and skirted by a great number of irregularly-shaped islands. The east coast has been more explored. The surface of the country appears to rise from the Atlantic to the Andes, in a succession of steppes or terraces, all of which are alike arid and sterile, the upper soil, consisting chiefly of marine gravelly deposites, covered with coarse, wiry grass. No wood is seen larger than a small thorny shrub, fit only for the purposes of fuel, except on the banks of a few of the rivers, sub- ject to inundation, when herbage and some trees are occasionally found. This sterility prevails over the whole extent of the plain country of Patagonia, the complete similarity of which, almost in every part, is one of its most striking characteristics. Mountains. — The Andine chain is continued from Chili throughout Patago- nia, gradually declining in height, and on reaching the Magellan straits the SOUTH AMERICAN ISLANDS. 289 mountains are not more than 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, which is here the limit of perpetual snow. There are several known active volcanoes. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers in Patagonia fall into the Atlan- tic, having their sources at the eastern slopes of the Andes, and flowing in a southeasterly direction. Among them are the Rio Negro, 700 miles long, the Camerones, the Desire, and the Chupat rivers. The lakes are numerous. Otway and Skyring (inlets of the sea, rather than lakes) are fifty and thirty miles in length. Climate. — The climate of Patagonia is much colder than in the north, under the same parallels of latitude, which is imputed to the tops of the Andes, which traverse it, being covered with snow. Population. — Scanty, some say only a few thousands, living in distinct tribes, and roaming in a savage state over the immense wastes. There are said to be two marked classes ; the Puelches or Patagons, which inhabit the higher lands, and the Huilliches, the plains. The former are tall of stature, fond of the chase, and, like the Tartars, frequently change their place of abode. Their stature ranges from six to seven feet. Falconer, the missionary, meas- ured' a cacique or chief of the Tehuels, and found him seven and a half feet high. Their bulkiness is great — four feet four inches round the breast has been measured ; their strength is enormous. War is their great delight ; they are divided into bands of horse and foot, and when they have no antinational foe, they fight desperately among themselves. They do not appear to have any religion, but venerate the sun and moon ; and on killing an ox, they sprin- kle some of the blood on the ground, using the words, '' Give me and my peo- ple to eat." Great attention is paid to sepulchral rites. Their heads are large, face broad and flatfish ; their eyes are lively, and their features not disagreea- ble ; their skin of a copper, or pale yellow color ; their hair thin, black, straight, and tied on the top of the head with a piece of thong ; their beards are scanty. Their garments are cloak-skins, leather-bi'ieeches, and boots made of the skins of the legs of the horse, taken off" whole, and sewed up at one end. History. — Patagonia was discovered by Magellan, in 1519. The badness of its harbors, which are mostly difficult and dangerous of access, and aflx)rd little or no security for vessels above the size of a brig, has hindered the for- mation of any European settlement, except at Port St. Julian, about latitude 49'^ 10' south, and longitude 67'^ 40' west, where the Spaniards settled about 1779, but speedily abandoned the establishment. A few expeditions have been undertaken to the interior in the last century, and latterly by the officers of the Adventure, principally up the larger rivers ; but the coasts are rarely frequented by any other than whaling vessels, and the nature of the country is such as to give little hope of its soon emerging from its present state of savage barbarism. SOUTH AMERICAN ISLANDS. Tierra del Fuego. — Opposite to the southern boundary of Patagonia, and separated from the continent by the long, narrow, winding passage, known as Magellan's strait, extends the dreary region of Tierra del Fuego. Narrow straits, crowded with islets, divide it into three parts, of which the most east- ern, and much the largest, is called King Charles's Land ; the middle, and smallest, Clarence Lsland ; the most westerly. Desolation Land. Staten Land, another large island, lies off'the eastern coast, from which it is sepnrated by the straits of Le Maire. One of the islands belonging to the group, called Hermit, 19 290 SOUTH AMERICAN ISLATH^S. is remarkable as containing Cape Horn, the most soiitTierly point of America, and facint^ directly the wastes of the ocean which surround the Antarctic pole. It was once deemed " infamous for tempests ;" but it is now found that in a proper season Cape Horn may be passed with little danger, and it is commonly preferred to the winding and difficult channel of Magellan. The Petcherais, who inhabit Tierra del Fuego, are a handful of miserable savages, in the lowest state of wretchedness, and subsisting solely by the shell-fish which they pick up on the shore. The Spaniards made an early attempt to form a settlement ' at Port Famine, in the middle of the strait, but could not maintain it. Falkland Islands. — This group of islands in the Southern Pacific, called Malouine by the French, and Maluinas by the Spaniards, is situated between 51° and 53° south latitude, and 57° and 62° west longitude. They were dis- covered by Captain Davis, who sailed under the command of Sir Thomas Cav- endish, in 1592. Two years after they were visited by Sir Richard Hawkins, who named them Hawkins's Maiden Land. In J598, Sebald de Waert, who commanded a ship in Van Nooit's squadron, met with the group, and called them Sebaldine islands. For nearly a century no notice was taken of them ; in 1689, Captain Strong saw the land, and called them Falkland islands. There are two principal islands, the East and West Falkland, with a consider- able number of others of different sizes, clustered around them and in the straits between them. The mountains in these islands are not very lofty : the soil on the heights adjacent to the sea is composed of a dark vegetable mould ; copper pyrites, yellow and red ochre, are found below the surface. Pernetly observed a natural amphitheatre, formed by regular layers of porphyritic sand- stone. No wood grows on these islands ; the Spaniards were at the trouble of bringing plants from Buenos Ayres,but their labor was vain, for every tree per- ished in a short time. The gladiolus, or sword-grass, is very common, and rises to a great height; when seen at a distance, it has the appearance of a ver- dant thicket. The grass is luxuriant ; celery, cresses, and other herbs, have been noticed by travellers. The vegetables are not unlike those of Canada ; but the epipactis, the tithymalus resinosus, and a shrub which resembles the rose- rhary, are much similar to the plants of Chili. A great variety of seals, to which the common people have given the name of sea-lions, sea-calves, and sea-wolvest bask in the sword-grass. The Spaniards brought 800 head of oxen to these islands in the 5'ear 1780, and they increased so rapidly that their num- ber amounted to 8,000 in 1795. These islands are unoccupied, but nominally belong to Great Britain. The Argentine Republic, however, prefers a substan- tial claim to sovereignty over them. Georgia. — This island, situated about 1,260 miles east of Cape Horn, con- sists of horizontal layers of black slate stone. The rocks are generally covered with ice, and no shrub can pierce through the perpetual snow that lies in the val- leys ; pimpernel, a few lichens, and some tufts of short grass, are all the plants that have been observed ; and the lark is the only land-bird which has been seen on the island. It was discovered by La Roche, in 1675, and afterward explored by Captain Cook, in 1775, who gave it its present name. South Shetland Islands.— These, and several other groups of islands, extending from 58° to 64° south latitude, were discovered in 1820. They contain little worthy of notice. The low grounds are sterile, and the hills and rocks are covered with eternal snows. The seas in the vicinity abound with seals and other animals common to the Antarctic regions. Recent observations made by the United States exploring expedition render it probable that similar islands extend to the southern pole. EUROPE. Europe, the most important and most civilized division of the globe, is situ- ated between 10° west and 70° east longitude from Greenwich, and 34° and 71° north latitude ; and is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, on the south by the Mediterranean, the Black sea, and the Caucasian mountains, on the east by the Uralian mountains, the river Ural, and the Caspian sea, and on the west by the Atlantic. The extreme length, from southwest to northeast (from Gib- raltar to the meridian of 70°), is about 3,600 miles, and the extreme breadth, from the Caspian sea to the westernmost part of Ireland, is about 3,000 miles. The direct distance from north to south, or from North cape, on the Arctic sea, to Cape Matapan, in the Morea, is about 2,400 miles. The boundary lines be- tween Europe and Asia are not accurately defined. The area of Europe has been various calculated : by Pinkerton, at 2,500,000 square miles ; by Bell, at 3,450,000 ; by Kitchen, at 3,258,038; by Hassel, at 3,331,579; by Crome, at 3,796,249 ; by Butler, at 3,825,395. It constitutes about a sixteenth part of the terrestrial surface of the globe. Physical Aspkct. — A great plain /extends from^olland, eastward through Northern Germany, Poland, and over the greater part of Russia toward the Uralian mountains, where the land rises in successive steppes, or elevated plains ; this extensive region is so low, that if the waters of the Atlantic were to rise 1,500 feet above their present level, the whole of northern continental Europe, excepting the mountainous districts of Norway would be submerged. The southern part of Europe is more or less elevated ; the general dip of the land is from south to north. The highest regions are those of Switzerland and Savoy, where the Alpine chain attains the greatest altitude at Mont Blanc. Europe has no desert at all similar to those of the other great divisions of the globe. There are, however, some very extensive heaths or wastes. The prin- cipal are, the steppes of Ryn, between the Volga and Ural, and of the Volga, between that river and the Don ; the puztas of Hungary, the wilds of Sweden, Norway, and Lapland, the sterile districts of Stade, Hanover, Lunebnrg, arid Zell, in the kingdom of Hanover; and of Pomerania, Brandenburg, &c., in Prussia. Mountains. — The principal ranges of mountains in Europe are the Scandi- navian or Dofrafield range, the Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, and Carpathians. The Scandinavian chain commences at the southern extremity of Norway, and, running north, soon becomes the boundary between Sweden and Norway. The Pyrenees run in an easterly direction, from the southern part of the Bay of Bis- cay to the Mediterranean, forming the boundary between France and Spain, The Alps, the loftiest mountains in Europe, form the western and northern boundary of Italy, separating it from France, Switzerland, and Germany. The Apennines commence near the Mediterranean, at the southwestern extremity, and pursuing an easterly course around the gulf of Genoa, turn to the southeast, and pass in that direction to the southern extremity of Italy. The Carpathian mountains encircle Hungary on three sides, separating it from Germany on the northwest, from Galicia on the northeast, and from Turkey on the southeast. At the southern extremity of the range a branch proceeds in a southerly direc- tion across the Danube, to the centre of European Turkey, connecting the Car- pathian mountains with the great eastern branch of the Alps. Peninsulas, Capes, &;c. — Having so irregular an outline, Europe necessa- rily presents numerous peninsulas and headlands. In the south the principal EUROPR 293 peninsulas are, Spain, with Portugal ; Italy, with its suh-peninsulas of Calabria and Otranto ; Turkey, with Greece, which includes the sub-peninsulas of the Morea and Salonica, and the Crimea. In the north of Europe, the great Scan- dinavian peninsula, and those of Lapland and Jutland, are the principal ; and in the west are the much less considerable ones of Brittany and Cotentin, in France, and that including the counties of Devon and Cornwall, in England. The principal capes or headlands, proceeding from north to south, are, Cape Gelania, in Nova Zembla ; the North cape and the Naze, in Norway ; Cape Skagen, in Denmark ; Cape Wrath, in Scotland ; the Land's End, in England ; Cape Clear, 'in Ireland ; Capes La Hogue and Finisterre, in France ; Roca, St. Vincent, and the rock of Gibraltar, in Spain and Portugal ; Spartivento and Leuca, in Italy ; Passaro, in Sicily ; and Matapan and Colonna, in Greece. Islands. — The principal, forming part of Europe (Iceland being excluded), are, Great Britain and Ireland, with their dependent groups in the Atlantic and North sea ; Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Candia, the Cyclades and Sporades, the Ionian islands, Dalmatian archipelago, Malta, Elba, Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, the Lipari isles, &c., in the Mediterranean and its cognate seas ; Zealand, Fu- nen ; Laland, Bornholm, Oland, Gottland, CEzel Dagg, and the Aland archipel- ago, in the Baltic ; the Loffoden and other islands, on the coast of Norway ; Nova Zembla, in the Arctic ocean ; Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, &c., in the British channel ; Ushant, Belleisle, and a few others, on the west coast of France ; and perhaps the Azores in the Atlantic, and Lampedusa, Linosa, &;c., in the Mediterranean. Seas. — The number and extent of the inland seas in Europe have greatly contributed to its civilization. The Mediterranean, connected with the Atlantic by the straits of Gibraltar on the east, and with the Euxine or Black sea by the Dardanelles on the west, is about 2,500 miles in length from east to west, with a varying breadth (from Marseilles to Algiers of about 500 miles) ; the area covered, including the two great inlets of the Adriatic or gulf of Venice, and the iEgean or Archipelago, is 800,000 square miles. The rich coast line, the numerous islands, the capacious harbors, and the delicious climate, render this almost inland lake the finest naviorable water in the world. The Black sea is about 750 miles in length from east to west, and including the connected sea of Azof, it extends 400 miles from north to south ; area covered, 230,000 square miles. The Baltic or Eastern sea, including the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, covers an area of 150,000 square miles, and has an average depth of sixty fath- oms. From the head of the gulf of Bothnia to the south coast of Denmark the distance is more than 1,000 miles. The White sea, in the north of Europe, is about 400 miles in length, from the north point of Kamskai to the south coast; it is but little known. The North sea or German ocean, which separates Great Britain from the continent of Europe, is but a part of the great Atlantic ocean, as is also the English channel. The German ocean covers 153,000 square miles ; greatest depth on the coast of Norway, 190 fathoms ; mean depth, 30. Bays and Gulfs. — The chief of these are the gulf or sea of Kara, in North- ern Russia ; the bays of Archangel and Onega, belonging to the White sea; the gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga, belonging to the Baltic ; the bay of Biscay, forming a part of the Atlantic ; the gulf of Lyons, in the south of France ; those of Genoa, Naples, Taranto, Venice (head of the Adriatic), and Trieste, in Italy; of Arta, Lepanta, Egina, Volo, and Saloniki, in Greece. Lakes. — The lakes are numerous. Ladoga and Onega, in Russia, are the largest ; Ladoga covers about 6,400 square miles ; Onega, 3,300. The other lakes are situated principally in the mountainous parts of Sweden, Switzerland, Northern Italy, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Rivers. — The Ural, Volga, Dneiper, Danube, Don, Rhine, Elbe, Loire, Odor, Rhone, Garonne, Guadalquiver, Tagus, Seine, Ebro, Po, Douro, Thames, Shan- 294 EUROPE. non, Severn, and Clyde. The numerous seas, gulfs, bays, lakes, and rivers, arc the means of supplying Europe with a larger quantity and greater variety of fish than is known in any other part of the globe. Climate. — The greater part of Europe is within the temperate zone, between the parallels of 35° and 60°; not more than a twelfth part of its surface is within the polar circle : owing probably to the extent of water, to the more general habitation, clearing, and cultivation of the country, the northern parts of Europe are much cooler than similar latitudes in America. The Arctic district extends over about 400,000 square miles ; the region next in temperature, over 1,500,000 square miles ; the still warmer over 1,000,000 square miles ; and tlie warmest, or region of perpetual spring, over 400,000 square miles. Population. — Europe was originally inhabited by the Celts in the west and south ; by the Fins in the northeast ; and by the Laps or Laplanders, a diminu- tive race, iu the furthest north. The Scythians or Goths, from Asia, drove the Celts before them, and their descendants occupy the greatest portion of Europe. The Sarmatian or Sclavonian tribes entered European Russia from Asia, and were the ancestors of the Russians, Poles, and some Germans ; the Heruli, also an Asiatic race, akin to the Sclavonians, have their descendants in Prussia, Lithuania, Courland, and Livonia. The Iberi passed into Spain from Maurita- nia and Northern Africa ; and the Hungarians and Turks, at a more recent date, occupied the southeast of Europe, into which they passed from Asia Minor. A thousand years ago Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe were thinly peopled. In 1828, Malte-Brun estimated the inhabitants at 205,000,000; the Weimar Almanac, for 1837, stated the number at 232,200,649 ; and in 1844, at 241,252,653. In 1852, the population of Europe may probably reach 260,- 000,000,which, on an area of 3,800,000 square miles, shows 68 mouths to each square mile. The inhabitants of Germanic blood are estimated at 80,000,000; those of Romant at 70,000,000 ; Sclavonian, at 60,000,000 ; Finnic, at 30,000,- 000 ; Magyars, at 4,000,000 ; and Turks, Tartars, Circassians, and other races, in small numbers. TABLE OF THE EXTENT AND POPULATION OF THE DIFFERENT STATES OF EUROPE. Extent m Form of Fopnlatico p^anie Square Miles. Population. Religion. Government Chief City. ofCilj. iEnMsmd 50,396.. 16,899,2f)8.. .Protestant. .. I f London 2,363.141 Wnies 7,4-2.5.. ], 011,656. ..Protestant.. . f „. , j Merthyr Tydfil... 76,813 Scotland 29,744.. 2,870,784.. .Protestant. .. f '^'"§''°™ ' i Edinburgh. 162,403 Ireland 31,531.. 6,.515,794... Catholic J (Dublin 240,300 France 207,252.-35,781.623. ..Catholic Empire Paris 1,05.3,262 Holland with Luxemburg. 13,616.. 3,206,804... CathoHc Kingdom Amsterdam. 207,000 BeWura 12,569.. 4,335,319. ..Catholic Kingdom Brussels 134,260 Saxony 5,705.. 1,836,433. ..Protestant. ..Kingdom Dresden 69,500 Hanover 14,600.. 1,773,711.. .Protestant. ..Kingdom Hanover 28,900 Bavaria 28,435.. 4,504,874 ... Catholic Kingdom Munich 106.530 Wirtemberg 7.568.. 1,743,827.. .Catholic Kingdom Stuttarard 40.000 30 Smaller Gennan States* 32,892.. 6,287.601 Hamburg. 153,000 Switzeriand 15,230.. 2,365.286.. .Protestant. ..Republic Berne 18,000 Austria 255,000.-31,000,864. ..Catholic Empire Vienna 370,000 Lombardo-Venetian ) ., . .,-- . ^m osq 5 Catholic • • - i Rinadom J '*^''''" 185.000 States i 34,375.. 4,803,^89. ^ (.j^jj^^y^ _ ^Kingdom.. .. ^ y^j^j^^ 103,000 Kingdom of Sardinia 29,167. . 4,650,368. . . Catholic Kingdom Turin 120.000 Papal StatPS 17,494. . 2,898,115. . . Catholic Popedom Rome 150,000 Two Sicilips 41,906.. 8,423,316. ..Catholic Kingdom Naples 336,300 Tuscany with Lucca 9.177.. 1,786,875.. .Catholic Grand Duchy.. Florence 98,000 Modena 2,129.. 513,343... Catholic Duchy Modena 27,000 Parma 2,274.. 496,803. ..Catholic Duchy Parma 36,000 San Marino 21-- 7,600. --Catholic Republic San Marino 5.000 Spain 182,708. .13,732,000. . . Catholic Kingdom Madrid 2.36.000 Portugal 35,268 . . 3,412,500. . . Catholic Kingdom Lisbon 275.000 Turkey in Europe 189,920. .11,000,000. . .Greek Empire Constantinople. . . S.'iO.noO Greece 18,244 . . 856,470. . .Greek Kingdom Athens 18.000 Prussia 107,300.. 16,112,948. ..Protestant. . .Kingdom Beriin 291,(X)0 Russia 2,120,397 . .60,708,102. . . Greek Empire St. Peter.^burgh . . 470,000 Sweden 170,096. . 3,138.884. . .Protestant. . .Kingdom Stockholm 80,000 Norway 122,008. . 1,167,766. . . Protestant. . . Kingdom Christiana 2--' i;(>0 Denmark 21,856 . . 2,243, 136 . . . Protestant. . . Kingdom Copenhagen 120,L()0 Totals 3,816,303. 256,08,'5,364 ' See Germany for names, &c., of these States EUROPE— THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 295 THE BRITISH ISLANDS. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is favorably situated in the Atlantic ocean, on the western side of Eu- rope, bounded on the north and west by the Atlantic, on the east by the North sea, and on the south by the English channel, which separates it from France. Ireland is divided from Great Britain by St. George's channel. Great Britain lies be- tween 50° and 59'^ north latitude ; its ex- treme length is 600 miles, its greatest breadth 370 miles, and, including the ir- regular windings and indentations of the coast, it has a circuit of about 3,000 miles. Ireland lies between 51° and 55° north latitude, and is 300 miles in length from northeast to southwest. The Orkney and Shetland isles are to the north of Scotland ; the Hebrides to the northwest; the Isle of Man is in the Irish sea and St. George's channel. Physical Aspect. — The physical features of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, vary in several particulars. The southern parts of England and Wales are flat or undulating, the northern districts elevated, and in Wales mountain- ous. Southern Scotland is low ; the central, northern and western parts bold and mountainous. Ireland, except in the central provinces, is hilly and moun- tainous. The scenery throughout the kingdom is very diversified, and within the limits of these islands may be found (as is generally the case in islands ad- joining continents), in comparative miniature, the leading physical features of the adjacent mainland. Government. — An hereditary sovereign in the male or female line, who ia responsible only through the ministers of the crown. A privy council, of about 100 members, to advise the sovereign. A ministerial cabinet of twelve to fif- teen members, dependent for tenure of office on a parliamentary majority. The cabinet consists of a first lord of the treasury (prime minister), lord chancellor, a finance minister, president of the council, privy seal, three secretaries of state, for (1) the home, (2) the foreign, (3) the colonial and war affairs, a first lord of the admiralty, president of the India board, president of the board of trade, postmaster-general, and other heads of departments. House of Peers. — Princes of the blood royal, two archbishops, twenty dukes, twenty marquises, one hundred and sixteen earls, twenty-one viscounts, twenty-four bishops, and one hundred and ninety-nine barons, constitute at pres- ent the upper house. The members of the Englisli peerage sit by hereditary right ; sixteen Scotch peers elected for each parliament from the whole Scotch peerage by their compeers: twenty-eight Irish peers elected for life by the Irish peerage ; four Irish prelates sit by rotation. House of Commons. — Consists of 658 representatives, viz. : England and Wales, 498 ; Ireland, 105 ; Scotland, 53 ; all chosen by 1,000,000 electors for seven years, unless the parliament is sooner dissolved by the crown. Army. — The army numbers 300,000 men, including the Anglo-Indian armv, marines, and colonial corps. About 150,000 are Europeans, of whom 20,000 are cavalry and 20,000 artillery. Yeomanry cavalry in England and Wales,. 340 troops — 20,000 men. Cavalry and infantry police armed as soldiers in Ireland, 11,000 men; in Great Britain, disciplined and ready for arms, 20,000. Navy. — Ships-of-the-line : from 120 to 100 guns, 22; from 100 to 70 guns^ ~~^ 68 ENGLAND. Tlie numbers at- tached to the counties deyigiiale their loca- tion, by correBpond- inf; numbers on the map. 1. Northumberland. 2. Cumberlariil. 3. Westmoreland. 4. Durham. fi. York. 6. Lancaster. 7. Cheshire. 8. Shropshire. 9. Slafiord. 10. Derby. 11. Nottingham. 1 12. Lincoln. J3. Norfolk. 14. Surt'nik. l.^i. Cambridge, 16. Hiintinffuon. 17. .Rutland. 18. Nortliampton. 19. Leicester. 20. Warwick. 21. Worcester. 22. Hereford. 23. Monmouth. 24. Gloucester. 25. Oxford. 26- Buckingham, 27- Bedford. 28. Hertford. 29. Middlesex. SO. Essex. 31. Kent. 32. Surrey. 3.3. Sussex. 34. Berks. S5. Hampshire, or Southampton- 36. Wilts. 37. Dorset. 38. SomerBct. 39. Devon. 40. Cornwall. WALES. 1. Flint. 2. Denbigh. 3. Merioneth. 4. Carnarvoa 6. Montgomery 6. Radnor. 7. Cardigan. 8. Pembroke. 9. Carmarthen. 10. Brecknock. 11. Glamorgan. ^^'X^/ WL^ 01. ds ^/jTeEWH^^ Caithness. Sutherland. Ross. Cromarty. , Nairn. Elgin. . Danfr. . Aberdeen. . Kincarrlioe. . Forfar. . Inverness. . Ar-^Ie. . Perth. It. Fife. \h Kinross. . Clackmaiiikan. . Stirlins. . Dumbarton. I. Renfrew. I. Lanark. . Linlithgow. !. Edinburgh. I. Haddington. I. Berwick. ). Roxburgh. 3. Selkirk. r. Peebles. i. Dumfries. J. Ayr. y. Kirkcudbright, I. Wigtown. asL Sfl- 1. Antrim. 1. I.omloiirferry. 3. DoiieS'T'. 4. T.vronc. 5. Kt'rni:ui.i£b. 6. i.eitrim. 7. Mona°lian. 8. Armagh. 9. Down. 10. I.outh. U. Cavan. r2, T.ongford. 13. Sligo. 14. M:ijo. \F>. Galway. Iti. Uo.'tcnmtnon. 17. VVestmealU iS. King's, m. Meath. '20. Dublin. •21. Wicklow. 26. Queen's. 27. Tipi>erary. 28. Waterfoni 29. Clare. 30. Kerry. 31. Cork. 32. Limerick. pBRITISH ISLES SciUeatAHles 8 6 ± 2 4S J I EUROPE.— THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 297 55 ; from 70 to 50 guns, 30 ; from 50 to 36 guns, 38 ; from 36 to 20 guns, 30 ; and from 20 guns downward, 120. Steam-vessels of all classes under the pen- nant, 140. Finances. — Annual income of the people of the United Kingdom, jC500,000,- 000. Estimated value of land, jCi ,000,000,000 ; of houses and buildings, je500,000,000. £1,000,000,000 are invested in the public funds, in banks, corporations, and various companies and associations. Circulating Medium. — Bank-notes, gold, silver, and copper coins. About ^£50, 000, 000 of metallic circulation ; of bank-notes, in England and Wales, jG25,000,000 ; Ireland, £5,500,000 ; Scotland, £3,600,000. Deposites in pri- vate and public banks, £50,000,000 ; deposites in savings' banks, £30,000,000. National Debt. — At the revolution, in 1689, the national debt of Great Britain was £664,263; in 1702, Queen Anne's accession, £16,394,702; in 1714, George the First's accession, £54,145,363; in 1727, George the Second's accession, £52,092,238; in 1775, the commencement of the American revolu- tion, £128,583,635; in 1793, the commencement of the French war, £239,- 350,148. At the termination of that war, in 1817, when the English and Irish exchequers were consolidated, £842,282,477. In 1838, it was £792,306,442. Foreign Possessions. — In Asia — Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Scinde, the northwest provinces of Hindostan, and Ultra-Gangetic territories ; Ceylon, Pe- nang, Malacca, Singapore, Labuan, and Hong-Kong. In Australia — New South Wales, Port Phillip, Southwestern and Northern Australia,. Van Die- man's Land, and New Zealand. In Africa — Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Mau- ritius, Seychelles, Aden, St. Helena, Ascension, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Cape Coast Castle, and other forts. In North America — The Canadas, New Bruns- wick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Edward's island, Newfoundland, Lab- rador, the Hudson's Bay territories, and Vancouver's island. In South America — Demerara, Essequibo, Berbice, Honduras, and Falkland islands. In the West Indies — Jamaica, Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent's, Barbadoes, Antigua, Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Kitt's, Nevis, Anguilla, Torfola, Virgin islands, Bahamas, and Bermudas. In Europe — Gibraltar, Malta, Gozo, the Io- nian islands, and Heligoland ; the Channel islands of Jersey, Guernsey, &c.^ are held as fiefs of the crown, since the reign of William I., and have their own legislatures. The Isle of Man has its own representative legislature. The area of the British foreign possessions (exclusive of the vast Hudson's Bay territories in North America, which extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific) is upward of 2,000,000 square miles, which contain about 120,000,000 subjects of the British crown, to which may be added tributary and dependent states whose inhabitants number 50,000,000. History. — These islands are supposed to have been colonized by Celtic tribes from the adjacent continent, B. C. 1000. The Goths, under the name of Belgae, passed into England, subdued the Celts, or drove them into fastnesses, and established several petty kingdoms, in which state the country was found by Julius Caesar, B. C. 55. Agricola, the general of Domitian, subjugated the semi-savage inhabitants in Britain, but did not penetrate into Ireland. The Romans held possession of England for 475 years, and on the decay of their imperial power withdrew to the continent, leaving the Britons to be harassed by incursions from the Picts and Scots (or Irish), who soon passed the wall built by Severus for the protection of the British, from the Tyne to Solway Frith. The Britons then sought the aid of the Saxons, who occupied the coun- try, made the Britons their serfs, and drove many into Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland. The Saxons were subdued by the Normans in 1066, since which pe- riod, excepting the interregnum of the government of Cromwell, there has been a successive hereditary sovereignty. In 1282, the principality of Wales was added to the crown of England ; in 1707, the kingdom and legislature of Scot- 298 EUROPE.— THE BRITISH ISLANDS. land was united with England under the title of Great Rritain .; and in 1800, the separate legislature of Ireland was incorporated with that of Great Britain, and the title of the United Kingdom was adopted. Step by step the people of England for a thousand years have practically worked out their freedom, and now possess more real political and religious liberty than any other nation in the Old World. . GOLD COINS OF GREAT BRITAIN. Five Sovereigns, $24.25. Half-:^ovfre.giis, $J.41. One Guiiiia, $5.» Halt-Guinluud 5.i. Token, SI. Charlo.', 11. Crown, $1,10. 300 EUROPK— ENGLAND AND WALES. ENGLAND AND WALES. This portion of the United Kingdom is sit- uated between the par- allels of 50° and 55° 45' north, and the me- ridians of 1° 50' east and 5° 40' west, and bounded on the east by the North sea, on the south by the English channel, which divides it from France, west Victoria Crown, $1.15. by the Irish sea, which Victoria Crown (reverse side) separates it from Ireland, and on the north by Scotland. The form is trian- gular ; the distance, in a straight line from east to west, at the base of the triangle, from Dover to the Land's End, is about 340 miles ; and from south to north, between the Isle of Wight and Berwick-on-Tweed, 370 miles. Super- ficial area, 57,821 square miles, of which England contains 50,396 square miles, and Wales 7,425. Physical Aspect. — The varied features of England and Wales, though on a limited scale, possess natural as well as cultivated beauty. In the east are broad plains clothed with the richest verdure ; in the south, gentle undulations with waving woods, fertile cornfields and flowing streams ; in the west, rising hills and sloping vales, affording pasturage to innumerable herds of sheep and cattle, and green as the eye of man could wish to rest on ; in the north, moun- tain and dell, lake and river, craggy ravines, falling torrents, bleak moors, and romantic scenery ; but north, south, east, and west, almost everywhere, cultivated like a garden, and studded with princely castles, noble mansions, comfortable houses, neat cottages, and pleasant homes ; presenting a coup (fml such as no experienced traveller can contemplate without admiration and delight. The seacoasts of England present every variety of form, and are much modified by the character of the adjacent country. In some places, as in Cornwall, Kent, part of Norfolk, and Wales, they are high and steep; while in other places they are low, sandy, and marshy ; but exhibit, on the whole, appearances so various as scarcely to admit of generalization. Though partaking more of a level than the rugged character, they still differ essentially from their opposite coasts of Flanders, Holland, (fee, which present one continued flat for more than 300 miles. The only part of England, indeed, that bears any resemblance to these are the coasts of Lincolnshire and the coasts of the Wash, in the adjoining counties of Cambridge and Norfolk. Mountains. — A western range from Cornwall to Cumberland ; a lesser ridge from Dorset to Kent ; and an irregular series of heights from Hampshire to Scarborough, in Yorkshire. The Cheviots in the northern part of Northum- berland, are fine green hills of every variety of form, and cover an area of 90,000 acres. The Cumberland hills, which have been termed the British Ap- ennines, pass through Westmoreland and Yorkshire to Derbyshire, dividing the northeast from the northwest coasts ; have a height of 1 ,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea ; are rich in mineral wealth, and, in conjunction with several lakes formed in their valleys, present charming scenery. The Welsh mountains con- sist rather of elevated peaks rising out of table-lands than of continuous ridges. EUROPE.— ENGToAKD AND WALES. 301 Snowdon, Plinlimmon, and the triple-head of Cadair Idris, are the most con- spicuous. There are in England and Wales 28 mountains, whose height varies from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, and seven whose height exceeds 3,000 feet. Rivers Lakes, &c. — The Thames, Severn, Mersey, Humber, Medway, Trent, Ouse, Tyne, Tees, Wear, Dee, Avon, Eden, and Derwent, are the prin- cipal streams ; there are several others of lesser note, but of great beauty. The lakes of England are noted more for their picturesque beauty than their size. The most noted are, Windermere (the largest, occupying an area of twelve square miles), Ulles-water, Hawes-water, Thilemere, Coniston-water, Rydal ahd Grossmere waters, Derwent-water, and several others. Bala lake is the largest in Wales, occupying an area of about four square miles. The coast- line, especially along the west portion of the island, is much indented ; and on no similar extent of country are so many fine harbors and ports to be found. On the west, Solway Firth, Morecombe bay, Liverpool, Chester, Ban- gor, the Menai straits, Holyhead, Caernarvon, Milford Haven, Caermarthen, Swansea, Bristol, the Severn, Bridgewater, Barnstaple, and St. Ives ; on the south, Falmouth, Plymouth, Dartmouth, Teignmouth, Weymouth, Cowes, South- ampton, Portsmouth, Dover, and Deal roads ; on the east, Ramsgate, Sheerness, the Thames, Maldon, Harwich, Yarmouth, Boston, the Humber, Bridlington, the Tees, the Tyne, and Berwick-on-Tvveed. Islands. — The Isle of Man, thirty miles in length by twelve in breadth, is • nearly equidistant from each of the three kingdoms. It comprises a considera- ble extent of level territory ; but rises in the interior into high mountains, among which Snowfell, nearly 2,000 feet high, stands conspicuous. Man ranked long as an independent sovereignty, held by the earls of Derby, and is celebrated for the gallant defence made by the countess of that name for Charles I. It descended afterward to the duke of Athol, from whom the sovereignty was pur- chased, in 1765, by the British government, with a view to the prevention of smuggling, and to the establishment of a free trade. The population is about 55,000. Castleton, the capital, is the neatest town in the island ; and in its centre. Castle Ruthven, the ancient palace of the kings of Man, rears its gloomy and majestic brow. Douglas, however, as being the spot in which the whole trade circulates, is now of superior importance, and has attracted a great num- ber of English settlers. The Scilly Isles, situated at some distance from the western extremity of Cornwall, are tenanted by 2,600 poor inhabitants, who raise a little grain, but depend chiefly upon fishing, pilotage, and the making of kelp. Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Serk, Herm, and Jedthou, form a group of large and small islands, situated near the coast of France, in the gulf or bay which sweeps from Cape de la Hogue, in Normandy, to Cape Frehella, in Brittany. They were early noted in history ; Augustus is said to have sent a governor to Guernsey seventeen years before the birth of our Savior, when the island was dedicated- to Saturn, and celebrated for its sanctity. In 912, they were considered to belong to the dukes of Normandy ; William the Con- queror, on his acquisition of the sovereignty of England, in the eleventh cen- tury, attached the Norman Isles as a fief to his crown, and they have ever since, with unswerving loyalty, remained integral parts of the dominion of this realm. Jersey, the finest of the group, is so abundant in orchards, that cider forms the chief object of exportation. St. Heller, the capital of Jersey, is a handsome town. The population of the whole gnuip, in 1851, was 85,000. Climate. — The climate of England is among the finest in the world. The atmosphere is varied, and more or less dry according to its proximity to the sea, the elevation of the land, and the nature of the substrata: viz., whether chalk, gravel, or clay. The mean heat is from 50"^ to 53^ Fahrenheit ; the range from 22'^ to 82°. In 1813-'14, the thermometer sunk to 5° of zero, and in 1808, rose to 90'^. The quantity of rain differs according to the prevailing 302 EUROPE.— ENGLAND AND WALES. winds and surrounding country. The west and southwest winds are the most prevalent and violent in the southern districts, the north and northeast winds in the proximity of the Atlantic. The south wind is the least frequent. Chief Cities and Towns. — London,* Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, * London, the British metropolis, is a world within itself. It is the principal residence of the sovereign, at which affiiirs of state are transacted, and regulations maintained with foreign courts. It is the centre of all im- portant operations, whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with every quarter of the globe. London lies on both sides of the river Thame?, CO miles from its mouth. It is seven miles long, five miles wide, and contains an area of about thirty square miles. It consists, in fact, of eight distinct cities and boroughs, witli extensive suburban villages and hamlets. The cities are, London proper and Westminster, and the boroughs Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower Hamlets, Southwark, Lambeth, and Greenwich ; the first five being in Middlesex, the two next in Surrey, and the last in Kent county. The wliole contained, in 1851, an aggregate population of 2,353,826, and has about 10,000 streets, lanes, terraces, &c., 80 squares, 24 market-places, and 329,428 houses. The liuiidings are generally of brick. The streets in some parts are wide, and few are so narrow as not to admit two carriages abreast. At the west end they are mostly straight, and sufficiently broad for ^e or six carriages. Here are the residences of the nobility and the rich. Regent street, in this quarter, is probably the most mag- nificent street in the world. In the city, or the central and oldest part, the streets are narrow and crooked, but here the great business of London is transacted. The east end is occupied by shops, victualling-houses, and people connected with commerce. Here are the immense timber-yards, docks, and massive warehouses which surround them, six stories high, vidth spacious vaults below. The London docks cover 100 acres ; the West India, 300. The St. Catharine's is capable of holding 160 ships ; the Commercial, East India, and others, are also spacious. They are built of massive granite ma.oonry, and are only surpassed by those of Liverpool. London is well lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the Thames. The police and fire companies have long been distinguished for their eftective and complete arrangements. Railways unite London with ali the important points in the kingdom ; and it is brought into immediate communication with the continent by a line of electric telegraph, which crosses the English channel from Dover to Calais. The principal parks ol London are, St. James's park, Hyde park. Regent's park, and the Green park, in the west end, and Victoria park, in the eastern suburbs. Regent's park is surrounded by magnificent buildings, and contains the gardens of the Zoological Society, whose collection of animals is a most interesting and at- tractive objects of public curiosity. Hyde park is the largest, and is continuous with Kensington gardens, a large enclosure connected with the royal palace. It contains a colossal figure of Achilles, erected in honor of Wel- lington and Waterloo. The Serpentine river, so often mentioned as a resort of the youth of London for skating in winter, is an irregular-shaped pond, partly in Kensington gardens and partly in Hyde park. These parks are highly adorned with ornamental woods. The importance of these public grounds, as places of recreation and pleasure, is exceeded only by the healthiness which they impart to the largest city of Europe. The principal squares of London are, Trafalgar, with a beautiful column to Nelson, Grosvenor, Portman, Berkley, St. James's, Hanover, Manchester, Cavendish, Bedford, Russell, Tavestock, Bloomsbury, Montague, Leicester, Bryanston, and Finsbury squares, and Lincoln's Inn fields. Grosvenor square is the most beautiful, comprising an area of six acres, and surrounded by some of the n^ost splendid buildings in London. There are several statues of British heroes and statesmen in these squares. Among the churches of London St. Paul's cathedral is the most magnificent. The cornerstone was laid by Sir Christopher Wren, the architect, in 1675, and it was not finished till 1723. The church is in the Roman style of architecture, built in the form of a cross, with a large dome in the centre. It is 500 feet in length, 180 in breadth, and the height, from the vaults to the top of the cross which surmounts the dome is 404 feet One of the nobi(;st existing monuments of Gothic architecture is Westminster Abbey, some distance higher up the river. It has a vast, airy, and lofty appearance, which inspires feeUngs of awe and veneration. The chapel of Henry VII., at the east end of the church, is unrivalled for gorgeous magnificence. It contains the remains of the sovereigns, and monuments to the memory of the greatest names in English history. The Temple church in the inner temple is one of the most beautitul in England. Though the exterior has nothing specially attrac- tive, the exterior is gorgeous with tesselated pavements, pillars of black marble, ceiUngs gilt, painted in fresco, with sepulchral monuments, &e. The city of Westminster and northeastern suburb of London contain many splendid modem churches, almost all in the classic style. London has few public edifice.", compared with its great size and wealth. Westminster Hall was once a palace ; -it now forms the entrance hall to the new houses of parliament. The latter is said to be the most magnificent building in Europe. St. James's palace is an ill- looking brick building, but contains spacious and splendid apartments. The Tower is a vast enclosure upon the river. It contfiins several streets, and is surrounded by a wall. It is a baronial arsenal and a fortress ; it was formerly used as a prison for persons accused of high treason, and also as a palace. The regalia belong- ing to the crown is deposited here, and immense stores of arms. The ditch and moat which once surrounded it no longer exist, having been converted into a garden. The Monument at the foot of London bridge, is a fluted Doric column, in a bad situation : it is 202 feet high, and commemorates the great fire of London. The bank of England, in the heart of the city, is a vast and plendid pile, covering eight acres. Somerset house, in the Strand", is one of the largest and most splendid edifices in the metropolis. The British museiun is a place of great attraction in London. It contains immense collections of ancient antiquities, arranged in geographical order ; cabinets of natural history in every department ; the largest library in England, coins, &,c. Among the other public buildings, which can be merely enumerated here, are, Guildhall, the Sessions-house, the Hoi-se- guards, the Treasury, the Admiralty, the Royal exchange, the postoffice, the Excise-office, the East India house, the Mansion-house for the lord-mayor, the Stock-exchange, the Customhouse, the Corn-exchange, college of Burgeons, &c. There are several picture-galleries, the principal of which are, the National, Vernon, i^nd the Dulwicli College. There are a large number of hospitals of various character, the chief of which are, Guy's, St. Thomas's, Bartholomew, London, the University, and the Queen's ; these are richly endowed, and dispense their aid to great numbers, and are valuable schools for the medical students. There are several bridges over the Thames ; of these, Waterloo, London, and Blackfriars, ore built of stone, and Southwark and Vauxhall bridges, of iron. Hungerford suspension bridge is nmch admired for its elegancp. A more remarkable object is the Tunnel, a passage under the river at a point where a bridge would be detri- mental to the navigation. This work was performed by sinking peipcndicular shafts near the river, and work- ing horizontally under the bottom of the Thames. This tunnel, however, will never be of much practical utility ; the difficulty of the descent will always be a considerable obstacle to it^ extensive use. It was begun by a privi.te company, but was carried on and completed by grants of public money. The sulmrbs of London are, Woolwich, Greenwich (celebrated for its park, the most pictiiresque near Lon- don, and its naval hospital, for disabled and decayed seamen, and marines of the naval service), D.-ptford, Dul- wich, Chelsea (noted for its hospital for superaimunted soldiers), Richmond, Hampton Court, and Windsor. The limits of this note will not permit an enumeration of the events by which this great capital has been distin- guished ; but we must not omit a mention of the plague in 1665. which cut off 70,000 people ; and of the confla- gration, which occurred in 1666, by which the cathedral, and many other churches, with 13,200 houses, were aestroyed. ElTROPr:.— KXGLAXD A^D 'U'ALES. 303 ^ M O f o o w o H W W W o o f d 304 EUROPE.— ENGLAND AND WALES. Sheffield, Coventry, Derby, Carlisle, Liverpool,* Bristol, Newrcastle-upon-Tyne, Hull, Southampton, Oxford, Cambridge, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Bath, Brighton, Canterbury, York, Winchester, Wolverhampton, Stoke-upon-Trent, Tynemdnih, Bradford, Wakefield, Preston, Blackburn, Rochdale, Oldham, Ashton-under- Lyne, Bolton, Wigan, Stockport, Nottingham, Leicester, Worcester, Chelten- ham, Norwich, Ipswich, Yarmouth, Exeter, and Chester. The principal towns in Wales are, Merthyr Tydvil (the centre of coal and iron mines), Swansea, CardifT, and Carmarthen. Political Divisions. — England and Wales are divided into fifty-two coun- ties, the names of which, with their popidation in 1851, are as follows : — England. Bedford 129,789 Berks 199,154 Buekii\sham 143,670 Cambridge 191,8,56 Cheshire 423,438 Cornwall 356,662 Cumberland 19,'i,487 Derby 260,707 Devon 572,207 Dorset 177.597 Durham 411,.=i32 E.ssex 343,916 Gloucester 419,475 Hereford 99,112 England. Hertford 173,963 Huntingdon 60,320 Kent 616,207 Lancashire 2,063,913 Leicester 234.938 Lincoln 400,266 Middlesex 1,895,710 Monmouth 92,095 Norfolk 433.803 North '.mpton 213,784 Northumberland. . .303,.535 Nottingham 294,4.38 Oxford 170,286 Rutland 24,272 England. Shropshire 245,019 Somerset 456,237 Southampton 402,033 Stafford 630.506 Suffolk 33.5,991 Surrey 684,805 Su,ssex 339,428 Warwick 479.979 Westmoreland 58.380 Wilts 241,003 Worcester 258,762 Yorkshire 1,788,767 Wales. Anclesey 43,248 Brecknock 59,162 Cardigan 97.667 Carmarthen 94.663 Carnarvon 94,668 Denbigh 96.820 Flint 41,053 Glamorgan 240.132 Merioneth 51.242 Montgomery 77,129 Pembroke 84,456 Radnor 31,416 Total 16,899,268 Total 1,011,656 The aggregate population of England and Wales, in 1831, was 13,894,574 ; in 1841, 15,906,741 ; in 1851, 17,910,924. Productive Resources. — Among the agricultural products of England are, wheat, barley, oats, rye, potatoes, peas, beans, clover, &c. The principal fruits are, apples, pears, cherries, plums, &c. Of domestic animals are, horses, sheep, cattle, hogs, &c. The hare, partridge, and pheasant, also abound. The rivers furnish trout, perch, &c., and the adjacent seas abound in herring, mack- * Next to London, Liverpool is the greatest emporium of the British empire. It is located on the river Mer- sey, in latitude 33" 22' north, and longitude 2" .57' north-northwest, 196 miles from London. Liverpool stands partly on flat ground, along the edge of the river, and partly and principally on a gently rising declivity. Be.^ides quintu- pling its population during the last half century, it has been more improved, during that period, than any other town in England, not excepting Manchester. Before that time, narrow, inconvenient, and ill-paved streets, lined with dull, heavy-looking houses, were its characteristic features ; but so great is the alteration effected, chiefly through the exertions of the corporation and the public spirit of the citizens, that at present no town or city in the three kingdoms, except their capitals, has wider or handsomer streets, more sumptuous public buildings, or better-constructed and more substantial private dwellings. The coi-poration is alleged to have ex- pended'on improvements, between 1786 and the present time, nearly $10,000,000. Tlie present limits of the city comprise about two thirds of the parliamentary borough ; its length, from north to south (measured from Brunswick dock to the gns-works in Vauxhall road), is about two and a half miles, its breadth from the river to the church atEdgehiU, one and three fourths miles, and its area somewhat exceeds 2,500 acres. The town-hall and Exchange form an impressive assemblage of objects, with abronze group in the intennediate court, conimem- morative of the death of Nelson. The customhouse is a conspicuous edifice, but in a heavy style of architecture. The other public buildings — the Corn Exchange, Lyceum, Athenaeum, Wellington rooms. Infirmary, «fcc., are fine structures. There are upward of thirty churches belonging to the established church, many of them of much architectural beauty; a greater number belonging to various denominations of dissenters. The charitable institutions are numerous, and well-conducted. About 3,000 patients are admitted annually into the infimiary. Th(! Blue -Coat hospital maintains and educates 200 boys and girls. The school for the blind is on a most extensive scale. Several handsome and spacious theatres, and a circus, are open during a great part of the year. At the Royal Liverpool institution public lectures are given ; and attached to it is a philosophical apparatus, and a mu seum of natural curiosities. A botanic garden was established in 1801, at an expense of $50,000 There is also a mechanics' institution, of unusual extent and elegance, having been erected at an expense of $.5.5,000. It includes schools for the young, as well as for the adolescent ; and in the amount of its funds, and variety of the branches of knowledge taught, the establishment may be described as a kind of university for the middle and working- classes of Liverpool. The estuary of the Mersey opens to this port a ready access to the ocean, and ships of any burden may come up fully laden to the town. "The rapid rise of the port of Liverpool to its present consequence, is owing in part to the facilities that have been given to navigation and commerce, by the construction of docks, forming a mag- nificent series «f deep-water harbors, extending along the whole front of the town. These docks cover an area of over 100 acres, and the quay space is over eight miles in length. An extensive trade is prosecuted by the merchants of Livei-pool with the United States^ and with the ports of the Mediterranean, the East Indies, and other parts of the world. In fact, four fifths of the trade between the United Kingdom and the United State,s centri's at Liverpool. Indeed, the ships and products of Liverpool are to be found in every part of the world, accessible to merchantmen. About 16,000 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 2.000,000, arrive and depart from the port of Liverpool annually. The more prominent article of import is cotton, which i.s extensively used in the manufactories of Lanca.shire; and ne.xt in importance are the agricultural products ol Ir^-land. The prin- cipal manufactures of Liverpool are, fine porcelain, earthenware, watches, stockings, glass, iron, soap, &c. Up to the close of the seventeenth century, Livei-pool was a very inconsiderable place, having only one church, and about 5,000 inhabitants. In 1716, thi> merchants began to engage in the trade with America and the West Indies, and the place has risen in importance, until it has become,' in population and commerce, the second port in England. The following shows the progressive increase of lMi]uilatiou : in 1760. 26,000 ; in 1790, 56,000 ; in 1801, 77,653 ; in 1811, 94,376 ; in 1821, 118,972 ; in 1831, 165,175 ; in 1841, 223,003 ; iu 1851, 255,055. EUROPE.— ENGLAND AND WALES. 305 erel, sole, pilchard, &c. Mines form one of the most copious sources of the wealth of England. The useful metals and minerals, those which afford the instruments of manufacture, and are subservient to the daily purposes of life, are now drawn from the earth more copiously there than in any other country. Her most valuable metals are iron, copper, and tin ; her principal nunerals are coal and salt. Manufactures. — The manufactures of Great Britain are by far tho most ex- tensive and important that have ever belonged to any nation. The most im- portant branches of manufacture are, cotton, woollen, silk, linen, and hardware. In the northern counties of England are great manufactures of broadcloth, and every other kind of woollen goods, principally in the West Riding of Yorkshire, at Leeds, Wakefield, Bradford, Halifax,. and Hqddersfield. Sheffield has man- ufactures of cutlery and plated goods. Manchester, and its neighborhood, is the great seat of the cotton manufacture. In the midland counties, are the Cheshire manufactures of silk, cotton, linen, iron, and china ware ; the stocking manufactures of Nottingham ; the woollen of Leicestershire ; the pottery of Staf- fordshire ; the hardware of Birmingham ; the ribands of Coventry ; the carpet- ing of Kidderminster ; the broadcloth of Stroud. Flannels are the chief article of Welsh manufacture. In the southern counties are the cotton, paper, and blankets of Berkshire ; the flannels of Salisbury ; the cordage of Dorsetshire ; the woollens of every sort in Devonshire ; and every kind of goods, particularly the finer articles of upholstery, jewelry, and every material ol' luxury, are man- ufactured in and about London. The produce of English manufactures is esti- mated to amount to nearly a billion of dollars annually. Railroads and Canals. — England is traversed by railroads and canals in every direction. The more important railways are the Liverpool and Man- chester, 32 miles long; the London and Birmingham, 112 miles long, connect- ing the metropolis with the centre of England ; the Grand Junction railway, continuing the London and Birmingham line to that of Liverpool and Manches- ter, and also to a railway proceeding northvvard to Lancaster and Carlisle, and thus forming a most important thoroughfare obliquely across the country ; the Midland Counties, North Midland, and Great North of England railways, con- necting the great seats of trade in Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire, with the London and Birmingham line ; the Newcastle and Car- lisle railway, connecting these towns; the Great Western railway, about 117 miles long, connecting London with Bristol, and with smaller tributary lines opening up the west of England; the Southwestern railway, about seventy-seven miles long, connecting London with Southampton ; the London and Dover, which is connected with the French railway l)y steamers across the straits ; the Manchester and Leeds railway, connecting these populous towns. The length of canals in the United Kingdom is about 3,000 miles. Commerce. — The commerce of England is more extensive than that of any other nation on the globe. All nations, to a greater or less extent, pay tribute to the perseverance and enterprise of this great coinmercial people. Her ship- ping engaged in foreign trade is over 3,000,000 tons. Her exports are equal to $250,000,000 annually, of which nearly half are cotton manufactures. Religion. — The protestant episcopal church is established by law, and su- pervised by two archbishops and twenty-five bishops, with archdeacons, deans, and prebendaries. The inferior clergy consists of rectors, vicars, curates, and deacons. The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England, and in dig- nity ranks next to the royal family. The archbishop of York is primate of Eng- land. The sovereign is head of the church. Education. — There are numerous private and public institutions of every de- scription. It is estimated tnat 1,000,000 children in England and Wales are educated in private schools, as paving scholars ; and about 1,500,000 are edu- 20 306 EUROPE— SCOTLAND. cated by eleemosynary aid in the national, parochial, workhouse, and other charitable schools; 1,300,000 children receive instruction in Sunday schools. History. — The ancient history of Britain has been already noticed in the description of the British Isles. The southern part of Britain, with the excep- tion of Wales, was. in 515, divided into seven kingdoms, called the Heptarchy, and governed by Saxon princes ; in 825, Egbert united these kingdoms in one under the name of England. Harold, the last Saxon king, was slain at the battle of Hastings in 1066, and his conqueror, William of Normandy, succeeded to his throne. Since then the following monarchs have reigned in England : — NORMAN LINE. Accession. WmiamI 1066 William II 1087 Henry 1 1100 HOUSE OF BLOIS. Stcphpii 1135 HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET. Henry II 1154 Richard 1 1189 John 1199 Henry III 1216 Edward 1 1272 Accession. Edward II 1307 Edward HI 1.3-27 Ricliard II 1377 HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Henry IV 1399 Henry V 1413 Henry VI 1422 HOUSE OF YORK. Edward IV 1461 Edward V 1483 Richard III 1483 HOUSE OF TUDOR. Henry Vn 1485 Accession. Henry VIII 1509 Edward VI 1547 Mary 15.53 Elizabeth 1658 HOUSE OF STUART. James 1 1603 Charles 1 1625 THE COMMONWEALTH. Cromwell (Protector)] 648 HOUSE OF STUART. Charles II 1660 James II 1685 \ HOUSE OF ORANGE. Acce«sioiL William III & Mary II 1688 HOUSE OF STUART. Anne 1702 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. George 1 1714 George II 1727 George III 1760 George IV 1830 William IV 1830 Victoria, 1837 SCOTLAND. Scotland comprises the northern portion of the United Kingdom ; it is bounded on the north by the North sea and Pentland Frith, which insulate the Orkney Isles, on the east by the German ocean ; on the west by the Atlantic ocean, on the southeast by England (from which it is separated by the Cheviot hills, the Solway Frith, and a series of rivers), and on the southwest by the Irish sea and North^channel, which divides it from Ireland. The most southern point of the mainland (the Mull of Galloway) is in in 54° 38' north latitude, and 4° 52' west longitude ; and the opposite extremity. Cape Wrath, is in 58'^ 37' north latitude, and 5° 1' west longitude. Its greatest length is about 280 miles, and its greatest breadth 160. The deep indentations in the coast cause its dimensions to vary greatly, and between Loch Broom and Dornoch Frith its breadth is only 24 miles. Its superficial area is 29,871 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Exceedingly varied ; two thirds of the surface is moun- tainous, and not above one eighth is cultivated, the remainder being devoted to pasturage. Scotland is naturally divided into the two well-known divisions of highlands and lowlands ; but it is also geographically marked into three distinct parts, of which the northern — divided from the central by the noble Caledonian canal, which unites Loch Linnhe to Moray Frith, is grand and imposing, but exceeding bleak and sterile ; its coasts on the west are dangerous, from the nume- rous rocky promontories, but the Friths of Cromarty and Dornoch form good havens on the w^est and east. At Peterhead, on the east coast, a harbor has been constructed, which has greatly mitigated the perils incurred by mariners on this coast. The central portion is likewise extremeh' mountainous ; the Grampians extend across it from the Atlantic to the German ocean ; the Mon- agh Lea, and other ranges ; many beautiful valleys, lakes, and glens, render the scenery very picturesque. Much of the land has been brought under cultiva- tion by the untiring industry of the people. The southern division is marked by the Clyde canal, which joins the friths of Clyde and Forth. Here moun- tain, rock, and torrent, wood, moor, and lonely heath, rivers and lakes embo- somed in the loveliest valleys, or fertilizing rich corn or meadow-land, combine to form a region unsurpassed in picturesque beauty. EUROPE.— SCOTLAND. ' 307 MouN'TAiNS. — The principal mountain ridges in the southern district are the Lead hills, the Pentland, and the Lammermuir. The Cheviot hills are on the confines of England. The highest mountains are, Ben Nevis, Inverness-shire, 4,370 feet; Ben Macdhu, Aberdeenshire, 4,418; Cairntoul, Aberdeenshire, 4,220; Cairngorm, Inverness-shire, 4,060; Ben Lawers, Perthshire, 4,015 ; Ben More, Perthshire, 3,980 ; Cruachan Ben, Argyleshire, 3,960; Rona, Orkneys, 3,944; Benabourd, Aberdeenshire, 3,940; Benaven, Aberdeenshire, 3,920; Ben Gloe, Perthshire, 3,725; Ben Wyvis, Ross-shire, 3,720; Benuaish, Ross-shire, 3,720 ; Cairn-Our, Perthshire, 3,690. Rivers and Bays. — The Tay, Tweed, Spey, Clyde, North Dee, Ness, Forth, Lochy, Nith, Findhorn, Dee, and Don, are the principal rivers of Scot- land. They are fine streams, and generally abound in -fish, especially in salmon and trout. The coast ol Scotland is indented by inlets and arms of the sea. The friths of Forth, Tay, Murray, Dornoch, Pentland, and Solway, are the principal bays. Lakes. — Loch Lomond, in Dumbartonshire, stands pre-eminent among the beautiful lakes for which Scotland is so justly famed. It is studded with wooded islands of considerable size, and abounding with fine trout. Loch Awe, in Argyleshire, abounds in salmon trout, and eel. The area, in square miles, of the lakes, is as follows : Loch Lomond, Dumbarton, and Stirling, 45 ; Loch Awe, Argyle, 30 ; Loch Ness, Inverness, 30 : Loch Shin, Sutherland, 25 ; Loch Mair, Ross, 24; Loch Tay, Perth, 20 ; Loch Arkieg, Inverness, 18; Loch Shiel, Inverness, 16 ; Loch Lochy, Inverness, 15 ; Loch Laggan, Inver- ness, 12, Islands. — There are few or no islands off the cast coast of Scotland, but an immense number lie contiguous to and off the west coast. Some of these are of considerable extent, though few are of much value. The principal of these are, the Hebrides or Western islands, lying between 55° 35' and 58° 51' north latitude, and 5° and 7° 52' west longitude. They consist of about 300, great and small, and comprise an aggregate superficial area of 2,750 square miles. The largest, Lewis, is 67 miles long. The next in size are, Skye, Mule, Islay, and Arron. A large proportion of them are rocky and barren ; but about 90 of them are inhabited and cultivated. The most westerly is St. Kilda, with a rocky precipice, overhanging the sea. The hunting of birds and birds'-nests, by swinging at immense hazards from the perpendicular cliflTs, is a favorite oc- cupation of the inhabitants. In the island of StafTa is the celebrated Fingal's cave. To the north of Scotland are the Shetland and Orkney islands. The Shetland are about 100 in number, of which about 40 are inhabited. The prin- cipal of them are Mainland, Yell, Uist, Whelsey, Bressa, &c. The Orkneys are about 70 in number, 30 of which are inhabited. Climate. — Scotland has a more rigorous climate than England ; but owing to the proximity of most parts of the country to the sea, and the numerous friths and deep bays by which it is penetrated, it is less severe than might, from the latitude, be expected. The mean annual temperature of places near the level of the ocean, throughout the country, averages 46-2° Fahrenheit. Excess of humidity, and the occurrence of heavy rains in August, September, and Octo- ber, and of cold, piercing east winds, especially along the east coast, in the months of April, May, and the first half ot June, are the great drawbacks on the climate of Scotland. It is rare, indeed, that the crops suffer from heat or drought ; but they frequently suffer from wet and from violent winds, especially in the west part of the country. The climate is, however, highly salubrious, and favorable alike to longevity, and to the development of the physical and mental powers. Chief Cities and Towns. — Edinburgli, the capital of Scotland, is justly celebrated for its fine position and noble buildings. It is divided by a deep, 308 EUROPE.— SCOTLAND. narrow basin, once the bed of a lake, into the Old and New Town. The for- mer is a crowded assemblage of antique buildings, placed upon a rugged, steep hill, which is terminated on the west side by a precipitous rock, on which stands the castle. Here the streets are narrow, and some of the houses are ten, and even twelve stories in height on the street. The new town is regu- larly laid out, and built of freestone. It consists chiefly of the residences of the rich, who are drawn hither from all parts of the country. Glasgow is the great trading mart of Scotland, and, with the neighboring towns on the Clyde, the chief seat of manufactures. Dundee and Aberdeen are famed for flax manufactures ; and Perth is the cleanest and neatest city of the north. Other noted towns are, Leith, Paisley, Greenock, Dumfries, Ayr, Inverness, Kilmarnock, Sterling, Falkirk, Dumferline, Wick, Cupu, Kircaldy, St. Ambrose, Montrose, Arbroath, Lanark, Forfar, and Elgin. Productive Resources. — The agricultural products of Scotland are simi- lar to those of England. Oats and potatoes rank first in importance, oatmeal and potatoes forming the food of the mass of the people. Wheat, barley, beans, peas, turnips, and flax, are also extensively produced. Lead, copper, iron, and coal, are the most abundant minerals, more especially the last two. There are stag and fallow-deer, both wild and domestic ; small game, such as grouse, pheasants, hares, and rabbits, abound upon many of the preserves. Salmon and trout, and other fish, are plenty in the rivers. The fisheries are an im- portant source of wealth. Manufactures. — The value of the manufactures of Scotland is estimated at $100,000,000 a year. The manufactures consist of cotton, woollen, linen, floss-silk, iron, hats, paper, sail-cloth, pottery, and most of the articles made in England. Railroads and Canals. — The Edinburgh and Glasgow, and the Glasgow and Ayr, are the principal railways in Scotland. Among the. important canals we may mention, the Great or Clyde canal, which was commenced in 1768, to connect the Clyde with the Forth, and cost jC200,000. The Caledonian canal joins the Atlantic and the Moray Frith, a distance of 59 miles. It cost more than a million sterling. The Union, Monkland, Crinan, and Ardrossan, are all useful canals. Commerce. — Having little industry, and being thinl)'^ populated, Scotland had formerly a very limited foreign trade. The exports consisted of wool, skins, hides, and other raw materials, exchanged for corn, wines, spices, &c. During the reign of Charles II. the trade of the country, especially that with Holland and the countries round the Baltic, began to increase. It was not, however, till after the completion of the union, in I707, when the trade to the American and West India colonies was, for the first time, open to the enterprise and ac- tivity of the Scotch, that the commercial energies of the nation began to be awakened. The establishment and rapid extension of manufactures, in 1763, has necessarily occasioned a corresponding increase of commerce, and the mer- cantile marine of Scotland is now very considerable indeed. At present, the principal articles of export consists of cotton and linen stufl!s, cotton and linen yarn, wool, iron, hardware, silk goods, coal, spirits, beer, black cattle, herring, salmon, and other salted and fresh fish, stationery, &c. The great articles of import consist of tea, sugar, coff'ee, and other colonial products, raw cotton, flax, hemp, tobacco, raw silk, wine, dye-stufl^s, &c. The great emporiums are, Ghis- gow (including Greenock and Port Glasgow), Leith, Aberdeen, Dundee, and Montrose. Education. — An endowed school has been for a lengthened period estab- lished in every parish in Scotland. The landlords are bound to build the schoolhouse, and a house for the residence of the master, and to pay him a salary. An efficient system of education has, in consequence, been brought EUROPE.— SCOTLAND. 309 within the reach of all classes, and has been productive of the greatest advan- tage. The higher branches of education are taught in the universities of Edin- burgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's. Each of these universities has faculties of literature, philosophy, law, and medicine. Population. — The population of Scotland, in 1700, was 1,048,000 ; in 1801, 1,649,000; in 1811, 1,805,688; in 1821, 2,093,456; in 1831, 2,365,807; in 1841,2,620,184; in 1851, by counties, as follows: — Southern Counties. Ayr 189,286 Berwick 36,287 Bute 16,576 Clackmannan 22,985 Dumbarton 4 4,923 Dumfries 78,057 Edinburgh 258,824 Fife 153.011 Haddington 36,396 Kinross* 8,913 Kirkcudbright 43,310 Lanark 532,114 Linhthgow 30,044 Peebles 10,582 Renfrew 159,064 Roxburgh 51,570 Selkirk 9,797 Stirling 85,726 Wigtown 43,253 Northern Counties. Aberdeen 214,658 Argyle 88,567 Banff 53,935 Caithness 38,542 Elgin 38,671 Forfar 174,731 Inverness 96,328 Kincardine 34,743 Nairn 9,966 Orkney & Shetland 62,313 Perth 139,216 Ross (fc Cromarty.. 82,625 Sutherland 25,771 Total 2,870,784 History. — Scotland was anciently possessed by two rival nations, the Scots or Irish, inhabiting the western, and the Picts the eastern portion. Kenneth II., king of the Scots, having, in 845, succeeded in vanquishing the Picts, united their country with his own, and formed the kingdom of Scotland. His succes- sors were, Donald V., Constantino, Ethus, Gregory, Donald VI., Constaniine II., Malcolm I., Indulphus, Duffus, Culenus, Kenneth III., Consiantine IV., Grimus, iMalcolm II., and Duncan I. The unfortunate monarch last-named was slain by Macbeth, who succeeded him in 1056, and retained the crown until Malcolm III. avenged the murder of his father by the death of the usurper, and ascended the throne, in 1056. David I. came to the throne in 1124, found- ing the abbey of Holyrood, and fixing his residence at Edinburgh. William the Lion came to the throne in 1165, and was succeeded by Alexander II. , in 1214. In 1286, there were two claimants of the throne — Robert Bruce, and John Baliol. The latter obtained the crown through the influence of Edward I. of England, acknowledging himself a vassal of the English king. A war between them soon followed ; Baliol was defeated, taken to London, and there executed. William Wallace took the command of the Scots, but Edward de- feated them in the battle of Falkirk, 1298. In 1306, Robert Bruce, son of the rival of Baliol, claimed the Scottish throne, and in the battle of Bannockburn, 1314, totally defeated Edward and his powerful army. This victory secured the independence of Scotland, and confirmed Bruce in possession of the throne. The house of Stuart succeeded in 1371, the unfortunate history of which is in- vested with more than ordinary interest. The principles of the Reformers were early introduced into Scotland, and were eagerly adopted by both the no- bles and the people. The protestant religion obtained the ascendency in 1560, shortly before the return of the beautiful, but ill-fated Mary from France. At this period the royal authority was at a very low ebb, the most violent conten- tions prevailed among the nobility, and it would have required a sovereign of no ordinary ability and energy of character to conduct the government under such difiicult circumstances. Mary failed ; her anti-protestant prejudices, and the violence of her passions, were ill-suited to such a condition of the country. Having been deposed in 1567, Mary was succeeded by her son, James VI., then a minor. The latter succeeded, on the demise of Elizabeth, in 1503, to the crown of England, by which event the two British crowns were united under one sovereign. The following table contains the names of the Scottish sove- reigns, and the dates of their accession, from Malcolm III. until James VI., when the union of the two kingdoms was effected. Accession. Donald VII 1093 Duncan II. (usurpi'r).10!)4 Donald Vll.(restored)1095 Edgar 1098 Alexander 1 1107 Da\'idl 1124 Accession. Malcolm IV 1153 William 1165 Al.xandor II 1214 Al.XHiider 'II 1249 John Baliol 1292 Robert Bruce 1306 Accession. David 11 13;i0 p;d'd Baliol (usurper). 1332 Robert II. (Stuart)... I.i70 Robert III.... S 1390 Jainos 1 1423 James II 1437 Accession. James III 1460 James LV 1489 James V 1514 Mnry 1543 James VI. of Scotland and 1. of England. .1567 3 1 EUROPE.— IPwELAKD. IRELAND. Ireland is bounded on the north, west, and south, by the Atlantic ocean, and on the east by St. George's channel and the Irish sea. It is in length, from northeast to southwest, 300 miles, and varies in breadth from 100 to 160 miles. It comprises an area of 32,433 square miles, and is situated be- tween 51° 20' to 55° 20' north latitude, and 5° 20' to 10- .15' west longitude from Greenwich. America is the nearest land on the west, Galicia, in Spain, is the nearest on the south, Port Patrick, in Scotland, on the north, and Holyhead, in Wales, on the east. Physical Aspect. — The face of the country is picturesquely varied. The east and southeast is generally low and rocky, the north high and rugged ; the west, northwest, and southwest, lofty, and deeply indented by the Atlantic. In many places the scenery is very beautiful, especially in the county of Wick- low ; but in other parts, such as the bog of Allen, which occupies 77,000 acres, the wilds of Connemara, and about Bantry and Skibbereen, the aspect is bleak and hopelessly barren : 467,577 acres are covered with lakes, and more than 6,000,- 000 acres consist of unimproved mountain and bog. In nearly 21 ,000,000 acres of surface, but 3,313,579 acres are cultivated with grain ; 727,738 acres with potatoes; 58,312 with flax ; and 1,138,406 acres are meadow-land. Thus, not a fourth part of the surface (4,000,000 acres) is employed in supplying food for 6,500,000 people. Peat or bog is composed of organic matter which, on decom- position, yields the pabulum of animal or vegetable life. The soil where the bog is removed, being saturated with ammonia, is exceedingly fertile. Mountains. — The principal mountain ridges run from north to south ; those of the maritime and western districts are the most elevated, and all are in more or less detached groups. The highest elevations are, Macgillicuddy's reeks, 3,410 feet; Slieve-Donard, county of Down, 3,150 feet ; Mangerton, Lake of Killarney, county of Kerry, 2,693 feet ; Croagh Patrick, county of Mayo, 2,606 feet ; Nephin, county of Mayo, 2,650 feet ; Comeragh, county of Waterford, 2,160 feet. Rivers and Lakes. — The Shannon, Barrow, Blackwater, Bann, Boyne, Lif- fey, Lee, and Foyle, are the principal streams. The Shannon is unsurpassed, for magnitude and extent of inland navigation, by any river in the United King- dom. The lakes, or loughs, are numerous. Lough Erne, in Fermanagh, con- sists of two lakes, one twenty miles and the other fifteen miles in length, with a medium breadth often miles. Lough Neagh, in Antrim, is fifteen miles long by seven broad. Lough Derry and Lough Corrib are of still greater extent. The Lakes of Killarney, in Kerry, are famed for their beauty. Climate. — The climate of Ireland is more temperate and equable than that of other parts of Europe in the same latitude. The heat of summer is less oppres- sive, and the cold of winter less severe ; Snd, when anything like immoderately hot or cold weather takes place, it lasts for a much shorter time. The great de- fect of the climate of Ireland is excess of humidity: not only is rain more fre- quent than in England, but the atmosphere, when there is no rain, is largely im- pregnated with moisture. In the dryest seasons, Ireland rarely suffers from drought, but the crops are often injured by too much wet. Thunder-storms are less frequent and destructive in Ireland than in Britain. The mean tem- perature of the north of Ireland is about 48°, of the middle 50° and of the south 52° Fahrenheit. Its range at Dublin has been found to be between 14° 50' and 81° 50' the mean being about 49°. Peaches, grapes, and most EUROPE.— IRELAKD. 311 other southern fruits, do not ripen without much care and attention ; but the broad-leaved myrtle grows luxuriantly in the southern counties, and the arbutus is not native to any other country so remote from the equator. Cities and Chief Towns. — Dublin (the capital), Cork, Belfast, Derry, Wa- terford. Limerick, Armagh, Newry, Wexford, Kilkenny, Carlow, Cavan, En- niskillen, Sligo, Galway, Clonmel, Monaghan, Dundalk, Drogheda, Ennis, and Athlone. Dublin is well and picturesquely situated ; its bay is thought to rival in beauty even that of Naples. The combination of mountain and sea gives a striking effect and great variety to the surrounding scenery. Its public build- ings, squares, streets, cathedrals, churches, monuments, and private dwellings, are, in some respects, not inferior to those of London. Population, 232,726. Cork, 160 miles southwest of Dublin, is famed for its extensive cove or harbor, and verdant hills. The city has a few fine buildings, and the country around the adjacent river Lee is rich, and comparatively well-timbered, although gen- erally speaking, Ireland is very thinly-wooded. Population, 180,720. Bel- fast, 100 miles north of Dublin, is the Liverpool of Ireland, and has a population of nearly 75,308, remarkable for their industry, energy, and intelligence, which have been rewarded by much commercial and manufacturing prosperity. Derry, 150 miles north of Dublin, is an ancient city, famed for the celebrated siege which its brave inhabitants successfully resisted iu the reign of James II., defending, at the risk of their lives, their religious liberty. Waterford on the east, and Limerick and Galway on the west coast, have both fine harbors, possess considerable trade, and are surrounded by some of the richest agricul- tural districts in Ireland. Limerick castle is noted for the siege it endured from the army under the command of King William III., in 1690-'91. Productive Resources. — The principal agricultural products of Ireland are, potatoes,* oats, wheat, barley, and flax. The dairy is an important part of Irish husbandry. Coal is the most abundant mineral. Marble and slate are found in Kilkenny, in the south. Iron was formerly produced in many parts, but at present few or no mines are worked. Copper, silver, and gold, have also been found to a limited extent. Manufactures. — Linen is the staple manufacture of Ireland ; half a million of people being engaged in its production. The cotton, woollen, and silk man- ufactures employ about 20,000 persons. Belfast is the principal seat of the cotton manufacture. Distillation has been an extensive business in Ireland. In 1838, duties were paid on over 12,000,000 gallons ; but through the exertions of Father Mathew that amount has been very considerably reduced. Commerce. — The commerce of Ireland consists mainly in the exports of her agricultural products and manufactures to other parts of the British empire. About 70,000,000 yards of linen are annually exported. The aggregate imports and exports of 1848 amounted in value to $200,000,000. Education. — There is but one university in Ireland. This is at Dublin, and is an institution of very high character. There is a Roman catholic college at Maynooth, and an academical college at Belfast. Schools are also established under the superintendence of a board of national education, for the education of children in the common and most useful branches of secular knowledge. There are about 5,000 national schools established, with half a million of pupils. Population. — In 1672, the population of Ireland was 1,320,000. In the succeeding fifty years it had doubled ; in the next half century it advanced more slowly, being, in 1777, but 2,690,000. The parliamentary censuses, the first of which was taken in 1811, exhibit the following results : in 1811, 5,937,856; * In 1846-'48, the potato crops in Ireland almost entiroly failed ; and that being the grrat staple on which the Irish depend for subsistence, scenes of the most horrid description ensued. Thousands on tliousiinds perished lor the waut of food, and thousands m'-re were irrecoverably ruined iu health and meaus of future competence. No less a sum than £8,000,000 8t«;rlin" was voted by parliament for the relief of the stars'iiig, and vast supplies of provisions and clothing were sent from the United States. 312 EUROPE.— IREUlND. in 1821, 6,801,827 ; in 1831, 7,734,365 ; in 1841, 8,176,124 ; in 1851, by coun- ties, as follows : — Clare 212,720 Province of Ulstek. Antrim 358,503 Down 317,778 Armagh 196,420 Monaghan 143,410 Cavan 174.303 Fe rmanagh 1 15,978 Tyrone 251,865 Donegal 254,288 Londonderry 191,744 Province of Leinster. Louth 107,921 Meath 139,706 Dublin 402,356 Wicklow 99,287 Wexford 180,170 Kilkenny 160,217 Carlow 68,157 Kildare 96,627 Queen s County. . .109,747 King's County 112,874 Westmeath 107,510 Longford 83,198 Province of Munster. Tipperary 323,829 Waterford 162,503 Cork 637,637 Kerry 238,241 Limerick 256,837 Prov. of Connaught. Leitrim 111,808 Sligo 128.769 Mayo 274,716 Galwny 322,826 Ros common 1 73, 798 Total 6,515,794 IRISn LB 13^ Government. — The executive power is vested in a viceroy, appointed by the crown, called the lord-lieutenant, or, in his absence, in lord's justices, gen- erally the primate, lord-chancellor, commander of the forces, and a privy coun- cil appointed by the crown. History. — The traditionary annals of Ireland extend to remote antiquity ; _ but without entering upon the difficult fSi toblen < question of the degree of credence to Isii" pence^ be assigned to them, we have abun- ^Aii dant evidence to convince us that his- ^'^^' torians are right in asserting that the island was, at a very early period, in a ^^ ""*"■ high state of civilization : this is attested by the " Round Towers" which have so sorely puzzled antiquarians, Thirty-Penny Token, 44 cents. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ring-money, coins, gold, and the other me- tallic ornaments and manufactures, discovered at different times in various parts of the country. Ireland, exempt from both Roman and Saxon invasion, proba- bly received the light of Christianity before Britain, direct from the eastern churches. The celebrated Brian Boiromhe, or Brian Boru, succeeded Mala- chy II. as supreme monarch of all Ireland, and perished in the eightieth year of his age, on Good Friday, 23d of April, 1014, in a sanguinary battle with the Danes, at Clontarf, near Dublin. The Danes, though they had succeeded in possessing themselves of the east coast of Ireland, offered but a feeble resist- ance to Henry II., king of England, who received a bull from Pope Alexander III., confirming the grant of Pope Adrian IV. of the "lordship of the kingdom of Ireland." Henry, on his landing at Waterford on the 19th of October, 1 171, was received as the friend and ally of the Irish ; the kings and princes of Cork, Limerick, Ossory, and Meath, and the archbishops, the bishops, and abbots of Ireland, came to Waterford and swore fealty to him and to his heirs for ever, which was also eventually done by Roderick O'Connor, king of Connaught, 1175, who deputed three eminent ecclesiastics to attend Henry at W'indsor, and do homage for him as a "liegeman" to the king of England. From this period England claimed dominion over the country. The Irish have made frequent attempts to liberate themselves, but without effect. The English attempted to force their religion upon the country, but the Celtic Irish have only clung more steadily to the catholic faith. Rebellions have been frequent in modern times, but they have proved ineffectual. The Irish have continued to resist the Eng- lish language and English customs, and have zealously cherished a spirit of national independence. In 1800, Ireland was united to the kingdom of Great Britain, its own parliament having ceased at that time, A great excitement was produced in the country, a few years since, by Daniel O'Connell, who sought a repeal of the union, and the partial independence of Ireland. He died on his way to Rome, 1847 ; and since that time the people have been kept in subjection. EUROPR— FRANCR 313 FRANCE. 2 Francs, 34 cents. The territory of this ancient kingdom lies between 42° 40' and 51° 5' north latitude, and 8° 25' west and 4° 43' east longitude ; and is bounded on the northwest by the English channel, and on the northeast by Belgium, on the west l)y the Bay of Biscay, on the south by the Pyrenees, which separate it from Spain, and by the Mediterranean, and on the east by Sardinia, Switzerland, and Germany. It is nearly an hexagonal figure, and measures about 500 miles at its extreme angles from north to south and east to west. Its sruperficial area is 207,252 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The northern and central districts are generally level, or slightly undulating; the highest land is in the south and east — in Languedoc, Provence, Dauphiny, and Franche Compte, adjoining the Pyrenees and the Alps ; and the most picturesque in Normandy. Picardy, Champagne, Lor- raine, Burgundy, Orleans, iMaine, Poictou, and the provinces bordering on the bay of Biscay, are deficient in landscape and scenery, and in several places south of the Garoime bare and cheerless. The coast of France, along the English channel, is generally irregular in its outline, and forms two great bays, which are separated by the peninsula of Cotentin or La Manche. The north- eastern part of the coast is low and shelving, and lined in many places with sand-hills. About Cape Grisnez there are cliffs, and to the westward of the mouth of the Seine the coast is skirted with rocks. The coast of the western bay is rocky, broken by numerous inlets, and lined with many rocky islands. The western coast of Finisterre or Bretagne is lofty or precipitous, from which it becomes gradually lower, until at L'Orient, and further to the southeast, it terminates in low, clayey, and muddy flats, in which the sea forms various inlets, chiefly at the mouths of the rivers. The headlands, however, and the numerous islands off the shore, are still of the same hard rock, but slightly covered with soil, and in some parts rising into rugged precipices. To the south of the Loire the coast is less broken, and to the Gironde low, and lined with salt marshes. Hence, to the Pyrenees is one straight line of coast bordered by ex- tensive heaths, and only at distant intervals with meadows and cultivated fields. The soil, however, is not wholly unproductive, and numbers of sheep find pas- ture in its healthy covering. Mountains. — The Cevennes, west of the Rhone, 6,500 feet high ; the Vos- ges, in Franche Comte and Alsace, 4,500 feet ; the Jura, 6,000 feet, on the confines of Switzerland, and parts of the Alps and Pyrenees. These mount- ains divide the country into four great basins. The surface gradually rises toward the southeast. The Cevennes mountains are chiefly basaltic ; the Vos- ges contain in some places green granite and various minerals ; the Alps and Pyrenees are chiefly granite, quartz, feldspar, and mica ; some are calcareous. Sea-shells are found on the highest summits. Rivers and Lakes. — The rivers of France are estimated at 6,000, of which 300 are more or less navigable. The chief are, the Rhone, Loire, Garonne, and Seine. The Rhone has a course of 400 miles from its source in Mount Saint Gothard in Switzerland, to its mouth in the gulf of Lyons in the Mediter- ranean ; the scenery along its banks is very picturesque. The Loire has a course of 500 miles from Mount Mezin in Ardeche, to its embouche near Nantes in the bay of Biscay. It is a noble river, navigable for three fourths of its course. The Garonne runs for 250 miles from its source in the Pyrenees to Bordeaux, and thence by the Gironde and an arm of the sea into the bay of 314 EUROPE.— FEANCE Biscay. It is navigable for large boats to Toulouse. Th'e Seine flows for 250 miles from near Dijon in Burgundy, to Havre de Grace in the English channel. It is navigable to Paris for large-sized boats, and to Rouen for masted vessels. The Rhine, Moselle, and the Meuse, have a part of their course in France. The lakes are few, and shallow. The principal is the Etang de Barre in Prov- ence, which covers 300 square miles. Climate. — In the north similar to that of England, but drier ; in the middle and south warmer, with a light and elastic atmosphere. The temperature of Paris, for a few months, is higher in summer, and lower in winter, than that of London. The variety of climate, and different elevations and aspects, marks the divisions in vegetation for the production of the vine, olive, mulberry, maize, and corn. Political Divisions. — France, formerly divided into 32 provinces or gov- ernments, was, in 1790, divided into departments. The 86 departments are divided into 363 arrondissements or districts, which are again subdivided into 2,845 cantons, the cantons into 38,990 communes, or towns and villages, with municipalities. The names of the departments, with their respectiAe capitals, are as follows: — Departments. Capitals. Ain Bourg Aisne Laon Allier Moulins Alpea (Basses) Digne Alpes (Hautee) Gap Ardgche. Privas Ardennes MezicreB Ariege Foix Aulie Troyes Aude Carcassonne Aveyron Rhodez Bouches du Rhone . Marseille Calvados Caen Cantal Aurillac Charente Angouleme Charonte (Inf.) Rocholle Cher Bourges Correze Tulle Corsica Ajnccio C6te d'Or Dijon Cdtes du Norde St. Brieux Creuse Gueret Dordogne Porigueux Doubs BnsanQon Drome Valence Eure Evreux Eure et Loire Chartres Finisterre Qu imper Gard Nimes Departments. Capitals. Garonne (Haut). ..Toulouse Gers Auch Gironde Bordeaux Herault Montpellier lUe et Vilaine Rennes Indre Chateaurous Indre et Loire Tours Isere Grenoble Jura Lons le Saulnier Landes Mont de Marsan Loire et Cher Blois Loire Montbrison Loire (Haute) Le Puy Loire (InQ Nantes Loiret Orleans Lot Cahors Lot et Garonne Aa;en Lozere Mende Maine et Loire Angers Manche St. Lo Mame Chalons-sur Mame Mame (Haute) Chaumont Mayenne Laval Meurthe Nancy Meuse Bar-le-Duc Morbihan Vannes Moselle Metz Nievre Nevers Nord Lille Departments. Capitals. Oise Beauvais Ome Alen^on Pas de Calais Arras Puy de Dome Clermont Pyrenees (Eas) Pau Pyrenees (Hautes) . Tarbes Pyrenees (Orient). . Perpignan Rhin (Bas) Strasbourg Rhin (Haut) Colmar Rhone Lyon Saone (Haut) Vesoul Saone et Loire Macon Sarthe Le Mana Seine Paris* Seine (Inf.) Rouen Seine et Mame Melun Seine et Oise Versailles Sevres (Deux) Niort Somme Amiens Tarn Alhy Tarn et Garonne. ..Montauban Var Dra>II..;-. .V) crnt?. The kingdom of Spain includes the greater portion of a peninsula, which is the most southern and the most western portion of Europe. The peninsula is only connected with the continent by an isthmus 100 miles broad, and which is traversed by the Pyrenees, almost insulating Spain, and Portugal, which occupies the remaining portion of the peninsula, from the rest of Europe. Spain lies between 36'^ and 44° north lat- itude, and 3° 8' east and 9^ 18' west longitude, and is bounded north by the Bay of Biscay and France, east and south by the Mediterranean and the straits of Gib- raltar, and west by Portugal and the Atlantic. Its superficial area is 182,706 square miles. Population, 13,732,000. Physical Aspect. — The shape of Spain resembles that of a very irregular pentagon, the longest side of which faces the north. The coast line is, on the whole, pretty regular, without those great and sudden indentations that charac- terize the shores of other countries, though an exception may be made as regards the coast of Gallicia, which is fringed with bays and headlands, the principal among the former being the bays of Betanzos, Pontevedra, and Vigo ; and among the latter the capes Estaca, Ortegal, and Finisterre. The surface is very much diversified, and intersected with mountains; but the whole may be described as a table-land of considerable elevation, Madrid,* the capital, being * Madrid, the cnpital of Spain, is situatfcl on Bomo sand-hills on the left bank of the Manzanares, about 2,000 above the level of the sea, in latitude 40° 25' 7" north, and lorij^tude 3° 3.3' 8" west, beint; near the centre of the kingdom. It is nearly eiyht miles in ciraiit, of a compact form, contflins about 8,000 bouse-!, 146 churches, chapels, oratories, and other religious houses, 18 hospitals, 13 colleges, 15 academies, 15 public Ubraries, six pris- 320 EUROPE.— SPAIN. 2,173 feet above the sea, which is the average height of the towns in the in- terior. Gibrahar is a well-known promontory, three miles long, half a mile wide, and 1,439 feet high, on a spacious bay, at the southern extremity of Spain, near the entrance to the Mediterranean. It belongs to Great Britain, who highly prizes it as a naval station, and, at an immense expense, has made it the strongest fortress in the world. Mountains. — Five chains of mountains are pretty clearly defined, running from east to west through the peninsula. 1. The Pyrenees (8,000 feet in height) extend from the Mediterranean westward to the frontiers of Portugal, where they are called the Asturian mountains. 2. The Iberian chain extends along the southern frontier of Leon and Old Castile. 3. The Toledo mount- ains, which intersect Estremadura and New Castile. 4. The Sierra (like a saw) Morena, north of Andalusia. 5. The Sierra Nevada or Snowy ridge (9,000 feet in height) extends from Cadiz eastward to the Mediterranean. These successive ranges have several spurs or buttresses. Many of the mount- ains are bare crags, but in Catalonia, Aragon, and Navarre, there are forests of fir, oak, cork, chestnut, and beech, on the sides of the mountains. Rivers and Harbors. — The rivers of Spain form as important a feature as its mountains. They number upward of 200, but few of them are navigable. About 50 of them flow into the Atlantic, and 20 into the Mediterranean. The Tagus, Douro, and Guadiana, pass through Portugal; the beautiful Guadal- quiver disembogues near Cadiz, the Bidassoa is a boundary stream on the French frontier, the Ebro, Guadarranque, Guadiana, and Segura, empty them- selves into the Mediterranean. The harbors are few. Biscay is a precipitous coast. The Mediterranean ports are generally sand-barred. Islands. — The Balearic islands, consisting of Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and some others, are situated in the Mediterranean. Majorca is the largest, having an area of 1,300 square miles. The surface is hilly, and the northern half con- sists of high ranges of mountains, divided by deep valleys and gullies, bordered by precipices. The southern portion is finely variegated by cornfields, vine- yards, olive-groves, orchards, and meadows. The whole country is well- watered by rivulets and springs ; and in some parts marsh predominates. The climate is mild and healthy, and winter little known. The principal towns are, Palma, Falaniche, Manacor, Soller, Leuchmajor, Pollenza, and Bonalbufar. Minorca, 38 miles east of Majorca, contains 240 square miles, one fourth of which is barren and waste. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists of wild stock. Ivica is 28 miles long and 14 broad, and yields wheat and a va- riety of fine fruits, but its principal product is salt from the lagunes. The peo- ple are more attached to fishing than agriculture, the women only attending to the latter. Climate. — The climate of Spain is greatly diversified, the temperature of the air always varying less near the coast than in the interior, and more equable in the maritime than in the other provinces. Winter is almost unknown. An everlasting spring seems to prevail in this delightful country. ons, 15 granite giatos, 85 squares and piazzas, and 50 public wells, which supply rxccUent water, brought from the mountains 30 miles distant. The niodrm part of the city is fine, and the ChUp dp Alcala is reckoned one ot' thr finest streets in Europe, and is the only tine street iu ^Illl^rid. The roj'al palace is a large square pile of buildings, each of its fronts being 470 feet iu lengthily IfiO in height, all built of white stone, enclosing a court of HO square feft, ami is fitted up with the greatest niagniticenee. The picture-galleiy is also .-mother tine build- ing. Every Spaniard is proud of the prado of Madrid. If consists of a sjiacious walk of about two miles in length on the east side of the city, adorned with rows of trees and several fountains, and is the great resort of all rnnks and classi-s in th(^ evenings. There are also two jiromeniides on the west side, very fine, but not so celebrated, Madrid has three theatres, and several scientific and hlerary institutions, anion? which are, the Royal Spanish Academy, the Royal Academy of History, and the Estudios Reales de San Isidro, a university •with sixtneii prof.'ssors. Charifal)le and other benevolent institutions are numerous, and some are amply pro- videti witli fnnds ; but the management having always been in the hands of the clei-gy. tlie funds have lu^rn spent in building monasteries and churches, rather than applied to the charitable purposes intended by the donors. The populati(ui is variously stated at 170,000 to 2.")9,000. Madrid is probably tlie most expensive capital in Eu- rope, being situated in the midst of a sterile country, where there is no pasture land, no rivers, scarcely any gar- dens, and no easy conmnmication with the sea, or with any distant or more productive provinces ; uotwithstanding these drawbacks, the markets are well supplied. The streets of Madrid are generally dirty. EUROPK— SPAIN. 321 Political Divisions. — The following table exhibits the names of the old provinces, with their modern subdivisions. The provincial capitals are of the same names as the provinces, except Pamplona, the capital of Navarre, Palma, of the Balearic isles, and Santa Cruz de Teneriffe, of the Canary isles. Old ProTinces. New Provinces. ' Cordova Jaen. Granada. Almeria. Malaga. Sevilla. Cadiz. . Huelva. Saragossa. Huesca. Teruel. Asturias Oviedo. i Barcelona. Tarragona. Lerida Gerona. AndnluEta... Aragon. Old Provinrea. New Castile. Old Castile. Estremadui'a . . - New Provinces, r Madrid. I Toledo. . . ^ Ciudad Real. Cuonca. Guadalaxara. Burgos. Logrono. Satitander, Aviln. Segovia. Soria. Valladolid. Palinicia, ■ Badajoz. Caeeres. Navarre Navarre. Old ProTinces. New Provinces. jlTlIia. rComiis 1 Lugii. ' *] Onns I Ponte Galicia ^j,.,,„^^ Pontevcdra. Leon. Leon ^ ."Salamanca. \ Zainora. [■ Murcia. I Albacetn. Murcia . C Valencia. Valencia ^. Alicante. I Castellon de la Plana. Alava Vitona. Biscny Bilboa. Guipuzcoa St. Sebastian. lialt'aric Isles. Canary I-lfs. Productive Resources. — The wheat of Spain, though of very various qualities, is generally excellent, and its bread is said to be the best in Europe. Wine is raised abundantly throughout the country ; and the coast districts of Xeres, Rota, Malaga, Benicarlo, and .Alicant, furnish large quantities for exportation. Among the other productions of the soil are, oats, barley, maize, rice, oil, sugar, hemp, flax, esparto or sedge, cotton, saffron, barilla, honey, and silk, with all the European vegetables, and some even of those of the warmer regions. The fruits are, lemons, l)itter and sweet oranges, pomegran- ates, dates, olives, almonds, pistachio nuts, apples, pears, cherries, peaches, and chestnuts. The mineral wealth of Spain is very great. The quicksilver mines of Almaden yield about 6,000 cwt. of metal, and 60 cwt. of cinnabar. The lead mines of Adra, near Malaga, are rich. In Andalusia and Catalonia there are said to be rich mines of gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, antimony, zinc, manganese, cobalt, nitre, Sic, which were formerly worked. Coal abounds in the Pyrenees, and other places, and salt in Cordova. Manufactures. — It might have been expected, from the abundance of wool and silk in Spain, that her manufictures would be in a thriving state. The Moors introduced the silk manufacture ; but since the expulsion of that indus- trious people this is lost to Spain, except at Valencia, where about 3,000 people are employed in this branch of manufacture. The blades of Toledo were once famous over Europe. Porcelain, paper, cards, and tapestry, are manufactured to some extent. Commerce. — The commerce of Spain is small. Its foreign trade consists now in the export of wines, fruits, brandies, wool, silk, lead, quicksilver, barilla, and a few other articles, amounting in the aggregate to nine or ten millions of dollars annually. The imports consist of sugar, cocoa, salt, fish, spices, rice, butter, cheese, hides, cotton, wool, and almost every species of manufactured commodity, amounting to about fifteen millions of dollars a year. Education. — The system of education in Spain is very imperfect for the masses. Their plans of instruction are antiquated, and seem to be so- directed as to spread error, and encourage ignorance, rather than knowledge. The lower classes seldom learn to read and write, and those above them are but im- perfectly instructed. There are fifteen universities in Spain, but the objects for which they were founded are completely disregarded. Government. — Hereditary sovereignty in male or female line ; and a cortez or representative assembly, composed of two co-legislative bodies with equal powers, viz. : a senate and a congress of deputies. The Basque or Biscayan provinces and Navarre still retain their ancient laws, and are governed by their own cortez. 21 322 EUROPE.— SPAIN. History. — Spain was probably peopled by the CeltfE from Gaul in its northern districts, and in its southern by African colonists. The Phoenicians, three centuries before the Christian era, founded the town of Barano, now Barcelona. The Cartha- oenians and Romans contested in the second Punic war for the possession of Spain, which Caesar made a Roman province, and as such it continued for 400 years. On the downfall of the Roman empire the Suevi, Vandals, and Alani, invaded the country ; in 419 Valia founded the dominion of the Visigoths OH Pillar or Cannon Dollar, fi. 1" Spain. In the eighth century the Moors or Sar- acens, after conquering several Gothic possessions in Africa, invaded Spain, and established themselves in the southern provinces. Civil wars ensued, and twelve or fourteen petty principalities or kingdoms were formed. In 1210, their rulers united and reconquered most of the country from the Moors, who had raised it to great prosperity. All the kingdoms in Spain (not in Portugal) were united by the marriage of Ferdinand, king of Aragon, with Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474. The Moors were driven out of their last possession, Granada, and 170,000 families expelled from Spain. In 1492, Columbus, a Genoese in the service of Spain, discovered America, and added vast territories to the Spanish dominions. In 1516, Charles V., emperor of Germany, suc- ceeded to the throne of Spain in right of his mother, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. On his abdication the crown of Spain devolved on his son Philip II., who married Queen Mary of England, and after her death attempted the in- vasion of that country by the celebrated Armada, which was destroyed by a storm before it could reach Britain. Early in the seventeenth century Philip III. murdered or expelled from Spain nearly a million of Moors and Jews, who were his best subjects. Spain rapidly declined, various wars took place with France and England, and Gibraltar was captured by the British in 1704. Napo- leon invaded Spain in 1808, and named his brother Joseph king. The Spaniards applied to England for aid; it was given, and the duke of Wellington, after a series of battles, drove the French from Spain, and restored Ferdinand to his dominions. In 1823-'25 Spain lost the whole of her continental possessions in Americn, and other vast empire in the two Indies. She now only retains Cuba and Porto Rico in the western, and Manilla in the eastern hemisphere. The Spaniards are a mixed race, and unite the blood of the Celts, Ro- mans, Vandals, Goths, and Arabs. The people vary in character- and dialects in dif- ferent provinces, as these distinct breeds more or less predominate. They are a bold and a proud race, devoid of industry, delighting in bloodshed, faithless, jealous, and vindictive. The peasantry now One Doubloon, $16. constitute the true nobility of iD..niiin'n. #4. Spain, and under a constitutional government might become aoain a great nation. The Biscayans (300,000) differ much from the Spanish in language and man- ners, and are a free and bold race, who are retained with difficulty in subjec- tion to the government at Madrid. SOVEREIGNS OF SPAIN. Ferdinand V. and Isa- PiiH^p IT l.'iiiS Lewis 1 1724 Frrdinand VH 1808 bella 1474 Philip III 1.598 PpIHiiV 704 .loscpli Bonaparte.... 1808 Philip I VM Philip IV IfiOl Frnlinand VI 174.5 Fonlinand VII 1814 Joan IfiOfi Chiuli's II IfifiS Chialoslll 17,W Ifaliella II 1833 Charles 1 1516 Philip V 1700 Charles IV 1788 EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 323 PORTUGAL. The kingdom of Portugal, the most western state of Europe, occupies the western part of the Spanish pe- ninsula, and lies between 37° and 42° 10' north lati- tude, and 6° 15' and 9° 10' west longitude, and is bounded on the north and east by Spain, and on the south and west by the Atlantic ocean. Its length is about 350 miles, its average breadth about 100 miles, and comprises a superficial area of 34,500 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The general aspect of Portugal is similar to that of Spain, and, geographically con- Haif-Joe, $6 to $8.50. sidered, it can be regarded in no other light than as. a portion of Spain. All the mountain chains and rivers by which she is traversed originate in the eastern and more extensive portion of the peninsula. Mountains. — The principal mountain chain, the Sierra de Estrella, runs southeast and northwest from the Spanish frontier. The culminating point of this chain, near Covilha, is 7,524 feet above the level of the sea. Another chain, the Sierra Monchique, runs across the province of Algarve, the most southerly in the kingdom, terminating in Cape St. Vincent. There are a great number of inferior chains, and the provinces to the north of the Douro are espe- cially encumbered with mountains. Rivers, Lakes, &c. — The great rivers, the Tagus, Douro, Minho, and Gau- diana, have their sources in Spain, though they are joined by some considera- ble affluents in their passage through Portugal. There are but few lakes, and these of no importance ; but mineral and hot springs are not uncommon. Water, in many districts, particularly in the southern, is both scarce and bad ; and, in consequence, extensive tracts in the great plain of Alemtejo and other provinces are nearly uninhabitable. Climate. — The climate is, in general, milder and more agreeable than in Spain, owing to the height of the mountains, and the great extent of coast. In the rugged tracts of the northeast (Tras-os-Montes) the air is in many parts keen. In the valleys, and in the southern parts of the kingdom, the case is generally very different ; but all along the coast the heat is tempered by the sea breezes. Snow seldom lies on the low ground ; but the rains of winter are often heavy and long-continued ; and at this season the vicinity of Lisbon and other parts of the country are subject to earthquakes. Violent hurricanes aro also of frequent occurrence. Geographical Divisions. — Portugal contains a population of about 2,400,- 000, and is divided into six provinces, which, with their chief towns and pop- ulation are as follows : — Provinces. Cliief Towns, Population. Douro Oporto 75,000 Tras-os-MonK^s Braganza 5,000 Beira (Upper and Lower).Coimbra 20,000 Chief Towns. — The chief cities of Portugal, besides the capitals of the provinces named above, are, Evora, Guimaraens, Caldas do Geres, Viana, Peso da Regoa, Braganza, Chaves, Tavira, Sagres, Villa Nova, Figueira, La- mego, Aviero, Ovar, Setubal or St. Ubes, Braga, Botalha, and Torres Vedras, famous as the centre of the fortified lines constructed by Wellington in 1810. * Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, ia situated on the north bank of the Tagus, ten miles from tlie month of the river, whore it is nino milos broad, and would eholtor 10,000 sail of vp!>?el(>. The city is built on a risini; emi- nence, and has a picturesque appearance. It contains 40 parish churches, 99 chapels, and 75 convents or mon- asteries. The suburbs are beautiful. In 1755, an earthquake destroj-ed a larire part of Lisbon, and 30,000 peo- ple. The entrance of the Taaus is protected by stronij castles. That of t^t. Julian mounts 86 pieces of artillery There are many batteries along the river and coast ; Belcm castle stands conspicuous. Provincei". ChiefTowns. E^?tr(•nladura Lisbon*. . Alemtejo Elvas Aluf.irves Faro Po[>ulation. ...27,5,000 ... 10,000 . . . 8,000 324 EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. Productive Resources. — The principal object of cultivation in Portugal is the vine, which, with the olive and other fruit-trees, is cultivated with the ui- luost diligence in the valleys, and on the sides of the hills, in the northern sec- tions of the country. The entire produce of port-wine amounts to about 100,- 000 pipes annually ; of white wine, about 60,000 pipes. Other products are, oil, cork, drugs, and fruit ; also wheat, barley, oats, flax, hemp, and other prod- ucts of a northern latitude, are raised in the high grounds. The mineral products are considerable, though few mines, except those of iron, have been worked ; among them are antimony, copper, lead, and gold-dust. Manufactures. — Manufacturing establishments are but few in number, and are principally for the production of woollens, silk, and earthen-ware. Cotton has been attempted, and paper, glass, and gunpowder, are made in a few places. A very superficial knowledge of the most common mechanic arts exists. Commerce. — The exports of Portugal consist almost entirely of raw produce, or of wine, oil, salt, wool, fruits, cork, &c. ; the imports of cotton goods, hard- ware, woollens, fish, linens, earthenware, drugs, tea, coal, &c. The imports and exports average about $10,000,000 a year. Formerly Lisbon had about 400 large ships employed in the trade with South America, but now she has not more than fifty or sixty in all departments of her foreign trade, and those of comparatively small burden. Education. — The language of Portugal is merely a dialect of the Spanish, differing but little more from the latter than Scotch from English. Education is, at once, little diffused and of bad quality. There is a university at Coimbva, besides which, 17 high seminaries, and numerous schools exist, affording in- struction to about 33,000 pupils. With the exception of Camoens, few Portu- guese authors are known beyond the limits of their country. Government. — The government is an hereditary monarchy, with an upper and a lower representative chamber, both of which are elective, the franchise being vested in the holders of a certain small amount of fixed property. The cortes meet and dissolve at specified periods, without the intervention of the sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law passed twice by both houses. Religion. — The religion of Portugal is the Roman catholic (protestantism being prohibited), which contributes but little, if anything, to the morality of the people. The inquisition no longer interferes with the freedom of conscience, having been abolished in 1821. The Portuguese church is under the juris- diction of a patriarch, with extensive powers ; three archbishops and fourteen bishops. History. — Portugal was known to the Phoeni- cians, Carthaginians, and Greeks, as a place, and under the name of Lusitania, when inhabited by a Celtic tribe, was conquered by the Romans. It followed the fortunes and fate of Spain, and in the eleventh century Alphonse VI., king of Leon and Castile, gave the territory as a dowry with his daughter to Henry, grandson of Robert king of France, for his bravery against the Moors. Alphon- sus Henry, in 1139, gained a great victory over the Moors, and his soldiers crowned him king. In 1 .580, Dobrao, $34. Philip II., king of Spain, conquered Portugal, and united it to his dominions ; but in 1640 the Portuguese, under the duke of Bra- ganza, regained their independence. In 1807, the French invaded the coun- try, and the royal family escaped to Brazil. The French were expelled with the aid of the British, after a bloody conflict, and the king, Pedro, returned in 1821, Brazil becoming independent under his son in 1822. Pedro died in 1826, and the crown was usurped by Don Miguel, his brother. The emperor EUROPE.— SWITZERLAND. 325 of Brazil, who was now regent of Portugal, caused hira to be expelled, and placed his daughter Maria on the throne in 1834. The country has since con- tinued in rather a disturbed state. The vast colonies of Portugal are reduced to some small settlements in India, and the Pacific islands of Solor, Timor, and Midoro, on the coast of Guinea ; Senegambia, Mozambique, Cape Verde, and St. Thomas islands, in Africa. John IV 1640 Alplionsiis Vi 1656 Peter II 1668 S0VEBEION8 OF FORTUOAI,. John V 1707 Joseph. 1750 Mary Frances Isabella 1777 John VI 1799 Don Pndro 1826 Maria de Gloria 1826 SWITZERLAND. Switzerland extends from 45° 50' to 47° 50' north latitude, and from 5° 50' to 10° 30' east longitude. Its extreme length from ea.st to west is about 200 miles; its greatest breadth about 130. Its area has been very variously estimated at from 10,000 to nearly 19,000 square miles. It is bounded north by Baden, the lake of Constance, and Wirtemberg, east by the Tyrol, south by Lom- bardy and Sardinia, and west by France. Physical Aspect. — Switzerland is the most mountainous region in Europe, with a gradual elevation from north to south, until the culmina- Four Francs, $L ting point of the Alps is reached. The Higher, Middle, and Lower Alps, from 8,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea, are always covered with snow. The Lower Alps commence at 2,000 feet, the Middle at 5,000 feet, and the Higher at 8,000 feet, gradually rising in precipitous masses with naked sides to 15,170 feet above the sea; Mont Blanc, the loftiest point of the Alps, reaches an elevation of 15,800 feet. Four great roads cross the Alps from Switzerland to Italy : one over Mt. Simplon, one over Mt. St. Gothard, one over the Bernardins, and a fourth over Mt. Splugen. The glaciers present a scene of desolation where all animal and vegetable life is extinct; where no sound is heard but the thundering crash of vast icebergs and avalanches descend- ing from mountain-tops into deep glens, and not unfrequently carrying with them huge masses of rock, which reverberate as they are dashed from crag to crag, as the thunder sounds in the fury of the mountain tempest. Amidst these awful scenes are verdant valleys, rich cornfields, picturesque villages, and numerous herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. Rivers and Lakes. — Several of the great rivers of Europe have their rise in the Swiss countries. The Rhine, flowing from the neighborhood of Mount St. Gothard, runs 200 miles through the borders of Switzerland, passes through the stupendous ravines of the Rheinwald, which rises 3,000 feet on either side, clothed with stately firs ; thence through the lake of Constance, and after passing SchafThausen forms the celebrated cataract. The Rhone rises from a glacier in the Valais, which is a segment of a circle in the form of a fan, from whose fissures issues the "blue gushing arrowy Rhone." It receives several smaller streams before entering the lake of Geneva, through which it is said to take its course without m'ngling with the adjacent waters. After quitting G'^neva it becomes a French river. Other rivers in Switzerland are the Te- cino, the Tresa, and the Iron. The lakes of Switzerland are numerous j among 326 EUROPK— SWITZERLAND. the principal are, Geneva or Leman, 1,230 feet above the sea, 40 miles long, which covers an area of 330 square miles, and is in some places 1,000 feet deep, but like all fresh-water lakes it is gradually filling up. On the one side the Alps rise with majestic grandeur, and on the other the lesser and more distant elevations of the Jura, each margin fringed with luxuriant cultivation ; and in the month of May, the red-apple blossom, the emerald green of the meadows, and the hoary summits of the mountains, present the most marked contrasts. Constance lake, which partly belongs to the territory of Baden, is 1,161 feet above the sea. The Rhine passes through this lake, as the Rhone does through that of Geneva. Lugano is 25 miles long by 6 broad, and commu- nicates with the Lago-Maggiore by the Tresa. Luzern, 1,408 feet above the sea, is 20 miles long by 8 to 10 miles broad, and has a depth of 600 feet. Zu- rich lake is very picturesque; 23 miles long by 4 broad. Neufchatel, about the same extent. Thun, 1,900 feet above the sea, with a depth of 350 feet, is 12 miles long by 3 to 4 broad. Climate. — Cold in the mountains, temperate in the plains, and hot in sum- mer in several of the valleys, especially in the canton of Tessin. The inferior limit of perpetual snow is 9,000 feet ; the distance between snow and corn, 4,500 feet ; between snow and trees, 2,800 feet ; and between snow and the highest limit for the growth of trees (the Pinus Abies), 1,400 feet. Animals. — The most remarkable native animals are the ibex and the cha- mois, which frequent the most inaccessible mountain ranges ; the marmot is also a native of Switzerland ; bears, wolves, and lynxes, are found in some can- tons. The bearded vulture is of such strength that the ibex and chamois fre- quently become its prey ; fish are plentiful in the lakes. Population and Political Divisions. — The Swiss confederacy consists of twenty-two cantons, which, with their area, population, and chief towns, are as follows : — Cantons. Area sq. miles. Population. Chief Towns. Zurich 685 23L576 Zurich. Berne 2,562 407,913 Berne.* Luzern 587 124 521 Luzern. Cantona. Area eq. miles. Population. Chief Towns. Schaffhausen.. 120 31,125 Schaffhausen. < Trojen. Schweiz 421.. Uri 3.38.. Unterwalden . . 263 . . Glarus 280.. Zusr 85.. Fribourg 564 91,145 Fribourg. Soloure 255 63,196 Soleure. Basle. Leichstall. 13,.')19 Schweiz. 40,050 AUorf. ^...o/i..-.^ Stanz. 29,348 Glarus. 1.5.322 Ziiir. ■ ( AppenzelL ...St. Gall. ...Chur. .Aargavi. Basle 185. 65,424. Appenzell 153 50,876.. St. Gall 748 158.853.. Grisnns 2,968 84,506.. Aareau 502 182.7.55 . . Thurgau 268 84,124 Frnuenfeld. Tessiu 1,035 113.923 Bellinzona. Vaud 1,182 183..=i82 Lausanne. Valais 1,662 75,798 Sitten or SioD Neufchatel.... 280 58,616 NeufchateL Geneva 91 58,666 GeneTa.t Productive Resources. — Among the agricultural products are, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, maize, flax, hemp, &c. Switzerland is, however, almost wholly a pastoral country ; the crops are scanty and precarious. Cattle, sheep, and goats, constitute the principal wealth of the inhabitants. The mineral riches of the mountains are but little known or explored ; a few iron mines in the Jura being the only ones that deserve notice. There are numerous mineral springs, many of which are resorted to medicinally ; and those at Bex, and others in the canton of Basle, furnish considerable quantities of salt. A few insignificant * Berne, one of the handsomest cit,ie.s in Europe, lies on the lefb bank of the Aar, 1,700 feet above the level of the sea. Zurich is beautifully situated at the outlet of Zurich lake, and is distinguished for its public institu- tions. Basle is situated on the Rhine, and is noted for its university, and the manufacture of ribands. t Geneva is Fituated on the slopes of two hills divided by the Rhone, where it issues from the lake, forming in its course two i.slands, on one of which st.ands part of the town, and the other contains a fine promenade planted with trees, and adorned with a statue of the noted Jenn-Jacques Rousseau. The two banks of the river, and the island, are now connected by a suspension-bridge ; and a handsome quay, lined with line buildings, has been constjuctcd along the river. The streets are in general wide and commodious, except in the busy part of the town, where thr-y are inconveniently narrow, and darketied by arcades. The churches are of very ordinary de- scription ; the principal is that of St. Peter, an ancient edifice, with a modern colonnade. The townhouse, the hospital, the mu.senm of the fni(> arts, the museum of natural history, and that of the botanic garden, and the penitentiary, are the principal |>ublic buildings. Geneva is famous as having been the centre and asylum of the reformed religion. Its university, founded by Calvin, has long been distinguished as a seat of learning. The citizens of Geneva are noted for their industry, as well as for their scientific and literary attainmeuts. EUROPE.— SWITZERLAND. 327 coal beds have been met with ; but the remaining mineral products of any value are mostly confined to slate, marble, gypsum, granite, and other kinds of build- ing stone. Manufactures. — Notwithstanding the geographical disadvantages of Swit- zerland, the inhabitants have carried some branches of manufacturing industry to a considerable state of advancement. Most part of the agricultural inhab- itants are almost wholly occupied during winter at the loom, or in other branches of manufacturing industry ; and they also engage in them during the evenings throughout the year, and when their little patch of land does not require their attention. In the districts devoted to handloom labor from one to four looms are usually to be found in a cottage ; the weavers being furnished with the warp, woof, &c., by the manufacturers, to whom they return the woven goods. In many secluded valleys steam-engines and mills may be seen at work, spinning and preparing cotton from the East Indies and United States. In Geneva the manufacture of watches (amounting to about 100,000 annually) and jewelry is carried to great perfection. The Swiss cotton, woollen, silk, and leather goods, are esteemed for their durability. Commerce. — Though in the centre of Europe, Switzerland is much restricted in its commercial intercourse by the barriers of the Alps, and the prohibitory system of the neighboring states. The chief exports are, cattle, sheep, linen, lace, silks, jewelry, &c. The imports are principally corn, flax, raw-silk, cot- ton, spices, and various kinds of manufactured goods. Education. — Education is extensive in the protestant cantons, but neglected in other districts. There is a university at Basle, and an excellent missionary institution. At Geneva there are several public and private educational estab- lishments of good repute. Switzerland has produced many men whose names stand high in literature and science, among whom may be mentioned Rousseau, Mallet, Tissot, Beza, Casaubon, Necker, Stahl, Decandole, and Sismondi, in what are termed the French cantons ; and Haller, the two Gesners, Lavater, MuUer, Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, Holbein, and others of renown in the cantons bordering on Germany. About two thirds of the people speak German ; 100,000, Italian ; 50,000, Romanish, a corrupted Latin dialect ; and the re- mainder, French. Religion. — The number of Romanists are estimated at 600,000, the re- formed church at 1,300,000, Jews, 2,000 ; and there are several sectarians. The Romish faith predominates in the cantons of Luzern, Uri, Schweiz, Unter- walden, Zug, Fribourg, Soleure, Tessin.and Valais. The protestant territories are Berne, Zurich, Basle, Schaffhausen, Vaud, Neufchatel, and Geneva. In the other cantons the two forms of Christianity pretty equally prevail, and the people live together in amity. Government. — The cantons are united in a confederacy, which has lasted five centuries. In the national diet or parliament each canton has a single vote. The diet sits annually and alternately at Zurich, Berne, and Luzern, The chief magistrate of the canton in which the diet assembles is president for that year. Treaties of peace, or declarations of war, are decided by three fourths of the deputies, all other questions by a majority. Each canton has its own local government, with which the diet does not interfere. In some can- tons there is a democratic constitution, in others a more aristocratic form ; but cantonal independence is vigilantly guarded by all. The cantons contribute each their quota of men and money in the event of war, and can, combined,, bring into the field about 50,000 men, of whom a proportion are artillery and cavalry. The arsenals are well stored, and the ordinary militia, or landwehr, comprises 70,000 men, of whom at least 10,000 are expert riflemen. The in- dependence of Switzerland can therefore be well protected by its own brave men. About 30,000 Swiss soldiers are in the service of foreign nations. 328 EUROPE.— SWITZERLAND. Crown of Geneva, History. — Switzerland (originally called Helve- tia) was invaded by the Romans under Julius Caesar, who has left to posterity a faithful account of the tribes which then inhabited it. Switzerland, or Helvetia, was gradually subjugated by the power of Rome, and continued a Roman province until the dissolution of the empire. Christianity is supposed to have been introduced as early as the year 300. In 430 the Burgundians took possession of the south- ern and western districts, and the Alemanni of the northern and eastern. In 496, Clovis, king of France, conquered the Alemanni ; and in 534 his sons subdued the Burgundians, and their joint terri- tory was annexed to France, and remained so until the division of Charle- magne's empire in 843, when the Burgundian portion fell to the lot of Lolhar, but was soon afterward reunited to the northern and eastern districts, under the sway of Louis the German. The Swiss mountaineers distinguished them- selves at a very early period for their ardent love of civil and religious liberty, which they have ever since manifested with consistent and unswerving fixity of purpose, in spite of many and severe trials. At the time of the crusades, the peasantry asserted their privileges as freemen, and never afterward relin- quished them. The towns of Zurich, Berne, Basle, So- leure, Uri, Schweiz,and UnterwaHen, purchased or received in donation their territorial rights from the German emper- ors, and joined together to protect themselves against the attempted oppression of the nobility. In the commence- ment of the fourteenth century, Albrecht, son and successor of the count Rudolph of Hapsburg, strove to unite the for- est towns, that is, the cantons of Schweiz, Uri, Zug, and Un- terwalden, with his Austrian possessions, but the citizens steadily refused to renounce their allegiance to the German empire, and a brave band, among whom were Furst, of Uri, and his celebrated son, William Tell, assembled and swore to defend with their lives the liberties of their coun- try. On the first of January, 1308, the Swiss began a gallant struggle for inde- pendence, which lasted with little intermission till the close of the fifteenth century. Early in the sixteenth century the doctrines of the Reformation were introduced into Switzerland, and a civil war broke out between the cantons which embraced the protestant doctrines and those which adhered to the church of Rome. Calvin came from France to Geneva in 1536, and speedily became the leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. The internal tran- quillity of Switzerland was not restored until the recognition of the indepen- dence of the Swiss confederation by the peace of Westphalia in 1648, but for nearly three centuries she was unmolested by any external enemy, and seems to have lost much of her spirit through the degenerating effect of petty rivalries and intestine broils. In 1798, the French army entered Geneva, to the number of 40,000, and having defeated the Bernese, united Geneva to the French republic, and established a new constitution in Switzerland, under the name of the Helvetian republic. Switzerland soon after became the arena of several severe contests between France and the allied armies, who entered it in triumph in 1813, after the decisive battle of Leipsig. In 1814, a new act of confederacy was entered into by the Swiss cantons, and the congress of Vienna, which met in 1815, recognised their independence and guarantied neutrality. The French revolutions of 1830 and 1848 caused for a time insur- rection and turmoil among the cantons. Five Batzen, 9 cents. EUROPE.— BELGIUM. 329 BELGIUM. Ducatooii, 93 cents. The kingdom of Belgium lies between 49° 31' and 51° IT north latitude, and 2° 37' and 6° east longitude, and is bounded on the north by Holland and the North sea, east by Prussia, south and southwest by France, and on the northwest by the North sea. Its superficial area is 12,569 square miles. Physical Aspect. — The greater part of the surface is flat, and highly cultivated. It rises in gradual elevations toward the south and east. South of the river Meuse the scenery is varied and picturesque, and in Luxemburg a branch of the Ardennes mountains and large forests impart a bold and romantic character to the country, especially on the banks of the Meuse and the Moselle. In the prov- inces of Flanders and Antwerp, the eye for miles sees nothing but a vast un- broken plain, covered with the most luxuriant cultivation, and presenting the appearance of gardens more than fields, through which the railroads pass with scarcely a cutting or embankment. Rivers. — Belgium is well-watered ; the Scheldt, after quitting the territory of France, passes through Hainault, Flanders, and Antwerp, where it divides into branches, which insulate the province of Zealand. The Meuse, Maas or Maese, rises in France, waters Namur, Liege, and Limburg, and falls into the Rhine; it is navigable throughout the whole of its course in Belgium. The Moselle separates part of Luxemburg from France. Climate. — The climate of Belgium is cool and humid ; not so much so, however, as that of Holland. It varies with locality, and the higher regions of the country enjoy a mild climate. Chief Cities. — Few European countries present within the same area so many cities of note and interest to the lovers of antiquity and the fine arts, as Belgium. Brussels,* Antwerp,! Bruges,^ Ghent, Liege, Namur, Louvain, are all places of historic note, and of architectural beauty. Productive Resources. — Agriculture is the staple of the country ; the *BrU!»sei,s, tlie cnpital of Bplgiiim, on the Seino, in 50° 51' north latitude, and 4° 28' east longitude, is built on hills, au(i has a cunimMndin;; appearance. In the upper town o.^pccially, the houses are lofty .nnd elegant ; the fo'^se whi'h formerly surrounded the city was converted, during the reign of the emperor, Joseph, into gar- dens and walks ; and the city, which is seven miles in circumference, has seven gates, with extensive suluirbs, fine gardens, and continuous' streets, all combining to render Brussels a miniature Paris. The Hotel de Villc is one of the most imposing municipal structures in t^urope : the church of St. (iudule has two huge 6othic tow- ers ; the richly stjiined windDws, the high altar, the magnificent pulpit, carved by Van Bruggen in l(i69, pre- sented liy the empress Maria Theresa, and the numerous monuments and statues, produce a grand effect. The field of Waterloo, south of Brussels, is a well-cult vated plain, on which a huge mound has been formed to com- memorate the terrific battle which decided the fate of Napoleon, on the 18th of .June, 1815. Poi>ulation, 134,000. t Antwerp, 2) miles north of Brussels, once contained 200.000 inhaliitants, but now little more than one third of that number. It hiis the finest Gothic cathedral in Europe ; the steeple. 441 feet in height, is ascended by 620 steps to within 30 feet of the top. It tapers upward, arch upon arch, in such graceful liglitness, that Charles V. said it should be preserved under gla.ss, and Napoleon observed, that it reminded him of Mechlin laoe. The cliurch is 500 feet long, 230 feet wide, and 360 feet high. Like the other churches of Belgium, it is rich in paintinu'S and monuments of the fine arts. There are 66 chapels within it.s walls, and the paintings above the altar are liy gubens. In the centre of the cathedral is his ckef c[ auvre, " the descent from the cross." With the exception of its churches, Antwerp possesses no public buildings of importance, l)ut tlie old Spanish houses, the exchnnge built in the Venetian style, and the Hanseatic house, give a stately appearance to the city. Antwerp gave l)irth to Teniers, Vandyck. rtnyders, Mi'tzys, Jordaens, and others, illustrious in art and science! J Bruges, with 60,000, and Ghent, with 90,000 inhabitants, possess many antique structures, and fine galle- ries of paintings. The country around is in the highest statj^ of cultivation, and a large trade is carried on from Ghent, in the exportation of rare plants to the difl'erent Europran capitals. Bruges was anciently the capital of the Low Countries, and is still a perfect specimen of a town of the middle ages. Its political power lasted from the 13tb to the IGth century; and the fame of her woollen manufactures was commemorated by the " Order of the Golden Fleece," instituted by Philip t'li- Good : it is also celebrated as the seat of lace manufactures. The immense edifice t'Tmed " Leg Halles," with its ponderous tower, on which watchmen are stationed night and day to look out for fires, is a leading feature of Bruges, and contains one of the pleasing chimes of musical bell* for which Belgfium is famed. 330 EUROPE.— BELGIUM. chief products are, wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, &c. Flax is a most profitable crop. Among its mineral products are, coal, iron, lead, calamine, and aluminous schiste. There are 40 mines in the kingdom, which cover an area of 126,000 acres. Manufactures. — The great iron works at Seraing have iron and coal mines within their walls, and numerous manufactories : it is the largest establishment of the kind in Europe. There are extensive manufactories for the casting of cannon, making of fire-arms, of which there is a large export. The manufac- tures of lace at Mechlin, Bruges, Antwerp, of shawls, gilded leather, fine cloth, carpets, refined sugar, carriages, musical instruments, jewelry, paper, books, diamond-cutting, carving, malt, &c., give active employment to many thousand artisans. Railroads and Canals. — Belgium was the first state in Europe in which a general system of railways was planned and executed by government. The undertaking was projected in 1833, and so rapid has the work been carried forward, the whole territory is now traversed by lines, which also extend into other states. The Great Northern railway, which unites Paris and Brussels, is deemed the most giga-ntic railway in the hands of one company in the world; it employs over 3,000 cars, and nearly 200 locomotives. Belgium has also about 300 miles of canals. Commerce. — The exports and imports amount to about $75,000,000 each annually. The principal exports are the productions of its flourishing agricul- ture, numerous manufactures, and mineral products. The imports consist of colonial produce, and the wines and fruits of southern Europe. Education. — The educational institutions of Belgium are of three grades : elementary schools, colleges, and universities. By the Belgic constitution edu- cation ceased to be compulsory ; and the government has no control over it, ex- cept as regards the few schools paid by the state ; the rest is left to individual enterprise, or the caprice of the communes. At least one third of the rising generation are absolutely without any regular instruction. Luxemburg and Namur are the best-educated provinces, and Flanders and Liege the two in which education is most neglected. Population. — The population of Belgium is distinct from that of either France or Holland, but possesses some of the characteristics of both nations. In former days the Belgian citizens and craftsmen fought for their freedom against powerful and disciplined armies, and some of the most-celebrated men of Europe have been born or nurtured into greatness in the Low Countries. The population of Belgium is 4,335,319, of which one million are located in the cities and towns, and the remainder dwell in the communes or parishes. Government. — A limited monarchy ; legislative power vested in the king, and in two chambers, called the senate and the house of representatives, which latter are elected in the proportion of one representative for every 40,000 elect- ors, whose qualification for voting is the payment annually of direct taxes, to the amount of eight dollars. "^^^S^iv History. — The country of the Belgae was early noted ^^/Ci '^^\ i" European annals. Its inhabitants, under the name of ^'^Is^su ^\\ Fi'"l"bogs, according to tradition, invaded Ireland, A. M. a ^^-^^f^liw-.^'\ 2503, and retained their conquests until driven out by the ^/i Danonians from Norway and Sweden, A. M. 2541. The title Gallia Belgica was given by the Romans to the seven- ^x^W *^^^" provinces west of the Rhine, whose inhabitants were 'i^$^^^^ the Belgae, Batavia, and the Frisi. These names disap- 6 stivd-p, 6 ci-nts. pearcd before the foundation of the monarchy of the Franks ; which, in the sixth and seventh centuries, included the seventeen provinces previously belonging to Gaul, in 843. By the peace of Verdun these EUROPK— HOLLAND. 331 territorities were united to Germany, under feudal lords as governors, who soon assumed hereditary power, which was long and violently disputed by the active and intelligent inhabitants of the free cities of Belgium, Holland, and Germany. In the fifteenth century, the lordships of all the territory included under the name of "the Low Countries" came into the possession of the house of Bur- gundy ; the country next became an appanage of the Spanish branch of the house of Austria, and in 1516 Philip the Fair left these provinces to Charles V., who, after having brought them under complete subjection, abdicated in favor of his son Philip in 1556, through whose persecutions and oppressions a fatal change came over the country : commerce and trade dwindled away ; many of the merchants were reduced to beg for bread, great cities became half deserted, and the scattered inhabitants of villages were devoured by wolves. Thousands of the artisans fled from ruin and death to England, where they carried and es- tablished their manufacturing arts. Belgium remained under the Spanish do- minion till the famous victory of Ramilies, gained by the duke of Marlborough, in 1706, when it again passed to Austria. It had been connected with Holland from the time of the duke of Burgundy, but it was now separate ; while Hol- land, having attained its independence, continued to flourish as a republic. The Belgian provinces remained under Austria till they were conquered by the French, after two celebrated victories at Jemappes and Fleurus. It was an- nexed to the French republic in 1795. In 1815, it was made a part of Hol- land by the congress of Vienna. In 1830, incited by the revolution of Paris, the people rebelled, and, after a brief struggle, achieved their independence, Leopold, their present sovereign, becoming king in 1831. HOLLAND. This region of rivers, lakes, and canals, is situ- ated between 50° 45' and 53° 28' north latitude, and 3° 23' and 7° 28' east longitude. It is bounded north and west by the German ocean, east by Han- over and Prussia, and south by Belgium. Its su- perficial area is 13,616 square miles. Physical Aspect. — VVith the exception of some insignificant hill-ranges in Gelderland and Utrecht, and a few scattered heights in Over-Yssel, the whole kingdom of Holland is a continuous flat, partly formed by the deposites brought down by the rivers intersecting it, and partly conquered by hu- man labor from the sea, which is above the level of a considerable portion of the country. Holland is consequently at all times liable to dangerous inundations. The west coast, however, from the Helder to the Hook of Holland, is partially protected by a natural barrier composed of a continuous range of sand-banks or dunes, thrown up by the sea, of great breadth, and frequently forty or fifty feet in height. But in other parts of the country, particularly in the provinces of Zealand, Friesland, and Gelderland, the sea is shut out by enormous artificial mounds or dikes, any failure in which would expose extensive districts to the risk of being submerged. In nothing, indeed, is the industry and perseverance of this extraordinary people so conspicuous as in the construction and maintenance of these dikes. They are usually 30 feet 2i u'ikier.-, 90 cent?. 332 EUROPR— HOLLAND. high, and 70 feet broad at the base. Numerous canals* intersect the country, which is cultivated with skill, and covered with neat towns and handsome villas. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers of Holland are, the Rhine, Waal, and the Meuse, which are intimately connected, and the Scheldt. Lakes are numerous, and of small extent. The principal are, the Haarlem, 15 by 7 miles in extent, and the Bresbosch. The Zuyder-zee is a great gulf, which penetrates far inland. It occupies an area of 1,200 square miles, and was originally a large lake, the barrier between the sea, and which was broken through by an inundation in 1225. The Dollart, a similar inlet between Groningen and Han- over, was formed likewise by two irruptions of the sea, in 1277 and 1287. Islands. — The islands off the coast are chiefly accumulations of sand and alluvial deposites, and are very numerous. In Zealand are the islands of Wal- cheren, Schouwen, North and South Beveland, Tholen, &c. ; in South Hol- land, Goree, Over-Flackee, Voorn, Beierland, Ysselmond, &c. ; Texel, Ylie- land, Ter-Schelling, Ameland, Schiermonnick, and Borkum, opposite the Zuy- der-zee and the coasts of Friesland and Groningen ; and within the Zuyder-zee, Wieringen, Urk, Schokland, and Marken. Political Divisions and Population. — Holland is divided into eleven ad- ministrative divisions, viz. : North Holland, South Holland, Zealand, North Brabant, Utrecht, Gelderland, Over-Yssel, Drenthe, Groningen, Friesland, and Limburg. Part of Luxemburg has recently been included ; but it only belongs to the king in his capacity of grand duke, as it is properly a part of the German confederacy. The population, with Luxemburg, is 3,206,804. Chief Towns. — Amsterdam (population 280,000), Rotterdam (80,000), the Hague (66.000), Leyden (35,000), Utrecht (34,000), Haarlem (22,000), Dort, Flushing, Middleburg, Bois-le-Duc, Groningen, Maesbricht, Luxemburg, Schneidam, and other places attest the wealth and industry of the Dutch. Am- sterdam is one of the finest cities in Europe ; it is built on piles, fortified by a ditch and bastion, intersected by canals, which form 90 islands, connected by 280 stone and wooden bridges. The streets, almost all straight, are built along the canals, are well-paved, have footpaths, and are well-lighted at night. The two finest, called the Heeren-gracht and the Kaiser-gracht, in the middle of the city, are magnificent, and of considerable length, but the houses are all built of brick, and painted of various colors. Amsterdam is the seat of the general ad- ministration of the marine, whose vast magazines and ship-building yards are truly remarkable. It contains a great number of scientific and literary institu- tions. The townhouse, begun in 1648, and finished in eight years, cost $10,000,000. The exchange, India-house, admiralty, state bank, and other buildings, are noble structures. Productive Resources. — Agriculture, the produce of the dairy, orchards, cattle, fish, gin, tobacco, sugar, &c. The fisheries were formerly of great im- portance, but were destroyed by the French. Holland is not a manufacturing country. Some linen, cotton, and woollen articles, are made for domestic con- sumption. Ship and boat building is also a branch of manufacturing industry. Commerce. — The principal exports are agricultural and dairy produce, salted provisions, madder, tobacco, oil, gin, seeds, hides, &c. The imports are salt, wines, timber, grain, iron, &;c. The most valuable trade possessed by Holland is that carried on with Java, Banca, and other colonies. Amsterdam, Rotter- dam, and the Hague, are the principal ports for foreign trade. Education. — Primary schools are established throughout the kingdom. *Tlio groBter rmmlier of those cnnals are approprinted to the drainage of the land many, however, are navi- pable by large vessels. The principal is the Grand Ship canal of New Holland, between Anipterdani and Niew- Diep, n<>ar the Helder. Tliis noble work, the greatept of its kind in Europe, is about SOJ miles long. 105 feet broad at its surface, and Sfi at bottom, with n depth of 20 feet 9 inches ; it was completed between 181i1 and ISO."), at an expense of $.'5,000,000. It has a towing path on each side, and admits of two frigates or merchant vessels of the largest size passing each other. EUROPE.— HOLLAND. 333 Scarcely a child of ten years of age can be found who can not read and write. In the superior private schools, German, P'rench, English, and other modern languages, are taught, in addition to the ordinary elementary branches of knowl- edge. Universities are established at Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen. Government. — The government is a constitutional monarchy, with two legislative chambers, the members of one appointed for life by the king, those of the other elected by the people for three years. History. — The Netherlands were known in the time of Julius Caesar, by the name of Bel- gic Gaul, and the chief inhabitants were the Menapii, Tungri, Nervii,and Morini, who were subsequently known as the Belgse, Batavi, and Frisi. The Batavi appear to have occupied the marshy country bounded by the Rhine and the INIaas, or iVIaese. On the irruption of the Franks, whose ancient kingdom was on the east of the Rhine, into the Gallia Belgica, or country west of the Rhine, the Netherlands, with other districts, became part of the Neus- tria or New Kingdom, one portion of them Rix Dollar, 93 cents. being annexed to the province of Flandria, and the other to that of Lotharingia or Lower Lorraine. In the year 843, by the peace of Verdun, Batavia and Friesland were united to Germany. In 860, the emperor Louis II. created the district into an earldom of the German empire ; it did not bear the name of Holland until 913. In the tenth century Holland was divided into a number of free towns, with a nominal head over all. In the fifteenth century, the whole of the province had, by conquest, purchase, and inheritance, passed into the possession of the house of Burgundy, and by the marriage of the heiress of Burgundy, the Netherlands w6re transferred to the Spanish branch of the house of Austria. About the middle of the sixteenth century the Hollanders rebelled against the Spanish yoke ; a struggle was com- menced which lasted nearly a century, when Spain acknowledged their inde- pendence. During this time the commerce of Holland attained an unrivalled magnitude, her colonies and conquests extending over some of the most valuable provinces in the East and West Indies. In 1741 the French captured the southern provinces, and held them till 1748. Austria again lost the Neth- erlands in 1792, and in 1794 they were again in the hands of the French, and were held by them till the restoration of the Bourbons in France in 1814. At this period Belgium and Holland were united into the kingdom of the Netherlands, and the prince of Orange raised to the crown. In 1 830, Belgium, lo Guild, r.s $i. RixDoii.r, n3 cents. ^^ ^ revolution. Separated itself from Holland, and now, with a large debt, and a revenue unequal to their expenditure, the Dutch with difficulty maintain a position among European nations, and are chiefly ena- bled to do so by their territories in Java and the Eastern Archipelago. SOVEBGIONS OF HOLLAND. STADTHOLDERS. William the Grci.t. . .l.'')r)4 Henry Philip Williaml584 tlaurice 1618 Fn-flprick Henry 162.5 Willi.iin II 1647 William III inr>0 John William Frizo . . 1702 Charles Henry Frizo. 1711 William IV 1747 WiUiam V 1751 KIN03. Willinml 1P13 William II 1840 William III 1849 334 EUROPE.— GERMANY. GERMANY. Crovra Thaler, $1.02. The extent of country comprised under the term Germany, has varied in every century since it first became known to the Romans ; but our limits preclude our attempting to lay before the reader any account of these variations, or of the growth of that complicated and pecidiar system of policy under which the country was placed at a comparatively early period. The states of Ger- many lie between 45*^ 30' and 55*^ north latitude, and 6° and 19° 20' east longitude, and are bounded, as near as may be defined, on the north by the Baltic sea, Denmark, and the North sea or Ger- man ocean ; on the east by Prussia and Austria, on the south by Switzerland, Italy, the Adriatic sea, and Illyria, and on the west by France, Belgium, and Holland. Physical Aspect. — The surface of Germany is much diversified; but its mountain tracts lie chiefly in the southeast and east, while west and north the land spreads in spacious sandy plains, intersected by the rivers which run in the same direction from the higher lands toward the sea. The mountains, which may be considered as a northern branch of the great Alpine system of Europe, bear no comparison with the Alps in point of height, for the loftiest summits are only 5,000 feet high ; but they occupy a great space, and diverge in so many various directions through the country, that it is difficult to trace them without the aid of a map. The Fichtel-gebirge, however, in the northern part of Bavaria, may be considered as the centre and nucleus of the mountains in Central Germany ; and from it branch, in four directions, the ranges compo- sing the watershed that divides the rivers of the Black sea from those of the Baltic and German ocean. The soil of Germany is generally productive. The plains of the north, indeed, contain much waste land ; but along the rivers there are rich and fertile soils, where the most abundant crops are raised. There is, also, in the mountain country south, much barren land ; but the beautiful valleys and small plains along the hills rival the fertility of the best alluvial soils of the north. Rivers and Lakes. — The rivers of Germany are many and important. The largest is the Danube (1,800 miles long), which rises in the Black Forest, and takes hence a course due east, receiving numerous tributaries, and passes into Hungary at Presburg, near which place it receives the drainage of Moravia through the March. The Drave and Save also rise in Southern Germany ; and the Adige, which flows south, has its sources in the Rhcetian Alps. The Elbe rises from numerous affluents on the north side of the Bohemian mountains, and drains the valley of Bohemia. After escaping through the Sudetic mountains, it flows over the plains of Northern Germany to the ocean. The Weser and its large affluents pursue a similar course. The Oder drains the northeast, and reaches the sea in a little stream, twenty miles below Stettin. The Rhine, in the west, rises in Switzerland, and on leaving that territory shoots in a northern direction, receiving in its course the Meyn and the Moselle, and passes into Holland, and ultimately finds the sea through several channels. Besides these magnificent rivers, which of themselves constitute a most extensive water-sys- tem, there are many minor ones, and numerous lakes connected with the rivers. Climate. — The climate of Germany is far less variable than the nature of its mountain-system, and the range of latitudes in which it lies, would lead us to EUROPE.— GERMANY. 335 suppose. The atmosphere in the northern part is humid, arising from oceanic inHuences ; in the central portion it is the most salubrious and agreeable of any in Europe ; while in the Alpine regions of the south every variety is found, in accordance with the elevation and protection of the country. Political Divisions. — The names, extent, population, chief towns, &c., of the states of Germany are as follows : — <1TATES Square Miles. Rank. Population. Religion. Chief Towns. Population. Austria (German) 81,000 Empire 11,500,000 Catholic Vienna 3.'iO,000 Anhalt-Bemburg iOG Diicliy 48,844 Protestant. . .Bornlmrg 5,000 Anhalt-Cothen 310 Duchy 43,120 Protestant... Cothon 6 000 Anhalt-Dessau 337 Ducliy 63.082 Protestant... Di-psbu 10,000 Baiien 5,712 Grand Duchy . . 1.349,930 Catholic C»rls=ruhp Si,000 Bavaria 28,435 Kingdom 4,504,874 Catholic Mn tiicl! 106,000 Bremen* 67 Free City 72,908 Protestant. . . Brimeti. Brunswick 1,525 Duchy 269,301 Protestant. . . Brunswiek 36,000 Frankfortt 91 Free City 68,240 Protestant... Frankfort Hamburirt 1''9 Free City 188,054 Protestant. ..Ilmnburg Hanover'^..' 14,600 Kingdom 1,773,711 Protestant... Ihinover 28.000 Hesee-Cassel 4,386 Electorate 754.,590 Protestant. . . Cassel 26,000 Hesse-Darmstadt 3,19B Grand Duchy. . 8.')2,679 Protestant, . . DlU•nl^tadt 22,000 Hesse- Homburs 1-54 Landgravate... 24,433 Protestant.. .Honiburs S.-'iOO HohenzoUern-Hechingen 136 Principality 20,143... Catholic Hechingen 3,000 HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen 383 Principality 45.431 Catholic Sigraarinsen 1,400 Lichtenstein 52 Principality 6.351. ...Catholic Lichtenstein 600 Lippe-Detmold 432 Principality 108,236 Protestant. . . Dptmold 2,800 Lippe-Schaumburg 205 Principality 31,870 Protestant. . . Biickeburg 2,100 Lubecll 142 Free City 47,197 Protestant. . . Lnbec Mccklenburg-Schwcrin 4.701 Grand Duchy.- 524.042 Protestant... Schivorin 12,000 Mecklf-nburg-Strelitz 1,094 Grand Duchy.. 94.406 Protestant... New Strelitz 6.000 Nassau 1,736 . . . .Duchy 424,817 .... Protestant. . . VVisbadcn 7,000 Oldenburg. 2,470 Grand Duchy . . 278.909 Protestant. . .Oldenburg 5,564 Prussia (German) 71.000 Kingdom 11,000,000 Protestant, . . Berlin 335,000 Reuss-Lobenstein 548 Principnlity 60.000 Protestant. . . Lobenstein 3,000 Reuss-Greitz 140 Principality 30,000 Protestant.. .Greitz 7,000 Saxony 5,705 Kingdom 1,836,433 Protestant. .. Dresden 70,000 Saxp-Altenburg 491 Duchy 129,589 Protestant. . . Altenburg 12,800 Sase-Coburg and Gothn 790 Duchy 147,195 Protestant. . . Gotha 11,000 Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen. 880 Duchy 160,515 Protestant. . . Meinincen 5,000 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 1,403 ... . Duchy 257,573 .... Protestant. . . Weimar 10,000 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 331 Principality 68,711... Protestant.. .Rudolstadt 4,000 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen .328 Principality 58,682 Protestant. . .Sondershausen. . 3,300 Waldeck 455 ... . Principality .'58,7.53 Protestant. . Corbach 2,000 Wurtemburg 7,568 Kingdom 1,743,827 Protestant... Stutgard 40,000 241,200 38,646,446 * Bremen is situated on both sides of the Weser, about forty miles from its mouth. The larger portion of the city, called the Alstadt or old town, lies on the right, and the Neustadt or new town, on the left bank of the river. The streets in the latter are comparatively straight and broad, but those in the former are mostly narrow and crooked, and the houses being high, they have a gloomy appearance. An island in the river is included within the city ; the (!ommutiication between its two great divisions being kept up by a bridge, which crosses this island. The ramparts by which the town was formerly surrounded liave been levelled, planted, and converted into fine gardens and promenades. It has nine churches, of which the cathedral, built in 1160, is the principal : the church of Ausgarius has a spire 325 feet in height. Tlie new townhall, formerly the archi-cj)iscopal palace, is n building of the same elaborate character as the townhalls in Bruges and other cities of the Netherlands. It has a large domestic and foreign trade, and a line of steamers connect it with England and the United States. t Frankfort-onthe-Meyn is a fine old town on the right bank of the Meyn, twenty miles east of its conflu- ence ivith the Rhine. It is the capital of the Gennan Confederation, and residence of the vicar or chief executive of the empire. The interior of the city has of late years undergone great improveinents : the fortifications have been levellid, and their site converted into promenades. The suburbs are adorned with splendid villas ; and the river is lined with capacious open quays, which, in some places, are as highly ornamented as those of the Seine at Paris. Frankfort enjoys consideralih" trade, and its two annual fairs are much frequented. Water from the mountains is copiously supplied to the city through a subterranean aqueduct, J Hamburg, the greatest commercial city of Germany, and whose trade in fact rivals that of the largest cities of the world, is situated on the north bank of the Elbe, at the point where it receives the Elster, sixty miles from the sea. The city is oval-shaped, is about four miles in circumference, and was formerly fortified ; but having suffored severely during its occupation by the French in 1806, its ramparts were subseouently levelled, and converted into public walks. None of the public buildings are remarkable. The Stadt-llaus is a large and heavy structure ; ami the Borscnhall, bank, and admiralty, though well-suited for their respective purposes, ex- hibit nothing striking in their architecture. The finest church is that of .'»t. Michael, which has a tower 460 feet high. The river, opposite the city, is divided into several channels, with intervening islands ; communication is kept up by steam ferries. The government is vest<>d in a senate of thirty-six members, four of wliom are bur^io- masters, four syndics, one prothonotary, one keeper of the records, and two secretaries, all chosen by the citi- zens, wlio are formed for this purpose into five orders or classes. Justice is dispensed by three graduated couits, appeal lying from the lowest to the higher. The revenue is derived from imports, taxes, and a light customs' duty, and amounts annually to about $750,000. The import trade of Hamburg is chiefly carrie officers. The inliabitants, instead of paying taxes, are obliged to do service in the field. Peterwaradein, the capital, is a strong fortress, bnilt on an isolated hill, on the south bank of the Danube. It communicates with Neusatz, on the opposite bank, by a bridge of boats, and both towns together contain 20,000 inhabitants. The entire population of the Military Frontier is 1,235,466. Dalmatia. — The kingdom of Dalmatia consists of a long, narrow tract of mountainous country, and an archipelago of large islands along the northeastern coast of the Adriatic sea. The interior of the country consists of mountains and valleys, and the land on the coast is rocky and barren. The country is rich in iron mines and marble quarries. No part of Europe abounds in better harbors. Zara is the capital of Dalmatia ; it is important for its industry, com- merce, and harbor. Other towns are Spalatro, Ragusa, and Cattaro. Dalma- tia formed, from the commencement of the twelfth century down to 1419, a portion of the kingdom of Hungary. It then passed under the sway of the Ve- netians. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries this country was the seat of constant warfare between the Turks and Venetians, until it was finally conquered by the former, who held it till 1797, when it was ceded to Austria. In 1805, Austria gave Dalmatia to the French, who incorporated it into the king- dom of Italy. Napoleon made it a duchy, and conferred the title of duke of Dal- matia on Marshal Soult. On the downfall of Napoleon it reverted to Austria. ^•m^ M Quadruple Ducat, $8.80. AUSTRIAN POLAND. Galicia and Lodomeria. — This province is composed of the ancient Polish principalities of Halicz (Galicia), and Wladimir (Lodomeria), and includes also all the territories of Poland which fell to Austria in the various partitions of that country, and the Bukovina, ceded by the Turks, in 1774. Galicia lies on the north of the Carpathian mountains, by which it is separa- ted from Hungary. The country is mountainous in the south, hilly in the centre, and in the north, and most extensive portion, a con- soverain, $6.5o. tinuous plain. The forests are extensive, and much infested with wolves and bears. The country is drained by the Dniester, the Pruth, and the San, and the Vistula bounds it on the northwest. Galicia abounds with small lakes, some of which are most picturesquely situated in rocky elevations, furnishing water to fine cascades. The climate is temperate, and even warm. The chief products are grain and wine. Agriculture and the mechanic arts are in a back- ward state. The chief city is Lemberg, a well-built place, of 60,000 inhabitants. Cracow. — The territory of the late republic of Cracow comprises alwut 500 square miles, and contains about 120,000 inhabitants. It was seized by Austria in 1846, and incorporated as a part of the dominions of the Austrian empire. The city of Cracow, formerly the capital of Poland, stands in a beau- tiful valley, on the left bank of the Vistula, in latitude 50° 4' north, and longi- tude 20° east. It has a number of fine buildings, but the streets are narrow, irregular, and ill-paved. Its cathedral, regarded as the finest and most inte- resting church of Poland, contains the tombs of the kings and illustrious men of Poland ; among which are the tombs of Casimir the Great ; of John So- beiski, the deliverer of Vienna; and of "the last of the Poles," Thaddeus- Kosciusko, and Joseph Poniatowski. 346 EUROPE— PRUSSIA. PRUSSIA. Prussia, so called from the Pruzzi, a Slavonic tribe who settled on the shores of the Baltic, is separated by Hanover and other states into two parts, Eastern and Western ; the territory east- ward of Hanover being termed the Rhinish prov- inces, which are bounded on the north by Han- over, on the west by Holland and Belgium, oi; the south by France and Bavaria, on the east by Nassau, Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, and Hanover The other connected and more extensive portion of the kingdom is bounded on the north by the Baltic sea, northeast by Russia, east by Poland, south by Austria, Saxony, and Gotha, west by the SThalers, $1.32. above-mentioned states which separate the Rhi- nish provinces, and on the northwest by Hanover and Mecklenburg-Schwerin. This division is 550 miles long, from southwest to northeast, and 400 miles in breadth from Memel; 55° 46' north latitude to the south frontier of Prussian Silesia, in 40° 45' north latitude. The Rhinish provinces extend on each side of the Rhine, and are about 200 miles long by 600 broad. Some small detached districts in Saxony belong to Prussia. The canton Neufchatel, in Switzerland, is nominally under the sovereignty of the king of Prussia, but it is united with the Swiss confederacy, and has its own representative assem- bly, to whose laws the Prussian monarch is bound by oath to conform. Physical Aspect. — East and West Prussia, Pomerania, Posen, and part of Silesia, form parts of a great plain with few eminences ; the whole eastern country declining toward the Baltic, and the western territories toward the North sea. The finest districts are those bordering on the Rhine. The region around Magdeburg, on the Elbe, is called the garden of Berlin. The south- west side of Silesia is mountainous ; the Schnecberg ridge is 4,724 feet high. Bays, Lakes, Rivers, and Canals. — The Baltic for 500 miles constitutes the northern boundary of Prussia, and has several good harbors, formed by the communication of hafTs, or inland lakes, with the bays. Memel, Konigsberg, Dantzic, and Swinemunde, are secure havens. The inland lakes are nume- rous ; East Prussia has about 300, West Prussia, 100, and Brandenburg nearly 700. The rivers which run through Prussia, from the highlands of Central Eu- rope to the North sea and the Baltic, form so many valuable outlets of commerce. The Niemen, the Vistula, and the Oder, the latter of which is wholly within Prussia, are the largest and most important. The Elbe and the Rhine also pass through Prussia, but debouch from other states. In many parts the rivers have been joined together by canals, so as to furnish a more complete means of transportation from place to place, and a more direct communication with the ocean. The canal of Plauen, joining the Elbe with the Oder, between Berlin and Magdeburg, is twenty miles long. There are canals between the rivers Spree and Oder, between the Oder and Havel, and between the Vistula and Notez or Netze, twenty miles in length, the whole forming an inland naviga- tion of 700 miles in length. Islands. — The island of Rugen, in the Baltic, area 370 square miles, has two towns, two boroughs, sixty-three villages, and 36,000 inhabitants. Bergen, the chief town, has a population of 2,200. The form is very singular, and on .the noirtiheast is a celebrated precipitous chalk rock called the Stubbenhammer, EUROPE.— PRUSSIA. . 347 563 feet in height. Bornholm, another island in the Baltic, also belongs to Prussia. Climate. — The climate is generally temperate and healthy, but varies great- ly with locality. On the borders of the Baltic, and in Ducal Prussia especially, the winters are severely cold, and the weather raw and damp. The interior is milder, and less variable, and fine and temperate in the Rhinish provinces. Political Divisions. — The following political divisions of Prussia, with their respective areas and populations, are taken from Martin, and though the last differ somewhat in their aggregates, from the figures given on a previous page, they are probably sufficiently correct in detail for comparison. DIVISIONS. Area in square miles. Population. Chief Cities. Population. Prussia, Eastern 15,115 L500,000 Konigsberg 72,400 Prussia, Western 9.761 800,000 Dantzic 65,000 Posen 11.568 1,250,000 Poscn 32,000 Pomeranirj 12,341 1,200.000 Stettin 42,000 Brandenburg 1-5,795 2.000.000 Berlin 400,000 Silesia 15,9.31 .3.000.000 Breslau 80.000 Prussian Saxony 9,890 1,300,000 Magdeburg 54,500 Rhinish Prussia : — Westplialia 8.074 1.600,000 Munster 23.900 Klevebers 3,450 1,000.000 Cologne 78,500 Lower Rhine 7,020 1,300.000 Coblentz 16,000 Neufchatel Canton 286 70,000 Neufchatel 8,000 Total 109,231 15.020,000 More than two thirds of the population are Germans, and, with the exception of Posen, where the Jews are numerous, predominate in each province. The Walloons, in the neighborhood of the Ardennes, are a mixture of Germans and French. The Sclavonians are about 1,600.000, and the Jews 150,000. Chief Cities. — Berlin, the capital, in latitude 52° 31' north, and longitude 13° 23' east, is a straggling city on the river Spree, composed of five towns or divisions, and was built by a colony from the Netherlands in 1152, under Albert the Bear ; it is now twelve miles in circumference, and is defended by a wall and palisades, and entered by fifteen gates ; the principal or Brandenburg gate fronts the royal street, and is protected by a half-moon battery and two bastions. The view of the palace from the stone bridge over the Spree is very fine ; on it is an excellent statue of William the great Elector. The royal palace is one of the richest dwellings in Europe. The arsenal, opera-house, museum, acad- emy, "charity," and other public buildings, are on a noble scale. The Doro- theanstadt or new town is inhabited chiefly by French. Berlin is surrounded by gardens and fields, and there are numerous avenues and gardens within the city, which in summer give it a gay appearance. Potsdam, twenty miles from Berlin, is the most elegant city in Prussia, situated on an island seventeen miles in circumference, and containing 30,000 inhabitants. The Sans Souci palace, built by Frederick the Great, is'but one story high, and of great magnificence. Frankfort, on the Oder, is an active commercial city, with 20,000 inhabit- ants. Magdeburg, on the Elbe, one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, is built on a plain, and contains 54,500 inhabitants, who carry on a large com- merce. Munster, chief town of Westphalia, contains several manufactories, and an excellent university. Dusseldorf, population 30,000, is beautifully situated at the confluence of the Dussel with the Rhine; it has many manufac- tories, and the province of which it is the capital is famed for its iron manufac- tures. Cologne is a fine old city, built by Agrippina, the wife of the emperor Claudius ; the cathedral is a noble Gothic structure ; several millions bottles of eau de Cologne are annually exported. Aix la Chapelle, population 35,000, is picturesquely situated in a charming valley, and famed for its mineral hot baths. Coblentz, a pleasing city at the junction of the Rhine and Moselle opposite the strong fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, which stands on the right bank of the Rhine. Konigsberg, capital of East Prussia, is a handsome city, sur- rounded by a rampart seven miles in circumference. The palace, exchange, 348 EUROPE.— PRUSSIA. cathedral, and townhouse, are noble edifices. The cathedral organ has 5,000 pipes. Dantzic, in lat 54° 2V north, is a strong fortification, as well as a commercial city, and the emporium of the trade of Poland. The public edifices are magnificent. The cathedral has 48 altars and 3,722 windows. The grain warehouses are of great extent, and are capable of containing about 5,000,000 bushels of wheat. Posen, on the river Warta, the capital of the prov- ince of the same name, is favorably situated for commerce. The Jews are very numerous in this district. Breslau, the capital of Silesia, is the centre of Silesian commerce. There is a fine university, library, and museum. Ma- RiENWERDER, chief town in the district of the same name, on the Vistula, was the seat of the Teutonic order, whose ruined Gothic castle still exists. Elbing, a place of considerable trade, contains 20,000 inhabitants. Graudenz is a strong fortress on the Vistula, as is also the frontier town of Thorn. Productive Resources. — Grain, wool, cattle, horses, sheep, tallow, hides, flax, timber, salt, iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, alum, amber, smalts, vitriol, arsenic, coal, eau de Col(jgne, spirits, and various manufactures of linen, wool- lens, cotton, silk, leather, iron, and china ; for the two latter-named Berlin is deservedly famed, and Aix la Chapelle for its woollen goods, while Elberfeldt, on the Rhine, is denominated the Manchester of Germany. Commerce. — Commerce is active, especially the inland trade, which is fa- vored by the extensive inland navigation, and numerous railroads. The linen made in Silesia is valued at $7,500,000 a year ; the wool produced and wrought is about 35,000,000 pounds. There are about 160 cotton spinning establish- ments. The Berlin china is considered the finest in Europe. Iron is produced to the value of $5,000,000 a year, and other metals and semi-metals in propor- tion. Ten millions tons of coal are annually mined. The sea navigation em- ploys about a thousand vessels. On the river Oder there are 1,400 large and small vessals ; on the Vistula, 800 ; on the Elbe, 400 ; and on the Rhine, 300 traffic vessels. Education. — There are six universities in Prussia, besides numerous gym- nasia or preparatory schools, and schools in every village. Education has been made universal by the government, 2-^ per cent, of the state revenues being devoted to this purpose. Government, — The government of Prussia is an hereditary monarchy, with a constitutional assembly, as provided by the constitution of 1848, and modified in 1851. History. — The Pruzzi or Sclavonic savages, who migrated to and colonized the northeast portions of this monarchy, aflbrd a remarkable illustration of the past condition of Europe. These barbarians are represented as having no other habita- tions than caves, or holes dug in the earth ; their only weap- ons wooden spears ; their food raw flesh ; the drink at their feasts the blood of horses, and their sacrifices the prisoners 1-6 Thaler, 10 cents, taken in war ; they had no government, might was right ; the' number of wives limited only by the power of maintenance ; the sick, when considered past recovery, were massaqred, and they were the terror of neigh- boring nations. The Sudini or Sudavians, a Sarmatian tribe, introduced among the Pruzzi a form of religion ; snake-worship, as still practised in Africa, was introduced, and serpents were fed and kept in caverns as protecting deities. The oak was made an object of veneration, and idolatrous orgies were performed beneath its shade. Civilization gradually advanced — villages and towns arose — a form of government was established ; and in the twelfth century Bolislaus, king of Poland, ineffectually endeavored to subdue the Pruzzi, and convert them to Christianity. After an exterminating war of fifty years the Teutonic order of knights, aided by the Poles, subdued the Pruzzi, and established Christianity. EUROPE.— PRUSSIA. 349 Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of the order, obtained from his maternal uncle, Sigismund of Po- land, the hereditary investiture of all the possessions of the Teutonic knights in Prussia ; the title of grand master subsequently merged into that of elector of Brandenberg, and the successive sovereigns under this designation added to their dominions. By the peace of Westphalia, the elector Frederick William obtained Pomerania and the secularized bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt. Frederick III., by a treaty with Austria, Nov. 16, 1700, declared, on Florin, 44 cents. the 18th Jail., 1701, that the duchy of Prussia vi^as raised to the rank of a kingdom, and he placed the crown on his own head at Konigsberg. His son, Frederick William I., laid the foundation of the mighty power of Prussia, and left a disciplined army of 70,000 men, and $35,000,000 treasure to his son Frederick the Great, who, during a reign of forty-six years, from 1740 to 1786, by great talents and politic, but unscrupulous measures, aided by the civilizing influence of his mother (Sophia Dorothea, sister of George II. of England), raised Prussia to its present position among the states of Europe ; augmented the number of his subjects from two to six millions ; and notwithstanding incessant warfare and severe reverses, bequeathed a treasury of $65,000,000, a prosperous kingdom, and a popular sovereignty to his succes- sor and nephew, Frederick William II., in whose reign the second and third partitions of Poland took place, by which, as also by the first partition under Frederick the Great, Prussia obtained a considerable addition of territory. Frederick William III., after severe sufferings during the French revolutionary war, and alternate treaties with and against Napoleon, finally co-operated with England and Russia, furnishing 250,000 troops against France, and contributed to gain the decisive victory of Waterloo. By the peace of Paris, and Congress of Vienna, Prussia obtained considerable accessions of territory, as well as res- toration of that previously lost by the peace of Tilsit. The present sovereign of Prussia, Frederick William IV., ascended the throne in 1840. An extensive revolution was begun in 1847, and serious conflicts occurred between the peo- ple and the soldiers, which were suspended by the king yielding a liberal con- stitution ; this, however, he has since modified, and revoked most of the privi- leges then granted. ELECTORS OF BEANDENBURO. Frederick of Nuremb'gl416 Joachim II 1535 Frodnrick William... 1640 Frederick William 1.1713 Frederick II 1440 John George 1.571 Frederick III 1G88 Albert L 1470 Joachim Frederick... 1598 [made king of Prussia.] John. 1476 John Sigi.«mund 1608 kings. ' " George William 1619 Frederick 1 1701 Joachim 1 1499 Frederick the Great. .1740 Frederick William 11.1786 Frederick William 111.1797 FrederickWilliam IV. 1840 Thaler, 66 cents. Thaler, 66 cents. Thaler, 66 cento. 350 EUROPR— DENMARK. DENMARK. This ancient kingdom, which formed part of Scandinavia, now consists of the Danish islands in the Baltic, the peninsula of Jutland or Denmark proper, and, since the dissolution of the Germanic empire, the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenberg ; and also of the island of Iceland,* and the Feroe islands. Denmark is divided on the north from Norway by the Skager-rack sea, on the east from Sweden by the Cattegat and the Sound, on the south by Germany and the Baltic, and on the west by the North sea or German ocean, which separates it from Britain. The northern point of Thaler, 66 cents. Jutland is in 57° 42' 24", and of the southern point, of Lauenberg, in latitude 53° 21' 5". The meridian is from 8° to 12^ east longitude. The superficial area is 21,856 square miles. Population, 2,243.136. Physical Aspect. — Denmark is a great plain ; the few eminences by which it is marked, especially in parts of Schleswig and Holstein, are little more than undulations, the highest only 1,200 feet above the sea. A low sandy ridge stretches from the Skawe (the extreme northern point of Jutland), directly south to the river Elbe. The coast on the German ocean is low, sandy, and much indented by bays or friths ; on the shores of the Baltic the land is more eleva- ted and fertile. Zealand, Funen, and other islands in the Baltic, are flat, well cultivated, and productive. The northern part of Jutland is bleak and barren. Rivers, Lakes, Sic. — Denmark having no mountains, and every part of it being within a short distance from the sea, has no rivers of any magnitude. The largest is the Eyder, and next to it the Guden, Trave, &c. The Elbe runs for a considerable distance along the southern frontier of the kingdom. Fresh-water lakes are numerous, but not large. The most remarkable feature in the physical geography of Denmark, is the number and extent of the inlets of the sea, or rather lagoons, by which the continental part of the country is in- tersected. The principal of these lagoons, the Lymfiord, formerly communi- cated only by a narrow channel with the Cattegat, stretching thence westerly, with long windings, and expanding in various places into immense sheets of water, encompassing large islands, across the peninsula of Jutland almost to the North sea. In 1825, however, during a violent storm, the isthmus between the North sea and the Lymfiord was broken down in two places, so that it now isolates the northern portion of Jutland. There are other fiords, but none so extensive as this. They, as well as the bays and rivers, are well-stocked with fish, the fishery being a principal business and dependence of the inhabitants. Islands. — The Feroe islands are 25 in number, 17 of them inhabited. They lie northwest of Denmark, between the Shetland isles and Iceland. They are of basaltic formation, some 3,000 feet above the sea. At a distance the islands are like immense towers, castles, fortifications, spires, &c., forming grand and picturesque scenes. Climate, rigorous ; coal and copper are found ; soil thin and mossy; fishing, bird-catching, and stocking manufacture, the chief occupation of the people, who originally came from Denmark and Norway, and are governed after the same manner as the Danish colonies ; there are 39 par- ishes, and every village has a Lutheran church, under the bishop of Zealand. Climate. — The great extent of sea and the flat coasts, render the air humid •"For description of Ii-i^lnnd, see page 43. Other colonial possessions of Denmark in America will also bf found noticed on previDus pages. EUROPE.— DENMARK. 351 and foggy. In Jutland the winter cold is severe, and at Copenhagen the sound is sometimes frozen over. The heat of summer is frequently oppressive. Rain falls one third of the year. The climate is salubrious as attested by the lon- gevity of the people, the abundant agricultural produce, the numerous herds of oxen, and the fine breed of horses, for which Denmark, and especially Hol- stein, is famed. Chief Towns. — Copenhagen, the capital of the Danish dominions since 1443, situated on a low promontory on the east side of the island of Zealand, is a noble-looking city, five miles in circumference, and well fortified. A part of the city called Christianshaven is built on the adjacent Amager island, and con- nected by a bridge. The houses are of brick, stone, and Norwegian marble. Its population is about 120,000. Elsinore, a small seaport on the borders of the Sound, distant twenty-six miles from Copenhagen, is famed for the old cas- tle of Cronenburg, constructed in 1574. Prince Hamlet's garden is situated in the vicinity. It is estimated that upward of 15,000 vessels annually pass the sound, on each of which a tonnage-duty is levied. Altona, upon the Elbe, near Hamburg, ranks next to Copenhagen ; it is a commercial port, and has about 35,000 inhabitants. Gluckstadt, the capital of Holstein, is also upon the Elbe ; it is well-built, and wealthy. Flensburg is the most important town in Schleswig ; it has about 20,000 inhabitants, several manufactories, and much commerce. Productive Resources. — Domestic animals form the principal wealth of Denmark. Cattle, horses, sheep, swine, and poultry, are bred for exportation. Potatoes, flax, hemp, madder, tobacco, &c., are among the agricultural products. •The mineral products are but of little value. The manufactures are extremely rude, and are confined principally to articles for domestic use. Denmark pos- sesses an active foreign and country trade. Education. — Every town or village has a primary school ; there are also various high seminaries, civil and military, and many educational establishments in every branch of art and science. Tycho Brahe in astronomy, Malte-Brun in geography, Thorswalsden in sculpture, and many other eminent men, confer honor on the country of their birth. Government. — The government is an hereditary monarchy, with a repre- sentative assembly, and a privy council for the management of the higher affairs of state. The country is divided into seven bailiwicks for local matters. Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenberg, have separate governors, and their own provincial laws. The army is about 50,000, with a militia for emergencies. Each district is bound to supply one recruit soldier annually for every thirty-two tons of corn reared; period of service, twelve years. The navy is at present small ; but from the maritime character of the people, capable of ready augmen- tation. History. — Denmark and the adjacent countries, originally known as Scandinavia, was probably peo- pled by migrating hordes who passed from the north to more fertile regions and warmer climates. The Jutlanders were known to the Romans as the Cher- sonesus Cambrica, and the Cimbri, or people of Schleswig, together with the Teutones, made incur- sions into the Roman province of Gallia. The Goths, under Odin, spread themselves over Scandi- navia, and the first king of Denmark is said to have been Skiold, a son of Odin. It is probable that for Four Marks, 50 cents. Several ccnturies the " Mark," or country of the Danes, consisted of many petty states, under the sway of maritime chiefs, whose piratical achievements struck terror into the adjacent regions. Under the title 352 EUROPE— SWEDEN AND NORWAY. of Danes, they ravaged England and Ireland ; and under the designation of North- men or Normans, they swept along the coasts of France, Spain, Italy, Sicily, and even as far as Constantinople, everywhere influencing events by their bravery and talents, and leaving to the present day in the abovenamed countries the dis- tinguishing traits of their character. In the ninth century the Danes and Nor- wegians separated into distinct states ; in 920, Gorm, who had subjected Jut- land, united all the petty Danish chiefs under his sceptre ; Sven or Swain, grandson of Gorm, in 1000, conquered part of Norvpay, and invaded England; Canute the Great, his son, in 1016, conquered the whole of England, part of Scotland, part of Ireland, and, in 1030, the whole of Norway. The Irish, under Brian Boru, after the defeat of the Danes at Clontarf, in 1014, expelled them from Ireland ; in 1042 they were driven from England, and shortly afterward from Norway. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Danes spread them- selves over and conquered several countries on the Baltic ; in 1397, Margaret, of Valdemar, a princess renowned in Danish history, united the crowns of Den- mark, Norway, and Sweden, which union lasted for a century and a half; in 1448 the count of Oldenburg, founder of the present royal Danish line, was elected monarch, under the title of Christian I. Frequent wars between the Danes and Swedes mark successive centuries until 1720, when Denmark en- joyed peace for many years. In 1813, the crown prince of Sweden compelled the Danes to cede Norway to him, on account of his evacuating Schleswig and Holstein, and surrendering Pomerania, which latter territory, together with Ru- gen, in 1815, was ceded by Denmark to Prussia, for Lauenberg. The king of Denmark thejfi entered the German Confederation, holding three votes for the duchies of Holstein and Lauenberg. In 1834, the king granted to the peo-' pie a constitutional government. In 1848, Holstein and Schleswig revolted, and a bloody war ensued, which resulted in the provinces being brought back to their allegiance. Canute the Great 1014 Hardicanute II 1036 Magnus 1 1041 Suenon II 1048 Harold IV 1079 Canute III 1080 Olaus II 1086 Eric III 1097 Nicholas 1106 Eric IV 1135 Eric V 1138 KINGS OF DENMARK. Suenon III 1147 Waldemar the Great. 1157 Canute V 118-2 Waldemar II 1202 Eric VI 1240 Abel 1 1250 Clm..=topher 1 1252 Eric VII 1259 Eric VIII 1286 Christopher II 1.319 V^alderaarlll 1340 Olaus III 1.375 Margaret 1 1375 Eric IX 1411 Christopher III 1439 Christian I .1448 John 1481 Christian II 1513 Frederick 1523 Christian III 1534 Frederick II 1559 Christian IV 1588 Frederick III 1648 Christian V 1670 Frederick IV 1699 Christian VI 1730 Frederick V 1746 Christian VII 1766 Frederick VI 1808 Christian VIII 1839 Frederick VII 1848 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. .Specie Rix-DoUar, $1. These kingdoms have been united since 1811, under the rule of the snnie sovereign, but with disiinct constitutions and adminis- trations. Their joint terri- tory extends between the parallels of 56° and 71° north latitude, and between the meridians of 5° and 32° east longitude, and is ^"'"""' '"" bounded on the north by the Northern ocean, on the west by the Atlantic, on the east by Russia, EUROPR— SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 353 Lapland, the gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic, and on the south by the Skager- Rack and Cattegat, which separate it from Denmark; length, about 1,100 miles ; breadth, from 200 to 470 miles ; area, 292,104 square miles ; of which Sweden contains 170,096, and Norway, 122,008. Physical x\spect. — Sweden forms an inclined plane from the Norwegian Alps to the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic, with occasional chains or spurs to the southeast, and intersected by numerous rivers and lakes ; the coast-line is high, rugged, and on the Baltic broken into many islands. The Atlantic strikes with considerable force on the Norwegian coast, and has caused the formation of many islands, and extensive fiords, lochs, or inlets of the sea.* The sce- nery in both Sweden and Norway is wild and grand ; the north sterile in the extreme : the mountains are thickly clad with forests of the stately pine ; the valleys in summer are rich with the foliage of various deciduous trees ; the ro- mantic beauty is enhanced by naked precipices, foaming cataracts, and pictu- resque glaciers, which give an indescribable charm to the green and secluded glens, the creeks, inlets, lakes, and rivers of this singular country. Vegeta- tion is regulated by latitude and altitude ; in Norway, fruit-trees flourish at an elevation of 1 ,000 feet ; spruce-fir, at 2,000 ; silver-fir and beech, at 3,000 ; and the juniper alone, at 3,200 feet above the sea. Barley and oats thrive in shel- tered valleys at 1,600 feet; snow limit is 3,500 to 4,000 feet. Mountains. — The kingdoms are separated by a ridge of mountains, varying from 3.000 to 6,000 feet in height, and 1,000 miles in length, parallel with the Norwegian coast, from which they are distant in some places one hundred, and in others not fifty miles. Rivers and Lakes. — The lakes and rivers of the Scandinavian peninsula are numerous, though the rivers, rising in the mountains, and having the divi- ded breadth of the peninsula, are necessarily short. Among them are the Dohl, Glommen, Dramme, Kalix, Indal, and Tornea rivers; and lakes Wener, Wetter, and Mcelar (on which Stockholm is built), in Sweden ; and Mjosen, Rund Sion, and Faemund, in Norway. Floating islands, composed of matted turf and sea- grass, with shrubs, give a pleasing effect to the inland waters. There is no country in Europe of equal size, presenting such grand and picturesque scenery by flood and fleld, as Norway and Sweden. The extraordinary clearness of the water of the flords of Norway and the Northern seas generally has been noted by travellers. There are about 360 mineral springs in Sweden ; the baths of Medevi, and the wells of Loka Siiler, Ramlosa, and Rottenby, are celebrated. Climate. — The climate is very severe in winter, but with a short hot sum- mer and pleasant autumn. From November to March the gulf of Bothnia is frozen over, and travellers cross it on the ice. The splendid aurora borealis or northern lights in some degree compensate for the long nights of winter in this latitude. In the north, at Finmark, the sun continues above the horizon for two months and a half in summer, and remains absent for an equally lengthened period in winter. Productive Resources. — Among the agricultural products of Sweden are, wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, potatoes, flax, hemp, tobacco, beet-root for sugar, &c. Horses, horned cattle, sheep, &c., are bred to a considerable extent. About one acre of land in fifty is arable, two in fifty pastoral, and the remainder woods, rivers, lakes, marshes, and rocks. The agricultural produce of Norway is similar, and the live stock consists of horses, cattle, sheep, goats, swine, rein- deer, &.C. There are public granaries in which the farmers may deposite their surplus grain, and receive an advance of money thereon for a limited period. * The cololiratod whirlpool of Maelstrom is situated between two of the L\iffo(len islands on the north coast, and probably communicates with a subt<'rrnnenn paesnpe, through which the sea finds its way into the gulf of Bothnia. The diameter of the whirlpool is about two miles, concave toward the centre like a fUnnel. where the hissing waters foam and rush with fearful velocity, especially during stonns. Ships, and even whales, once drawn within the edge of the vortex, are said to be sucked down ; but with a favorable breeze a ship may safely ^preach it within two or three miles. 23 354 EUROPE,— SWEDEN A^STD NORWAY. The forests of Norway and Sweden are immense ; fir, pine, oak, beech, and elm, grow fo a gigantic size, and are a great source of weahh : general vege- tation and fruits are scanty, and of few varieties. Sweden has long been noted for its mineral treasures ; the mines of silver, copper, lead, and especially iron, constitute the chief wealth of the country; the latter is esteemed the finest in the world, partly owing to the wood used in its preparation. The copper mines of Fahlun and Dalecaria have been worked for a thousand years. In Norway the silver mines of Kongsburg, the copper mines of Roraas, and the iron mines of Arendal, and other places, are rich and productive ; cobalt is also extensively found. Political Divisions. — Sweden is divided into twenty-five lans or govern- ments, the names of which, with their respective populations in 1839, and chief towns, are as follows : — DiflTRioTB. Population. ChlefTnwns. Population. Distbiotb. Population. ChiefTowna. Population. Linkioping 200,588 Liiikioping 3,000 Kalmar 179,300 Kalmar 4,.'500 Jonkioping 148,.593 Jonkioping 3,000 Kronoberg 118,309 Wexio 1,300 Blekengen 93,849 Carlscrona 10,.588 Skaraborg 179,449 Mariestadt 1.] 00 Elfsborg , . .218,698. . . . WemiPr?borg. . . 1,500 Gottenburg '. . .164,598 GottPnburg 21,058 Halmstadt 94.832 Halmstadt 1,500 Christianstadt 162,809 Christianstadt ... 3,000 Malmoe 218,074 Malmoe, 6,00'o Gothland 42,689 Wisby 3,800 Oeland .30.000 Stockholm 195.227 Stockholm* 79,526 Up.=al 8.5.393 Upsal 4,500 Westeras 92,411 Westera8 3.000 Nykoeping 113,753 Nykneping 2.300 Orobio 125.393 Orebro 3,000 Carls tadt 192,879 Carlstadt 2,200 Stora Kopperberg...l41.208 Fahlun 4.700 GeftVbora 109.382 Gefle 6,000 Jamptlarid 4.5,517 jEsters\md 200 NorthBothnia 46.422 Pitea 800 West Bothnia 55,256 Umea 1,100 West Norland 85.242 Hernosand. 1,800 Total 3,139,722 City of Bergen 22.839. -Mandal 2,102 Lower Bergenhuus 85..595..Stavanffer 4.857 Upper Bergenhuus 70.776. .Bereent 22.830 Romsdal 72.742 . . Christian Sound. 2.347 Lower Drontheim 79,640.. Drontheim 12.358 Upper Drontheim 59.854 . . Northland 58.763 . . Finmark 37,504 . . The following are the names of the districts of Norway, with their respective populations in 1835 (the latest of which we have the details), and chief towns ; — DisTKiCTB, Population. ChiefTowns. Population. "Dibtrictb. Population. ChiefTown3. Population. Agerehuus 94,832.. Christiana 23,121 "' "" ~~ "" Smaalehnen 65.296. -Moss 3,277 Hedemark 72,729 . . Frederick,=tadt . . 2,405 Christian 9.5.182.. Frederickhaldt - 4.921 Budskemd 76,786. .Drammen 7,2,")0 Jarlsberg and Laurwig. 56,759. .Kongsburg 3.540 Bratsberg 67,794.. Laurwig 3.413 Nedenfes and Raabygdel.47,584 . . Skien 2,625 Lister and Mandal 55.478.. Arendel 3,229 Stavanger 67,674 . . Christiansand. . . 7,665 Total 1,194,827 Manufactures. — There are 16,578 artisans employed in 2,302 manufactur- ing establishments, whose products are val^ied at $6,000,000. Commerce. — The entire exports of Norway, consisting principally of timber, iron, copper, and cobalt, are estimated to amount in value to $10,000,000 an- nually. The commerce of Sweden is not so extensive, her surplus timber not being so ample, though her iron is superior. Education. — Ninety-nine persons out of every hundred in Sweden can read and write. Primary schools are established in every parish, and in the pro- vincial towns high schools, where the youth are prepared for the university, of which there are two, one at TTpsal, avid the other at Lund, each of which has separate faculties of law, physic, divinity, and philosophy and literature. The inhabitants of Norway are not so extensively furnished with educational means, though they have a knowledge of the common branches of education. There is a university at Christiana. Government. — An hereditary limited monarchy, with a diet, or parliament of two houses, in which the four orders of nobles, clergy, burghers, and peas- * Stockholm, the capital of Swt^den, is favorably situnted for trade on nn inlet of the Baltic, opposite the gulf of Finland ; the houses near the harbor are Iniilt on successive terraces. The public edifices, church spinas, nu- merous buildiucs, waters studded with islands, vessels, villas, and gardens, all combine to produce an extraordi- nary picture. The royal palace is a square building with wings on each side, and a facade richly ornamented with Grecian pilasters. t Bergen, the capital of Norway, built on the margin of one of the inlets of the .Atlantic on the western coast, has a good harbor, and a few stone edifices, such as the castle and catheilral ; the houses are chiefly built ol wood. Bariow gives a graphic description of his first vicnv of Bergen, and speaks of the immense glaciers on the Folgefonde, 5,590 feet high, distant twenty miles southeast of Bergen, as a very grand object : when illumined by the rays of the sun the glaciers are said to present " as beautiful and brilliBnt colors as those of the rainbow. EUROPK-SWEDEN AOT) NORWAY. i56' Ten Thiik-rs. S7.80. ants, are represented. Norway possesses a similar constitution ; a council of state advises the sovereign. History. — Sweden, originally peo- pled by the Finns and Lapponians, was reduced to a regular form of government in 954, by Olof, one of the Upsala kings, who embraced Christianity ; for many centuries the Goths and Swedes re- mained distinct tribes, but in 1250 be- came one nation. Queen .Margaret of Ten Thaiers t~.80. Denmark, by the treaty of Calmar, in 1397, united Sweden and Norway to her dominions; but in 1448 they separated from Denmark and chose their own king. In 1520 Christian II. of Denmark conquered Sweden; in 1521 Gustavus Vasa, a Swedish nobleman, drove out the Danes, and was proclaimed king in 1523, and the throne settled on his de- scendants ; one of whom, Gustavus Adolphus, fell at the battle of Lutzen, in supporting the protestant German princes. Christina, his daughter, by the aid of her able minister, Ox'enstiern, generals, and army, added largely to the Swe- dish dominions ; but having subsequently renounced the protestant faith, she abdicated the throne in 1654, and retired to Rome, where she died in 1689, Sweden had attained great prosperity when Charles XII. ascended the throne, but during his reign, from 1697 to 1718, the nation was engaged in constant wars until his death at the siege of Friedrickshall, in Norway, gave peace to the country. During the French revolutionary war, Sweden alternately aided or opposed France ; in 1810, on the death of the prince royal, the Swedish states elected the French marshal, Bernadotte, as their crown prince, who em- braced the reformed faith, fought against Napoleon, in 1814 obtained Norway, and gave up Swedish Pomerania to Denmark ; and on the death of Charles XIII., in 1818, he ascended the throne as Charles John XIV. His son, by a daughteif of Prince Eugene, named Francis Gustavus Oscar, is now king of Sweden and Norway. KINGS OP SWEDEN. Gustavue Adolphus II. Ifill Ulrica Eleanora 1718 Frederick 1720 Adolphus Frederick.. 1751 Gustav. Adolphus 111.1771 Guatav. Adolphus IV . 1792 Gustavus Vasa 1523 Eric XIV 1556 John 111 1569 Sigisraond 1 159-2 Charles IX 1606 Christina 16:!2 Charles X 1(;.')4 Charles XI 1660 Charles XII 1697 Charles XIII 1609 Charles John XIV. -.1818 Oscar 1 1844 LAPLAND. Lapland is almost entirely an arctic region, and is consequently the coldest and most des- olate country in Europe. The eastern portion nominally belongs to Russia, the western to Norway, and the southern to Sweden. Physical Aspect. — The seacoast of Lapland presents a continuation of the same bold and rocky featin-es which distinguish that of Norway. The country is rough, mountainous, and dreary. Some of its mountain peaks are 4,000 feet high. Vegetation is scanty, and agricul- ture but little attended to. Inhabitants. — The Laplanders are of the same race as the Greenlanders, and live in a sim- ilar manner, in small villages, thiidy scattered over tlie country. They are short, stout., brown, with black hair, pointed chin, and eyes rendered weak by exposure to the smoke and «now. They are divided into the mountain or wandering Laplanders, and those who dwell in what are called villages. The swift-footed reindeer, wliieh they train to draw them in sledges over the snow, form their riches ; tiie flesh and milk of these animals compose their food, and their skins their furniture. The entire population of Lapland is about 60,000. History. — When the Laplanders were first known to the rest of the world they were inde- pendent. In the thirteenth century they became subject to the king of Norway. The Swedes and Russians next invaded the territory, and at present the country (as before re- marked) is subject to the governments of Sweden and Russia. 356 EUROPE.— RUSSIA IN EUROPE. RUSSIA (IN EUROPE). This vast empire, including its territory in Europe and in Asia, extends over from seven to eight millions square miles, of which 2,120,397 square miles con- stitutes European Russia, which is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, northeast by the Ural mountains, which separate European from Asiatic Russia, southeast by the Caspian sea, south by parts of Persia, Asia Minor, and by the Black sea, southwest by the dominions of Turkey, and west by Austria, Prussia, the Baltic sea, and the gulf of Bothnia. The country extends from the Caucasian range of mount- Rouble, 73 cents. ^-^jg j^j, J Mouot Ararat in 40° to the province of Arch- angel in 70° north latitude, and is in length from north to south about 1,720, and in breadth from east to west about 1,800 miles. Physical Aspect. — The greater part of the interior is a vast plain, with successive steppes of table-land to the southward ; on the extreme northwest is the lofty Scandinavian range, which stretches to the gulf of Finland ; on the east the Ural chain for 1,200 miles separates Europe from Asia; and on the south the Caucasian ridge extends from the Caspian sea, along the Black sea, to the sea of Azof, with collateral spurs and chains, ^ount Taurus rises almost perpendicularly to 6,800 feet. The Alaunian hills run northeast and southwest through Moscow, Tver, &;c., and form the highest districts of the central cham- pagne country. Vast tracts are covered with forests ; and immense steppes or plains, in Vologda on the north, and in the Kosak country on the south, are arid ; in some places there are marshes, in others salt and clayey plains, with a scanty brushwood. Toward the White sea on the north the country flattens, and on the southwest toward the Black sea. Seas, Rivers, and Lakes.— The Arctic or Icy sea, the White sea, the Black sea, the Caspian, the Baltic, and the gulf of Finland, form an extensive water frontier. The rivers of Russia are numerous. Those which flow into the Arctic ocean are, the Paswig (the outlet of Lake Enara), the Kola, the Pet- chora (a large river which has its source in the Urals), and the Onega, the Di- vina, and the Mezen, which flow into the White sea. The Divina is a large and important river, and forms at its mouth the harbor of Archangel. Those flowing into the basin of the Baltic and its several arms are, the Tornea and Mu- onio, which form the boundary between Russia and Sweden ; the Kunmene, and the Neva (a large river, the outlet of Lake Ladoga, which enters the gulf of Finland at St. Petersburg). It is frozen over for five months in the year. The Swir unites Lakes Onega and Ladoga. The Duna rises not far from the sources of the Volga, and flows into the gulf of Livonia below Riga. It is navigable up to Velige, in the eastern part of the government of Vilepsk. The Niemen rises in the government of Minsk, and flows into the Curische-haf, below Memul, and the Vistula flows through Russian Poland, receiving in its course several considerable tributaries. The Black sea receives the Don or Tanai, the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Pruth, and Kouban ; and the Ural and Volga empty their waters into the Caspian sea. The Volga is 2,300 miles long, and is navigable from the Caspian to Tver. Lakes in Russia are numerous. The largest is Ladoga, in the northwest, which covers an area of 7,200 square miles. Lake Onega is the second in size. These, with Saima and many others, are situated between the gulf of Finland and the White sea. The other principal lakes are, the Bieloe Ozero (White lake), and the Ilmen, in the gov EUROPE— RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 357 ernment of Novgorod ; the Peipous or Tctoiide, between St. Petersburg and Livonia ; Kiibinsk, in Vologda ; the Bolchoi-ilmen, formed by the Manytsh, an affluent of the Don ; the Enara, in Lapland, &c. Climate. — The climate of Russia is diversified according to latitude. Its geographical extent and position indicate extremes both of heat and cold, the winters being more severe, and the summers more warm, than other parts of Europe in the same latitude. In the south the winters are short, and the sum- mers long and warm. The middle region has a rough and long-continued win- ter ; and at Moscow, in latitude 56*^, the mean temperature of the year is 40^ Fahrenheit. At St. Petersburg, in latitude 60°, the winter extends from Sep- tember to May. Political Divisions. — The following table contains the names of the prov- inces (including the Caucasian, by some geographers attached to Asiatic Rus- sia), or governments into which European Russia is divided, with their respective areas and populations : — Pboviscis. Area in square miles. Population. Great Russia : — Moscow 11,500 1,399,782 Smolensk 21.000 1,058,650 Pskov 21,900 720,324 Novgorod 55,000 709,623 Olonetz 67,000 236,570 Archangel 350,000 225.494 Vologda 150,000 790,101 Kostroma 38,400 980,213 North Novgorod 20,400 1,118,298 Vladimir 17,500 1,135,108 Tula 12,000 L190,238 Kaluga 10,560 943,677 Tver. 24,000 1,323,839 Yaroslav 17,000 1,012,761 Koursk 16,000 1,814,592 Orlov 17,000 1.410,312 Riazan 14,000 1,230,482 Tambov 24,000 1.664,714 Voronez 30,000 1,564,529 Area in square miles. Population. Total 917,260. . . .20,528,702 Little Russia : — Kiev 20,500 1,586,032 Tchemigov 23,000 1,350,136 Polava 22,000 1,632,020 Kharkov 21,000 1,210,011 Total 86,500. .5,778,197 Western Russia : — Lithuania — ViUia 24,400 783,225 Minsk 37.000 934,926 Grodno 15,000 794,994 MogilfT 19,.300 850,166 Vitepsk 16,800 7.56,537 Volhynia. 29,000 1,412,906 Podolsk, Uk 15,000 1,515.745 Bialystok 3,400 251,000 Total 159,900 7,299,499 Eastern Russia: — Astrachan 43,000 130,000 Saratov 73,000 1,717,303 Orenburg 128,000 1,734,690 Total 244,000 3,581,993 PaovrHCHs. Southern Russia: — Ekaterinoslav 35,000 Kherson 36,000, Taurida 30.000 , Donkoznks 53,000 Bessarabia 16,000. 8:55,441 765,800 520,200 640,300 800,000 Total 170,000 3,561,741 Baltic Provinces :— St. Petersburg 18,600. Finland 144,000. Esthonia 7,230. Livonia 17,340. Courland 10,000. . 933,950 .1,393,727 . 282,776 . 782,937 . 512,169 Total 197,170 3,905,559 Caucasian Provinces : — Georgia 18,000 450,000 Caucasus 40,000 15 ,000 190,000 170,000 135,000 160,000 64,000 430,000 550,000 Daghestan 9,300. Igmeritia 4,830. Shirvan, &c 9,200. Armenia 8,000 . Guriai, &c 1,500. Mingrelia, &c 7,200. Circassia. 32,250. Total 122,280 1,899,000 Russian Poland : — Sandomir 5,500 . Kalisz 6,540. Lublin 6,6,50. Plock 6,500. Masovia and Warsaw 7,3,50 8:16,486 Podlachia 7,250 .381,703 Augustow 7,820 566,035 415,886 649,328 518,930 496,807 Total 47,610 4,298,962 Kasan : — Kasan 23„500. Viatka .52.500. Perm 127.000. Simbirsk 24,000 . Penza. .1.265,000 .1,529,581 .1,488,800 .1,199,000 14,000 978,322 Total 241,000 6,460,703 Population'. — The population of Russia, numbering, as given in the above table, over 60,000,000, and speaking forty languages, are divisible into Sla- vonians or Russians (40,000,000), Finns (3,000,000), Cossacks (2,000,000), Tartars (2,000,000), Calmucks, Mongers, Manchoos, Jews (1,500,000), Polar tribes, Circassians (2,000,000), and colonists, viz., Germans, French, Turks, Greeks, &c. They are divided into six classes, viz,, the nobility, clergy, citizens, peasants, serfs, and slaves. There are fourteen classes of nobility ; 358 EUROPE.— RUSSIA IX EUROPE. most of the public employments are filled with nobles ; and none is eligible who does not belong to one of the fourteen classes of rank into which the officers of the civil andmilitary service and the clergy are arranged. The clergy are ex- empt from taxation and corporal punishment ; privileges which are extended to their eldest sons, who are liable, however, to military service. Every inhabit- ant of a town, who is neither noble nor the property of another, is a citizen ; and citizens are divided into four classes, styled notables, and members of the three guilds. The next class is that of the peasants, who are distinguished in six classes : 1, the old proprietors, who cultivate their own land ; 2, the Tar- tars, Baschkirs, and other races in the southeast ; 3, the peasants of Finland ; 4, colonists of foreign origin : 5, the inhabitants of the military colonies in the southeast ; and, 6, the free cultivators, who enjoy immunity from taxation, on condition of keeping post-horses for the public service, which they furnish at a charge fixed by government. Below the peasants are the serfs, who are chiefly peasants on the crown-land, or in the province of Livonia. The crown-peasants amount to about 12,000,000, some of whom labor in the fields, and others in the mines and manufactories. The peasants of Livonia, amounting to about 560,000, were slaves until the year 1804, when they first obtained the rights of serfs. They are still subject to some peculiar claims, which, however, are fixed, and they can not be removed from the soil without their own consent. The last and most numerous class is that of slaves, whose number is about 23,000,000. They are in law considered as chattels, not as persons ; are at- tached to the soil, and incapable of acquiring property in land ; may be bought, sold, or exchanged, with little more ceremony than cattle ; and have no other protection against their master than a regard for his own interests in their wel- fare. The Russian character is distinct from that of any other European nation — laborious, quick, keen, imitative, and superstitious ; acquiring languages with remarkable facility ; generally devoid of imagination ; tolerant, hospitable, and polite ; good soldiers and hardy seamen. Chief Cities and Towns. — St. Petersburg, the capital, covers about thirty square miles on islands and on the mainland at the mouth of the river Neva. At the commencement of the eighteenth century, where this fine city now stands there were a few fishermen's log huts ; in 1703 Peter the Great built his own wooden hut there ; and in 1711 the first tenement of brick was con- structed. It now contains more than half a million of inhabitants, and some of the most magnificent structures in Europe. The church of St. Isaac cost about $20,000,000. Cronstadt, a strong fortress and naval arsenal, and the port of St. Petersburg, is situated at the east end of a large sandy island in the gulf, about sixteen miles west from the mouth of the Neva. It is so strongly fortified as to be deemed impregnable, completely commanding the passage to St. Petersburg. The population is about 40,000. Moscow, in 55° 45' north, and the ancient capital (population, 300,000), is of immense extent ; the build- ings are grand, and the architecture more Eastern than European. The Krem- lin is a fortress, palace, castle, and cathedral ; containing the public offices, &c. It is a vast structure, with walls sixteen feet thick, and from thirty to sixty feet in height, with battlements, embrasures, towers, and gates. Sevastapol, on the Black sea, is an impregnable fortress, and Odessa a place of much corn trade. Riga, on the Baltic, has considerable commerce. There are many other cities, fortresses, and towns in the empire. Among them may be named, Revel, Dorpot, Miltau, Helsengfois, Archangel, Abo, Wilna, Warsaw (formerly the capital of Poland), Kief (the most ancient seat of Christianity in Russia), Pol- tava (memorable for the victory of Peter the Great over Charles XII. of Swe- den, in 1709), Orel,Toula, Kaluga, Tver, Smolensk, Novgorod, Vologda, Jaras- lavl, Kazan, Orenburg, Saratov, Tzaritzen, Astrakahn, Cherson, Odessa, and Ismail. EUROPE.— RUSSIA IN EUROPE 359 Productive Resources. — Amoncr the productions of Russia are, corn, tim- ber, flax, cordage, linen, sailcloth, leather, cottons, woollens, silks, velvets, re- fined sugar, linseed, provisions, hides, tallow, soaps, fish, oils, ashes, furs, tar, pitch, gold, and iron. There are several government manufactories of cloth, and firearms, cannon, and military weapons. The mines yielded, from 1820 to 1829 — gold 65,630, silver 412,426, and platina 6,067 pounds avoirdupois. The gold now annually produced is from $15,000,000 to $20,000,000 in value; 250,000,000 pounds of iron is annually wrought. There are 7,000,000 sheep in the Crimea alone. The Caspian fisheries are valued at over two millions of dollars. Railroads and Canals. — Railroads have been built between St. Petersburg and Moscow, from St. Petersburg to Czarkocelo, and from Warsaw to Kosel. Canals connect the Baltic with the Caspian, and with the Black sea; also the White sea with the Caspian. There is an extensive inland water communica- tion in various directions, and a traveller may pass from St. Petersburg to Selm- ginsk, in Siberia, 4,124 miles, with only a few miles of portages. Commerce. — The trade of Russia is very extensive and varied. With China (at Kiahta), Siberia, Tartary, Persia, Turkey, Austria, and the adjacent regions, there is an active land traffic. The trade with Great Britain, Hamburg, France, several European states, and with the United States, is valuable ; and in almost every instance the balance of trade is in favor of Russia. The export trade is in value about $500,000,000, consisting of tallow, flax, hemp, corn, potash, hides, linseed, grain, timber, copper, iron, cordage, sailcloth, cattle, fur, &c. The imports consist of coffee, spices, wines and liquors, fish, salt, tobacco, fruit, raw cotton, cotton twist, indigo, cochineal, madder, logwood, and other dyewoods, drugs, olive-oil, hardware, lead, raw sugar, silk, cotton, silk and worsted goods, cloths, and precious stones ; but the importation of every sort of manufactured or other produce that can compete with the manufactures or natural produce of Russia, is expressly prohibited. The commercial marine of Russia is small, British, American, and Prussian vessels being the principal carriers of their produce. The Russian fur colonies at Sitka, or New Archangel, on the north- western coast of America, supply a lucrative barter trade in furs. Education. — Public education is subjected to the direct control of govern- ment. The schools are divided into four classes, viz.: 1, parish and district schools, gymnasia, and universities ; 2, military schools ; 3, ecclesiastical schools ; and, 4, special and various other schools. There are seven universi- ties, and over fifty gymnasia. Besides the institutions engaged directly in the education of youth, Russia has academies of sciences, learned societies, public libraries, and museums. The press is under a strict censorship. Religion. — The Greek church is the dominant religion of the empire ; but ' all other religions are not only tolerated, but even freely professed, difi'erence of creed being no obstacle to the attainment of public employments. Government. — The government of Russia is despotic ; all power centres in the hereditary emperor, who may consult his ministers or privy council at will. A senate administers justice, and a synod administers religion. Each govern- ment or province is ruled over by a civil and a military governor, who some- times unites both offices, and exercises all the delegated authority of the em- peror. In each province there is a council of government, tribunals of criminal and civil justice, a court of equity, a chamber of finance, and a chamber of gen- eral internal economy. The council of state, over which the emperor presides,, includes the ministers or, heads of the departments for home and foreign aflTairs, war, marine, public instruction, finance, justice, police, engineering, architec- ture, and religion, who, with other persons named by the emperor, are divided into four departments for legislative, military, civil, and church afTairs. The revenue of Russia is about $100,000,000 ; national debt, $250,000,000. 360 EUROPE.— RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Army and Navy. — The army is raised by conscription, and numbers nearly a million of men, whose legal term of service is twenty-five years, and whose pay is about two cents a day, with 150 pounds of meal and forty-four pounds of salt annually. Cost of army, $15,000,000. The naval force consists of five divisions, two stationed in the Black sea, and three in the Baltic. History. — The Sclavonians (a Sarmatian race) and the Scandinavians may be considered the chief founders of this great empire. In the fifth and sixth centuries the Sclavonians embraced Christianity, formed the cities of Novgorod and Kiev, and in the ninth century, in 862, invited Ruric, a Varangian or Scandinavian chief, to pro- tect them. Ruric and his followers settled on Lake Ladoga, and established a dominion, to which they gave the name of Russia. Vladi- mir, great grandson of Ruric, married a Greek princess in 981, introduced the Greek form of Roubif, 7^ cf nte. Christianity, civilized his people, and extended his ducal territories. In the thirteenth centurj' the Mongols conquered and laid waste nearly the whole of Russia except Novgorod, and were not driven out until 1481, by Ivan Basilovitch the Great. His successor took possession of As- trachan, the Caucasian provinces, and other districts, in 1554. Siberia was discovered in 1578, and conquered in 1587. In 1613 the house of Romanoff, still in possession of the throne, acquired supreme authority. The czars of Rus- sia now became possessed of considerable European power, and under the able sway of Peter the Great, their territories were extended to the Baltic. Peter established a Russian navy, founded St. Petersburg, and secured his position on the Black sea ; and at his death, in 1725, bequeathed a vast, yet consolidated empire, to his wife Catherine I., who died in 1727. During the reign of Cath- erine II., from 1762 to 1796, the Russian territories were greatly augmented by conquests, and by the partition of Poland, and extended from the Baltic along the northwest part of America to the Rurile islands adjoining Japan, and to Persia on the south. She founded new cities, improved the old, encouraged agriculture, manufactures, and the arts and sciences, and left to her son and successor, Paul, an annual revenue of $45,000,000, an army of 450,000 men, and forty-five ships-of-the-line. Paul, capricious and tyrannical, was murdered by his own nobles, 23d March, 1801, shortly after his conclusion of a treaty with Napoleon, then first consul of France. Alexander, the son of Paul, a sa- gacious prince, who effectually aided England and Prussia against France in 1814-'15, died in 1825, and was succeeded by his brother, the grand duke Nicholas. The invasion of Russia by Napoleon, with an army of nearly half a million of men, in 1812 ; his capture of Moscow; the setting on fire of their city in the midst of winter by the Russians ; the destruction of the French army by cold, by famine, and by the sword ; and the flight of Napoleon and the rem- nant of his troops, constitute one of the most fearful catastrophes in history. From the time that Nicholas ascended the throne, all the energies of his mind and the resources t)f the government have been concentrated on the augmenta- tion of the power of the empire ; and the events of the last few years have immensely increased his influence over the European continent, making him the bulwark of despotic governments. Michael Fedorowitz-.lfijr) Alexis 1645 Theodore III 1676 Peter the Great 1682 CZARS OR EMPERORS OF RITSSIA. Catherine 1 1725 EUznboth 1741 Pctcrll 1727 Peti-rlll 1762 Anne 1730 Catherine II 1762 JohnV 1740 Paul! 1796 Alexander 1801 Nicholas 1825 EUROPK— ITALY. 361 ITALY. miles, miles, states Italy, the most-favored portion of Europe, in respect to geographical position, climate, scenery, and soil, is marked by distinctive natural features. It lies between 36° and 47° north latitude, and 6° and 19° east longitude. On the north a gigantic Alpine barrier shelters the land of the sunny south; the Adriatic, like a peaceful inland lake, laves the eastern shores ; the Tuscan sea and gulf of Genoa form the western frontier ; and on the south the Mediterranean separates Sicily from Africa. The extent of Italy from Mount Rosa, the highest sum- mit of the Italian Alps, to the Cape de Leuca, is Five Lire, 9.3 c^nta. g^Q ^^jj^^^ ^^^ j^^ breadth varies from 100 to 400 The surface, including the islands, is estimated at 120,000 square The northern portion of Italy includes Piedmont and the Sardinian Venetian Lombardy, the duchies of Tuscany, of Parma, Placentia, and Guastella, of Modena, Mirandola, and Massa ; the principality of Carrara, the republic of Lucca, the islands of Corsica and Elba, and the Papal States. Southern Italy comprises Naples, and the island of Sicily, commonly called the Two Sicilies. Ancient Italy consisted of three great divisions : Cisalpine Gaul in the north, Italy proper in the centre, and Magna Graecia in the south. Physical Aspect. — The natural features of the country are as varied as the political divisions ; the entire country forms a peninsula somewhat in the shape of the letter T, of which the southern part is called the leg of Europe. The Alps decline in slopes toward the sea, except the Apennines or "little Alps," which pass down the centre of Italy, even into Sicily, and divide Tuscany from the Italian states. On both sides the Apennine spurs stretch toward the sea, especially in Tuscany. The heights of the principal peaks of the Alps and Apennines or Little Alps are, Mont Blanc, in the Pennine Alps, 15,200 feet; Mount Ortler, in the Tyrol, 15,000 feet; Mount Viso, at the source of the Po, 13,872 feet; Mount Cenis, 11,800 feet; Great St. Bernard, 11,027 feet; Little St. Bernard, in the Graian Alps, 9,594 feet ; Priory of Chamouni, in Savoy, 3.354 feet. The Apennines are less elevated than the Alps, the highest peak, Mount Corno or Gran Sasso, in Naples, is 9,542 feet ; Mount Cimmice, the an- cient Mons Ciminis, is 6,978 feet; the highest point of Sibilla is 7,228 feet; Pelegrino is 5,000 feet. The Alps and the Apennines are of far lesser com- parative height above the sea than the Andes, but the latter rise from a table- land 8,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea. The geological formation of the Alpine summits is chiefly granitic ; that of the Apennines is, with few exceptions, lime- stone, hence the variety of beautiful Italian marble. Though for the most part mountainous, Italy has some plains of great extent and extraordinary beauty. Of these, the most extensive and richest is that of Lombardy, or of the Po. This noble plain extends from the foot of the Alps, near Susa, to the mouths of the Po, in the Adriatic, a distance of about 250 miles, with a breadth varying from fifty to 120 miles, including nearly the whole of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the central portion of the Sardinian dominion, most part of the duch- ies of Parma and Modena, and the northern legations of the Papal States. The next great plain stretches along the western shore of Central Italy for about two hundred miles, from Pisa, in Tuscany, to Terracina, between the Papal States and Naples. Within these limits are mcluded the Tuscan ma- 362 EUROPR— ITALY. remme, great part of the campagna of Rome, and the Pontine marshes.* This plain is, in all respects, very different from the former. Though in antiquity, and to a certain extent, also, in the middle ages, it was celebrated for its fertil- ity, and was highly-cultivated and populous, it is now comparatively a desert. This is a consequence of the prevalence of malaria, which infects these districts to such an extent as to render them, at certain periods of the year, all but unin- habitable. They are necessarily, therefore, for the most part in pasture ; and are occupied by a vagrant population, who reside in the country only in the healthy season. Rivers and Lakes. — Few countries are better watered than Italy, whether in regard to springs, rivers, or lakes. The Po, which is the principal river, has a course of 500 miles. It rises in the mountains, eighty miles west of Turin, where it becomes navigable (1,200 feet broad), and falls into the Adriatic. Of its nume- rous affluents, the most important are, the Baltea, Sesa, Tessino, Adda, Chiesa, and Mincio, from the north, and the Tanaro, Bormida, Trebia (famous for the great battle gained by Hannibal on its banks), and Panaro on the south. The Tiber has a course of 150 miles, and is 300 feet wide at Rome. There are many other rivers, the principal of which are, the Arno, the Adige, the Brenta, the Piave, and the Tagliamento. The most considerable of the Italian lakes are situated in the north : including those of Garda. Maggiore, Como, Lugano, &c. In Central Italy are the lakes of Perugia, Bolsena, Bracciano, Celano or Fuci- no, Albano, &c. ; and in the south those of Averno and others, which, though insignificant in point of size, have acquired imperishable renown. Many con- siderable salt lagoons line the Mediterranean coast in various parts of Tuscany and the Papal States, and the shores of the Adriatic in the Venetian territories, and round the promontory of Gargano. Islands. — The larger islands of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, are no- ticed in their proper place, in descriptions of the states to which they are at- tached. Malta, Gozo, Comino, and Gorgona, are small islands, lying a short distance southwest of Leghorn. Elba is a small island off the coast of Tus- cany. It is noted for its iron mines, and is also celebrated in history as the residence of Napoleon, and from which he escaped in 1814. Its population is about 15,000. Pianosa, Monte Cristo, Giglio, and Giannuti, are small islands south of Elba. The Pontian islands are a volcanic group off the gulf of Gaeta. To the north of Sicily are the Lipari islands, a volcanic group. Population, 23,000. The most remarkable of these islands are Volcano and Stromboli. The former is lofty, with a crater 2,500 feet high, which emits dense vapor, accompanied with a great noise. Stromboli is a conical mountain, 2,000 feet high, with a crater in the side, about one third below the summit, which has burnt from the earliest ages, with frequent explosions, and a constant ejection of fiery matter. Climate. — Italy possesses a delightful climate ; for, though exposed from its latitude to a considerable degree of heat in summer and cold in winter, the seas which surround, and the mountains which intersect it, temper every extreme, and render all its seasons delightful. The chief drawback on the Italian cli- mate is what is called the malaria (before referred to), by which the atmosphere becomes infected, arising from the quantity of stagnant water and marshes in the centre of the country, and on the seacoast. Cities. — There are a greater number of noble and classic cities in Italy than are to be found within the same area in any other country. Rome, Milan, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Turin, Naples, with several others (noticed in the * The Pontine marahns, on the coast, midway botweoii Rome and Naples, twenty-four miles long, and from six to twelve miles in breadth, are among the most remarkable tracts in Italy. For many ages repeated cftbrts were made to drain these pestiferous regions, a work whicli has been nearly accomplished by the exertions of Popes Pius VI. and VII. ; and this tract of country, which was fonnerly fraught with disease and death, may now be traversed with comparative safety, except in the hotter months. The Appian way and the modem roud from Rome to Naples pass through them. The marshes now form luxurioua pastures for cattle. EUROPE.— ITALY. 363 countries to which they respectively belong), attest the former opulence, the art and industry of the Italians. Productive Resources. — Corn, wme, and oil in abundance, though care- lessly and unskilfully cultivated, show the natural fertility of the soil ; indeed, were the inhabitants industrious, fruit and grain might be produced in almost any quantity. In the mineral kingdom, Italy produces some precious stories, crystals, alum, basalt, talc, marble, alabaster, porphyry, saltpetre, soda, sulphur, coal, gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and antimony. The quadrupeds of Italy are not different from those in other parts of Europe ; the buffalo, however, forms an exception, being found only in this part of the continent ; the cattle generally are considered of an inferior breed. Commerce. — The exports are small, consisting chiefly of silk, rice, fruit, oil, musical instruments, and curiosities. The imports consist of manufactures of almost all kinds. The maritime commerce, which once powerfully influenced Europe and Asia, is now scarcely worth noticing, yet the seacoasts and fine harbors of Italy ought to secure her a commanding position in the Mediterranean. Religion. — Italy has been the stronghold of Romanism, which for ages has been the prevailing faith in this fine country. No changes elsewhere have been able to shake its influence. There are a few protestant communities in Pied- mont, and Jews are scattered here as in every other part of the world. The dialects of the several districts differ greatly. Education. — Education among the lower classes is neglected ; the schools are few and miserably conducted, and even the noble universities are poorly managed. The states are isolated, having each their own government, but all more or less under the control of Austria. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are descended from the Gauls, Germans, Normans, Greeks, and other nations, who have at different times visited and occupied the country, but each division of the peninsula presents some pecu- liarity in the features, form, or language of the people. The purest Italian is spoken in Tuscany. In general the Italians are a fine race, well, and even ele- gantly proportioned, with olive complexions, expressive features, and dark, full eyes. The women are considered very beautiful. The present race has much degenerated in martial spirit and intellectual power from that of its ancestors. The world is greatly indebted in literature and science to the Italians. History. — Romulus Augustulus, the last of tlie Roman emperors, being dethroned by Odoeacer, the chief of the Heruli, and captain of the Roman-Germanic guards, was banished by the conqueror who seized upon Rome, as- sumed the title of king of Italy, introduced the first princi- ples of the feudal system, and reigned until the successful invasion of the Ostrogoths or Eastrogoths, under Theodo- ric, who, after finally defeating Odoeacer at Ravenna, in Two Lire, ;!6 cents. 493^ spread themselves over Italy, and formed a new em- pire extending from Sicily to the Danube, of which Verona was made the capi- tal. On the death of Theodoric, in 526, the Greeks endeavored to drive out the Ostrogoths ; after a strugule of 27 years they succeeded, and all Italy be- came a province of the Greek empire, under the title of the Exarchate. A few tribes, however, who had fled before Attila, and established a small state in the lagunes of the Adriatic, still retained their independence, and subsequently con- stituted themselves into the republic of Venice. In 568, the Langobards or Lombards invaded Northern Italy, conquered many of its provinces, and fixed the seat of the Lombardian government at Paira. Lower Italy still remained under the nominal dominion of the Greek empire, but the weakness of the Greek governors enabled the bishops of Rome gradually to obtain possession of several parts of the Exarchate, which contributed to the formation of the 364 EUROPE.— ITALY. Papal States. In the eighth century, A.stolf, the reigning monarch of Loni- bardy, in an endeavor to extend his territories, was brought into collision with the Roman bishop, who was supported by Pepin, the king of the Franks, which occasioned a new war in 774, and led to the overthrow of the Lombardian kingdom by Charlemagne, who united the Lombardian crown with that of the empire of the Franks. Part of the Exarchate was bestowed by Charlemagne, in 800, on Leo III., then bishop or pope of Rome. In 888 Italy became a sep- arate kingdom. After this the cities and states began to form themselves into republics, each governed by a duke and senators. In 961 the German emperor was acknowledged sovereign of Italy, the different governments taking an oath of allegiance to him. The most opulent cities at this time were Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, all of which had a number of small states depending on them, belong- ing to different counts, marquises, and lords of castles. Every city was now encompassed by a wall, and had its own military force. Many of the noblemen, also, had their own separate armies. In the twelfth century, sentiments of re- publican freedom had sprung up among the different states, and a general desire prevailed to throw off the German supremacy. In 1152 Frederick Barbarossa became emperor of Germany. He spent thirty-three years in desolating wars, for the purpose of suppressing this spirit of revolt, in which he was but partially successful. About this time two parties, called Guelphs and Ghibellines, arose, and, for a long period, involved the leading Italian states in bloody civil wars. In the fourteenth century there wei-e two popes, one at Rome, and the other at Avignon, in France ; and finally, a third was elected. These were all set aside by the Council of Constance, in 1417, and a new pope established. Venice, founded by a few fishermen upon the marshes of the Adriatic, in the fifth cen- tury, became a powerful republic in the Middle Ages. At the commencement of the fifteenth century she had triumphed over Genoa, and the leading cities of Italy were subject to her sway. Her fleets held undisputed dominion in the Mediterranean. Toward the close of the fifteenth century the power of Venice declined. The Portuguese took away her rich commerce with India. In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople, and deprived her of some of her most flour- ishing colonies. Thus Venice sunk into insignificance ; and in 1797, after Na- poleon's conquest of Italy, she formed a portion of the Cisalpine republic. She was restored to Austria in 1815. The history of the other Italian states need not be given in detail. The recent events in this country are interesting. Imme- diately after the French revolution of February, 1848, all Italy was thrown into a^-evolutionary ferment. Venice rebelled against Austria ; the duke of Tuscany fled before an insurrection ; and the king of Naples was forced by the people to grant them a charter. The king of Sardinia took the popular side, and led his forces against the Austrians, who were threatening the Lombardo-Venetian territories, and a republic was established at Rome. The revolution, however, was checked ; the kings and dukes repudiated the charters they had granted in the hour of panic, and resumed their ancient tyrannies. Political Divisions and Population. — The names and populations of the Italian states, with the chief towns, &c., are as follows : — Naubb or States. Area in square miles. Population. Form o( Government, Chief Cities. Population. SardiTiia 29,167 4,650,368 Kingdom Turin 120.000 '^"tmtes"''"'''"""! -■l^'Sll ^803,289 Kingdom { V^n^ce" :::::: JS Parma 2,274 496,803 Duchy Parma ,3(;,000 Modona 2,129 513.343 Duchy Modcnn, 27.000 ruscany with Lucca 9,177 1,786,875 Grand Duchy Florence 98,a)0 Papal States 17,494 2.898,115 Popedom Rome 150,000 San Marino 21 7,600 Republic San Marino 5,000 Two Sicilies 41,906 8,423.316 Kingdom Naples 336,300 Malta, Gozo, &.C 206 130,000 British Dependency.. Valetta, 60,000 Total 119 885 23,709,709 EUROPE.— ITALY. 365 Two Livres, 36 cente. Sardinia. — The kingdom of Sardinia consists of the prin- cipality of Piedmont, with Montserrat, and the Sardinian part of Milan, together with the county of Nice or Nizza, the duchy of Savoy, of Genoa, and the island of Sardinia. The area of the kingdom is 29,000 square miles, of which the island of Sardinia contains about one third. The Sardinian continental territories are bounded by the lake of Geneva and Twenty Lire, $3.83. jj^^ Pennine Alps on the north, on the east by Venetian-Lom- bardy and Parma, on the south by the gulf of Genoa, and on the west by France. This state derived its independent existence from the count of Savoy in 1016, under whose descendants it gradually increased until 1416, when it was created a duchy. The subsequent history of this dynasty is closely connected with the struggles of France and Austria for supremacy in Italy. By marriages, wars, acquisitions, and exchanges, through successive centuries, the dominions of the house of Savoy were increased. In 1713, Victor Amadeus II. obtained the island of Sicily, %vhich, in 1720, he exchanged for Sardinia, with the title of king. Physical Aspect. — The physical features of this king- dom are very diversified. Savoy is an Alpine country, intersected with mountains. Piedmont, so called from its position, forms a large valley, being separated from Swit- zerland by the Pennine Alps, and from the coast districts by the maritime Alps and Apennines. It is divided from Savoy by a lofty and broad ridge called the Graian Alps. Nice and Genoa are bounded on the south by the gulf of Genoa, and are both mountainous districts. Genoa ex- tends 150 miles along the gulf, its breadth varying from eight to twelve miles. The southern side of the lake of Geneva belongs to Savoy, and the western side of the Lago Maggiore belongs to Piedmont. The interior of Sardinia is very fertile, the plains producing grain abundantly, and rich pasturage for herds of cattle : the mountains contain mineral wealth. Chief Towns and Cities. — Turin, the capital of Piedmont, is in longitude 7'^ 40' east, and latitude 45^ 4' north. It stands at the foot of a range of hills rising eastward from the Po, and has been appropriately termed, by Lady Mor- gan, " a little city of palaces." The citadel is a regular pentagon, and is deemed the strongest in Europe. Around Turin artificial irrigation is very successfully and extensively practised. Chambery is the chief town of Savoy. Chamouni is situated in the beautiful valley of the same name, which runs for twenty miles through high mountains. Aosta stands on the Dora Battea, and is famous for a bridge of astonishing height called the Pont d'E. Near the top of Mount Cenis there is a celebrated lake. The capital of Nice is a city and seaport of the same name, standing near the mouth of the Var, beautifully situated, and enjoying a most salubrious climate. Monaco is situated on the gulf of Genoa. The city of Genoa, called, from its marble palaces and splendid edifices, "the Superb," stands on one side of the harbor of the same name. In the middle ages it was a city of great power, possessing a formidable navy, and a large part of the Levant trade. For 200 years Genoa warred with Pisa; and with Venice her struggles were long and violent. In 1174 she possessed Montser- rat, Monaco, Nice, Marseilles, a great part of the coast of Provence and Cor- sica : subsequently she occupied the Crimea, founded colonies in the Black sea and elsewhere, and became a predominant power. Internal dissensions, and the discovery of a passage to India by the cape of Good Hope, led to the down- fall of " Genoa the Superb :" she lost her foreign possessions : Corsica, the last of them, revolted in 1730, and was ceded to France in 1768. During the French revolution Genoa was alternately contested for by France and Austria, and, in 1802, Napoleon established Genoa under the title of the Ligurian Re- 366 EUROPK— ITALY CITY AND HARBOR OF GENOA. public, which, however, he subsequently abolished, and united the country lo France. Finally, in 1814-15, England, contrary to the general expectation, allowed Genoa to become an appanage to the territories of the house of Savoy. The Island of Sardinia is the largest insular territory in the Mediterra- nean. It extends from 38° 50, to 41° 14' north latitude, and is 162 miles in length, with an average breadth of 70 miles. The island has been successively under the dominion of the Romans, Vandals, and Saracens ; of Pisa, and of Ge- noa : in 1324 the house of Aragon obtained possession, and retained it until England conquered the island in 1708. At the peace of Utrecht it was given to Austria ; but in 1717 Philip V., of Spain, drove out the Austrians. In 1720 Sardinia was given to the duke of Savoy, as an indemnification for the loss of Sicily. One third of the island is sandy and stony, but rich in mineral treas- ures ; the remainder, where cultivated, fertile in corn, wine, oranges, and citrons. Venetian Lombardy. — Venetian Lombardy, or Austrian Italy, consists of two distinct states, Venice and Lombardy. It is bounded on the north by Switzerland and the Tyrol, on the east by lUyria and the Adriatic, on the south by the Po, and on the west by the Sardinian states. Its greatest length is 220 miles ; its breadth, measured from the Po to Mount Brumer, is 140 miles. Physical Aspect. — Lombardy is a level and exceedingly fertile country, the natural richness of its soil being increased by the skilful and laborious cul- tivation bestowed upon it. The pasturage is very extensive ; the cbe«^se pro- duced here has been celebrated throughout Europe for centuries under the name of Parmesan. Milan, the seat of government, stands in longitude 9° 12' east, latitude 45° 28' north, between the rivers Adda and Tesino. In 1162, EUROPE.— ITALY. 367 Frederick Barbarossa razed it to the ground ; but it has risen from its ashes, and is now a fine city, containing many sumptuous edifices, especially a noble cathedral, built entirely of white marble. The Milanese province, in which it is situated, is famous for its lakes ; the principal of which are, Lakes Maggiore, Como, and Lugano. In the south, standing on a beautiful hill on the Tesiiio, is the city of Pavia. Lodi. fiimous for the victory gained there by Napoleon over the Austrians, stands in the southeast, on the Adda. The provinces of Valteltne and Bergamasco occupy the northwest, Bellunese and Friuli the northeast of the kingdom. Bre.scia, whose chief town was so heroically de- fended by the chevalier Bayard ; Veronese, Vincentius, and Trevigiano, form the central portion ; Venice, Dugato, and Polisina, the eastern ; and Cremona and Mantua, with part of Milanese, form the southern. The important city of Mantua, in longitude 10^ 50 east,, latitude 45° 10' north, stands on an island in the middle of a lake, formed by the Miiicio ; and, from its position, is one of the strongest positions in Europe. It has a beautiful cathedral, executed by Giulio Romano : Virgil was born in a village near this city. Venice stands on seventy- two small islands, in a lake about five miles distant from the main land, and separated by other islands from the gulf of Venice. Most of the houses have a door opening upon a canal, and another into a street ; by means of which, and of the bridges, of which there are upward of five hundred, a person may go to any part of the city by land or by water. The grand canal is of great breadth, and passes through the middle of the city. The Rialto consists of a single arch of marble, ninety feet in span, and twenty-four feet in height, thrown across the narrowest part of it. Venice contains some fine buildings, and many speci- mens of the architecture of Palladio. The bridge of Sighs communicates be- tween the ducal palaces and the stateprisons. Venice has, however, sadly fallen from its former grandeur and magnificence. Its splendid palaces are novv converted to purposes of trade, and present everywhere evidences of dilap- idation and neglect. The province of Padua is rich and fertile ; its capital, Padua, is a very ancient city. History. — In 774, Charlemagne united the Lombardian cities to the Prank- ish empire. In 1183 they obtained their independence. In 1540 Charles V. took possession of Milan, and bestowed it on his son Philip, and it remained in the Spanish line of Hapsburgh until 1700. By the treaties of Utrecht and Ba- den, 1713-14, Milan and Mantua were united to the possessions of the house of Austria, and remained so until the battle of Lodi, 1796, when Bonaparte united it with Modena, Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna, some parts of the former republic of Venice, and some districts of Switzerland, and formed the Cisalpine republic. In 1805 the republic was converted into a kingdom, under Napoleon as king, with his step-son, Eugene Beauharnois, as viceroy. At the congress of Vienna, 1815, Austria obtained possession of the whole of the Lombardian and Venetian territories, which it still retains, notwithstanding the endeavors made by the Italians in 1821, and in 1848-49, to regain their independence. Parma. — The duchy of Parma lies between the Po and the Apennines, and has belonged at different times to France, Spain, and the States of the Church. In 1814, Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, were given to the arch-duchess Maria Louisa, with succession to her son ; and on her death they were bestowed on the duchess of Lucca and her male descendants, failing whom, they pass to Austria and Sardinia. Physical Aspect. — Parma forms part of the valley of the Po ; the climate is temperate, and the soil rich, producing good pasturage and fine fruits. Piacenza has valuable saline springs. Guastalla is a marshy country, intersected with canals. The capital of Parma is a fortified city of the same name — longitude 10° 30' east, latitude 44° 50' north. It has a magnificent cathedral and several 368 EUROPE.— ITALY. / , liliiiiilililli'iifti M ,ii!i:!llii;i!i!ili|S EUROPE.— ITALY. 369 fine churches, adorned with the paintings of Coreggio, who was a native of this place, Modena. — The duchy of Modena is situated on the right bank of the Po, and wiis formerly a fief of the Austrian empire. It is now in the possession of the house of Este, and reverts, on failure of hereditary descendants, to Austria. It includes the duchies of Reggio and Mirandola. The northern part of the coun- try is level, but on the south it rises toward the Apennines, by which it is bounded. The city of Modena is situated in longitude 11° 12' east, latitude 44° 35' north. The town of Reggio was the birthplace of Aristotle. The duchy of Massa Carrara has very picturesque scenery, and is famous for its quarries of pure white marble. The small state of Lucca bought its freedom from the emperor Charles IV. in 1370, and maintained it till 1805, when Napoleon gave it to his sister Elisa. By the treaty of Vienna it was conferred on the Infanta Maria of Spain widow of the late duke of Parma and king of Etruria ; in de- fault of male issue, Lucca reverts to the grand duke of Tuscany. Physical Aspect. — Modena is forty miles long and sixteen broad, bounded on the north by a branch of the Apennines, where the climate is severe, but in the centre of the duchy it is warm and healthy. The mountains are cultivated to the summits, and even the Apennines are not barren here. The chief town has been called " Lucca the industrious." Tuscany. — The grand duchy of Tuscany is bounded on the northwest by Lucca and Modena ; on the northeast, east, and southeast by the Papal States, and on the southwest and west by the Mediterranean, here called the Tuscan sea. The an- cient name of the countrj^ was Eiruria, which was a confede- racy of twelve republics, governed by priests or chiefs,, of whom Porsenna was one. After the downfall of the Roman empire, equin, $. . ^j^^ country passed through the hands of the West Goths, Lon- gobards, Byzantinians, and Franks. From the time of Charlemagne the Mar- graves became independent. In the beginning of the fifteenth century the Me- dician family acquired great power, and in 1538, Charles the Fifth erected the "Tuscan fields and hills" into a duchy, in favor of Alexander de Medicis. In 1737 the Medici family became extinct. In 1745 Tuscany was annexed to Austria. In 1790 Ferdinand the Second, son of Leopold, emperor of Austria, was appointed grand duke of Tuscany, but was driven out by the French in 1799, who erected the "Etruscan Commonwealth;" then made it a kingdom, under the name of Etruria, and finally incorporated it with the French empire ; Napoleon's sister, the duchess of Lucca, being made grand duchess of Tuscany. On the downfall of Napoleon, in 1814, Ferdinand of Austria was reinstated in the government of the duchy. Physical Aspect. — The physical features of Tuscany are very striking. The Apennines cover one third of the whole duchy, and with the Arno seem naturally to divide the provinces of Florence, Pisa, and Sienna. The centre of the country forms the extensive and beautiful valley of the Arno, the soil there being rich and well-cultivated. The coast districts are low and marshy, and Sienna is a desolate and flat country, with a sterile soil, and an atmosphere filled with noxious vapors, arising from sulphureous springs : that of Pisa is rendered unhealthy by numerous swamps. Chief Towns. — Florence, in longitude 11° 3' east, latitude 43° 46' north, the capital of the grand duchy, was anciently a Roman colony, and, next to Rome, is the most beautiful c'ty in Italy, containing many magnificent build- ings, and valuable collections of books, manuscripts, paintings, and sculpture. It was formerly one of the first manufacturing towns in Italy, and still possesses 24 370 EUROPE.— ITALY. some important silk manufactures. It was the birthplace of Dante, Machiavelli, Michael Angelo, Amerigo Vespucci, and many other distinguished men. The city of Pisa, longitude 10° 23' east, latitude 43° 43' north, stands on the Arno, surrounded by the swamps of the Serchio ; it was the birthplace of the celebra- ted Galileo. The maritime city of Leghorn is well-fortified, and has an excel- lent harbor. Sienna, the chief town of the province of that name, is adorned with numberless palaces and fountains, principally built of the fine marble for which the whole duchy is celebrated. The island of Elba, which was given to Napoleon for his sole kingdom in 1814, is only nine miles distant from Tuscany, to which it now belongs. It contains an area of 160 square miles ; its princi- pal town is Porto Ferrajo. The States of the Church. — The Papal states are bounded on the north by Venetian Lombardy, on the east by the Adriatic, on the southeast by the kingdom-of Naples, on the southwest by the Mediterranean, and on the west by Tuscany and Modena. Their extreme length is 260 miles ; their breadth varies from 20 to 95 miles. Thev ex- tend along the shore of the Adriatic, from the Po to the To- ronto, a line of 175 miles, and 120 on the coast of the Med- Roman Testoon, 28 cts- iferranean. The government is wholly ecclesiastical, no one being eligible to fill any civil office who has not attained the rank of abbot. The pope enacts all laws, and nominates to all clerical appointments. He is assisted, however by the high college of cardinals, comprising about seventy members ; and the different branches of the government are conducted each by congregations, with a cardinal at its head. History. — Rome,* the capital of the Papal States, which had been governed by kings, was given by King Pepin to Stephen II., pope of Rome, in 756, and confirmed by Charlemagne in 774. By the aid of the Normans in Lower Italy, the popes of Rome increased their territory and power, which the Crusades in 1 096 served to augment. The oppressions of the popes of Rome caused insur- rectionary convulsions in their dominions, and in 1360 the reigning pope was obliged to flee to Avignon, which became the seat of papal power, and remained so until 1378, when it was re-established in Rome, and the temporal and spirit- ual power of the popes grew rapidly until 1626, when it began to decline. In 1797 Rome was taken by the French, and Pius VI. led away prisoner to France. Pius VII., by the intervention of Austria, resumed possession of Rome in 1800.. In 1848, Pius IX. fled in disguise to Gaeta, in the Neapolitan terri- tories, and his subjects then declared the temporal power of the pope at an end, * Rome, the Eternal City, famous in ancient history as the metropolis of the most powerful nation of a'ltiquity, and in modern as the capital of catholic Christendom, is situated on both sides of the Tiber, but princijially on the east. It stood originally on seven hills (three inore being afterward enclosed within its walls), and was fifty miles in circumference. The modern city is thiitcen miles, but not more than one third of the enclosed area i." covered with buildings ; the remainder is occupied with ruins, gardens, churches, convents, &c. The ciry has sixteen gates, the four principal ones are, the Porto del Fopolo, the Porta Pia, the Porto Magsiorc, and the Porta San Giovanni. There are innumerable churches, seven of which are styled cathedials. Of these, St. Peter's is the most noble building ever constructed. It is built in the form of a Latin cross, 730 feet in length, 5i0 iu breadth, and 450 in heiglit, covered within and without of the tinest marble. It was begun in ].')06. nud com- pleted in 1620 : the great merit of the work, as a specimen of architecture, belongs to Michael Angelo. The in- terior is decorated with mosaics and pictures, forming a display of brilliant and unexampled magnificence. In front of the church is a fine piazza, of a double colonnade, with an Egyptian obelisk in the centre. Among the palaces, the Vatican, the winter residence of the pope, on the Vatican hill, is most conspicuous. It covers a space of 1,200 feet in length by 1,000 in breadth, and contains nearly 4,000 apartments, filled with a countless number of statues, busts, urns, vases, medals, coins, paintings, books, manuscripts, drawings. nce. Not- withstanding their devastating effects the foot of the mountain is populous, and its sides well-cultivated ; at the summit is alarge plain, in the centre of wh'"h is situat<"d the crater from which rises a continual smoke. Ca- pua is a fine town, the country around very levfl ; th'^ volcanic soil abounds with natural steam hutha and sul- phureous lakes: it contains the tamed Grotto del Couc. and otiier remarkable caves. 374 EUROPE.— ITALY. of Matese, the summits of which are constantly covered with snow ; chief town, Campobasso (population, 10,000). 5th. Abruzzo Ultra, an inland mountainous province (population, 260,000), containing the largest inland lake of the king- dom, Lake Celano ; chief towns, Aquila (population, 8,000), Teramo, and Alba Celano. 6th. Abruzzo Citra, is divided from Abruzzo Ultra by the river Pes- cara, and intersected by two branches of the Apennines (population, 180,000) ; capital, Chieti (poj)ulation, 13,000). 7th. Capitanata (population, 300,000), has a large promontory formed by the branches of the Gargano mountains, a long and isolated ridge, crowned with forests. The olive-trees grow to a remarka- ble size, and the oil of Monte Gargano is celebrated ; capital, Foggia, on the Cervaro, was destroyed by an earthquake in 1732, but rebuilt (population, 22,000). 8th. Terra di Berri, on the coast, is well-cultivated, produces much wine, and manufactures from the lagunes, large quantities of salt for exportation (population, 400,000) ; capital, Bari, a well-fortified seaport, 9th. Terra di Otranto forms the " heel of the boot" of Italy ; a long chain of the Apennines stretches through it from the west almost to Cape Leuca (population, 340,000) ; capital, the fine city of Leuca (population, 15,000) ; Taranto stands in the bay of Taranto ; the venomous spider called the Tarantula is found here, and takes its name from this city. 10th. Basilicata is barren and miserably cultivated ; the inhabitants sustain life chiefly on Indian corn and other vegetables ; capital, Potenza (population, 9,000). 11th. Calabria Citra is famous for wine and oil (population, 390,000) ; capital, Cosenza, situated in a delightful valley. 12th. Calabria Ultra (population, 550,000) ; the Apennines pass from Calabria Citra through this province, and extend to its southern extremity ; capital, Cantan- zaro, on the gulf of Squillace ; the ancient town of Scylla, now called Sciglio, is situated in a terrific-looking ravine, fronting the straits of Messina, at the north entrance of which are the whirlpools of Scylla and Charybdis. The town of Nicastro is embosomed amid orange and olive-groves ; this beautiful province has suffered severely from repeated earthquakes, especially that of 1783, by which many towns were destroyed, and, according to Sir William Hamilton, upward of 40,000 human beings perished. Island of Sicily. — The island of Sicily, anciently called Trinakria, from its triangular form, extends from 12° 45' to 16° 10' east longitude, and from 35° 40' to 38° 15' north latitude. It is separated from the Italian peninsula by the straits of Messina, which are five miles broad. The northern side of the triangle is 215 miles in length ; the southwestern or African side, measuring from Cape Boco to Cape Bassaro, 180 miles, and the eastern side, fronting Greece, 120 miles. According to an official survey, made by Captain Smyth, the area is about 10,500 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Sicily seems to have been first separated from Naples by some convulsion of the earth, and gradually isolated by the encroachments of the sea. The Apennines appear to pass into it under the sea from Calabria, and then to divide into two branches, from which several smaller ridges stretch into the land. Etna or Monte Gibello, does not belong to any of these, but is an entirely insulated truncated cone, which rises to a height of 10,954 feet, and requires three days for its ascent from Catania, which is distant thirty miles from its summit. The country around is divided into the torrid, temperate, and frigid zones, each characterized by the most beautiful, wild, and grand scenery. A forest of oaks and pines form an evergreen girdle round the middle of the mountain. Political Divisions. — Sicily is divided into three provinces, Vald di Maz- zara, Val di Dimone, and Val di Noto, and has been subdivided into seven prov- inces or intendencies, viz. : Palermo, Messina, Catania, Syracuse, Caltanicetta, and Gergenti. In Val di Mazzara is situated Palermo, the capital of the isl.ui'l, in latitude 38° 12' north, longitude 13° 34' east. It stands on a small buy of EUROPE.— ITALY. 375 the same name, near the extremity of a kind of natural amphitheatre formed I)y high mountains. The public buildings are numerous, some of them very beau- tiful. There are many churches ; that of St. Guisippo has marble columns sixty feet high ; and the magnificent cathedral, dedicated to Santa Rosalia, is supported by eighty columns of oriental granite. The two principal streets, which cross each other, are very fine. There is a imiversity, seventy-one con- vents, and eight abbeys. Population, 180,000. Trapani is a fine town, with a good harbor ; corals are fished there. The once famous city of Gergenti is now little better than a dirty village, although possessed of good climate, fertile soil, and the only harbor on the south coast,of Sicily. Population, 14,000. Calta- nicetta is situated in a large and fertile plain. Population, 15,000. Alicata is a coast town, on the mouth of the Salso, whence much corn is exported, although it has no harbor. Sciacca stands on a rock near Cape St. Marco, and was noted in the time of the Romans for warm baths. Marsala, a town near Cape Boco, in famous for the wine of that name. Val di Dimone is a very mount- ainous district. Messina, the capital, in latitude 38° 10 north, longitude ]5<^ 56' east, stands on the strait of Messina, at the foot of the Neptunian mountains. It is the first commercial town of the kingdom, and possesses a harbor which would contain 4,000 ships. The inhabitants are still repairing the ravages of the earthquake of 1783. Bronte, a town to the west of Mount Etna, gives the title of the dukedom conferred upon Lord Nelson. Catania, the ancient Catana, in latitude 37° 28' north, longitude 15° 17' east, was founded seven centuries before Christ. It has a fine university, and spacious streets paved with lava. The surrounding country is considered the richest in Sicily. Population, 45,000. Val di Noto comprises the southeast part of the island. Syracuse, the chief town, lies on an island, and occupies part of the site of the ancient Syracuse, which contained 1,000,000 inhabitants ; its population at present is about 15,000. It was the birthplace of Archimedes and Theocritus. Among the most remark- able antiquities are, the fountain of Arethusa, the ear of Dionysius (a grotto with a strong echo), and the amphitheatre. Modica is a fine town, near which are some famous lakes. Population, 14,000. The neighborhood of Ragusa is noted for honey, and possesses a quarry of bituminous stone. Climate. — The climate of the Two Sicilies is the warmest in Europe. The Sirocco or African wind often prevails, and destroys vegetation. Productive Resources. — Grain, wine, and oil, silk and fruits in abundance. Sicily yields sulphur. Education. — There are three universities in the Two Sicilies, viz., at Na- ples, Palermo, and Catania ; but few means of public instruction exists for the poor. The religion is Roman catholic. " History. — Naples comprehends the countries formerly called Samnium, Apulia, and Magna Grecia, and was origi- nally colonized by some Grecian tribes. In 481 B. C. the whole of Southern Italy fell into the hands of the Romans. After the dissolution of the Roman empire Naples was seized by the Ostrogoths, and Sicily by the Vandals. In 554, these countries were conquered by the Greeks, and in- corporated in the exarchate of Ravenna. Taking advantage Forty Lire, $7.60. of the Weakness of the exarchs, Naples, Benevento, Salerno» Capua and Taranto, gradually became independent states. In 828, the Sara- cens wrested Sicily from the Greeks, and retained possession of it until the middle of the eleventh century, when they were expelled by the Normans, whtc reunited it with Naples, which they had likewise subjugated. In 1130, Roger II. was named, by the pope, king of Naples and Sicily, or the Two Sicilies. Roger's male line becoming extinct, the crown devolved upon Henry VI., em- peror of Germany, through his marriage with the Norman princes, Constantia. 376 EUROPK— ITALY. This dynasty continued until the death of Conrad IV., 1254, when the pope, during the minority of the legitimate heir, bestowed the crown on Charles of Anjou, brother to the French king, who took the young Conradin prisoner and put him to death. Sicily freed herself from French dominion, by the atrocious massacre, known to posterity as the Sicilian vespers of 1282 ; but Naples con- tinued to acknowledge the line of Anjou, until it expired in the infamous queen Joanna, who was murdered by Charles of Durazzo, her successor. The Two Sicilies remained divided until the reign of Charles V., who inherited both crowns, and the reunited kingdom continued for two centuries a Spanish prov- ince notwithstanding the struggles of tbe Sicilians, who, in the celebrated in- surrection of Masaniello, nearly succeeded in subverting the government. By the treaty of Utrecht, in 1714, Naples was given to Austria, and Sicily to the house of Savoy, but shortly after Austria gave Sardinia to Savoy, and received Sicily in exchange. In 1733 the Two Sicilies were again conquered by Spain, and given to the Spanish infant, Don Carlos, who, on inheriting the Spanish throne, in 1759, bestowed them on his third son, Ferdinand, under the condition of their never being annexed to the Spanish crown. The French revolution led Ferdinand into a war with France, and he was compelled to retire to Sicily. In 1799 the French troops were driven from Naples, and Ferdinand returned. In 1805 a treaty of neutrality was concluded between Naples and France, but two months after. Napoleon, on pretence of its having been broken by Ferdi- nand, declared the reigning dynasty at an end, and named his brother Joseph king of Naples, who resigned in 1808, to take the kingdom of Spain, and the crown was transferred to Murat, his brother-in-law. Ferdinand again retired to Sicily, where he remained under the protection of the English until 1815, when I^ retiurned to Naples. He died in 1825, and was succeeded by his son Francis. Ferdinand II., the present king, ascended the throne in 1830. In 1847 an extensive revolution occurred, a constitution was granted the peo- ple, and Sicily declared itself independent. But the king subdued his subjects, revoked the privileges he had granted, and it is now, as it long has been, one of the worst governments in Europe. Ten pauls of Tuscany, 97 cents. Scudo, 93 cents. Twenty grani, 15 cents. Two pauls, 18 cents. Twenty grHui, 15 cents. EUROPE.— BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 377 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN THE MEDITEERANEAN. Gibraltar. — Gibraltar (briefly noticed in the description of Spain), is a well-known promontory or peninsula, three miles long, and seven miles in circumference, situate in SS*^ 9' north latitude, and 5° 21' east longitude, and forms the southern part of the continent of Europe. It is the key to the Med- iterranean, and is not the least remarkable possession of the British crown. Physical Aspect. — Gibraltar mountain or promontory (forming with that of Ceuta, upon the opposite coast of Barbary, the narrow channel which connects the .\tlantic ocean with the Mediterranean) is of an oblong form, in a direction from north to south three miles, a breadth nowhere exceeding three quarters of a mile, and with a circumference of about seven miles. The summit is a sharp, craggy ridge, running from north to south, the greatest elevation being to the southward, where Sugar-Loaf Point rises to 1,439 feet above the sea level. The northern point is connected with the main land, and is perfectly perpendicular, except toward the northwest, where what are called the "lines" intervene, and a narrow passage of flat ground that leads to the low, flat, sandy isthmus or neutral ground, 1,000 yards wide, and the greatest height of which, above the level of the sea, does not exceed ten feet. Gibraltar bay, situate on the west side of the mountain, is nearly eight miles and a half long, and in breadth up- ward of five miles ; the circumference being thirty to forty miles. In 1783, the total number of guns serviceable in the garrison consisted of 663 pieces of artil- lery. There are now more than 1,000 guns mounted. The streets of Gibraltar are well-paved, lighted, and cleansed, and extensive improvements are daily going on. Many of the narrow streets have been widened, several alleys entirely removed, and free ventilation promoted by all possible means. Climate. — The Andalusian atmosphere has long been celebrated for its sa- lubrity, and with some exceptions, of late years the climate of Gibraltar is de- cidedly healthy, except for hard-drinkers and phlegmatic constitutions. The temperature is warm. Snow rarely falls, and ice is seen no thicker than a dollar ; but the winds and the rain affect more acutely the animal frame than the solar heat. Population. — In 1791, 2,885 ; in 1852, about 12,000, but very fluctuating in amount. The inhabitants are of many nations — English, Spaniards, Moor- ish, Italian, Greek, &c. There are several churches and chapels. The schools are good, and there is a valuable garrison library. History. — Whether the Phoenician navigators, Carthaginian merchants, or Roman conquerors, ever settled on the "Rock," does not appear; and it is prob- able that the natural strength of the position was first noticed in the beginning of the eighth century, when the Saracens and Moors invaded and made them- selves masters of Spain. In 1462 Gibraltar was recaptured from the Moors, who had retained possession of the fortress for 748 years. In 1704, when Sir George Rooke was sent into the Mediterranean with a large fleet to assist Charles archduke of Austria in recovering the crown of Spain, it was resolved ta attempt the conquest of Gibraltar, which was accomplished, and Gibraltar has ever since continued in the hands of the English. Malta and GrOZO. — Malta, with its adjacent island of Gozo, is situated between Sicily and the African goast, in the mouth of the great bay formed by Cape Bon and Cape Razat, in 35° 34' north latitude, and 14° 34' east longitude, and is the most southerly island in Europe. Valetta is the capital. It was known 1800 years ago, under the name of Melite or Melita, Pliny and Strabo both mentioning it under this denomination, an ' there is no doubt 378 EUROPE.— BRITISn POSSESSIONa that Melita, and not an islet on the Illyrian shore of the Adriatic, was the site of St. Paul's shipwreck. It appears to have been at successive periods in the possession of the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, knights of St. John, and French ; the latter were driven out by the English and Maltese in 1800, and the island has since been occupied by the English. Physical Aspect. — Malta was formerly placed by ail geographers in Africa, but was declared to be in Europe, as regards the service of soldiery, by a British act of parliament. The shape is an irregular oval, which has been compared by some to a fish. The island, in fact, stretches east and west, and is much indented with bays and inlets of the sea on the side which corresponds with the coast of Sicily, while that which looks toward the African coast is nearly a continual curve. The extreme length of the island is about eighteen miles, and its greatest breadth, from north to south, ten miles, and its circumfer- ence from sixty to seventy miles. Cape Bon, the nearest point of the African continent, is almost 200 miles distant in a southwesterly direction. Malta, comparatively speaking, is low, the highest land being no more than 1,200 feet above the level of the sea, and can not be discerned until the mariner approaches within twenty to thirty miles of the shore. The hill and dale surface is beau- tifully diversified, and the natural industry of the Maltese has converted an appa- rently barren rock into a very picturesque country. As a general feature, it may be observed, that the island is furrowed with valleys running from south- west to northeast, parallel to each other, and becoming longer and deeper as they extend from the eastern and western extremity. The southern shore con- sists of high or shelving rocks, without creeks or ports, or where a landing could be effected. To the east there is the port of Marsa Scala, and toward the southwest that of Marsa Sirocco, capable of containing a great number of vessels. On the west there are two bays, called Antifaga and Magiarro. The port of St. Paul is on the coast opposite Sicily, and is so called fron) a tradition that the vessel in which St. Paul was sent prisoner to Rome was driven in thither by a storm. St, George's port, toward the north,, is not far distant from that of St. Paul ; St. Julian's bay is on the same shore. Gozo (pronounced Godso), the island adjacent to Malta, and under the same government, is situated to the westward of that island, distant thence in its nearest point about three miles, though some parts of the strait is five miles broad. Gozo is ten miles in length, five in breadth, with an area of twenty-seven square miles. It contains no town, the inhabitants being scattered in six villages, protected by a strong fort, Robato, in the centre of the island. The surface of the island is very agreeably diversified with hill and dale, some of the more elevated parts in the northwest being nearly 2,000 feet above the sea. A chain of these ele- vations encircle the island, embracing a beautiful series of fertile valleys, sepa- rated by gently rising grounds ; the summits of some of the mountains are flat- tened, and form truly table-lands ; others are rounded or mamillary ; and there are four or five remarkably detached hills, perfectly conical in shape. Population. — The population is about 120,000 in Malta and in Gozo. The Maltese are generally of middle stature, with robust frames, and small hands and feet ; the hair black, and sometimes inclined to frizzle; lips frequently thick, and skin swarthy among the common people where exposed to the atmo- sphere ; the hair dark and bright, and, among the higher classes of females, of a remarkable fullness. Ionian Islands. — The septinsular union of the Ionian isles is situate in the Ionian sea, between 36° and 40° south latitude, and 20° and 23° east lon- gitude, extending from the Albanian coast to the southern extremity of the Morean peninsula. The islands would appear to have been early colonized, remained for many years as separate states, were partly in the possession of EUROPE.— BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 379 Corinth, next in alliance with the Greeks, then with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, during his invasions of Italy ; subsequently Rome gaA'e law to all the little Gre- cian republics ; and on the full of the eastern empire, the Venetian repui)lic afforded protection to, and claimed the sovereignty of the islands. By a secret agreement between Alexander and Napoleon, who had then his eyes on Tur- key, the islands passed under the dominion of the latter. During the conti- nental war, England took possession of several of the islands, and expelled the French, and at the peace of 1815, the septinsular union was placed under the protection of Great Britain, with whom they have since remained. The seat of government of the septinsular union is located at Corfu, in the parallel of 32° 30^ north latitude, and the meridian of 19° 50' east longitude, a little to the eastward of the mouth of the Adriatic. On the south and west it is bounded by the Mediterranean, and on the north and east by the channel which separates it from Albania, or the ancient Epirus. The length of the island of Corfu is about thirty-five miles ; its breadth, at the northeastern extremity, about 12 miles ; whence it gradually lessens until it terminates in its most southerly point, or Cape Bianco. The aspect of Corfu is decidedly mountainous, particu- larly toward the Mediterranean, the part opposite the Albanian coast being of less elevation, and presenting a hilly and sloping country. A chain of mount- ains runs throughout the whole length of the island from north to south, the highest point, Santa Dacca, being estimated at 2,000 feet above the sea ; another range runs from east to west across the island, appearing like a continuation of the Albanian or Acroceraunian range, prolonged from Corfu to the mainland. Ceph.^lonia, although second in rank to Corfu," is the largest of the islands composing the septinsular union. It is situated in 38° 27' north latitude, 20° 32' east longitude, having Santa Maura about six miles to the northward, Zante eight miles to the southward, and the west coast of the Morea twenty- four miles distant. The area is 348 square miles, the extreme length thirty-two, extreme breadth, eighteen, and the circumference, following the coast, 150 miles. Cephalonia is extremely rugged and mountainous. The general direction of the mountains is from south to north. At the southern ex- tremity of the range, or opposite to the coast of Zante, is the highest mountain in the Ionian islands, the mountain ^Enos of antiquity, the modern Black mountain, or Montagna Negra, 3,625 feet above the level of the sea. Zante, ten miles distant from Cephalonia, has an area of 156 square miles. From its exquisite beauty, this island is by common consent called "Zante, il fiore di Levante." The aspect is decidedly mountainous, and occupying three fifths of the island, the elevation varying from 500 to 1,300 feet above the sea. The city is yery imposing in its appearance, when viewed from the sea. The other Ionian islands are, Ithaca, Santa Maura, Paxo, and Cerigo. The area of the whole seven isles is 1,097 square miles, the popidation about 220,000, their language and religion that of the Greeks ; and the staple products of their soil consist chiefly of currants, silk, wine, fruits, olives, and grain. Crete. — Crete (called also Candia, from its principal port) is a celebrated island of the Mediterranean, belonging to the Grecian Archipelago, of which it forms the southern boundary. Its length from east to west is about 160 miles, with a breadth varying from six to fifty miles. Its area is about 3,200 square miles, with a population of 160,000, of whom 100,000 are native Greeks, 44,000 Turks, and the remainder Hellenes, Jews, &c. Crete is almost wholly covered with mountain ranges, which abound with grottoes and caverns, some of which are extensive and celebrated. The country is generally healthy, and subject to few epidemic diseases. The chief products are oil, silk, wine, raisins, wool, oranges, lemons, wax, honey, linseed, and almonds. The island at present be- longs to the viceroy or sovereign of Egypt. 380 EUROPE.— GREECR GREECE. Five drachmi, 80 cents. The modern kingdom of Greece, as settled by the European protocol, of the 3d of February, 1830, and subsequently by another frontier line, extends from the gulf of Arta to the gulf of Volo, or from 20° 40' to 26° 30' east longitude, and from 36° 15' to 39"^ 10' north latitude; the Othrys chain of mountains forming the northern boundary, and the Mediterranean the eastern, southern, and western. The country is so much intersected by gulfs and inlets of the sea, that it is difficult to state the land area; the best estimate is that of Mr. M'Gregor, who considers that modern Greece, comprising the whole of the peninsula of the Morea (the ancient Peloponnesus), the island of Negropont (formerly Egrito or Euboea), conti- nental Negropont (or the ancient Attica), Lepanto, and the whole region called Livadia, the Cyclades, and Sporades, contain about 18,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Ridges of mountains and isolated peaks capped with snow, table-lands, fertile valleys, numerous rivulets or streams, inlets of the sea and harbors on every part of the coast, which is studded with islands, constitute the principal features. Half the surface is composed of mountains, and not two fifths of the country is capable of cultivation. Bare of wood, devoid of enclo- sures, and with few indications of long-organized agricultural progress, the as- pect is dreary and desolate, presenting the traces of a country once thickly peopled and highly cultivated ; but in picturesque scenery it is superior to every part of Europe. The famed Mount Parnassus is a peak of the Pindaric chain; Mount Helicon is separated from Parnassus by the plain of Livadia ; its graceful form and beautiful slopes, induced the Grecian poets to suppose it a fitting abode for the muses. The " Aonian bower" still preserves its picturesque beauty, and the fountain " Hippocrene," fabled to have been struck from the earth by the hoof of Pegasus, is distant two and a half miles from it. Rivers, Gulfs, &c. — The rivers are small. Those worthy of note, from their historical associations, are the Iris (known in ancient history as the Eu- rotas), and the Rofia (anciently the Alpheus), in the Morea ; and the Aspro Po-^ tamos (formerly the Achelous), the Hellada (anciently the Sperchius), and the Mauro Potamos (the ancient Cephissus). On the western coast are the gulfs of Arta (Ambracian gulf), of Patras, and of Lepanto (Corinthian gulf) ; on the south are the gulfs of Coron (Messenian), and Colokythia (Laconian) ; on the east are the gulfs of Napoli (Argolic), iEgina (Saronic), and Volo (Pelasgic). The gulfs of Lepanto and iEgina, penetrating far inland, form the peninsula of the Morea, which is connected with the main land by the isthmus of Corinth. The strait of Euboea (Euripus) separates the island of Negropont from the main land. Islands. — The islands of Greece lie principally in the Archipelago. The more important of them are, Euboea or Negropont, Hydra, Spezzia, Poros, iEgina, Augistra, Salamis, Scopelos, Helidromia, Sciathos, Scyros, Syra, Tinos, Mico- nos, Cea, Thermia, Naxos, Paros and Antiparos, Siphnos, Seriphos, Cimolos, Milo, Polycandros, Sicinos, los, Amorgos, Santorin, Anaphe, and Astypalcea. Climate. — The summer is long, and extremely hot; the winter short, but severe. The range of the thermometer is from 28° to 104'^ Fahrenheit; mean amount of temperature 64°. Chief Cities. — Modern Athens is built on a part of the site of the ancient EUROPE— GREECE. 381 city. Previous to the revolution it had 1,200 houses, which were destroyed during the war of independence. In 1834 the present city was buih, and con- sists of several good streets, a palace, university, hospital, barracks, and about 20,000 Greeks, Germans, French, Italians, Russians, Armenians, &c. Port Leone, the ancient Piraeus, the port of Athens, has a population of 2,000. Other towns are, Napoli di Romania, the ancient capital (a place of 5,000 in- habitants), Leparto (the ancient Naupactus), Missolonghi (famed for the sieges it sustained during the war of independence, and as the deathplace of Lord Byron), Corinth (one of the finest cities of ancient Greece), Navarino, Sparta (long renowned in history), Egripo, Syra, Arna, Spezzia, Antiparos, Milo, and Egina ; the latter three celebrated for their antiquities. Productive Resources. — Among the agricultural products are, wheat, bar- ley, maize, rye, oats, rice, millet, peas, beans, tares, sesamum, anise, cotton, and tobacco. Grapes or currants, almonds, dates, melons, oranges, and other southern fruits, grow in the open fields, and form a considerable part of the subsistence of the inhabitants. Culinary vegetables are in great variety, and the forests produce the oak, the cork-tree, pine, ash, aloe, wild olive, chestnut, various dye-woods and plants, and a vast variety of flowers and aromatic herbs. Manufactures exist only to a limited extent. Silk is produced in considerable quantities. Coarse cloths, furniture, implements of husbandry, &c., are made to some extent. Commerce. — The admirable location of Greece, with its noble bays, give it superior natural facilities for commerce ; and although its progress has been re- tarded by the unsettled state of its affairs, it is beginning to assume its proper commercial position. Its exports consist principally of raw produce, as cotton, corn, tobacco, olive-oil, timber, wool, silk, honey, currants, figs, hides, drugs, dyestuffs ; with some wine, cheese, live stock, and the coarse manufactures of the country. The imports from Western Europe consist of manufactured goods. West India and American produce, and peltry ; and from Turkey, coffee, flax, rice, drugs, &c. Education. — The government is making considerable effort for the instruc- tion of the people, in which it is aided by Christian missionaries from the United States, England, and other countries. The university of Athens has thirty professors, of whom eight are German, and the rest Greek. The lecture-rooms are crowded. The gymnasium has eight professors, and there is a high school attached, with four classes. In the different towns there are four gymnasiums, twelve primary and 180 Lancasterian schools, supported partly by the govern- ment, and partly by the communes. There are also commercial schools, and seminaries for the education of the Greek women, whom the Turkish system had left so long neglected. It is to be hoped, therefore, that ere long the lament of the noble poet will cease to be applicable to this fair country, — "'Tis Greece — but living Greece no more." Religion. — The Greek church owes its origin to the division of the Roman empire into Oriental or Greek, and Occidental or Western. The bishops of Constantinople and Rome, as representatives of the Greek and Latin churches, in the fourth and fifth centuries, struggled for supremacy ; and in the latter part of the fifth century, Felix II., patriarch of Rome, excommunicated the patriarchs of Constantinople and of Alexandria. A reunion took place in 519, but the schism was renewed, and another excommunication took place in 862. In 1277, a synod was held at Constantinople to reunite the Latin and Greek churches, but in 1281 Pope Martin excommunicated the Greek emperor Michael, and the schism of the two churches has ever since continued. The Greek church recognises, in addition to the Bible, the traditions and doctrines approved by the Fathers, as settled at the Nicene, Constantinopolitan, Ephesian, Chal- 382 EUROPE.— GREECE cedonian, and TruUan councils. Its tenets are so obligatory, that the denial of any is declared to involve the loss of salvation. Like the Roman church it has seven sacraments — baptism, chrism, the eucharist, penance, ordination, mar- riage, and supreme unction. The Holy Ghost is supposed to proceed from the Father only. The doctrines of purgatory, vv^orks of supererogation, indulgences, and dispensations to the living, are rejected. Neither the pope nor any one else is acknowledged as the visible vicar of Christ on earth ; no carved, sculp- tured, or molten images are permitted, but paintings of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints, inlaid with precious stones, are sanctioned. Relics, graves, and crosses, are held sacred ; fasts are numerous, and preaching and catechising constitute but a small part of the church service, which is almost entirely made up of forms. The clergy, with the exception of the monks, and of the higher clergy, who are chosen from the monks, are permitted to marry once, but must not espouse a widow. Marriage of the laity is not indissoluble, as in the Romish church. Instrumental music is excluded from the Greek service, and the lit- urgy consists of passages of Scripture, prayers and legends of the saints, the creed, &c. The lower clergy can not rise higher than protopopes ; the bishops are chosen from the monks, and they rise to the dignities of archbishops, me- tropolitans, and patriarchs. Population. — Greece must formerly have been densely peopled. The whole of modern Greece probably contained about 8,000,000 inhabitants in the days of its glory, and even when subdued by the Turks must have been popu- lous. In 1770 no less than 300,000 of the inhabitants of the Morea were put to the sword by their tyrants, for an attempted revolt at the instigation of Rus- sia. According to a statistical government commission, the population in 1836 was — for Eastern Greece, 175,800 Greeks and 15,000 Turks; Western Greece, 116,700 Greeks and 4,500 Turks; Morea, 450,000 Greeks and 40,000 Turks — total, 742,500 Greeks, and 59,500 Turks : allowing 200.000 inhabit- ants for the islands, the total population of the kingdom of Greece is about 1,000,000. In character, the Greeks possess the same extraordinary antipa- thies, versatility, cunning, and boasting, gallantry and patriotism, so strangely blended in their ancestors. The same slightly-moulded but manly forms, beau- tiful symmetry, and expressive features, that distinguished a race whose pro- genitors, within a limited space and period of time, have occupied a larger and more interesting portion of history than any other nation. Government. — An hereditary monarchy, a senate or legislative body, chosen every three years by the people, and an executive or judiciary body. The country is divided into eparchies or provinces. In the communes a demogoronte pn-siiU's over every thousand families. History. — The rise, progress, and decline of the different Grecian states as kingdoms, oligarchies, and republics ; their contests with each other; the rivalry of Athens and Sparta ; the numerous colonies founded on the coasts of Europe and Asia Minor; the Persian war; the invasion of Xerxes for the exter- mination of the liberties of Greece ; the naval skill of the Athe- 4 diacimii, 8 cents, niaus ; the devoted heroism of the Spartans ; the Peloponnesian war of twenty-seven 5'ears' duration ; the Amphictyonic councils (to which may be traced the origin of modern representative institutions) ; the supremacy of Philip of Macedon, and his son, Alexander the Great ; and the genius, the elo- quence, the patriotism, the probity, and refined intellectual power of Greece, as exhibited in Socrates, Demosthenes, Draco, Lycurgus, Themistocles, Leonidas, Miltiades, Amphictyon, Alcibiades, Epaminondas, Aristides, Phocion, Democri- tus. Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, Sophocles, Thucydides, Aristophanes, Phidias, and other great minds, are too well known to need detail in a work of this na- ture, where a limited space admits only of the grouping of general statements. EUROPE.— GREECE. 383 Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, while arranging his plans for the gov- ernment of the gigantic empire established by his father and himself in Asia, as well as throughout Greece, died at Babylon in his thirty-third year, B. C. 323, and the vast territories subjected to his sway were distributed among his generals. Macedonia and Greece fell to Cassandar, but he and his successors being unable to maintain supremacy, their weakness gave rise to the Achaian and iEtolian leagues. The former comprised Athens, Corinth, and several smaller states ; but the divisions in this league, and the generally distracted condition of Greece, caused its easy conquest by the Romans, who, B. C. 148, made Macedonia a Roman province, and B. C. 146, took Corinth, and finally destroyed all the free states of Greece, which was made a province of the empire under the title of Achaia. The annexation of Greece to Rome was injurious to the permanence of the latter as a dominant power ; the once free land of Greece became the theatre on which ambitious men struggled for superiority, and the contest for the dominion of the world be- tween Caesar and Pompey was decided on the plains of Pharsalia. The Greeks, possessed of the most capacious minds then extant among mankind, who had refined their idolatry into a system of mystical types, but who still preserved a statue to the "Unknown God," whom they worshipped with fear, were well adapted for the introduction of the "new religion ;" and among the Greek gen- tiles the apostles planted the earliest Christian churches. Greek missionaries bore the glad tidings of the gospel to distant lands ; attested the sincerity of their faith by martyrdom ; as Iconoclasts everywhere opposed idol worship, on the ruins of a pagan state founded a Christian empire ; and the gradual exten- sion of the faith of the cross over Europe, was followed by the rapid progress of civilization. On the downfall of the eastern empire, by the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, the Moslems, who had previously occu- pied Macedonia, Thessaly, Thrace, &c., extended their conquests over Greece Proper, the Morea, the Archipelago, &c., which had been successively ruled from 1204 to 1460 by the French, the Spaniards, and the Venetians. In 1687 the Venetians recovered the Morea, but in 1715 the Turks regained the mas- tery, and with the exception of a few mountain tribes, such as the Mainotes in the Morea, and the Souliotes in Epirus; the Moslems completely subjugated Greece, and divided into sandshaks or provinces, which were governed oppres- sively by pachas or beys, sent from Constantinople. Soon after the congress of Vienna in 1814-15 the Greeks began their efforts for independence. At first the Turks defeated the Greeks in every engagement, and committed on them the most barbarous atrocities, and in 1821 whole bauds of the gallant pa- triots were exterminated ; but in January, 1822, the political existence and inde- pendence of all Greece was established. "Freedom or death" was the cry of Greece, and nobly was it sustained in the campaigns and actions, by land and sea, with their oppressors, in 1822-25, when the sympathies of Europe were, on the violation of an armistice on the part of the Moslems, at length aroused ; the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, by the destruction of the Turkish navy, at the battle of Navarino, aided the struggles of the Greeks, and finally assisted in procuring the full recognition of independence. In this glorious struggle Lord Byron nobly participated, and died of fever at Missolon- ghi. Count Capo d'Istrias was chosen president, with monarchical powers ; but his despotic conduct led to his assassination in October, 1831. The crown was then offered to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who refused it; and Prince Otho, son of the king of Bavaria, and a minor, was elected king of Greece, and is the , present sovereign. 384 EUROPE.— TURKEY. Real of 20 piastres, 93 cents. TURKEY (IN EUROPE). This fine country, which forms a portion of the dominions of the sultan, extends from the gulf of Arta in 38° 25' to Moldavia, in 48=^20' north lati- tude, and between 16*^ and 30^ east longitude. In length, from north to south, it is about 700 miles, and from east to west about 600 miles, covering an area of 190,000 square miles of some of the richest territory of Europe. The military frontiers of Aus- tria form the northern boundaries ; Dalmatia and the Adriatic the western ; Greece, the Archipelago, and the sea of Marmora, the southern ; and the Black sea, the eastern frontiers. The Bosphorus, on which the capital, Constantinople,* is built, is the key of the Black sea ; and the Dardanelles or Hellespont, which separates Europe from Asia, forms the eastern portal of the Mediterranean. Physical Aspect. — European Turkey is diversified by mountains, valleys, forests, plains, rivers, and arms of the sea. Rumelia or Romania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Bosnia, are separated by numerous chains of mountains branching from the Balkan ridge, which intersect the country from the Black sea to the Adriatic. Wallachia and Moldavia, south and east of the Carpathian mount- ains, consist of a vast low plain, watered by the numerous tributaries of the Danube. The whole country between the Balkan and Carpathian mountains declines toward the Black sea. The soil is fertile and productive. Mountains. — The Balkan run east and west, and have eight principal branches, three of which are on the north side of the chain. Orbelus, the highest peak of the Balkan, is 9,660 feet in height. The Hellenic mountains run from north to south, and divide Macedonia from Albania, and were anciently known as Pindus, Citharon. and Parnes. The Acroceraunian range rise directly from the seashore on the coast of Albania, to the height of 4,000 feet, and op- posite Corfu have a magnificent appearance. The Dinaric Alps branch ofl" from the point where the Balkan and Hellenic unite, range to the northwest, dividing Bosnia from the Adriatic provinces. The Carpathians belong properly to Hungary. Some of these mountain ranges are covered with fine forests, and are of calcareous formation, and abound in deep ravines and wild scenery. Rivers and Lakes. — The rivers are, the Danube, the mouth of which • Constantinople, in 41° 12' north latitude, is most favorably situated for the capital of a great empire. The city is built upon hills, three fourths of it face the sea, and appears from a distance an Immense nssemblHge of cupolas, mosques, and minarets. The houses painted of different colors, interspersed with gardens and tine mulberry, acacia, palm, and fig-trees ; the placid sea covered with thousands of vessels and gondolas, and the far-famed mountains of Giants, rising from the Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus, all contribute lo produce an effect not to be found in any other city in the world. There are in Constantinople 14 imperial and 200 ordinary mosques, 300 mesjids or chapels, 80 bazars (which are a distinguishing characteristic of the city), ."jOO 'ouiitains, 100,000 houses, and nearly 900,000 inhabitants. The seraglio or imperial palace occupies the point of the jirom- ontory, and consists of a group of buildings of various forms and dimensions, in the midst of numerous courts and gardens, the whole being surrounded by a high wall. Scutari may be considered a suburb of Const.mtino- ple, and is delightfully situated on the opposite or Asiatic coast ; it contains 30,000 inhabitants, and is the hish road for all caravans proceeding from Europe to Persia, Syria, Ai'abia, &c. Pera, where the fon>ign ministers and Europeans generally rcs'de, presents a singular variety of the costume, language, and manners of all the Europeans nations. The harboi* or " Golden Horn" of Constantinople is 4.000 fathoms lonir, 3,000 broad, and ships may anchor close to the houses. The Bosphorus or canal of Constantinople is seven leagiii"s long, with n depth of fifteen to twenty fathoms. It is strongly defended by fortresses, as are also the Dardanelles. The re- ceptacles for the dead are not the least interesting or important objects in Censtantinople ; they are far more picturesqui^ and commodious than those of the living, and occupy hardly less extent of ground. The ix'oi>le of every creed have sejiarate cemeteries. Those of the Moslems are distinguished by the dark cypresses with which they are planted, and by their turbaned stones of white marble. A cypress is always planted over each mussulman'a grave ; and as no grave is opened a second time, their burial-grounds have become vast forest.s, extending for miles around the city and its suburbs. Multitudes of turtle-doves frequent these clooniy abodf-s, and hold a divided swny with bats and owls. Burying within the city is strictly prohibited. The city has fre- quently bi'i'ii (levn^tated by the plague and fires ; during the months of July and August, 1852, more than 6,000 buildings were burut. EUROPE.— TURKEY. 385 Russia now commands, by the possession of Bessarabia ; the Mariza, which waters Rumelia, and flows into the ^gean sea ; the Drin, Varda, and other streams that contribute to render Turkey one of the best-irrigated countries in Europe. The lakes are few and small. Those of Ocherida, twenty miles long and eight wide, Scutari, and Yanena, are the chief. There are numerous small lakes in Macedonia and Thessaly. Climate. — The climate of Turkey is temperate, naturally well adapted for man, and its rich soil is capable of yielding abundantly every vegetable prod- uct ; but the filthy habits, sensuality, and indolence, resulting from opium-smoking, have caused its cities to be seats of pestilence ; and a country that might have been the very garden of Europe is, in many parts, wild and uninhabitable. Provinces. — Rumelia is divided into five districts. 1. Gallipoli, compre- hends the southern part of ancient Thrace, and extends along the coast, from Constantinople to the gulf of Lagos, adjoining Macedonia ; area 9,600 square miles. Gallipoli city (population 15,000), at the entrance of the Dardanelles, is well fortified. 2. Visa, the most mountainous part of Thrace ; Constantino- ple, the capital of the empire, is in this sandshak. 3. Kirkillissia, north of Visa. 4. Phillipopolis, north of Gallipoli, and separated from Macedonia by the Despoto Dagh mountains, is a fertile district. The city of Phillipopolis, in 42° 10' north latitude, has a population of 30,000, chiefly Grecian. 5. Tcher- men, between Kirkillissia and Phillipopolis, is a beautiful and well-watered district ; Adrianople, the chief town, was founded by the emperor Adrian, and is beautifully situated on the Maritza river, in the centre of a naturally rich country, and is more Turkish than any other town in the empire ; population about 100,000, of whom one half are Turks, 30,000 Greeks, and 20,000 Arme- nians and Jews. Macedonia, between Rumelia and Albania, is one of the finest provinces of European Turkey. It yields in abundance grain, oil, wine, silk, and cotton ; the Scardus and Pangeus mountains traverse the country, the silver mines of the Pangeus are still celebrated. Mount Athos is formed by a peninsula chain of mountains twenty-four miles long and twelve broad ; the height above the gulf of Salonica is 8,000 feet. Salonica, the capital of Mace- donia, is second to Constantinople in commercial importance. Its inhabitants are computed at 100,000, of whom 50,000 are Jews, 30,000 Turks, and 20,000 Greeks and other Franks. The city has an imposing appearance with its domes and monuments. Thessaly, separated from Macedonia by a branch of the famed Olympus, and divided from Albania by a part of the Pindus chain, is a mount- ainous region with deep valleys, such as Tempe, and plains that appear like dried-up lakes ; Larissa is the capital, population 20,000. Albania extends from the gulf of Arta, northerly along the Adriatic, in length about 270, and in breadth 50 to 100 miles. It is a picturesque region, has been the theatre of incessant revolutions, from being divided into several independent pachalics, the whole of which were brought by the pacha of Janina (known as Ali Pacha) under his sway, who had an army of 30,000 men, and only yielded a nominal allegiance to the Porte. Bosnia is in many parts mountainous, but has exten- sive fruitful plains producing abundance of food. One half the population are Mohammedans, one fourth Greeks, 16,000 gipsies, 2,000 Jews, 1,500 Ar- menians, and the remainder chiefly Roman catholics. The population is nearly a million ; the pure Bosnians, like the Servians, are of the Sclavonian race, and profess the Greek faith. Bosnia Serai, the capital, has 55,000 inhabitants, and a considerable trade. Servia, which is a tributary province of the Ottoman em- pire, is mountainous, with fertile valleys. The inhabitants, chiefly Greeks, rear large quantities of cattle and hogs ; the vine, hemp, cotton, and tobacco, are cultivated ; the hogs, which in summer fatten on acorns, are fed in winter on maize, and exported to the number of 250,000 annually. Oak timber, and also iron, coal, copper, and lead abound. Belgrave, the capital, on the Save, is well 25 386 EUROPE.— TURKEY. situated for trade. The Servians are the descendants of the ancient Sclavo- nians, whose character and manners they retain. They are described as a high- spirited and majestic people, in number about a million. Bulgaria province comprises the pachalics of Varna, Silistria, and Sophia ; the inhabitants are chiefly industrious Greeks. The country is well-wooded, and with the excep- tion of a large district between Sistora and the Balkan chain, well adapted for cultivation. Varna, the chief town, is a place of considerable trade, and ex- ports largely wheat, corn, barley, pulse, tallow, wool, wax, hides, and sheep. Productive Resources. — The most valuable fruits grow spontaneously, and the crops of grain are larger than needed for home consumption. Among the productions are oil, wine, cotton, tobacco, figs, citron, pomegranates, lemons, oranges, date-palm, banana, sugarcane, indigo, &c. Copper and lead are the chief mineral products. Among the manufactures of Turkey are carpets, silk and cotton fabrics, iirearms, brass and iron works, &c. Commerce. — The commerce is small, considering the great resources of the empire, and the liberality of the Turkish tariff", which admits foreign goods at a very moderate per-centage ; there are, however, export duties, monopolies, and exactions by pachas, &;c., which materially impede trade. The imports are principally woollen and cotton goods. The exports are horses, beeves, hides, wool, corn, oil, fruits, gums, drugs, wine, tobacco, opium, silk, carpets, leather, metals, dyes, &c. The principal ports are Constantinople, Adrianople, and Salonica. Education. — Public schools are established in most considerable Turkish towns, and medresses or colleges, with public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the principal mosques. But, owing to the total want of effi- cient masters, and of good elementary books, the instruction afforded by these establishments is of comparatively little value. In schools the pupils are taught to read and write the first elements of the Turkish language ; the class-books being the Koran, and some commentaries upon it. In the medresses, which are the colleges or schools of the ulemes, the pupils are instructed in Arabic or Persian, and learn to decipher and write the diflferent kinds of Turkish charac- ters ; instruction in a species of philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and morals founded on the Koran ; and these, with theology, Turkish law, and a few notions on his- tory and geography, complete the course of study. It must, however, be borne in mind, that Turkish schools are mostly attended by boys only, education not being considered necessary to a girl. Population. — The population is very vaguely estimated. Turkey in Europe is stated to contain about 11,000,000 inhabitants, on an area of 190,000 square miles, independent of the several valuable islands in the Archipelago, belong to Turkey. The inhabitants are varied in race and character. The pure Turks do not constitute a moiety of the population, the remainder being composed of Tartars, Armenians, Albanians, Greeks, &c. Mr. Urquhart estimates the Mus- sulman population at 4,500,000. There are about 200,000 gipsies, 250,000 Jews, and 100,000 Armenians. There are in Constantinople about 600,000 Mohammedans, 120,000 Greeks, 90,000 Armenians, 50,000 Jews, and 2,000 Franks. The Turks have degenerated from their former manly character ; sunk in sensuality and sloth, they will probably ere long be driven out of Eu- rope, or subjected to some dominant race. Government. — The government is absolute; the sultan is at the head of all temporal and spiritual power, and he is the pope of the Mohammedans through- out the world. Two lieutenants represent the power of the sultan, the mufti in religion and laws ; the grand vizier in civil and military affairs. Under these there are different functionaries for foreign affairs, finance, trade, &c., who form the divan or supreme council of the empire. The provinces are governed by pachas, nominated by the sultan ; each province has its municipality, and local EUROPR— TURKEY. 387 laws, taxes and customs, and to this may be ascribed the preservation nf the empire when it has seemed on the eve of irretrievable ruin. History. — The Turks, a Tartaric or Scythian race, migrated from the steppes of Asia and the Siberian regions in quest of a more fertile country and more genial clime. The Turks, from their bravery, were chosen as the body- guard of the califs, or successors of Mohammed. They embraced the new religion, acquired great influence, and their chiefs gradually enthroned them- selves in the dominions of those whom they were hired to serve. In the ninth and tenth centuries Turkish dynasties reigned in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt ; from the tenth to the twelfth centuries, the Turkish Gasnevides acquired do- minions in Persia and in India ; other tribes overran Asia ; and the Mongols, a branch of the Tartar stem, conquered China. Osman or Othoman, a chief of the Oguzian Turkomans, aided by robbers, slaves, and captives, conquered sev- eral provinces belonging to the Roman empire in Asia Minor, founded the Otto- man empire, and took the title of sultan in 1300. Orchan, his son, established the seat of his dominion at Brussa, in Bithynia, in 1328, married the daughter of the Grecian emperor Kantakuzenos, and assumed the title of padiska or prince. Solyman I., son of Orchan, in 1355, made himself master of the straits which divide Europe from Asia; entered Europe in 1355, and seized Gallipoli and Sestos. Amurath I. established the seat of his empire at Adrianople, ex- pelled the troops from Thrace, and defeated the Bulgarians and Servians. Baj- azet, his successor, added largely to the European Turkish dominions ; and his power became so formidable that an army of 130,000 men, under Sigismund, king of Hungary, alone prevented his seizing Constantinople. The capture of Bajazet, and the destruction of the greater part of his army, by Tamerlane or Timour the Tartar, for a time checked the Turkish power in Europe. Amu- rath II. plundered Macedon, Bceotia, &c., conquered Servia, and besieged Bel- grade, where it is said he lost 150,000 men in one attack, when he was obliged to raise the siege ; but in 1444, the Christians suffered a severe defeat from him at Varna. By the aid of cannon the Turks conquered the whole Pelopo- nessus, and under Mohammed II. besieged Constantinople with 400,000 men, on the 6th of April, 1453. The Greek emperor Constantine bravely defended himself with only 9,000 regular troops, but on the 29th of May he fell in a desperate assault, the imperial city was taken, and became for three days a scene of dreadful slaughter ; thus, 1123 years after Constantine the Great had removed the seat of Christian empire from Rome to Byzantium, it fell a prey to the Mohammedans, and became the chief seat of their religion and power. Successive sultans added to the Ottoman dominions in Europe and in Asia, de- spite the whole power of Christendom ; and but for the gallantry of the Vene- tians, the Hungarians, and the Poles, the Turks would probably have overrun Europe, as they did a large part of Asia and of Africa. Peter the Great, of Russia, endeavored to reduce the power of Turkey, and his descendnuts have gradually succeeded, by conquest and diplomatic intrigue, in materially dimin- ishing the strength and power of the Ottoman empire. Russia has long coveted Constantinople as the seat of empire, which, if obtained, would give her the control of the Mediterranean ; and she would probably ere this have succeeded, l|ad not the jealousy of rival European powers prevented it. TURKISH EMPERORS OR SULTANS. Osman or Othoman L1296 Cactncup U8l OHinan t 1617 O^man II 1754 Orchan 1325 Xrniiu 1481 Must«pha 1 ]fi22 MuPtnpha HI 17.'i7 Amurath I 1359 Bajazet II 1461 Aniurnth IV 162.) Achmet IV 1774 Bajazet 1 1388 Silim 1 1512 Il)rahim }CAO .Selim III 1789 Isa B'-lis 1397 Sniymnn II 1.520 Mohnmmrd IV IfiSS MiiFtapha IV 1807 Solyman 1403 .Solim II 15fi6 .Solvmim III 1687 Mah. Khnu II 1808 Musa 14)0 Amurath III. 1594 Aehmi'tll 1691 Abdul-Medjid 1839 Mohammed 1 1413 Mohammed III 1595 Muctapha II 1695 Amurath II 1421 Achmet 1604 Achmet III 1703 Mohammed U. 1451 Mustapha L 1617 Mahomet V 1730 ASIA. This vast continent is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, on the northeast by Behring's straits (which separate Asia from America), on the east by the Pacific ocean, under the names of the seas of Kamtschatka, Okhotsk, Japan, the Yellow and China seas, on the south by the bay of Bengal, the Indian ocean, and Arabian sea, on the west by the Red sea, the isthmus of Suez (which unites Asia with Africa), the Mediterranean, the sea of Marmora, the Black sea, the Caucasian mountains, the Caspian sea, and the Uralian mount- ains, and which, with an imperfectly defined territorial line, divide Russia in Europe from Russia in Asia. Excepting on the Russian frontier, and at the isthmus of Suez, Asia is surrounded by water. On the east and southeast are many large and valuable islands ; those which are termed the Eastern Archi- pelago commence at the straits of Malacca, and form a continuous chain of islands between Asia and Australasia. From East Cape in Behring's straits to the Dardanelles the distance is about 6,000 miles ; and from Northeast Cape in Siberia to the termination of the peninsula of Malacca, latitude 1^18' north, a direct line from north to south, would measure 5,500 miles. The area is va- riously estimated : by Hassel at 20,433,205 English square miles ; by Graberg (without the islands in the Indian ocean) at 16,262,100 square miles. Mr. Bell, supposes its mean extent from east to west to be about 100 degrees, or 4,275 geographical miles, and its mean extent from north to south to be about 60 de- grees, or 3,600 geographical miles, which gives a superficies of 15,390,000 geographical square miles ; this does not include the islands. Its extremely irregular outline, however, renders any estimate formed by multiplying length by breadth very uncertain. Physical Aspect. — The central regions of Asia form a vast elevated plateau or plain, which extends several thousand miles from east to west, and covers an area of more than 3,000,000 square miles. This table-land is supported on the north by the Altai mountains, on the south by the Himalaya and Thibetian ranges, is flanked on the east by the Yung-ling and Inshau ranges of mountains, and divided into lesser plateaux of different sizes and degrees of altitude by the mountain ridges which intersect its surface. From this elevated region flow the several great rivers which peculiarly characterize the Asiatic continent. The successive elevations are termed steppes, and in many instances consist of immense desert tracts of rugged, flinty rock, and sand.* From the Altai mountains the dip of the land is south to north, as far as the marshy tracts on the margin of the Icy sea. The Siberian low land stretches from the foot of the Ural chain almost to the Pacific, and presents a dreary level skirted to the south and east by the Altai mountains. From the Himalaya the dip of the land is to the south and east, and from the Caucasian range generally to the south. Mountains. — The Altai or Golden mountains, which constitute the great chain of Central Asia, extend between the parallels of 43C> and 53° north, and the meridians of 85° and 97° east of Greenwich. The altitude has not been * One of thQ most remarkable features of Asia is these vast deserts. All the northern section of .''iberia. with slight exception, may be reeiirded as an immense steppe, interspersed with marshes ; and in the south are the steppes and salt plains of " Kirghiz," northpaj»t of lake Aral ; " Iprhim," between the Irtish and the Tobol • pjid the " Baraba," between the Irtish and the Obi. But the most remarkable deserts are those sandy plains which occupy the cr^^ater part of the Boutliweet and central regions of the continent, extending with little interruption from the Atlantic to the northeast of China, a distance of more than 9.000 mili-s. Travellers represent these Beserta as a succession of sandy plain and barren mountains, almost destitute of water, and uninhabited even by beasts and birds. 390 ASIA. nccurately ascertained, but the highest peaks rise above the limits of perpetual snow. The Himalaya, which form the northern boundary of Hindostan, and have, like the Altai, a general direction from west to east, are the loftiest range on this earth, and extend nearly 2,000 miles. The peaks rise from 20,000 to 28,000 feet ; on the south side of this backbone of the world, where the mount- ains rise out of a flat country, the snow-line in latitude 30° commences at an elevation of 12,500 to 13,000 feet; on the north side, where the plains of Thibet are 10,000 feet above the sea, the snow-Hne is 16,000 feet. The other great ridges of the Caucasus, the Taurus, the Ural, and other lesser and insular mountains, will be found described, with the countries to which they respect- ively belong. Volcanic Region. — From Kamschatka to the Moluccas there is a continued volcanic line. On the north, in the Aleutian archipelago, the volcanic action is distributed for 200 miles in a westerly direction toward the continent of America; the line proceeds southward from Kamtschatka through the Kurile islands and Japan, thence through Loo-choo to Manilla and the Philippine islands ; and on reaching the Eastern Archipelago it spreads east and west, and contributes to the formation of those rich and beautiful islands. The volcanic action is so active in the north, that almost every island in the Aleutian appears to be under its influence ; violent earthquakes continually alter the surface of the land, and in 1806 a new island, four miles in circumference, and said to be 3,000 feet in height, was projected at once from the sea. Another island of extraordinary elevation was formed in 1814. In Kamtschatka there are thirteen volcanic peaks ; seven in a state of activity ; the peak of Klutchefskaia is 15,825 feet above the sea. In Japan slight earthquakes are incessant, and there are some active volcanoes. In the Loo-choo archipelago is a sulphuric mountain. In the Philippines there are three active volcanoes ; in JaA'a thirty-eight. No active volcano is known in China Proper, or in India; but both China and India are subject to earthquakes. In the loftiest peaks of the Himalaya, amid the regions of perpetual snow, there are, it is said, several active volcanoes ; the volcanic line extends thence westward beneath Mount Ararat and the Caucasian range to the Caspian, between which and the Black sea is the remarkable "Field of Fire." Lakes. — Notwithstanding the great elevations of the land, there are no lakes in Asia which can be compared in size and depth with those in North America. The principal inland sea is the Caspian, which extends from 36° 40' to 47° 20' north, and from 46° to 54° east. Its greatest ordinary depth is from 450 to 520 feet ; in one place soundings were not found with a line of 2,889 feet. In general the water is shoaling, and vessels drawing eighteen feet that used to navigate freely can no longer do so. Storms are frequent and dangerous. The waters have a bitter, salt taste, attributed to the quantities of naphtha with which the surrounding country is impregnated. Aral lake or sea, which is also salt, covers an area of 15,290 square miles. Lake Baikal, in the southern part of Siberia, is 300 miles long. The Dead sea, in Palestine, is as saline as the ocean ; most of the lakes in Asia are salt or bitter ; several are to be found in China, India, Persia, and Thibet. Rivers. — The rivers of Asia are numerous, and of great extent, but not equal in either breadth or length to some in America. Malte-Brun estimates the surfaces of the rivers in different parts of Asia (the total being taken as unity) as follows : The rivers of Siberia, flowing to the north, are as OSL; to the cast, 002 ; of China and Chinese Tartary, 015 ; of all India, Q-27. ; ofTlIen- tral Asia, 008; of Asiatic Turkey, 010: of Persia with Armenia, 006; of Arabia, 0*03. The principal rivers are, the Yang-tze-kiang, Hoang-ho, Amour, Obi, Yenisei, Lena, Indus, Ganges, Brahmapootra, Irawaddy, Cambodia, Eu- phrates, and Tigris. There are many other large rivers ; some of them tribu- ASIA. 391 taries or branches of the above-named, such as the Jumna, Chumbul, Nerbud- dah, &c., in India ; the Pearl, and other noble streams, in China. Islands. — The islands belonging to Asia are large and important, and have chiefly, especially those of the Indian ocean, become very valuable to the world. They are mostly of volcanic origin. The principal are, the Aleutian islands, which extend between the peninsula of Kamtschatka and that of Alaska in America ; Cyprus, in the Levant, and a number of small islands in the Archi- pelago ; Ceylon, Andaman, and the Nicobar islands, in the bay of Bengal ; Hai- nan, and Formosa, in the Chinese sea; the Majicosima, Loo-choo, Japan, and Kurile islands, in the Pacific ocean ; and others of less note, as the Maldives, and Lacadives, in the Arabian gulf, and the new Siberian group in the Arctic ocean, opposite the Lena gulf. These will be more fully described elsewhere. Climate. — Every variety from the frozen region to the equator. In the countries north of the 62d parallel the rivers continue frozen from September to June ; between the 62d and 50th parallels, including Southern Siberia, Kasan, part of Astrachan, half of the Kerghizian steppes, and the northern half of the Mongolia and Manchuria, the Aleutian and Kurile islands, the rivers are fro- zen from the end of October to the end of May. The countries between 50° and 35^ comprise for the greater part the plateau of Central Asia, in which the climate is greatly modified by elevation and aspect. The countries south of the 35th parallel include the richest portions. of the globe, viz., India, Southern China, Turkey in Asia, Arabia, Southern Persia, Birmah, Siam, Cochin-China, &c. Over a large part of these countries the sun is nearly perpendicular from April to November ; they have abundant periodic rains, and luxuriant vegeta- tion. Southern Asia is warmer, and Northern Asia colder, than the degrees of latitude would indicate, and in the north of Asia the cold is greater to the eastward. This seems to be caused by the great extent of land, and by there being no mountains to break the current of cold air from the Frozen ocean in its passage to the southward and eastward. Animal Kingdom. — The largest and the most ferocious animals of the world are to be found in Asia; the elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger, in India, Ceylon, Birmah, Siam, Sumatra, Malacca, &c. ; the lion and panther in Persia and Arabia ; the camel, dromedary, buffalo, wild horse, and wild ass, in India, Ara- bia, Persia, Turkey in Asia, Thibet, and the great central plateau. Wolves and jackals also abound. The camel is found to the 55th parallel ; the drome- dary to the 50th ; the wild ass to the 48th. In the greater part of China Proper civilized man has destroyed every wild animal. Asia is the native home of all the more useful species of animals ; with the exception, perhaps, of the sheep. From some district or other of this continent came, originally, the ox, hores, goat, ass, together with the whole race of domestic poultry, except the turkey, which is a denizen of this continent. Utility may, indeed, be regarded as the leading characteristic of Asiatic zoology ; for, though its carnivorous mam- malia be numerous, as compared with the whole number of species, the majority are not merely harmless to man, but useful to him. The peacock, pheasant, os- trich, and emu, are natives of Asia. Vegetable Kingdom. — The products are rich and varied. The useful and beautiful palm-tribe, the "queen of trees," is especially remarkable. Tea, coff'ee, sugar, cotton, silk, tobacco, opium, indigo, peppers, rice, gums, drugs^ and dyes ; and the hardest, largest, and most beautiful timber, are the products of this favored quarter of the world. Mineral Kingdom. — There is no precious or useful mineral which is not found in this immense continent. Among its mineral resources may be named, diamonds and other precious stones, gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, iron, tin, and coal. Diamonds are found in India and Asiatic Russia ; gold is chiefly- found in the Ural mountains, in Arabia, India, China, and the Eastern Archipe- 392 ASIA. lago ; tin in Malacca and Banca ; silver in China, Russia, Turkey, and Japan : quicksilver in China ; coal almost everywhere. Productive Resources. — The useful arts are cultivated in the Asiatic em- pires with peculiar diligence. Agriculture is carried on with great industry, though with much ruder machinery than in Europe or America. Asia has also a number of manufactures, which are not equalled in richness and beauty by those of any other part of the world ; among which are the carpets of Persia, the muslins of India, the porcelain of China, and the lacquered ware of Japan. Political Divisions. — The following table gives a summary view of the states of Asia, with their respective areas, population, chief cities, &;c. STATES. Area in .«quare milea. Population. - Chief Cities. Population. Turkey (in Asia) 450,000 16,000.000 Aleppo 200.000 Arabia 850,000 10,000,000 Mecca 20.000 Persia 450,000 9,500.000 Teheran 70.000 Afghanistan 250,000 8,000,000 Cabul 60.000 Beloochistan 100,000 1,200.000 Kelat 25.000 Hindostan 1,296.000 1,32,870,000 Calcutta 2.50.000 Farther India 927,000 24,000,000 Ava 150,000 Chinese Empire 5,000,000 422,000,000 Pelsing 2,000,000 Independent Tartary 844,000 7.000.000 Bokhara 150.000 Russia (in Asia) 3,600,000 2,700,000 Tobolsk 20.000 Japan 270,000 23.000,000 Jeddo 530,000 Madagascar and other islands 300,000 6,000,000 Tananarive 12,000 Total 14,337,000 664,270,000 Races. — Following the division of Blumenbach, into four great races, Has- sel estimated them thus : — Caucasian, 164,000,000 ; Mongolian, 291,000,000 ; Malayan, 24,000,000; Ethiopian, 1,000,000. The Caucasians include the Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Jews, Syrians, Persians, Arabs, Bokharians, Afghans, Seiks, Hindus, and Tartars of Middle Asia. The Mongolians include the Chinese, Mantchus, Tungoos, Coreans, Japanese, Thibetians, Cochin-Chinese, Siamese, Birmans, and the Fins, Kuriles, Kamschatkalians, Koriaks in Siberia, and the Samoides on the shores of the Arctic ocean. The Malayans include the Malays of Malacca, the Javanese, Sumatrans, Bornese, Celebes, Philippines, and other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The Ethiopians include the few Negro-looking races which still exist on the high lands of India, Malayan pe- ninsula, Ceylon, &c. Languages. — Adenburg enumerates 937 Asiatic dialects. The Hindus, Persians, Afghans, Armenians, Koords, Bokharians, Russians, and Greeks, have each a number of Sanscrit roots in their respective languages. The ex- isting Arabic has a common origin with the Syriac, Chaldee, Phoenician, and Hebrew languages, which are extinct. The Chinese have no alphabet ; their language is phonetic the characters which represent ideas are similar through- out the whole Chinese empire, but the spoken dialects differ in every province. Religion. — Buddhism is professed in Hindostan, China, Japan, Cochin- China, Siam, Birmah, Ceylon, some parts of the Eastern Archipelago, and among the Mongols and Tungoos. Braminism in Hindostan ; Islamism in Arabia, Persia, Afghanistan, Hindostan, Turkestan, and Central Asia, Ma- lacca, and some parts of China and the eastern islands. The pure and refined system of Christianity, though it was first communicated to Asia, has been cor- rupted and destroyed. The Christians chiefly reside in Turkey, and in Russia in Asia ; the Ghebirs, Sabeans, and Druses, in Persia and Asiatic Turkey ; the Jews are scattered everywhere, and various systems of idolatry are to be found in the islands of the Pacific. Civilization. — Though far inferior to that of Europe, it is greatly superior to that of Africa. Asia presents the distinguishing feature of great empires : viz., that of China, British India, Russia, Turkey, Persia, Birmah, Siam, Cochin- China, Corea, and Japan. These are regular and organized governments, with -all of whom, except Japan and Corea, the United States and the principal nations of Europe have intercourse or diplomatic relations. ASIA.— TURKEY. 393 TURKEY (IN ASIA). The territory in Asia, over which the sultan of Constantinople holds a sover- eignty, now so much weakened as to be in many places little more than nomi- nal, lies between 30° and 42"^ north latitude, and 26'-' and 48° east longitude. It extends in a southeasterly direction from the Bosphorus to the Persian gulf, a distance of 1,400 miles, and from the isthmus of Suez to Trebizond, in a northerly direction, a distance of 1,000 miles. Its superficial area is about 450,000 square miles. Under a civilized and Christian government, this vast and fertile region, abutting on the Mediterranean, Black sea, Persian gulf, and Red sea, and favorably situated in the temperate zone, might have regained the power and opulence which anciently characterized the remarkable countries now comprised within its limits ; but for five hundred years the blighting influ- ence of the crescent has been felt throughout the land on which the pure light of Christianity first arose. Physical Aspect. — The maritime features of the country are strongly marked ; on the west the coast is deeply indented, and broken into numerous islands ; on the south the Mediterranean has formed large bays, notwithstand- ing this there are few good harbors; on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, from Iskenderoon El-Arish, the coast extends in nearly a straight line. On the northern part of Turkey in Asia, in the Black sea, there are several small but safe ports. The interior of the country is marked by great inequalities ; the Taurus mountains traverse Asia Minor, the lofty Lebanon range extends through Syria, ramifications of the Caucasus and Taurus spread over Armenia and part of Mesopotamia, and a mountainous region separates Koordistan from Persia. The southern territory form the basins of the great rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers of Asiatic Turkey are the famed Euphrates and 'I'igris. The Euphrates is formed by the junction of two large streams in Armenia, the Marad and the Frot. The Tigris has its principal source in the mountains of the country of Zoph, 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. These two streams, after a long and winding course, until a short dis- tance above their common estuary, and forming the Shat al Arab, empty into the Persian gulf. The other rivers are the Sokharia and Kirzil Irmak, flowing into the Black sea; and the Meindor, Koduschay, and others, flowing into the Mediterranean. There are few lakes in Asiatic Turkey, and those mostly sa- line. Lakes Van and Nasook, near the eastern frontier, are the most import- ant. Chains of small salt lakes extend through portions of Asia Minor. Climate. — In a region extending through twelve degrees of latitude, and over twenty of longitude, having every variety of elevation, exposure, soil, and subsoil, there must necessarily be a great variation of climate. In the highlands of Armenia, even the plains are covered with snow as late as May ; and the fine season, properly so called, does not comprise more than four months of the year, during which period both sowing and reaping are completed. Asia Minor and Syria have but two seasons, the transition between them being scarcely per- ceptible. Seaports. — On the Black sea are, Eregli, a safe port, except when strong northerly winds prevail ; Amasserah, small and intricate ; Sinope, a safe road and port, valuable from its naval dockyards, but not much frequented by mer- chants ; Samsoun ; and Trebizond, a good port, which has of late years become of importance, as the chief depot of the trade between Asia and the east of Eu- rope. In the sea of Marmora is Scutari, a port of much commercial activity. In the Archipelago is situated Smyrna, the principal port of Asia Minor, and Scala Nova, also an excellent port, with considerable trade. In the Mediter- 394 ASIA.— TURKEY. ranean — Adulia and Tarsus, Iskenderoon, Lakatai, Tripoli, Beirout, Saida or Sidon, St. Jean d'Acre, and Jaffa, several of them large roadsteads, but not gen- erally secure havens. The islands of Scio, Mytilene or Lesbos, Rhodes, and Cyprus, have harbors. Bassora or Bussorah, at the head of the Persian gulf, is important from its commanding position, and as a commercial emporium. Political Divisions. — Turkey in Asia includes Asia Minor, Syria and Pal- estine, Armenia, Kaizik, Kars, Al-Jezeerah (Algezira) or Mesopotamia, Koor- distan, and Irak-Arabi, Chief Tow^ns and Population. — The following statement of the population of the principal cities and tow^ns in Asiatic Turkey is given on the authority of Balbi, Von Hammer, Niebuhr, Fontanier, Kinnier, Buckingham, Schutz, and others : — Chief Towns. Population. Aleppo 200,000 Damascus 140,000 Smyrna 130,000 Bagdad 100,000 Erzproum 100,000 Tokat 100,000 Broussa 95,000 Bussora 62,000 Kara-Hi.ssar 60,000 Mossoul 60,000 Scutari 60,000 Cliief Towns. Population. Diarbekir. 60,000 Koota-ca 50,000 Trebizond 50,000 Urfah 50,000 Angora 40,000 Manisia 40,000 Van 40,000 Mourt 18,000 Konien 30,000 Tarsu.s 30,000 Guzel-Hissar 30,000 ChiefTowns. Population. Amasia 50.000 Jerusalem 30,000 Kaisarich 25,000 Bitli-s 20,000 Erzingan 30,000 Mondania 20,000 Scala Nova 20,000 Acre 20,000 Dais ElKamek .... 16,000 Tripoli 15,000 Bayazid 15,000 ChiefTowns. Populatiun. MytiljTie 14,000 Bargroat 13,000 Rhodes (fort) ILOOO Sinope 10,000 Kastamouni 15,000 Haman ISHMO Satalia 20.000 Ere Hi 5,000 Latakieh 5,000 Jaffa 4,000 Ak-cheher 50,000 Asia Minor. — The peninsula termed Asia Minor, to distinguish it from Asia Major, or Continental Asia, is bounded on the north by the Euxine or Black sea, on the south by the Mediterranean and part of Syria, on the west by the iEgean sea, the Dardanelles or Hellespont, the sea of Marmora and the Bos- phorus or channel of Constantinople, and on the east by the basin of the river Euphrates, part of Armenia, and several districts of Turkey in Asia. Its area, exclusive of Cyprus and other islands, is 150,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — Generally speaking, the peninsula of lesser Asia is a wide-spreading tableland, sloping westward of the Euphrates ; comprising ex- tensive places not unfrequently furrowed by deep valleys, separated from each other by lofty ranges, and completely enclosed by them, forming remarkable mountain basins. The plain on which the town of Koota-ya is situated is about 6,000 feet above the sea, and the neighboring hills about 2,000 feet. The west- ern part of the peninsula has vast saline plains, and lakes that have no outlets ; the eastern, a more diversified surface of mountain ridges and valleys ; the northern division, from the Euphrates to Constantinople, is very beautiful, in- tersected with ranges, romantic glens, deep woods, and numerous plantations ; the southern coast is the least attractive, and consists chiefly of a narrow barren plain, bounded by the steep and rugged Taurus range. Rivers and Lakes. — The rivers are generally small; the principal are the Halys, Iris, Fatsa or Fatisa, Apsarus, Tehora, Bathys or Phasis, the Saugarius or Sacaria, Thymbrius or Poursac, the Gallus, Billaus, Parthenius or Bartin-Su, the Rhyndachus, now the Susughirli, the iEsipus, Granicus, now the (Estrola, Horisius, now Horsui, the Scamander, now Bogne-Minder, and the Simois, called Kutchuch or Little-Minder. The streams which flow into the iEgean sea are the Caicus, Hermus, Cayster, Mseander, now Grimakli, the Sarabat, Kutchuch-Minder, and the Minder-Su. The lakes are numerous, and more or less impregnated with salt. Tusla or Tatta is thirty miles long. Productive Resources. — Asia Minor has a most salubrious temperature, and is capable of yielding the chief productions of the temperate and of the tor- rid zones. The forests of oak, pine, beech, lance, ash, walnut, and elm, are magnificent. The vegetables and fruits may vie with those of any country in the world. Opium is largely produced, extensively consumed by the Turks, and is doubtless one important cause of the impoverishment of the country, and ASIA.— TURKEY. 395 the wretched state of the people. There are extensive droves of Turko- man horses, and beautiful shawl goats. The productions of Asia Minor are but limited, and manufactures are scarcely known, except at Angora. Every kind of game abounds. Iron and copper are plentiful ; gold and silver exist in sev- eral places, as well as in the sands of Pactokis. Harbors and Islands. — The western and southwestern shores abound in secure havens, sheltered by numerous islands. Among the latter the principal are Cyprus, Rhodes, Scarpanto, Lesbos or Mytilene, Scio, Tenedos, and other islands in the Hellespont and JEgean sea. The whole region, admirably fitted as it is for the maintenance of maritime power, the extension of commerce, and the support of a nautical population, now only contains a scanty coasting and piratical class, and its maritime traffic is confined to Smyrna. Population. — The population of Asia Minor is estimated at 5,000,000. The Mohammedans amount to three fourths of the inhabitants. History. — In the oldest periods of which we have any record, Asia Minor was divided into several independent states, of which Phrygia was the chief. On the extinction of the Phrygian kingdom, the peninsula was possessed by the Lydians and Medes ; and on the subversion of the Lydian empire by Cyrus it became subject to the Persian sovereigns. After the death of Alexander the Great, Asia Minor was made a province of the Syrian empire ; on the decline of that power, a number of independent chiefs ruled the country, but they were all subdued by the Romans, and Augustus divided the peninsula into three provinces, viz., Proconsular Asia, or the western part ; Praetorian Asia, or the northern part ; and Consular Asia, or the interior. In the eleventh century the interior of the peninsula and the southeast coast was seized by the Seljookian Turks, after whose downfall the country was conquered by the Osmanli Turks, by whom it was called Nadalii, and divided into pachalics, and the region has ever since been subjected to the government at Constantinople. Asia Minor has, indeed, been renowned. Three of the " seven wise men" of the ancient world (Thales, Bias, and Pittacus) had here their birth, as had also Homer, Herodotus, iEsop, and Pythagoras, the fathers of poetry, history, fable, and phil- osophy; the riches of the most wealthy king (Croesus), and the greatest of armies (that of Xerxes), had their origin in this celebrated region, which pos- sessed, of the "nine wonders of the world," the Temple of Ephesus, Mausoleum of Caria, and the Colossus of Rhodes. But now even the sites of many of its great cities are unknown, and the language of a considerable portion of its peo- ple only to be ascertained from the inscriptions graven on the vast ruins which remain to attest the high state of civilization of the nation by whom they were constructed. Syria. — Syria (including the country anciently known as Phoenicia and Palestine, described a few pages hence) is bounded on the north by a branch of the Taurus mountains, on the east by the Euphrates and Syrian desert, on the south by the isthmus of Suez and part of Arabia Petrea, and on the west by the Mediterranean. Its superficial area, exclusive of the Desert, is estimated at 50,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — A varied region of mountains, valleys, and plains. The ridge on the northwest, between Syria and Asia Minor, is termed the Durdan Dagh ; from it a chain branches out in a southwesterly direction, called the Alma Dagh or Amanus, which leaves only the narrow passage of the Armenian Gates between it and the gulf of Iskenderoon. As it advances southward it bears the name of Jawur Dagh (infidel mountain), and subsequently that of the Akma Dagh or Beilan mountains. Near Aniioch rises the extraordinary peak of Mount Cassiis. The lower part of the mountain is clothed with forests, and surrounded on the south and east by a deep valley celebrated for the production 396 ASIA.— TURKEY. of fine tobacco, but near the summit it is quite bare, and answers to the name given it by the natives of Jebel-el-Akra, the Bald mountain. From this point the same chain, under different names, winds along the shores of the Mediter- ranean at an average distance of about twenty-five miles. Mount Lebanon, the most elevated portion, extends between Tripoli and Acre, the true Lebanon ridge terminates at the head of the valley of Baalbec. There are several col- lateral spurs extending in different directions, and numerous isolated mountains. The northern district of Syria, comprising the region between the Euphrates and Mediterranean, constitutes the pachalic of Aleppo, and is composed of two great plains, that of Antioch on the west, and that of Aleppo on the east ; on the north and east are high mountains, separating it from Cilicia and Marash. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers of Syria are, the Orentes, flowing north into the Mediterranean, a short distance southwest from Antioch, and the Jordan, running south into the Dead sea, besides many small streams from the heights of Lebanon, &c., which water and fertilize the country. Of the lakes of Syria the chief is the well-known Asphaltites or Dead sea. Tiberias, or the lake of Galilee, enclosed by cultivated lands and wooded mountains, forms a rich and picturesque object. The others are the lakes of Damascus, Hems, and Antioch. Climate. — Near the coasts the climate is hot, humid, and unhealthy; in the mountainous districts cool and salubrious ; and on the plains and deserts dry and scorching. The seasons and productions consequently vary, but, well-cultivated, no country could yield more abundant vegetation. Political Divisions. — The modern pachalics and the ancient divisions are as follows : — Turkish Pachalics. Ancient Divisions. Aleppo CyrrheBtica, Chalcidene, Selcucia, and the district of Antioch. Tripoli Casiotig and Northern Phoenicia. Acre Southern PhjBnicin, part of Coelosyria, and Galilee. Gaza and Damascus Apame, Palmyrene, the remainder of Coelosyria, and Palestine. Productive Resources. — The agricultural produce of Syria is small ; this arises from no want of fertile soil, or of capital, but from a deficiency of agri- cultural population and of live stock. In the districts where hands are found to cultivate the fields production is large, and the return for capital is considerable. But regions of the highest fertility remain fallow, and towns, such as Antioch, surrounded by lands capable of the highest cultivation, are frequently compelled to import corn for internal consumption. The forests of Northern Syria have, since the Egyptian conquest, been drawn upon for large supplies of timber, which is of good quality, and in great abundance. The cotton of Syria is pro- duced from an annual plant, and the crops are therefore, exposed to great vicis- situdes. It is seldom sent to the English markets, where it is only adapted to the most common purposes, such as the wicks of candles. That consumed in Syria is used in the manufacture of coarse clothes. The cultivation of silk has, during the last few years, spread rapidly around Beirout. Syrian wool, which is employed for yarn, stockings, surtouts, &c., is principally exported to Italy and France. Of late years considerable attention has been paid to the method of expressing the Syrian oil, which appears likely to become a staple article of export. Languages. — The languages of Syria are very varied. The old Syriac is confined to a few districts in the vicinity of Damascus and Mount Lebanon, the predominating language being the Arabic ; and a patois, called the Nabathean language, derived from the pure Syriac and Chaldee, is much used among the peasantry. Turkish is also spoken in several places. Of literature, the arts, and sciences, there are few traces ; and little promise, in the existing state of things, of any immediate improvement. Religion. — On this vital point Syria presents as great diversity as in popu- ASIA.— TURKEY. 397 lation and language. The predominating faiths are the Mohammedan and the Christian, from each of which spring a numerous variety of sects, many of whom are violently opposed to one another. The Mohammedans of Syria, con- stituting probably three fourths of the whole population, occupy chiefly the agricultural districts, are the principal inhabitants of the secondary towns and villages, and, with few exceptions, fill the public offices in the principal cities. Population. — The aborigines were the descendants of Aram the son of Shem ; but the country having been successively invaded and conquered by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Arabs, 'I'urks, Cru- saders, Mamelukes, and Osmanlies, the existing population is a most motley assemblage, whose number it is almost impossible correctly to estimate. At the time of the Arabian conquest, the population of Syria is thought to have exceeded 9,000,000, and the Syrians must still have been a numerous nation at the period of the crusades. A few years ago the calculation made by govern- ment was 1,449,446; the present population is probably not 2,000,000, and is unhappily still decreasing. HisTORV. — From the period when "Richard the Lion-hearted," of England, and Saladin the Saracen, contended for the possession of the Holy Land, Syria has remained in possession of the Turks, and under their sway has declined in population, commerce, and wealth. Previous to the discovery of the sea-route to India, via the Cape of Good Hope, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia, were the channels through which Asia and Europe interchanged their respective produce ; but the removal of this traffic, and the consequent impoverishment of the country, led to the disorganization of the Turkish eastern provinces ; the rapid acquirement by Russia of the Crimea and Bessarabia, which, with the Muscovite encroachments on the Asiatic possessions of the Porte, paralyzed the policy of Constantinople, and contributed to the usurpation of Egypt by Mehe- met Ali. In November, 1831, his son, Ibrahim Pacha, landed with an army at Kaifa ; and Syria, which had successfully resisted the invasion of Napoleon, became the theatre of civil war and devastation. Ibrahim Pacha, havinsf sub- jected Syria to his rule, divided it into six provinces. The laws by which Mehemet Ali governed Egypt were introduced under the civil government of Sherif Pacha. In 1834 the oppressions of the Egyptian soldiery caused a re- bellion in Satt and Karak, which extended toward Jerusalem, where Ibrahim Pacha took refuge. Mehemet Ali embarked at Alexandria, with all the troops he could collect (9,000 men), landed at Jaffa, beheaded three of the chief of the revolt, bribed others to support him, and in one month returned to Egypt, having effectually crushed the insurrection. Ibrahim Pacha then disarmed the people of Damascus and Aleppo, and afterward those of the Lebanon districts and the Druses. In sixteen months he seized more than 80,000 muskets, and a large number of pistols, swords, and cutlasses, which were carried to the arsenal of Acre, and there converted into horse-shoes. Having placed Syria at his mercy, Mehemet Ali and his son, who recognised no other government but that of force, commenced recruiting the Egyptian army by conscripts from Syria, which rendered the people more than ever opposed to their rule. Mehemet and Ibrahim retaliated their liostility with dreadful severities. The sultan of Constantinople being unable to drive the Egyptians from Syria, applied to the government of Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France, for their joint aid. M. Thiers, then premier of France, declined to cooperate, silently abetted Mehemet Ali, and tacitly threatened a rupture with England. The other European powers abovenamed entered into a convention with the Porte on the 15th of July, 1840, and on Mehemet Ali's refusing to accept the terms offered, force was used. Acre, Beirout, and other places in Syria were cap- tured, and the Egyptians eventually compelled to evacuate the country. Syria was then restored to Turkey. 398 ASIA.— TURKEY. !■ Palestine. — The " Holy Land" is associated in the mind of the Christian with all that he has been taught from childhood to esteem most venerable and sacred. It was originally named Canaan, from its earliest inhabitants ; subse- quently the land of Judah and Judea. The appellation most frequently used by the Roman and ancient ecclesiastical writers, is that of Palestine, which it re- ceived from the Philistines, the descendants of Mizraim, the second son of Ham, who carried on an important maritime trade, and occupied a narrow strip of very fertile country, extending about sixty miles along the coast, from the river of Egypt nearly to the bay of Joppa. Boundaries. — In the 34th chapter of Numbers the limits of the land of Ca- naan are specifically declared, but the extreme difficulty attendant upon the translation of the Hebrew language in a matter necessarily involving minute topographical detail, renders the text extremely obscure, and prevents our form- ing any very accurate estimate of the extent of this small but most interesting country. It is, however, evident, that Mount Hor (not the Mount Hor on which Aaron died) in the Libanus chain formed a distinguishing feature on the north- ern border ; Beersheba, the Wilderness of Edom, and the Desert of Zin, were on the southern frontier ; the eastern border was formed by the country of the Moab- ites, the Dead sea, the Jordan, the sea of Galilee, and the Jordan again extend- ing a little way beyond the sources of that river. The western boundary was to be the Mediterranean, but the want of faith, and disobedience of the Israel- ites, prevented the realization of this promise, they desisted from expelling the Phoenicians (known in Scripture as the people of Tyre and Sidon) and Philis- tines, and left them in possession of the most important places on the coast. The 3d chapter of Deuteronomy contains a full account of the conquest of the trans-Jordanic territories subsequently allotted to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manassah. By the victories of David and Solomon, the kingdom of Israel was extended from sea to sea; that is, from the Mediterra- nean to the Red sea, and from the Euphrates to the brook Sihon, or torrent of El Arish, on the frontiers of Egypt ; but this enlarged dominion lasted only for a brief period. Divisions. — The distribution by Joshua of the land occupies a considerable portion of the book of Joshua. Modern Palestine is under the dominion of the pachas of Acre and Damascus, the former ruling the coast, the latter the inte- rior and by far the greater portion, including Jerusalem, Hebron, Shechem, and Tiberias. Mountains. — The mountains of Lebanon, the root of the whole mountain system of Palestine, are themselves ramifications of the great South Taurus range, which descends from Syria in two parallel ridges, distinguished by geographers as Libanus (Lebanon), and Anti-Libanus. Libanus approaches the coast and terminates near the river Leontes, about five miles to the north of ancient Tyre, while Anti-Libanus, on entering Palestine, divides into two branches, one of which diverges in a southwesterly direction toward the coast, and the other descends southward for about forty miles, under the name of Je- bel-esh-Sheik. The height of Anti-Libanus is about 9,000 feet, but the higher peaks are supposed to considerably exceed this calculation. From Anti-Liba- nus a chain extends to the southern extremity of Palestine, and may be traced along the east side of the Jordan and the Dead sea, under the denomination of "the mountains of Gilead" and " of Abarim." Another branch, originating in that before described as diverging from Anti-Libanus toward the Mediterranean coast, descends through the centre of the country west of the Jordan, forming " the Mountains of Israel," of " Ephraim and of Judah." Mount Carmel or Jebel Mar Elyas, forms a bold promontory on the south side of the bay of Acre, and is the termination of a series of groups branching out from the central ridge. Mount Tabor, the supposed scene of our Lord's transfiguration, is situated on ASIA.— TURKEY. 399 the east of the plain of Esdraelon, two leagues southeast from Nazareth, and rises to a height of above 1,000 feet, in the figure of a cone with the upper part struck off. The mountain is finely wooded, and adorned with various kinds of plants and flowers. Mounts Ebal and Gerizim are each about 900 feet from the base, separated by a narrow and fruitful valley, in which stands the town of Nabulus (Shechem). Among the mountains which bound the plains of Jericho on the east is one exceeding high, which is called Quarantana, as it is supposed to be the scene of our Savior's forty days fast. It is steep and of dangerous ascent, at the top is a small chapel, and another halfway up, on a prominent part of the rock. The Mount of Olives, in a general sense, is a range of hills to the east of Jerusalem, that to which this designation is especially applied, and from which our Savior ascended to heaven, is the centre of the three chief summits. Its height is 2,556 feet. Rivers. — The Jordan, or Urdun, from being the only stream in Palestine continually flowing, and from its numerous scriptural associations, has acquired a distinction which its geographical importance does not merit. The width of the river varies, according to the season, from 30 to 100 yards, but its channel being now worn very deep, its overflowings are considerably diminished. After a course of about 150 miles, during which it receives many small streams, es- pecially from the mountainous district of Hauran, it discharges into the Dead sea a turbid and rapid volume of water, and is there absorbed. At the spot pointed out as the scene of our Lord's baptism, thousands of pilgrims are an- nually baptized. The Jabbok or Zurka rises in the southeast of Gilead, and after a course of about forty miles due east and west, falls into the Jordan. The Arnon, which once divided the kingdom of Moab from the territory of Reuben, now under the name of the Modjeb, separates the provinces of Belka and of Kerek. The river Kishon falls into the bay of Acre after a course of about thirty miles, but, like the generality of streams in this country, is a mere brook during the greater part of the year. Seas or Lakes. — The Dead sea, or " Lacus Asphaltus," is forty miles in length from north to south, and ten miles from east to west ; the soundings are in many places 1,800 feet deep ; the surface is 1,407 feet below the level of the Mediterranean, and 1,446 feet below the level of the Red sea. It is surrounded by cliffs 1,500 to 2,500 feet in height on the eastern side of the vale of Sodom, and at the southwestern extremity there is a great mountain of salt, the base of which passes under the lake. The weight of the water compared with pure water is as three to two. No fish will live in it, nor will any useful plant grow on its shores. The site which the Dead sea now occupies was formerly, in part if not wholly, a fertile and populous plain, on which stood the cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim. The deep and precipitous valleys, the masses of bare and shattered rocks, and the solitude which prevails, render this region, once compared to the " garden of the Lord," one of the most dreary and desolate spots on the face of the earth. The apples of Sodom, mentioned by Josephus, grow upon a shrub [the Oochcr) fifteen feet high, with a stem of two or more feet in diameter ; the fruit hangs in clusters of three or four to- gether ; they are fair to the eye, but on being pressed explode, and leave in the hand only shreds and fibres. The sea of Galilee, called also in scripture the lake of Tiberias, or of Genesareth, is Situated about seventy miles north of the Dead sea. It is of an irregular oval shape, the extreme length from north to south being about twelve miles, and the greatest breadth five miles. It is every- where surrounded by a chain of rocky, bare, and brown-colored mountains, which throughout its circumference rise abruptly from the borders of the lake almost to equal heights. The view of the sea or lake from the castle of Tibe- rias is very striking. The water is as clear as the purest crystal, sweet, cool, and most refreshing to the taste. Enclosed by hills, the sea of Galilee is gen- 400 ASIA.— TURKEY. erally tranquil, but sudden gusts of wind from the mountains make it liable to squalls, rough weather, and high waves, which are, however, seldom of long duration. The " Waters of Merom" is, according to Josephus, seven miles long by three and a half broad, but this must refer to its condition while swollen by the melted snows of Lebanon ; at other times it is little more than an extensive marsh, covered along the brink and in the shallow parts with reeds and rushes. Chief Cities and Towns. — Jerusalem, the capital of Judea, was built at distinct successive periods on a plateau, or series of elevations of different heights, which were separated from the surrounding " hill country" by deep val- leys and ravines that enclosed the parallelogram on which the city was con- structed on three sides ; the fourth merged into the surrounding elevations.* One of the deepest of these valleys, running north and south, is known as the vale of Jehoshaphat, through which the brook Kedron ran. On the east side the land gradually rose into a "three-topped hill," the Mount of Olives, previously men- tioned. The valley of Tophet lay to the south, at right angles with the valley of Jehoshaphat. The valley of Rephaim or Gihon, the least of the three, being a continuation of the second, which turned to the north. The highest hill within the circle of these valleys is Mount Sion, a conical eminence, of an ob- long form, in the southwest. Jerusalem was called Jebus, when its king, Ado- nizedek, was captured and slain by Joshua ; subsequently, when the lower part * Jertjsalkm is built on the eummit ridge of the hill country of Palestine, just where it begins to elope east, ward. Not half a mile from the Jaffa gate the waters run toward the Mediterranean. It is about 2,700 feet above the latter, and 4,000 foot above the Dead sea, to which the descent is much more abrupt. The hill, or rather group of small mounts, on which Jerusalem stands, slants eastward to the brink of the valley of Jehosh- aphat, and tho mount of Olives rises opposite, so that from its sides and summit one sees the entire city spread out liite a map befoie him. The valley of Hinnom, the bed of which is on a much higher level than that of Jehoshaphat, skirts the southwestern and southern part of the walls, and drops into the latte^valley at the foot of Mount Sion. the most southern of the mounts. The steep slope at the junction of the two valleys is the 8ite of the city of the Jebusites, the most ancient part of Jerusalem. It is now covered with garden .terraces, the present wall crossing from Mount Sion on the south to Mount Moriah on the east. A little glen, anciently called the Tyropeon, divides the mounts, and winds through to the Damascus gate, on the north, though from the height of the walls and the position of the city, the depression which it causes in the nia~8 of buildings is not very perceptible, except from the latter point. Moriah is the lowest of the mounts, and hangs directly over the valley of Jehoshaphat. Its summit was built up by Solomon so as to form a quadrangular ter- race, 500 by 300 yards. The lower courses of the grand wall, composed o( huge blocks of gray conglomerated limestone, still remain, and there seems to be no doubt that they are of the time of Solomon. Some of the stones are of enormous size ; I noticed several which were fifteen, and one twenty-two feet in length. The upper part of the wall was restored by Sultan Selim, the conqueror of Egypt, and the level of the terrace now supports the great Mosque of Omar, which stands on the very site of the temple. Except these foundation walls, tiie Damascus gate and the tower of Hippicus, there is nothing left of the ancient city. The length of the present wall of circumference is about two miles, but the circuit of Jenisalem in the time of Herod was probably double that distance. The best views of the city are from the mount of Olives, and the hill north of it, whence Titus directed the siege which resulted in its total destruction The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouilion encamped on the same liill. My first walk after reaching here was to the summit of the mount of Ohves. Not far from the hotel we came upon the Via Dolorosa, up which, according to catholic tradition, Christ toiled with the cross upon his shouldrrs. An arch is built across the street at the spot where they say Christ was shown to the populace. The passage is steep and rough, descending to St. Stephen's gate by the governor's palace, standing on the site of the house of Pontius Pilate. Here, in the wall forming the north- orn part of the foundation of the temple, there are some very fine remains of ancient workmanship. From the city wall the ground descends abruptly to the valley of Jehoshaphat. The Turkish residents have their tombs on the city side, just under the terrace of the mosque, while thousands of Jews find a peculiar beatitude in having themselves interred on the opposite slope of the mount of Olives, which is in some places quite cov- ered with their crumbline tombstones. Jerusalem internally gives no impression but that of filth, ruin, pov- erty, and degradation. There are two or three streets in the western or higher portion of the city which are tolerably clean, but all the others, to the very gates of the holy sepulchre, are channels of pestilence. This building is a confused labyrmth of chapels, choirs, shrines, staircases, and vaults, without any architectural beauty, though very rich in parts, and full of picturesque effects. Golden lamps continually burn before the sacred places. The sepulchre is a small marble building in the centre of the church ; forty lamps of gold burn unceasingly above the white marble slab, which, as the monks say, protects the stone whereon the body of Christ was laid. There is, however, little evidence of the identity of this spot with the true sepulchre. By far the most interesting relic left to the city is the foundation-wall of Solomon's Temple. The Mosque of Omar, according to the accounts of the Turks and Mr. Catherwood's examination, rests on immense vaults, which are believed to be the substructions of the temple itself. Under the dome of the mosque there is a large mass of naturai rock, revered by the Moslems as that from which Mohammed mounted the beast Borak, when he visited the seven heavens, and believed by Mr. Catherwnod to have served as part of the foundation of the holy of holies. No Christian is allowed to enter the mosque, or even its enclosure, on penalty of death, and even the firman of the sultan has failed to obtain admission for a Frank. The roof of the governor's pal- ace overlooks the entire enclosure of the harem, and gives a complete view of the exterior of the mosque and the paved court surrounding it. There is no regularity in the style of the buildings in the enclosure, but the general effect is highly picturesque. The great dome of the mosque is the grandest in all the Orient, but the body of the edifice, made to resemble an octaofonal tent, and covered with blue and white tiles, is not high enough to do it justice. The first court is paved with marble, and has four porticoes, each ol^ five liiiht Sara- cenic arches, opening into the green park which occupies the rest of the terrace. This park is studded with cypress and fig trees, and dotted all over with the tombs of the shekhs.— Bayabd Tatlor. ASIA.— TURKEY. 401 was taken by the tribes of Juclah and Beiij;iiniii, the Jebusites remained in the upper. David led his forces against the " stronghold of Zion." captured it, fixed his residence there, and it became the centre of all civil and religious affairs. On the revolt of the ten tribes it ceased to be tlie metropolis of Israel, but was still the royal city of Judah and Benjamin. On five successive occa- sions it was conquered and despoiled. Nebuchadnezzar razed its walls, and destroyed the temple of Solomon with fire. It was rebuilt in virtue of a decree of Cyrus, king of Persia, and, after enduring divers vicissitudes, was captured by the Romans, under Pompey, B. C. 63. Herod the Great rebuilt the second temple, and left the city much adorned and enlarged, as it remained during the ministry of our Savior, whose prophecies of its fearful destruction were fulfilled to the letter in A. D. 70. One million of the Jews perished during the siege, 97,000 were taken prisoners, and the city and its walls were razed to the ground. The emperor Adrian, in 118, rebuilt the city, called it iElia, and allowed no Jew to enter it. Constantine restored the old name, and permitted the Jews to enter once a year, to weep over the destruction of their "holy and beautiful house." The Persians took the city in 614, and massacred 90,000 Christians ; and it subsequently fell into the power of the Mohammedans, from whom it was for a short time rescued by the valor and zeal of the Crusa- ders ; but the followers of the crescent ultimately triumphed over the gallant Christian knights, and Jerusalem, with the rest of the Holy Land, has since remained subject to the Saracens, or to the Turks. The Mohammedans have, of late years, relaxed much of their hostility to the Jews and the Christians ; and the sultan of Constantinople, since the expulsion of the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha, and the restoration by England, Aiistria, and Russia, of the Holy Land to the dominion of the Turks, has permitted the construction of a Christian church on Mount Sion, and the creation of a bishopric. The popula- tion fluctuates in number. It is estimated at about 20,000, of whom 5,000 are said to be Christians, 10,000 Jews, and 5,000 Turks. It is still a walled city, and from its position is well calculated for the capital of Palestine. Bethlehem, six miles southeast of Jerusalem, beautifully situated in the midst of a pastoral district on the brow of the mountains of Judea, is first mentioned in scripture in connection with the death of Rachel, next with the narrative of Ruth, then as the birthplace of David, and finally as the spot on which the divine Savior first appeared on earth, bearing to mankind " good tidings of great joy." From the richness of the surrounding country in corn, wine, and oil, it received the name Bethlehem, the i/oi^.ve of Bread, Ephratah, the/rwi/!/'///. It is still a pleasant village, in the undisturbed possession of about 3,000 Christians. The " Grotto of the Nativity" is hewn out of the solid rock, and entered by two spiral staircases. A rich altar is erected over the spot where our Redeemer is supposed to have been born, and the floor is inlaid with marble. Bethany, about fifteen furlongs to the northeast of Jerusalem, is now a very poor village, inhabited by a few Arabs. Emmaus is a little village, about eight miles north- west of Jerusalem, inhabited chiefly by Christians. A few miles from it is a town bearing the name of Ramleh, supposed to be the Arimathea of the New Testament, which stands on a large and very fertile plain. Joppa or Jaffa is the principal port of Palestine, and the only one in Judea. Its distance from Jerusalem is about forty miles, and its excellent position for trading with the coast and islands of the Mediterranean gave it great importance, although it never appears to have been a safe or commodious harbor. The town is built on a conical promontory jutting out into the sea, and rising about ] 50 feet above its level; being surrounded on the land side by richly productive gardens, fenced with hedges of the prickly pear, stocked with orange, lemon, pomegranate, and fig trees, besides watermelons of delicious flavor. Hebron lies about twenty- seven miles to the south of Jerusalem, and is represented bv a small but neat 26 402 ASU— TURKEY. town called El Khulil. SAMARfA, the ancient capital of the revolted tribes, was formerly confounded with Shechem, but is now generally identified with a site about eight miles from that city. Shechem is a thriving town, with about 2,000 Moslem inhabitants, some (!)hristians and Jews, with a few Samaritans. The lovely plain of Sharon extenc s for nearly 120 miles along the coast, and is bounded on the south by the territory of the Philistines, of whose five chief cities, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, Ascalon, and Gaza, the last, now called Guzzeh, alone retains any importance. It now contains about 15,000 inhabitants. As- calon, though from its difficult access never of great consequence as a seaport, was anciently accounted the most impregnable town on the Philistine coast, and was a strong city in the time of the Crusades. The prophecy has been fulfilled, and Ascalon is now " a desolation." Phoenicia occupied the northern part of the coast as far as Mount Carmel, and contained the famous cities of Tyre and Sidon ; the latter of which is said to have been founded by the son of Canaan, whose name it bears. The great- ness of Sidon lay in the extent of its maritime commerce, which it would ap- pear to have been the first nation to establish. Its people are frequently men- tioned by Homer as excelling in many ingenious and useful arts, and skilled in navigation. Sidon exhibited the fulfilment of the prophecies of Jeremiah ; was repeatedly plundered, and almost destroyed ; and is now an inconsiderable place under the name of Saida. On Tyre (originally a colony of Sidon), the most important commercial city in the world, has been literally fulfilled the prophe- cies of Joel, Amos, Isaiah, and Ezekiel ; it is now a wretched village — " like the top of a rock, a place to spread nets upon." Its destruction by Alexander the Great, verified in an extraordinary manner the very words of scripture. Acre, twenty-seven miles south of Tyre, known as Accho in the Old Testa- ment, subsequently named Ptolemais, by the first of the Ptolemies, Akka, by the Arabs, and St. Jean d'Acre, by the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, is a place of great strength, situated on the northern angle of the bay to which it has given the name. It has for ages been viewed as the maritime key of Palestine, and uudergone many sieges and assaults since the year 636, when it was taken from the Christians by the Saracens, to its recent capture by the English from the Egyptian troops under Ibrahim Pacha. Nazareth, a frontier town of Galilee, the resort of various people, is pictu- resquely situated amidst a cluster of uncultivated hills. It is now a well-built town, with 3,000 inhabitants, of whom two thirds are Christians. Damascus, probably the oldest city in the world, is mentioned in scripture as the birthplace of Eliezer, the steward of Abraham. It is said by Josephus to have been founded by Uz, the grandson of Noah. In the time of David Da- mascus was an important independent state, and reduced to subjection by that monarch. In the reign of Solomon Damascus regained its independence, and during the wars arising from the separation of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, it was engaged in a series of contests, until Ahaz, king of Judah, purchased the aid of Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, by whom it was destroyed. It after- ward became a province of Babylon : then of the Persian and Macedonian em- pires ; next of Arabia, subsequently of the Greek empire, when it was the most celebrated city of the east, remarkable for its wealth, luxury, magnificence, and numerous Christian population. Soon after the establishment of Mohanimedan- .ism, Damascus became the capital of the mussidman world, and was famed ■during the hisjory of the crusades. Since the time of Saladin it has been a Mohammedan city, and is now a pachalic of Turkey. Situated near the east slopes of Anti-Lebanon, 2,237 feet above the sea, and occupying the centre of a tract of productive fields and luxuriant gardens, with about eighty villages — it has been termed " an emerald in the desert," the " eye of the east," the Eden of the Mohammedans. The plain on which the city stands is bounded on ASIA,— TURKEY. 403 three sides by lofty, bare, and rugged mountains ; the approach is surpassingly beautiful, through groves of cypress, olive, and walnut trees ; with murmuring rivulets on all sides, supplied by the river Baruda, the ancient Pharphar. The " City of Joy," as it has been designated, forms a triangle, one side of which extends nearly three miles northwest by west, is surrounded by the remains of its ancient walls, and has a castellated citadel. In the centre of the town is a spacious bazar, constructed of black and white marble in alternate courses ; a grand Saracenic gateway opens into a large paved court, with a handsome mar- ble fountain in the centre, and around it an arcade with pointed arches and rich Saracenic mouldings. In the arcade are piled heaps of merchandise, above it IS a spacious corridor, with counting houses used by the principal merchants. The houses are constructed of sun-dried bricks, and have a mean appearance, but the interior is generally magnificent. It is celebrated for its numerous cof- fee-houses, confectioners, and cookshops, of which latter there are about 400. It has many silk manufactories, jewellers, silversmiths, white and coppersmiths, trunk and tent makers, and it excels in articles of leather manufacture. The population, with the addition of Bedouins and Druses, is estimated at 200,000 souls, of whom about 150,000 are permanent residents ; about 5,000 are Jews, 11,000 Armenians and Greeks, and a great part of the remainder are Turks. Population. — Palestine must for ages have probably had not less than twenty millions of inhabitants ; now it does not contain above half a million, and of these the Jews form but a small portion ; the remainder consists of mussul- mans, and members of the Roman catholic, Greek, and Syrian churches. It is difficult to give any accurate statement of the population of the principal cities of Palestine, as the estimates made by different writers are so vague and va- rious ; for instance, Jerusalem is given at from 10,000 to 30,000; Damascus, at from 100,000 to 200,000 ; Nazareth, at from 2,000 to 4,000. Armenia. — Turkish Armenia is picturesque and well-situated, abounding in lofty mountains, rich valleys, and precipitous torrents. Between the north- ern and southern boundaries there are five distinct parallel mountain ranges, some very lofty and covered with snow. On its southeast border is the cele- brated Mount Ararat, which is an object of veneration to the natives, as well as to Christians and Jews. There is a smaller elevation contiguous, called the " Lesser Ararat." The elevation of the " Great Ararat" has never been ascer- tained ; the estimates formed are from 17,250 to 20,000 feet. Sir R. Ker Por- ter, who had a fine view of this monument of the antediluvian world, says : " It seemed as if the largest mountains in the world had been piled on each other, to form this one sublime immensity of ice, and earth, and rock, and snow." The whole country around rests on a basaltic base ; Ararat, and the adjacent Mount Sevellan (13,000 feet above the sea), have long been considered as the cones of extinct volcanoes, and on the 2d of July, 1840, vast masses of earth and snow were precipitated from Mount Ararat ; the village of Akhoura, with all its inhabitants, was totally buried, and torrents of melted snow poured from the mountain, devastating fields and orchards to the distance of seven miles. The Armenians, in their own language, call themselves Hui-Kani, a name which ihey assert to be derived from King Haikh, the grandson of Japhet. The Arme- nians were converted to Christianity by Gregory, but do not appear to have had an alphabet until the fifth century. They were considered orthodox Christians until the middle of the sixth century, when they adopted the Eutychian creed, namely, that Christ had only one nature, and that his body was divine and in- corruptible, and not created of the substance of the virgin. To this dogma they have resolutely adhered, and i ejected on this point the creeds of both the Romish and Greek churches, as steadily as the Mohammedan faith, by which they are surrounded. The population is estimated at 1,700,000 to 2,000,000. Their 404 ASIA.— TURKEY. church is ruled by patriarchs, who have under them archbishops and bishops. Erzeroum, the chief city of Armenia, is well-situated in a long narrow plain, bounded on either side by lofty mountains ; it has a population of about 100,000, and an extensive trade with the other cities of Asiatic Turkey, and also with Persia, Russia, &c. Mesopotamia. — Mesopotamia or Al-Jezeerah is divided on the north from Armenia by a lofty range of moimtains. Its name signifies the "region between the rivers" (the Euphrates and Tigris), and corresponds with the Hebrew term Shinar, or Shene-Nahar. The word Mesopotamia was not used until after the Macedonian conquest. The country is about 400 miles long by 150 to 220 broad, and, with the exception of two mountain ranges, is a level country. The Euphrates forms its boundary on the Syrian or western side, for 150 miles ; on the northeast and southeast the Tigris runs a sinuous course of more than 350 miles. The Khabour and the Huali are considerable rivers, and there is no lack of other streams to fertilize the soil. Yet this region, once so rich and luxuriant, plentifully adorned with forests and plains, from its beauty called by the Greeks " District of Roses," is now in many parts desolate, with neither trees nor shrubs ; the soil has become sterile and sandy, except in the imme- diate vicinity of rivers ; and most of the southern division of Mesopotamia, which once contained many populous towns, has now the dreary loneliness of a desert. Mesopotamia was originally peopled by the descendants of Aram, the son of Shem. Orfa or Urfah, is supposed to be the site of the Ur of the Chaldees, where Abraham dwelt before he came to Haran, on his road to the promised land. Haran is eight hours journey from Urfah, and on the direct road to the ford over the Euphrates, on the route to Palestine. Everything around Urfah bears, in name, some relation to Abraham, whose memory is held in the highest veneration by all classes, Mohammedans, Jews, and Christians. Even the fish in Abraham's lake are considered sacred. Haran is celebrated as the abode, in ancient times, of the Sabeans,or worshippers of the stars. It was the scene of the defeat of Crassus and the Roman legions by the Parlhians. Diarbekir or Diyar-Bekr, the capital of the pachalic of the same name, is situ- ated on the Tigris, and has a population of about 30,000. It has, together with Urfah and Mousul, a considerable trade with Aleppo carried on by means of camels ; of which as many as 5,000 sometimes form a caravan, each con- veying at least 500 pounds. There are several Christian and Turkish mer- chants at Diyar-Bekr, Urfah, and Mousul, who import cotton-twist, calicoes, prints, muslins, nankeens, and colonial produce ; the returns are in specie, galls, and grain, to Aleppo. Some of the Mesopotamian merchants import their goods direct from England through Aleppo agents. Descending the Euphrates, Dara and Nisibis are famed for their ruins. Those of the latter occupy a space of more than three miles. The catacombs of Dara are very numerous, and cut in a hard freestone rock. Some of them are twenty feet above the ground. On the eastern frontier of Mesopotamia, and on the right bank of the Tigris, is the ancient city of Mousul, long supposed to be near the site of Nineveh or Nim- roud, and now proved to be so by the wonderful discoveries of Mr. Layard and M. Botta, disclosing the remains of temples, palaces, paintings, sculptures, utensils, &c., in excellent preservation, after having been buried beneath the sands for 3,000 years, by which the truth of the scriptural record is marvel- lously verified. The great mounds on the banks of the Tigris, opposite Mou- sul, over which corn has been grown for ages, conceal extensive cities of the Assyrian monarchy, built, as it were, in continuation, in the same manner as Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Bagdad, succeeded each other on sites at no great intervals, which caused them to be spoken of as one city. In this portion of Mesopotamia are a singular race, termed the Yezedis, or devil worshippers. ASIA.— ARABIA. 405 Koordistan, — Koordistan, situated between Mesopotamia and Persia, is about 300 miles long by 130 broad. It is the country of the Koords ; very mountainous and rugged, but well-watered and with fertile valleys. Its inhabit- ants are estimated at 1,000,000 to 1,200,000, and are described as a fine-race of men, with a white complexion, animated physiognomy, and great capacity of arduous enterprise. The Turkish Koords are a settled race, the Persian Koords are nomadic and predatory. About 100,000 of the people are Nestorian Chris- tians, and acknowledge the authority of two hereditary patriarchs. Moham- medanism is here blended with various relics of the Magian and the Manichean systems. The people live in a feudal state : every village has a chief, whose authority is acknowledged only so long as he is able to enforce it. Agriculture is in a rude condition, and there is but little trade with the provinces. The Chaldean Christians inhabit districts of the country on either side of the Tigris, and are said to number 500,000, who constantly live with arms in their hands, to preserve their independence. When Christianity was introduced is not known. Irak-ArabL — Irak-Arabi is an extensive but deserted region ; once popu- lous and fertile, now inhabited only by hordes of wandering Arabs, true descend- ants of Ishmael, every man's hand being against his neighbor. The Turkish pachalic of Bagdad includes the regions anciently known as Babylonia, Chal- dea, a great portion of Assyria, and the whole of Mesopotamia, and at one period must have contained many millions; at present there are, probably, not 1,200,000 people in the whole pachalic, and the spots on which the vast cities of Nine- veh, Babylon, and many others flourished, do not now contain a single inhabit- ant, although Babylonia and Assyria were once famed for their fertility and riches. Bussorah,near the head of the Persian gulf, is a city of great commer- cial importance, and has an active population estimated at 100,000. Bagdad City has a population of 65,000, and is well situated on the banks of the Tigris, about 190 miles above its junction with the Euphrates. « ARABIA. This ancient and celebrated country forms the southwestern extremity of Asia, and occupies the largest peninsula in the world. It is bounded on the north by part of Syria and Turkey in Asia, on the east by Turkey in Asia, the Persian gulf, and the gulf of Oman or Ormuz, on the south and southwest by the Indian ocean and the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and on the west by the Red sea and the gulf and isthmus of Suez. Its shape is that of an irregular quad- rangle, measuring in its greatest length about 1,700 miles, and in its greatest breadth 1,100, and having an area of about 850,000 square miles. It lies be- tween 12'^ and 35° north latitude, and between 33° 30' and 60° east longitude. Physical Aspect. — Arabia forms a great plateau, supported on all sides b)'^ an immense mountain buttress, and encircled with a flat sandy belt. One mount- ain range runs from the isthmus of Suez to the southern parallel of the Red sea, at a distance varying from thirty to eighty miles ; along the southern coast the chain approaches close to the Indian ocean ; that along the Persian gulf is less regular, and is broken by a range which stretches from the gulf of Oman to Mecca. The Chaldean mountains extend from the head of the Persian gulf to Syria. In Arabia Petrea is situated the mountainous peninsula of Sinai, and the desert of El Tih or Agheyl ; the celebrated mounts, Hor, Wadi Musa, Moab, 406 ASIA.— ARABIA. Ammon, and the country northward of Bosra, as far as Ezra. The name of this region well expresses its character ; it consists of sandy plains, rocky ridges, circular belts of stone, separated by deep and narrow crevices which are crossed with difficulty, and interspersed with few fertile tracts ; and yet this now arid region, peopled by a few wandering Arab tribes, was once the seat of splendid Roman cities, and the cavernous and rock-bound city of Petra. The capital of Arabia Petrea derived great importance from the immense traffic carried on in these at present desolate regions. Mount Sinai is the highest peak (7,530 feet) of an enormous mass of red granite rocks, 150 miles southeast of Suez, in the centre of a gloomy desert. At the foot of the mount is the Greek convent of St. Catharine ; steps are cut in the rock for ascending Mount Sinai, and on the ascent is a fine spring of water, where a small chapel has been built, and dedi- cated to the Virgin. On the summit stands a mosque, and thirty paces lower a dilapidated Christian church. Djebel (Mount) Oreb or Horeb is one of the eminences of Sinai. Mount Hor, on which is the supposed tomb of Aaron, overlooks the ruins of Petra. Petra was the capital of Idumea, and hewn en- tirely out of the sides of a mountain of solid porphyry. A temple richly carved, and in a-^ne state of preservation, still exists, amidst countless multitudes of private dwellings and tombs, ornamented with columns cut out of the solid rock, and the ruins of the once-famed city are tenanted by wild beasts and birds of prey, and overgrown with luxurious weeds, which render the narrow ravine, overhung by precipitous clifl^s, almost impassable. Rivers and Seas. — There are no rivers, in the strict acceptation of the term, in Arabia. The most important streams are the Astan and the Falg, both fall- ing into the Persian gulf; the Massora and the Poim, emptying themselves into the Indian ocean ; a nameless stream, falling into the same ocean on the con- fines of Yemen and Hadramaut ; and the Meidam and Zebid, in the southern part of Yemen. But these and every other stream of running water known to exist in this country, have more or less the character of occasional torrents. But few of these streams are perennial, and those are reduced to insignificance during the dry season. But under the influence of the periodical rains they swell to an immense size, and sometimes make new channels, changing, in this way, the appearance of the coast, and leading to contradictory statements as to the number and embouchures of the difl^erent streams. The seas which wash Arabia are of the highest commercial importance, and have been celebrated from the first ages for their many advantages, and are intimately connected with some of the most interesting events in the history of mankind. The Red sea is a great inlet of the Indian ocean, extending in a northwesterly direction, be- tween Arabia and Africa, a distance of 1,400 miles, with a breadth varying from 120 to 200 miles. In its northern portion it is divided into two smaller gulfs, those of Suez and Akaba. The Red sea is full of coral reefs, and the central navigable channel narrow, but very deep. It communicates with the ocean by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb (gate of tears), formed by the approach of the Ras Bab-el-Mandeb and the Ras Sejan ; the former on the Arabian side, and the lat- ter, a gloomy-looking peak projecting from the African coast. Beyond the strait is the gulf of Arabia, Aden or Bab-el-Mandeb, which extends east and west nearly 600 miles, with an almost uniform breadth of about 200 miles. On the south coast of Arabia is the large open bay of Koorya-Moorya. The gulf of Oman extends 320 miles from southeast to southwest, between Arabia and Persia, and where it meets the Persian gulf has only a width of about forty miles. Climate.— In general, the climate of Arabia is similar to that of Northern Africa. Lying under the tropic it has, of course, its succession of dry and rainy seasons. During the dry season a cloud is scarcely seen. On the mount- ains of Yemen the showers fall regularly from the middle of June till the end ASIA.— ARABIA. 407 of September; but in the plain country on the coast a whole year frequently passes without a drop of rain. The temperature in the low coast district is in- tense, frequently rising to 100° Fahrenheit in the shade. In the desert the cold of night is in proportion to the heat of day. Productive Resources. — The Indian fig, date, palm, banana, almond, apri- cot, pear, apple, quince, orange, acacia (which produces the gum-arabic), with the balsam-tree and tamarind, abound, and produce many articles of commercial importance. There is, however, little timber fit for building, the woods gene- rally being light and porous. Other important products are coffee, indigo, sto- rax, castor-oil plant, senna, aloes, sesamum, cotton, sugar-cane, betel, nutmeg, and many dye-yielding plants. Wheat, corn, beans, barley, &c., are produced in the plains of Yemen and other fertile districts. The minerals of Arabia are few, and confined to iron, lead, and rock-salt. The horse of Arabia is a noble animal, spirited, active, and of the most generous temper ; and it has been de- scribed as the most compact piece of powerful and efficient mechanism in the brute creation, but it is of small size, and not remarkable for beauty. The best horses are bred in the Syrian deserts. Next in importance to the horse in Arabia is the camel. They are of two varieties, the dromedary or swift camel, and the common working camel. Other useful animals are asses, oxen, cows, sheep, &c. Political Divisions. — Its general and well-known divisions are, Arabia Pe- trea on the north, Arabia Deserta on the east, and Arabia Felix on the west. On the north coast of the Red sea is the Hedjaz, or land of pilgrimage of the Moslems, which includes Mecca and Medina. Yemen Proper, or Araby the Blest, comprises the districts south of the Nedjaz (or Nejaz), to the Bab-el- Mandeb gulf, and embraces the dominions of the imaum of Sana, the sultan of Kaukeban, and other chiefs. The high country in the province of Yemen is called Djebal, the lower portion is styled the Tehama or Sandy Plain ; El Ha- dramaut extends along the shores of the Indian ocean, and embraces the mount- ainous regions of Seger and Mahrah, governed by independent sheiks. More to the north is the province of Oman, on the gulf of the same name. On the Persian gulf shores Lachsa and Bahrein, governed by the reigning sheik of Beni Khaled. On this coast the East India Company possess some islands ; the inland districts comprise El Aredh or Nedjid, Yemama or Kherdje, Aney- zeh, Zedeyr, Woshem, and other places in Arabia Deserta. The Hedjaz, or holy land of the Moslems, has a continuation of the chain of mountains com- mencing at Mount Sinai, and passing through its centre, leaving a sandy plain near the sea. Hedjaz has several productive districts. Jiddah, the most active commercial port in the Red sea, is a fortified town, m 21^ 23' 14'^ north lati- tude, and 39° 6' east longitude, contains about 20,000 inhabitants. Mecca, thirteen leagues east of the Red sea, and seventy south of Medina, is situated in a narrow sandy valley, built of stone, and has one of the largest mosques iiv the world, called Beitallah or house of God. It contained at one time about 100,000 inhabitants, and has now about 20,000. Medina, which contains the tomb of "the Prophet," in a great mosque called El-Harem, is situated on the edge of the Great Arabian Desert. It has a population of about 20,000. Mecca and Medina derive their chief support from the numerous pilgrims who annually visit the "holy cities." Yemen is the finest province in Arabia, and contains about 53,000 square miles, and 2,500,000 inhabitants. The chief towns ar& Sana, Mocha, and Aden, now occupied by the British. Nedjid, the largest province of Arabia, is 640 miles from north to south, and 750 miles from east to- west. It is elevated, diversified with mountains, valleys, and plains, celebrated for their excellent pastures, where the finest horsi^s in the world are reared. The desert of Nedjid extends 300 miles in length by 180 in breadth, and in- summer, from its lack of water, is untenanted. We know scarce anything of 408 ASIA.— ARABIA- the south coast of Arabia, and but little of the Oman province ; the whole is uninteresting, and almost in the state of a desert. Muskat, the capital, is situ- ated on the east side of an inlet, forming an inner and outer cove, sheltered by the surrounding rocky hills, which encircle an excellent harbor. It is quite an Arab town, with narrow streets, minarets, palaces, and houses indiscriminately mixed together, and presenting an animated scene from its being a port of con- siderable trade. The imaum of Muscat's dominions extend down the coast of Eastern Africa to Zanzibar. The pirate coast, for a distance of 350 miles on the Persian gulf, is imperfectly known ; it is studded with islands, and full of coves, bays, and rocky shallows. Bahrein town and coast are chiefly noted for pearl and coral fisheries. Commerce. — Arabia was famed for its commerce and carrying trade in the days of Abraham and of Lot ; the myrrh, balsams, and frankincense of Arabia, and the spicery, silks, and cottons of India and China, were exchanged for slaves, ivory, gold-dust, corn, fine linen, and carpets. Tyre long maintained considerable trade with Arabia, and in the time of Solomon, commerce was in full activity by the route of Tadmor. The discovery of a route to India by the cape of Good Hope destroyed the carrying trade between Europe and Asia via Arabia. Population. — The term Arab, in Hebrew, as also in the Arabian language, signifies a multitude of different tribes, and such is, even in the present day, the character of the population. There is no possibility of ascertaining the number of inhabitants. Balbi estimates the number at 10,000,000, others at 12,000,000. They are divided into two classes, the Arabs of the desert, or Bedouins, and the Arabs of the cities. The latter, probably the descendants of Shem, and the former those of Ishmael, by whose name they are still frequently called. The two races seldom intermarry; both are brave, but vindictive ; warm and constant in their friendship, but cruel and unforgiving in their enmities. Their hospi- tality is proverbial. History. — Arabia is said to have been peopled by Kahtan or Joktan the Fifth, in a direct line from Shem, whose descendants are the genuine or "pure Arabs;" and by Adnan, a lineal of Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The posterity of Adnan are termed naturalized Arabs, as they did not settle in Arabia until many centuries after the children of Joktan had taken possession of the coun- try. Yemen kingdom was founded by Yarab, and Hedjaz by Jorham, both sons of Joktan. Owing to an inundation caused by the bursting of a stupendous reservoir, eight tribes were compelled to seek support in other countries, some removed to Chaldea, and others to Syria. There were several petty chieftains in Yemen, but all were subject to Hamyar, who founded a dynasty and king- dom. Dhu Nowauss or Yusof, the last of the Hamyarite sovereigns (a Jew), who lived seventy years before the birth of Mahomet, cruelly persecuted the Christians, 6,000 of whom he is stated to have cast into a fiery pit. He was killed by the Abyssinians who, at the instigation of the patriot of Alexandria, undertook the defence of the Christians ; Abrahah, the Abyssinian general, as- sumed the government of Hamyar, and established Christianity at Yemen, and, according to the Mohammedans, in A. D. 569, led an army to the gates of Mecca, but the elephant, on which he was seated, knelt down and refused to advance. Abrahah is said to have been deterred from his purpose, and the city was saved in the very year Mohammed was born. Seyff, a descendant of the royal family Hamyar, expelled the Abyssinians, but at his death the dynasty terminated, and the government of Yemen devolved on the emirs, ameers, or lieutenants of the Persian monarch. In El Hedjaz or Hejaz,the region northwest of Yemen, the Koreish tribes who were of the posterity of Ishmael held sway, and under this leader Kosa assumed the government of the Kaaba or temple, by force from the Khozaites, a colony from Yemen, descendants of Shem. One of the descend- ASIA.— PERSIA. 409 ants of Kosa, named Abdallah, was the father of Mohammed, who was born at Mecca ai the period above mentioned. In his fortieth year, when the territo- ries of Rome and Constantinople were overrun by Goths and Huns, and Persia also was ravished by hordes of Scythians — when the pure light of Christianity was obscured by fierce controversies, and when Jews and Christians alike sought safety and repose in Yemen — Mohammed began to disclose his pre- tended divine mission. The rapid progress of Mahommedanism was almost miraculous ; the idols of Arabia were first destroyed, and in a comparatively brief period the followers of Mohammed invaded and subdued the greater part of the globe. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Turks took cap- tive at Cairo Mohammed XII , the last of the Abassides who formally renounced the khalifate at Constantinople ; the keys of the temple of Mecca were also de- livered up to the Turks, who claimed the sovereignly of all Arabia. This was, however, contested by the Wahabys, a Mohammedan sect, who sought to restore pure Islamism, and who, in 1815, were driven out of the Hedjaz or holy re- gion, by Mehemet AH and his Egyptian soldiers. The authority of the sover- eign of Egypt (which is a fief of the sultan of the Turks), is partially acknowl- edged along the borders of the Red sea. In the other parts of Arabia each sheik or chief considers himself independent of any internal or external au- thority. PERSIA. This ancient kingdom, known at different times under the names of Iran or Eiran, Elam or Susiana, Media, and Parthia, is situated between 26° and 40^ north latitude, and 60^ and 45° east longitude, and is bounded on the north by Independent Tartary, the Caspian sea, and the Russian territories, on the east by Afghanistan or Cabul, and Beloochistan, on the south and southeast by the sea of Oman and the Persian gulf, and on the west by Turkey in Asia. Its area comprises about 450,000 square miles. Its greatest length is from Mount Ararat, on the northwest, to the sea of Oman, on the southeast ; the distance being about 1,300 miles. Physical Aspect. — The centre of Persia constitutes an elevated plain, from which rise several mountain ranges ; the Elborz and Paropamisan or Ghoor mountains run from east to west, on the south of the Caspian, meeting the great chain of the Hindu-Koosh and another from Mount Ararat and the Koordistan mountains extends southward to the Persian gulf. These send off different spurs — which present no definite order — and seem as if thrown together in confused heaps and masses. The middle region has an elevation of from 2,500 to 4,500 feet above the sea ; the lower or level country stretches along the shores of the Persian gulf, and the basin of the Tigris on the south, and along the coast of the Caspian on the north. The interior of Persia is bleak, bare, arid ; the mountains present huge masses of gray rock piled on each other, or starting in abrupt ridges from the plateau. The plains, unless on the margin of rivers, are naked terraces of stiff clay, and it is only on the banks of streams that villages and trees are seen, literally appearing like oases in a desert. The provinces bordering the Caspian sea are, however, as beautiful as water, wood, and mountain, can make them, and ofl^er a strong contrast to the more southern and eastern districts. There are four great deserts, exclusive of smaller ones, that form part of the great Cobi, or naked desert, on the northwest of China, which stretches across Asia, communicating with slight intermissions through Beloochistan, Meckran, and Nedjid, with the sea and desert of Arabia. 410 ASIA.— PERSIA, In the valleys the soil is a rich dark loam, yielding successive crops for years without manure. Wherever water can be obtained for irrigation the soil is ex- ceedingly fertile ; probably not a third of the area of Persia is cultivable. Fruits and flowers abound. Rivers and Lakes. — The rivers of Persia are few and inconsiderable. The Araxes can scarcely be considered to belong to Persia. There are more than thirty salt lakes which have no outlets; Lake Ooroomiah is seventy miles long from north to south, thirty-two from east to west, and 280 miles in circumfer- ence. Fourteen rivers fall into the lake, but its waters are intensely bitter, saline, and heavy ; no fish can live in them ; are shallow, and visibly decreasing. Near this lake there are some remarkable petrifactive ponds. Lake Baktegan is sixty miles long, and receives all the rivers of " Hollow Persia," or those that water the vales of Morgaub, Merdasht, and Karbal. Climate. — Although the dimensions of modern Persia are much reduced, its limits still admit a great variety of climate. The surface of the Caspian sea beino- 332 feet lower than the ocean, its shores in summer experience a tropical heat, and the weather and temperature are highly capricious. The central plateau has an atmosphere excessively cold in winter, and intensely hot in summer. On the shores of the Persian gulf the thermometer sometimes reaches 125° in the shade ; and the traveller on the burnt-up and barren south- ern coast too frequently experiences the fatal effects of the Samiel wind. Political Divisions. — The kingdom of Persia is divided into provinces, the limits of which are continually varying. Geographers have, for this reason, retained the ancient divisions of the country, the names of which, with their capitals, are as follows : — Provinces, Capitals. Population. Provinces. Capitals. Population. 1 Koordistan Senna 5,000 7. Irak-Ajerai Ispahant 150,000 2 Azerbijan Tabriz or Taurus*. ...50.000 8. Khuzietan Shuster 20.000 3 Ghilan Resht 40,000 9. Far8 or Faristan Shiraz 30,000 A. Mazanderan .'^ari 40,000 10. Laristan Lar 12,000 5. Astrabad Astrabad 15,000 11. Kerman Kerman 30.000 6. Khorassan Rlushid 30,000 12. Seistan, inhabited by wandering tribes. Chief Cities. — Other principal towns, besides those named above, are Teheran,:}: Ardabil, Maragha, Khoy, Marant, Ooroomiah, Koom, Kasbin, Teh- ran, Moorgaub, Kazeroon, Komaishah, Yezdekhast, Enzeli, Amol, Balfu- rosh, Farahabad, Damghaun, Semnoon, Neshapoore, Toon, Tubbus, and Yezd. Productive Resources. — The agricultural products of Persia are, wheat, barley, millet, oats, rice, hemp, tobacco, fruits, &c. Gums, medicines, and dye-stuffs, are among the rich products of Persia. The silk-worm is exten- *TABniz, the chit-f town of Azerbijan, is a great centre of commerce, with a large but very fluctuating pop- ulation. It is about 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and is bordered on three sides with mountains, while on the fourth side the plain extends, without interruption, to Lake Ooroomiah, which is distant about thirty miles. The city is about four miles in circuit, and is surrounded by a brick wall ; and the citadel, a high and massive structure of brickwork, is visible from a distance, rising above the broad screen of gardens, which mask the approach to the city, and which, being cultivated with great care, yield every kind of fruit in the utmost perlection and abundance. t Ispahan, the ancient capital of Persia, formerly a large and splendid city, with 1,000,000 inhabitants, is now in ruins It stands on a plain 4,140 feet above the sea, upon the banks of the Zeinde-riid, which is crossed by three fine bridges, and is surrounded by a mud wall twenty-four miles in circuit. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the surrounding valley, and the first view of the city is still imposing. A nearer view, however, dispels the illusion, though much still remains of wealth, if not of splendor. Ispahan has yet considerable trade, and a population of 150,000. t Tfheran, or Tchraun, is the modern capital of Persia. It stands in a gravelly plain, 4.000 feet above the level of the sea. It is about five miles in circuit, and is enclosed by a strong earthen wall, flanked with nume- rous towers, surrounded by a glacis, outside which isalart-e dry ditch. The appearance of the city from a distance is picturesque ; but it has few public edifice? worth notice ; and notwithstanding it has many good shops and bazars, it is said by Morier to have a mud like look within, its houses, like those of other Persian • towns, being constructed of sun-dried bricks, while many of its streets are wretchedly paved. The ark or cit- adel cotnprises, besides the royal residence and harem, quarters for the guards, the record-chamber, treasury hall for leceivine embassadors, and other public offices, ten baths, two or three gardens, reservoirs, &c. The grand saloon in "the palace is said to be very magnificent ; the throne is a platform ot pure white marble raised a few steps from the ground, and carpeted with shawls and cloth of gold, and the whole interior ot the depart- ment is profusely decorated with carving, gilding, arabesque painting, and looking-elnss, the last mat.nal being interwoven with all the other ornaments, from the vaulted roof to the floor. The population ot fche- ran, during the residence of the court, is 70,000 or upward. During the heats of summer its populaUon is reduced to about 10,000. ASIA.— PERSIA, 411 sively reared, and the annual produce of silk amounts to 4,000,000 of pounds. The horses of Persia are among the finest in the world. The mineral riches of Persia are almost wholly unexplored. Iron, copper, and lead, are, however, known to abound in all the great mountain ranges. The turquoise abounds in Persia, of a beauty unknown in any other part of the world. Rock-salt is very abundant all over the country. Manufactures. — The Persians have carried many of the mechanic arts to high perfection. Their principal manufactures, and those in which they par- ticularly excel, are sabres, copper and brass-work, perfumery, leather, pottery, silks, carpets, felts, printed cloths and shawls. Commerce. — The commerce of Persia is mostly by land. The only sea- ports are, Bushire, Bunderabbas or Gombroon, Congoon, and some still smaller places on the Persian gulf; and Euzellee, Balfrush, and Asterabad, on the Caspian. The principal trade is with India, China, Turkey, Russia, Bokhara, and Afghanistan. Their exports consists of pearls, silks, horses, camels, skins, copper, leather, gums, drugs, dye-stuffs, &c. ; and the imports are indigo, co- chineal, cofTee, sugar, tea, jewelry, and European merchandise generally. Education. — In former reigns, particularly in the time of the Sutfaveans, when literature was more encouraged than now, considerable attention was paid to education. Medressas or colleges were built and endowed, in which moUahs and teachers of suitable abilities were placed to instruct the students. But these institutions were rather for students of more advanced age ; for younger pupils of the lower classes there are schools kept by private persons, where reading and writing are taught, and some knowledge of the practice of religion is imparted, with perhaps, to some who are destined lo become "men of the pen," a little superficial instruction in logic and grammar. Population. — There having been no census ever taken in Persia, the amount of its population is merely conjectural. It is variously estimated to be from 8,000,000 to 11,000,000. The national appearance and character vary much ; some of the Persians are of noble stature and appearance ; brave, truthful, and honest : others are the reverse ; and despotism in Persia, as elsewhere, deterio- rates man. Government. — The government of Persia, like that of most eastern coun- tries, is, in principle at least, an absolute despotism. The shah is regarded as the vicegerent of the prophet, and, as such, is entitled to implicit obedience. His word is law'; he is absolute master of the lives and properties of his sub- jects ; and the first man in the empire may, at his command, be instantly stripped of all his dignities, bastinadoed, or strangled ; the only control on his actions being the risk of provoking rebellion or assassination. The two principal min- isters are, the grand vizier or vizier azem, and the lord high-treasurer or ameen- a-doulah. The former superintends everything connected with foreign rela- tions, and, in the absence of the sovereign, commands the armies ; while the latter, who is subordinate to the other, superintends the internal arrangements, the collection of the revenue, &;c. The whole executive government is in the hands of these two functionaries, whose authority, so long as they continue in power, is as absolute as that of their master ; but their greatness, being built on the favor of a tyrant, is of the most unstable kind, and they are very often pre- cipitated from their slippery elevatjpn. The Persians are Mohammedans, of the sect called Schiites or Sheahs, or of those who look upon A.li, the son-in- law of the prophet, as his legitimate successor. History. — The ancient history of Persia is intimately connected with tha of Greece and Rome. In more modern times it has been the theatre of endless civil wars, revolutions, and changes devoid of all interest to foreigners. To- ward the end of the sixteenth century, however, order was restored, and Persia rose to distinction under the government of Shah Abbas, surnamed the Great, 412 ASIA,— AFGHANISTAN. who defeated the Turks in several battles, taking from them the city of Tabriz and the province of Georgia, and Ormuz from the Portuguese. Ab- bas was Succeeded by a series of im- becile tyrants ; and in 1727 the country was overrun by the Afghans. At length the famous Thamas Kouli Khan, a brigand chief, was raised to the throne by the title of Nadir Shah, and distinguished himself alike by his vic- tories and his ferocity. Nadir being assassinated, in 1743, his death was followed by a long-continued civil war. After a vast deal of blood had been spilt, the eunuch Mehemet Khan suc- ceeded, by his superior ability and <)ood fortune, in establishing his au- thority over most of the provinces now comprised in Persia ; and transmitted his authority to his nephew, Futteh Ali Shah. This prince waged an unsuc- cessful war with Russia, who stripped him of a large territory in Armenia, and obliged him to pay $10,000,000 as an in- demnity for the expenses she had been put to in the contest. Futteh Ali kept an enormous harem ; and it was his practice to disperse his sons over the empire, as governors of provinces, towns, &c., of which, speaking generally, they were the scourges. On the death of Futteh, in 1835, his grandson, Mohammed Mirza, son of the prince royal. Abbas Mirza, succeeded to the throne in terms of his grandfather's will. A few of his uncles, who were reckoned most dan- gerous, were deprived of sight ; but on the whole the succession was unusually tranquil and bloodless. This sovereign was favorable to the interests of Russia, or rather, perhaps, deemed it most prudent to keep on good terms with those who had the greatest means of injuring him. His unsuccessful expedition against Herat is said to have been undertaken at the instigation of Russia. The present shah is Nasser-ad-Din. FUTTEH ALI SHAH. AFGHANISTAN. Afghanistan, originally a part of Persia, lies between 60'^ and 70° east longitude, and 30° and 36° north latitude, and is bounded on the north by the Hindoo-Koosh mountains, on the west by Persia, on the south by Beloochistan, and on the east by Hindostan. It is about 630 miles long by 450 broad, and contains about 250,000 squar§ miles. Population about 8,000,000. Physical Aspect. — This region presents an aggregation of mountainous groups and ranges, diverging from certain principal points, and thus becomes divided into numerous valleys of greater or lesser size, which are watered by streams of corresponding magnitudes, and which sometimes stretch out into plains of considerable extent. The most conspicuous feature is the grand mountain chain, continued from the snowy range of Hindostan, which forms the whole of its northern boundary. Several subordinate chains traverse the coun- ASIA.— AFGHANISTAN. 413 try. Of these the most important is Solimoun, which runs parallel to the Indus, and nearly at right angles with the Hindu-Koosh. Rivers, &c. — The rivers of Afghanistan (excepting the Indus, which bathes its eastern border) are not of the first magnitude. The most important are the Kama, the Cabiil, and the Helmund. The mountain-tracts in the south give rise to numerous rivers, or rather torrents, nearly dry in summer, but rapid and desolating in winter. The only lake worth noticing is the salt lake of Zurroh, the recipient of the Helmund. Climate. — The climate varies in an extreme degree, according to locality. In the eastern part of the Cabul valley and in those to the south, bordering on Cutch Gundava, the heat is sufficient to mature all the products of India, such as the sugar-cane, indigo, and some of the tropical fruits ; while the northern valleys abound in the productions of cold regions, and the mountains are covered with forests of pines. Chief Towns. — Cabul is the principal city of Afghanistan, and is one of the most delightful in the world.* Other towns are Candahar, Ghuznee, Pesh- awer, Jellalabad, Kohat, Mittun, Baumeean, Herat, &c. Productive Resources. — Agriculture is in the same rude state as in Persia and most Asiatic countries. Wheat, barley, rice, and maize, form the produce of the more temperate regions ; while in the warmer, the smaller grains common to India, with the sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, madder, &c., reward the farmer's toil. Grapes, pomegranates, figs, mangoes, oranges, lemons, guavos, plantains, and other fruits of India, are found in abundance. Of its mineral products are gold, copper, iron, antimony, sulphur, coal, &c. Manufactures are confined to homemade stuffs of cotton and wool, and a little silk, which serve for the dress of the inhabitants. Little or nothing is manufactured for export. Commerce. — The disturbed state of the country for a succession of years has been unfavorable to trade ; and the large and valuable caravans which formerly carried the rich productions of India and Cashmere to Cabul and Herat, for the consumption of the courts at these cities, or for transit, by Yez, into Persia, now no longer venture to traverse lands where robbery and extortion combine to ruin the merchant. There is, however, a considerable trade carried on with India, and a thousand camel-loads of India and English chintzes, calicoes, and mus- lins, brocade shawls, Punjab turbans, spices, &c., are yearly consumed at Cabul. Education. — Education is conducted much as in the conterminous countries. A village mooUah, or schoolmaster, teaches the children of the poor to say their prayers and to read the Koran ; the rich keep lallas or private tutors in their houses ; the village schoolmasters are paid in allotments of land and some small fees. Those intended for the learned professions go to towns, and live in col- leges instituted for the purpose of instruction. Government. — The Afghans are divided into small tribes, and their chiefs or khans are elected by the people of each. The internal government is con- ducted by these khans, and assemblies of the heads of divisions. The khan, though supreme, is looked upon as a father, who has the welfare of his children in view, and is consequently secure only in the affections of his people. History. — Afghanistan having, from the earliest period of authentic record, followed the fortunes of its more powerful neighbors, or formed but the centre of a greater whole, can not correctly lay claim to any history of its own, until after the death of Nadir Shah. On the murder of Nadir, in Khorassan, in 1747, * Cabul is situnted in a plain 1,000 feet abovn the levol of the adjacent country. It is 6urronndnd by a lofty wall of lowers and curtalni and a broad ditch, and with one exception of a suburb, stands all on the right bank of the river. The«hou8es are built of sun-dried brick and wood, but few of them nre more than two stories high. The great bazar is an eletant arcade, nearly 600 feet long and 30 broad. There are few .ouch bazars in the East, and wonder i-t excittjd by the ailks, cloths, and goods, ariangrd alons the sides and at the quantity of dried fruits piled up in endless profusion. Each trade has its separate bazar. The population amounts to about 60,000, who all converse in the Persian as their mother-tongue. 414 ASIA.— BELOOCHISTAN. Ahmed Abdallee succeeded in gaining an ascendency over the Afghan tribes, and extended his sway by conquest over the country between the Oxus and the sea, and from Kerman to the Indus. On his death, in 1773, lie was suc- ceeded by his son Timour Shah, a weak and indolent prince, who died in 1793. Since then till the present day the affairs of Afghanistan present but a series of civil broils, crimes, and murders. In 1838, Dost Mohammed, the present sovereign, was conquered by the British ; but in November, 1842, they retired from the country, having lost several thousand men in their wars with this highly-spirited people, and the deposed monarch was allowed to return and resume his government. BELOOCHISTAN. Beloochistan, the remaining portion of ancient Persia, lies between Af- ghanistan and the Indian ocean, and between 58° and 69° west longitude, and 25° and 30° north latitude. It has Hindostan on the east, and Persia on the west. Its superficial area is about 180,000 square miles. Physical Aspect. — By far the greater part of Beloochistan is mountainous, and especially i^s eastern and western divisions, which consist of two table- lands ; those of Kelat and Kohistan (the land of mountains), whose ranges run mostly north and south, and communicate with each other by several other ex- tensive ranges running east and west across the central province of Mukran. A large portion of the country is entirely desert, and the seacoast is covered by flat, barren sands, which are destitute of water, and produce no other vegetation than date-trees. Rivers. — Cutch Gundava, intersected by some of the western tributaries of the Indus, is the only well-watered province. The remainder of Beloochistan suffers from want of water, excepting, perhaps, a few rice-grounds in the prov- ince of Lus. There is not a rivulet in the north, and only a few along the coast, which, although sometimes swollen in a few minutes to torrents, by pro- fuse rains, are, for the most part of the year, nearly dry. Climate. — The climate is healthy, except in Mukran. In the mountainous* provinces there are four seasons : the spring from the middle of February to the middle of April ; the summer thenceforward to the beginning of August, the heats of which are intense only toward the latter end ; the autumn lasts till the October snows ; and the winter, which is very severe, for the rest of the year. Chief Towns. — The chief city and capital of Beloochistan is Kelat. It has a population of about 25,000. Other towns are Gundava, Punjgoor, Bayla, Lydree, Khoola, Choubar, Bunpoor, &c. Productive Resources. — Not a hundredth part of the country is cultivated. All the kinds of grain, however, known in India, are grown, viz., rice, wheat, barley, maize, sesamum, &c. Cotton, indigo, and madder, are grown. Gold, silver, and some other metals, with snlpluir, naphtha, and rock-salt, are found in different places. Manufactures are few and rude, most of the articles beyond what are absolutely necessary to the support of life, being imported from neigh- boring countries, in exchange for the iew natural products. Commerce. — The principal exports are, horses and other cattle, skins, dates, orain, some rice, cotton, silk, oil, indigo, salt, borax, nitre, &c. ; from Lus, grain, felt, and coarse carpets, are sent into Mukran and AraRia. From the lat- ter country almonds and Caffre slaves are imported, the Caffres being deemed very valuable ; from India, iron, tin, lead, steel, copper, indigo, betel-nut, cochi- ASIA.— INDIA. 415 neal, sugar, spices, silks, gold-cloths, chintzes, and coarse woollens, fruit, (fee. ; from Cabul and Khorassan, steel and copper; from Seistan, white cloths, loon- gees, turbans, &c. ; from Sinde, Shikarpoor, &c., porcelain, tobacco, coffee, opium, olta of rivers, elevated, then hilly. IIi,tra-Gangkt:c. Arracan— Isthmuses, islands, swamps, seacoasts, and jungles. Assam, &c — Valley of Brahmapootra, 60 miles by 350. Tavoy — Dense forests, seacoast, low islands. Ye — Rivers, rice plains and forests, rocky coast. Tenasserini — Mergui Archipelago, interior hilly, little known. Mergui Isles — High, bold in triple lines, with harbors. Northwest Provinces. Benares — Holy city, on the Ganges, highly cultivated. Ghazeepore — Gently undulating, Ganges on south, on the east Goggra. Azimghur — Elevated, .candy but fertile, Goggra river. Goruckpoor — Base hills low, forests, Nepaul mount- ains to north. Juanpoor— Undulating, north and south Goggra, east Ganges. Allahabad — Ganges and Jumna Delta, 800 feet above Calcutta. Banda — Elevated table-land, high hills in ranges. Kalpee — Along Jumna flat, toward Panna yiountains. Futtehpore— Ganges and Jumnab valley, rising from cither bank. Cawnpore — Segment of plain from bay of Bengal to mountains. Etawah— Flat, intersected by ravines, Chumbul river. Furruckabad — The Doab in general flat, and divested of trees. Shajehanpoor— Flat, and intersected by north mount- ain streams. Saidabad— Highly cultivated, many water-courses. Allyghur— Low dark jungle, loneliest part of the Doab. Saiswan— Highly cultivated, many water-courses. Bareilly— Geneially level, watered by Ganges, &c. Peelibheat— Pleasantly situated on the Gurrah, very fertile. Moradabad— Inundated along the Ganges, Gerwhal mountDiiiB north. Agra— Table-land, Chumbul and Jumna rivers. Delhi— Table-land, 800 feet above the ocean, saline soil, Sarabunpoor— Flat to base of hills at north and east, fertile. Kumaon, (fee— High mountainous ridges, elevation 7,000 feet. „ . :, Nurbudda District— Ravines, valleys, foresto, Nerbud- da Delta. Madras Presidency. Gangam- Low seacoast, large fertile plains, hilly to Vizigapatam— Mountainous, lofty ridge, parallel to the sea. ASIA.— INDIA. 417 Rajahmundry — Bounded by the Godavery, delta, 500 square milrs. Masulipatam — MountainouB, west low sea coast, good harbor. Guntoor— Mountainous by Kistnah river to west, and Gondcgama to south. Bellary — Stupendous wall of mountains, rising abrupt. Cuddapah — Stupendous wall of mount's risini; abrupt. Nellore— Picturesque even to the sea, small hills, &.c. Arcot — Varied, mountainous to north, verdant. Chingleput — Includes Madras, low, with masses of granite. Salem— To north 5,000 feet above the sea, table-land. Coimbatore— Table-land, to north 6,000 feet, Neilghe- ries. Trinchinopoly — More elevated, waving valleys, emi- nences. Tanjore — Delta of Cauvery one sheet of rice cultivation Madura— Flat to south and east, hilly, north and west, forests. Tinnivelly — Ridge of mountains wppt open to the sea. Malabar — 200 miles seacoast, separated by valley* from west Ghauts. Canara — 180 miles seacoast, rocky and mountainous, west Ghauts. Bombay Pbksidkncy. Conkan, North and South— 225 miles along sea, Ghauts 2,000 to 4,000 feet. Dharwar— Elevated to the west, isolated, flat emi- nences. Poonah — Intersected by many rivers, fertile valleys. Kandeish— Low hills to south, and numerous streams. Surat — Hilly to east and south, flat to north, and coast fertile. Baroach — Flat, cultivated, and peopled along the gulf. Kairah — Intersected by Karee river, level, good soil. Ahmedabad — Intersected by Karee riv., level, good soil. Kattywar — Hills, jungles, and rocks, rude seacoast. Mountains. — There are several ranges ; the greatest is that of the Himalaya or the abode of snow, and is the most remarkable feature in the eastern hemi- sphere. The principal chain runs from northwest to southeast, with an abrupt steep face of 6,000 feet against the plains, there is then a slope from the crest of the ridge toward the north. The loftiest peaks are from 20,000 to 28,000 feet in height, and are covered perpetually with snow. Another range of mountains, but of much less elevation, termed the Ghauts, extend along the Malabar coast, from the gulf of Cambay to Cape Comorin, and throws off differ- ent spurs to the westward, on which the great table-land of the Deccan rests. Another range of inconsiderable heiglit passes from east to west, through Malwa. The Neilgherries are a beautiful range in the Madras Presidency. Rivers. — The Indus is a magnificent river, 1,700 miles in length, and re- ceives, in its course southward, the waters of th.e Sutlej,the Chenab, the Ghara, and many others. It is navigable for steamships to Moultan, and many others of its tributaries form navigable streams of great volume. The Ganges (1,500 miles long) flows in an easterly direction from its sources in the Himalayas. It is the most pre-eminent among the rivers of India, not only from its length of course, the great and fertile valley which it waters, the number of important cities and towns on its banks, but also from the holy and sacred character it has maintained from the most remote ages ; the Hindus believing that its waters possess a virtue which will preserve them from every moral transgression. Some of the tributaries would in many countries rank as important rivers. Its principal, the Jumna, the Chumbul, Sinde, Betwa, Cane, Baugy, &c. The Brahmapootra (1,500 miles long) is also a noble river, eastward of the Ganges, emptying itself, with that river, into the bay of Bengal. Other rivers worthy of note are, the Nerbuddah and Tuptee, emptying into the Arabian gulf, and the Mahanuddy, Godavery, and Kistnah, emptying into the Indian ocean, on the east side of the peninsula. Climate. — The climate of Hindostan is very various, according to latitude and elevation above the sea. At Simla, in the Himalaya mountains, it is de- lightfully cool during the periods when the plains of southern India are scorched with a hot wind and a tropical sun. The year is divided into the wet and dry seasons. The most remarkable peculiarity, however, of the Indian climate is, the periodical changes of the wind, which blows alternately for nearly half the year in opposite directions. These are termed monsoons, but their effects are mostly felt in the southern peninsula. The general heat of India, and the insa- lubrious character of the rainy season, produce not only discomfort, but are highly injurious to the human constitution ; and foreigners are ever liable to fevers, dysenteries, diseases of the liver, and other complaints peculiar to the East. The marshes of the Ganges seem to be the original seat of the Asiatic cholera, and hence it spreads its pestilential breath to the extreme limits of the earth. 27 418 ASIA.— INDIA. Political Divisions. — The states of Hindostan are divided politically into five classes, viz. : 1. Independent states. 2. British territories, or territories under the immediate government of the East India Company. 3. Subject slates, left to the rule of the native princes, but under the control of the Cona- pany. 4. States under British protection, but without interference of their in- ternal administration. 5. Colonies of other European nations. The names of these, with their respective areas and populations, are as follows : — L — Independent Statzs. Area in square miles. Populaiioo. Boofan, or the country of Deb-Rajah 20.000 1.000,000 The kingdom of Nepaul 36,000 2,000,000 Total 56,000 3,000,000 II. — Bbitisu Territories. Fort William, Bengal, Presidency of— 1. Government of Bengal, Bahar, Orissa, including Arracan, Assam, &c 181,684 42,000,000 2 Govemmentof Agra, or Northwest Provinces 170.210 18.000,000 Fort St. George, Madras, Presidency of 121.982 16,000.000 Bombay, Presidency of _- 62,542 7.000,000 Total 536,418 83,000.000 in. — Subject States. ThcMahrattas 9.950 1,195,000 Mysore, Rajah of 28,000 2,800.000 Sikim, Rajah of. - 4,500 450.000 Rewah, in Bundelcund, Rajah of 10,000 1,000,000 Dhattea, Jhansi, and Tehri, in Bundelcund, Chiefs of 16,000 1,500,000 Bhurtpore, Rajah of.... 2,000 190,000 Dholpore, Baree, &c.. Rajahs of 1,600 160,000 Bhopal, in Malvvah, Nawub or Nabob of. 6,700 670.000 Dhar and Devi'ns, in Malwah, Rajahs of 1,400 140,000 Rajpootaiia and Malwah, Princes of 109,000 6,800,000 Patiala, Key tal, Naba, Jeend, &c., between the Jumnah and the Sutlej, Rajahs of. . 16,600 500.000 Bhawul-Kahn, Chief of the Daoudputras 30,000 3501000 Total 235,750 15,755,000 IV — Protected States. Hydrabad, Nizam or king of 89.000 10.000.000 Berar, Rajah of 57,000 3,000.00ff Travancore, Rajah of 4,500 450.000 Cochin, Rajah of 2,000 200,000 Oude, Padishah or King of 24,000 6,000.000 Holkah's Territory in Malwah 4,200 4-0.000 Baroda 25,000 2.500.000 Kutch.Raoof - 7,300 350,000 Sinde, Ameers of 60,000 200,000 The Maharajah Scindia, in Central India 32,944 3,250,000 The Punjab, or kingdom of Lahore 160,000 4.000,000 Total 465,944 30,370,000 v.— Colonies of other European Nations. Portuguese Territory 1.200 500,000 French Territory 520 210,000 Danish Territory 93. 3.^.000 Total 1,823 745,000 Grand Total 1,295,935 52.870,000 Chief Towns. — The chief towns in the presidency of Bengal are, Calcutta* Patna, Rakhain or Arracan, Cuttach, Ghergong, Allahabad, Benares, Agra, Delhi, Amere, Ghazeepore, Bareilly, Almora, Saugur, &c. In the presidency of Madras the chief towns are Madras (the capital), Arcot, and Calicut. In * Calcutta is the capital of all British India. It is situated 100 miles from the sea, on the Hoogly river, an arm of the Ganges, in latitude 22° 23' north, longitude 88» 28' east. The locality formerly was very unhealthy, being in the midst of forests and swamps ; and, though these have been in a great measure cli-ared away, it still suflors by the damp breezes from the Sunderbunds. The English town, or suburb, called Chouringce, contains the finest houses. Strangers ascending the river are particularly struck by the number of elegant villas, with which all the environs are studded. The Black Town, comprising much the greater part ot C:il- cutta, consists, as in other parts of India, of miserable cottages of mud and bamboo. The governmrnt-hnusc is a very splendid and costy structure. A college was founded by the marquis Wellesloy, whicji bciastod many illustrious members, but has of late been much reduced. Calcutta enjoys a very extensive internal navij;«. tion, by meiuis of the Ganges and its numerous arms and tiibutarios ; and it monopolizes the whole ot the ex- ternal trade dI' Bengal. It is now, in fact, Canton perhaps excepted, the greatest emporium of the East. The gross amount of its imports nnd exports amountini; to Ironi .f ,'50.000,000 to §60,000,000 a yeai". The population amounts to about 250,000. Calcutta has several places ol Christian worship, and a number ot academies and schools. It contains, with the suburbs, nearly 1,000,000 inhabitants. ASIA.— INDIA, 419 Bombay the city of Bombayf (the capital), Sural, Poonah, and others. In the protected states, Hydrabad (capital of the state of the same name), Nagpore (capital of Berar), Trivandrum, Mysore, Seringapatam, Sikim, Lucknow, Bhiirl- pore, Dholpore, Bhopal, Islanuggur, Basodah, Bhooj, Oudepore, Jeypore, Joud- pore, Bahavvulpore, Gwalior, Lahore, Lalita-Patan, Pondichery (capital of the French possessions), Seranipore, and many others of less note. Productive Resources. — India has ever been celebrated for the luxuriance of its vegetation, and the profuseness of its magnificent and valuable products. Among the trees are, the noble palm-tree, the fragrant sandal-wood, the bam- boo, used for masts, fences, mats, baskets, pipes, &c. ; and the banyan-tree, which strikes its branches into the ground, forming beautiful arbors, sometimes half a mile in circuit, and capable of shading an army of several thousand men. Among its most importdnt productions are rice (which is the great article of food, and is raised on every spot where irrigation is practicable), wheat, barley, pepper, ginseng, silk, cotton, sugar, tobacco, indigo, caoutchouc, opium, salt- petre, coffee, tea, &c. Iron, copper, lead, antimony, plumbago, zinc, sulphur, silver, and gold, together with inexhaustible supplies of coal, abound in various parts of the country. Manufactures. — The manufactures of India are many and various. Among them may be named shawls, table-linens, silks, taffetas, brocades, embroideries, steel and iron goods, paper, jewelry, and cotton and woollen goods, &c. Commerce. — The principal exports of India are indigo, opium, cotton, sugar, muslins, calicoes, raw silk, pepper, rice, and diamonds. The imports consist principally of British manufactured goods. The maritime trade centres in Cal- cutta, Bombay, and Madras. A considerable trade is carried on with the Per- sian gulf, Arabia, China, and the Asiatic islands. The internal trade of Hin- dostan is also great. Inland customs are now abolished, and traders may carry their goods from one extremity of the country to the other, without being pil- laged at every step, as formerly, by customhouse officers. On the Ganges, and all the other large rivers, there is an extensive inland navigation. The roads generally are very indifferent, affording only a limited conveyance in rude cars, drawn by oxen. In the northwest provinces camels and horses are resorted to; and in the mountainous districts porters are the chief bearers of merchandise. Education. — Education is being rapidly extended in many parts of Hindos- tan, but especially in the vicinity of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Benares, Patna, and other large cities. In the medical schools, Hindu, Mus- sulman, and Anglo-Indian youths are taught anatomy, surgery, practice of physic, &c., and when properly qualified, they receive appointments as native doctors in different regiments, and at the principal stations of the company. Religion. — The religion of the Hindus, derived from their sacred books, inculcates a belief in the existence of one supreme God, called Brama, who holds himself aloof from the world, in a state of perfect indolence and bliss, having committed the government of the universe to three divinities ; besides these, they have an innumerable number of inferior deities. They believe that those who withdraw from the world, and devote themselves to abstinence and self-torture, *The city of Bomb»iy is situated on n small island, connected by an artificial cauBCway with the larger one of Sal?ette. The city ia liuilt on the eouthrast side of the island, and is surrounded by walls about two miles in circuit, which are mounted on the eai^t side with formidable batteries. The houses are excessively crowded and very lofty, and generally built in the Portuguese style. Three sides of the wall are washed by the sea, on a fourth is the esplanade, and beyond it is the Black Town, spreading out amid a wood of cocoa-nut trees ; and still further off, the cocoa-nut wood is studded with villas. In the dry season the merchants generally live in liungHlocs or tents, errcted on the ecplannde, where they enjoy the benefit of the sea-breeze. Including the English and Portuguese, there are no less than nineteen languages spoken on the island. The Persians are the most wealthy part ot the populiition. Bcjnibay is the only principal settlement in India where the rise of the tides is sufficient to permit the construction of docks on a large scale. The highest tides rise seventeen feet. The docks and dockyards are caparious, and are entirely occupied by I'arsces or Persians, who are complete masters of the art of fhipbuildinir, and construct vessels of the largest class. Bemliay is the great entrepot ot the trade of the Rml sea. the east coa-tt of Africa. Arabia, thi; Persian gulf, the Indiim Archipelago, and China. European and American vessels find cargoes here from the greater part of India, consisting ol drugs, spices, arrack, shawls, cornelians, agatee, cotton, &c. The population is about 350,000. 420 ASIA.— INDIA. will arrive at supremo happiness, by being united to the spirit of the great Deity, as a drop of water is absorbed by the ocean. The souls of the less holy they imagine will pass into the bodies of other men and brutes. The duties, cere- monies, and observances of religion, are interwoven with all the common offices of life. The people worship images, and, under the blind influence of super- stition, drown their children in the rivers, inflict upon themselves the most pain- ful tortures and penances, and seek death by drowning, by fire, by being crushed beneath wheels, and by throwing themselves on large iron hooks. Religion and law combine to divide the people into four castes : 1st, Bramins or priests; 2d, rajah-pootras or soldiers ; 3d, vaisgas or merchants and farmers ; and 4th, sudras or laborers. These do not eat or drink together, nor intermarry ; and if any one violates the rules of his caste, he becomes an outcast or pariah ; these form about one fifth of the population. The great efforts which are now making by the various missionary societies for introducing Christianity into India, have in many instances obtained a rich reward. Several hundreds of Hindus have renounced their gods, the Ganges, and their priests, and have shaken from their limbs the iron chain 8f caste. Government. — In the native states the government is an absolute despotism, in its most oppressive form ; both the people and the land are alike the property of the rajah, the nabob, the sultan, or the padishah. The superintendence direction, and control of the whole civil and military government of the British territories and revenues in India, is vested in a governor-general and councillors, styled " the governor-general of India in council." The council is composed of four ordinary members, three of whom are chosen from the East India Com- pany's servants ; and, when there is a separate commander-in-chief, that officer is an extraordinary member, taking rank and precedence next after the gover- nor-general. The capitals of the three presidencies are subject to the laws of England, and justice is administered within their limits by supreme courts, tlie judges of which are appointed by the crown. Each presidency has its sep- arate army, commander-in-chief, staff, &c. ; but the commander-in-chief of the supreme government possesses a general authority over all the presidencies. The total armed force in British is about 200,000 men, which may be said to consist of three branches, viz. : queen's cavalry and infantry ; the East India Company's European engineers, artillery, and infantry ; and the Company's na- tive artillery, cavalry, and infantry. History. — The earliest authentic European account of Hin- dostan is given of Alexander's array, which the Macedonian chief pushed across the different rivers of the Punjab, without however reaching the Ganges. At this period a considerable por- tion of India was subject to the Persian monarchy ; subsequently iRupe^TTo cents, the Hindus became tributaries to the all-pervading sway of the disciples of Mohammed, and finally subjects of the victorious Moslems, who, headed by Timour or Tamerlane, extended their conquests from the Irtish and Volga to the Persian gulf, and from the Ganges to the Eastern Archipelago. A century after the death of Tamerlane, the Portuguese appeared on the coast of India, having effected a passage to the eastward by doubling the cape of Good Hope, and thus completely changed the European route of commerce with the eastern hemisphere, which had previously been carried on by the Red sea and Egypt, or by the Black sea and Constantinople. The example of the Por- tuguese was followed by the Dutch, French, and English. VVitliin less than a century after the death of Tamerlane, the Portuguese, under Vasco de Gama, arrived in India, and found the west coast of Coromandel divided between two great sovereigns, the king of Cambay and the Zamorin ; by aiding the petty princes wlio were dependent on the latter, the Portuguese soon acquired a par- amount influence on the Malabar shore, and at the commencement of the six- I ASIA.— INDIA. 421 teenth century secured themselves in Goa, which they fortified and made the capital of their settlements and commerce in the eastern seas, extending over the east coast of Africa, the coasts of Arabia and Persia, the two peninsulas of India, Ceylon, the Moluccas — their trade stretching even to China and Japan. At this period they levied tribute on one hundred and fifty native princes, and claimed and exercised a power to sweep from the Indian seas every European vessel that sailed without their permission. Of this mighty dominion scarcely a vestige now exists. The annexation of Portugal to the crown of Spain, and the war waged against the Hollanders, induced the Dutch, who had heretofore been content with the carrying trade between Lisbon and the north of Europe, to examine India ; and at the commencement of the seventeenth century they became formidable rivals of the Portuguese, stripping them first of Malacca and Ceylon, then driving tbom from various settlements on the Malabar coast, and finally usurping their place on the shores of Coromandel. The English were not long behind in establishing a trade in the Eastern hemisphere, and they were followed by the French, who became the most powerful rivals of the former after the dominion and trade of the Portuguese and Dutch had declined. The first charter for the incorporation of the East India Company, as a mer- cantile body, was granted by Queen Elizabeth on the last day of the sixteenth century, and was one of exclusive trade in the Indian seas for fifteen years, with promise of renewal, and thus was the first step taken in the ascendency of Brit- ish rule in India (of the progressive steps of which our limits forbid a detail), which has long superseded that of the Mogul emperors as the dominant power, and has extended itself over parts of the country that never owned subjection to those mighty monarchs.* Nepaul. — This territory is situated on the southern slope of the Himalaya mountains, extending nearly 400 miles, with a breadth of about 100 miles. Rice, grains, cotton, and sugar, are cultivated on terraces along the sides of the declivities. Domestic animals are numerous. Copper, iron, lead, and zinc mines are wrought. The manufactures are chiefly domestic. The interior trade is considerable. The government is administered by a rajah. The Ghorkas established the kingdom about a century since, and are the ruling people. Population, 2,000,000. Catmandoo is the capital. Bootan. — Bootan is situated to the east of Nepaul, is about 200 miles in length, by 90 in breadth. It is a cold, mountainous country, remarkable for its * The first territorial acquisitions of -the East India Company were made by purchase, in 1798. In 1708 a new charter was granted, giving the Company the exclusive privilege of trading eastward of the Cape of Good Hope. In 1813 the trade between Great Britain and India was thrown open ; and on the renewal of the charter in 1833 the China monopoly was abolished. The present charter of the Company expires during 1853. Until within a few years, travellers could only reach India and China by a voyage of over 15,000 miles around the Cape of Good Hope, occupying about 150 days. On the abolition of the East India Company's monopoly of the trade of India, in 1833, efforts were made to bring India within thirty days' postal distance of London, by means of steamers, from Southampton to Alexandria, Egypt, thence across the desert to Suez, whence steamers would complete the route to Ceylon, Calcutta, Singapore, and Hong-Kong. Travellers pro- ceed from Southampton down the English channel, across the bay of Biscay, along the coasts of Portugal and Spain to Gibraltar, thence through the Mediterranean, along the northern coast of Africa to Algiers, Malta, and Alexandria. Here the passengers and mails are disembarked. The latter are immediately despatched on camels direct for Suez, without passing through Cairo ; the former embark in covered boata on the Mahmou- die canal, are towed by a steamboat to Atfec, on the Nile, where they change into a river 8team-ve«.sel, which conveys them in about thirty hours to Boulac on the Nile, the port of Cairo. Omnibi and donkeys carry the passengers to Cairo (two miles). After a rest of twenty-four hours, or the announcement by telegraph from Suez that the steamer is ready, the pa.asengors travel in strong omnibi, carrying each six passengers, and drawn by four horses, across the desert, a distance of eighty -six miles. At intervals of ten miles there are post-houses, where a change of horses takes place, and refreshment is obtained. At the central station a few hours' halt are allowed for repose. Arrived at Suez, the passengers and mails are embarked, and proceed down the Red sea, pass almost within view of Mount .Sinai, near Jedda and Mocha, through the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb (or pate of tears) to Aden, a British c tntion and fortress. Thence the route lies in a south-easterly direction across the Indian ocean to Point de Galle, in Ceylon. Here steam-vessels take the passencrers and mails across the bay of Bengal, down the straits of Malacca to Singapore, and up the China sea to Hong-Kong. The main or first-class steamer proceeds from Galle up the bay of Bengal to Madras and Calcutta ; a small steaninr conveys along the Malabar coast the mails and passengers to Bombay. There are several other rout Chinese as " hill-teas," receive but little care from the cultivator, who contents himself with weeding them about twice in the year, collecting the weeds about the roots, whi^re they are left to rot. The tlower of the tea-shrub is white, composed of five leaves, and in shape is similar to the rose, and the berry resembles a small, moist nut. There are usually four gatherings of the tea : the first is in early spring, when the young, delicate, and succulent leaves are plucked, from which the Pekoe tea is made : the second takes place about the 20th of April, when the leaves are large, which produces fnigrant, lull-fiavored tea: the third is about the 6th of June, after the leaves have shot out anew : this tea has little smell, is weak in flavor, and of a very dark color : the fourth takes place after thesum- mer-sulstice, when another crop of leaves has sprung forth, and this tea is coarse in smell, weak in flavor, but of a lighter color than the last. The process of gathering the tea is one of great nicety and importance. Each leaf is plucked separatgly from the stalk ; the hands of the gatherer are kept carefully clean, and, in collecting some of the fine sorts, he hardly ventures to breathe on the plant. A laborer collects from four to ten, and sometimes fifteen pounds a day. From the first gathering the green tea, called imperial, and the black tea, called Pekoe, are made ; these an; not exported. From the second and third crops are manufactured the green trees, hyson and imperial, and the black teas denominated souchong and congou. The light and inferior leaves separated from the hyson by winnowing, form a tea called hyson-skin. From the fourth crop is manu- fai'tured the coarsest species of black tea, called bohea ; and this crop is mixed with an inferior tea. grown in a district called Woping, near Canton, together with such tea as remained unsold the last season. The process of drying, which should commence as soon as possible after the leaves have been gathered, differs according to the quality ol the tea. Some are only exposed under a shed to the sun's rays, and frequently turned. Tho method of drying green tea is as follows : A drying-house will contain from five to ten or twenty small fur- naces, at the top of each of which is a flat-bottomed and shallow iron pan ; there is also a long, low table, cov- ered with mats, on which the leaves are spread and rolled, after they have gone through the first stage of the process, which we may call baking. When the pans are heated to the proper temperature, a few pounds of fresh-gathered leaves arc placed upon them : the fresh and juicy leaves crack as they touch the pan, and it is the business of the operator to stir and shift them about as rapidly as possible with his bare hands, until tfiey become too hot to be touched without pain. At this moment he takes off the leaves with a Itind of shovel, hke a fan, and pours them on the mats before the rollers, who, taking them up by small quantities at a time, roll them in the palms of their hands, in one direction only : while assistants with fans are employed to fan the leaves, in order that they may be the quicker cooled, and retain their curl the longer. To secure the com- plete evaporation of all moisture from the leaves, as well as the stability of their curl, the operation of drying and rolling is repeated two or three times, or even oftener, if necessary — the pans being, on each successive occasion, less and less heated, and the whole process performed with increasing slowness and caution. The leaves are then separated into their several classes, and stored away for domestic use or for sale. It was, at one time, supposed that the green teas were dried on copper pane, and that they owed their fine green color to that circumstance, which was also said to render a free use of them noxious to the human frame ; but this idea is now held to be without any foundation, the difference between green and black tea depending on tho locality, and manner of cultivation and drying. The experiment of the cultivation of the tea-plant in our own country has been successfully made by .lunius Smith, Esq., of South Carolina, who expresses the opinion that the climate here is adapted to its culture, from Maine to Florida. The day may eventually come when this universal luxury will bo produced in the United States to an extent that will nearly or quite obviate the neces- sity of its importation. 430 ASIA.— CHINA, and has four great gates. Its breadth is sufficient to allow of six horsemen riding abreast on its summit. It was built by the emperor Chi-hoang-ti, B. C. 246, to protect the Chinese from the incursions of the Mantchu Tartars into China ; who, however, climbed over it about A. D. 1640, and conquered China, of which they have kept possession ever since ; the reigning monarch, and all the principal officers, being always of Tartar extraction. Political Divisions. — The empire of China is divided into three principal parts, viz. : China Proper, or the eighteen provinces, is, with trivial additions, the country which was conquered by the Manchus, in 1644 ; Manchuria, or the native country of the Manchus, lies north of the Great Wall, and east of the Daourian chain to the Pacific ; the Colonial Possessions include Mongolia, III (comprising Songaria and Eastern Turkestan), Koko-nor, and Thibet. The names of the eighteen provinces of China proper, with their respective areas, population, capital towns, &c., are given in the following table : — Provinces. Area, sq. miles. Population. Capital Toiriii. Shen-se \.,.. ^..^ C 10,207,256. . Se-gan. Kan-suh Jio4,uuo^ 15.193.135.. Lan-tchou. Sze-cbuen 166.800. .21,4.35,678.. Tching-tou. ''"'"nTga„ton}^9.^56--19-l^^'020..Cantont Quang-8i 78,250.. 7,313,895.. Quei-ling. Yun-nan 107,969.. 5,561 320.. Yunnan. Kwei-choo 64,554.. 5,288,219.. Koei-yaDg. Total 1,297,999 .367,632.907 Provinces. Area, eq. miles. Population. Capital Towns. Pe-che-le 58,949 .27,990,871 . . Peking.* Shan-tune 65,104 . .28,958,764 . .Tsi-nan . Shan-se 55,268.. 14,004,210.. Tchaoyuon. Honan 65,104.-23,037,171 . .Cai-fong. Keang-soo \ qorri^ 37.843,501 . . N anking.t Gan-hwuy 5 '^ { 34.1 68,059 . . Gan-king. Kiang-si 72,176.. 30,426999. .Nan-chang. Foo-keen 53.480 . . 14,777,410 . . Foo-choo. Chehkiang.— 39,150.. 26,256,784.. Hang-tcbou. Hoo-pih 1 1 4d 770 5 37,.370,098;. . Vou-tchang. Hoonan jiM,//u^ 18,652,507.. Tcbang-tcha, Commerce. — The commerce of China is very active, both inland and mari- time ; the Chinese are, in fact, " a nation of shopkeepers." An extensive * Peking, tbe modern capital of China, is about twenty-five miles in circumference. It is divided into two distinct parts, viz., the nortlaern or Tartar city, and the southern or Chinese city. The former, which is in- habited chiefly by Tartars, is surrounded by a wall with nine gates, always guarded by soldiers, and contains the imperial palace, which, with its majnificent gardens, stands in the centre, within the space of about five miles in circumference, enclosed by another wall, and called the Forbidden city, as no one may enter it but privileged persons. The Tartar city contains the residences of the grandees of the court, halls of the Six Tribunals, Hanlin college, superb temples, a Mohammedan mosque, and many other public buildings. The principal streets are long and wide, and contain numerous shops, as well as private houses ; but they arc not paved, which is a great inconvenience in wet weather ; neither are they liglited at night: but as no one is nllowed to be abroad after dark, imless on some very particular occasion, it is not of much importance that they should be so, particularly as any one who is obliged to go out must carry a lantern with him. Large spaces of ground in this part of Peking are occupied by ornamental gardens belonging to the rich mandarins, It is adorned also with a fine lake, a mile and a half in length, and it^pro than a quarter of a mile in breadth, crossed by a bridge of nine arches, constructed entirely of white marble. The streets of Peking are crowded, noisy, and bustling. It is common for the lower orders to work at their several trades in the street. Barbers, cobblers, tinkers, and blacksmiths, set up their apparatus wherever they obtain a job. Pedlars, medicine- venders, ballad-singers, and mountebanks, also contribute no ie?s to the noise than to the throng. The impe- rial palace at Peking is a vast assemblage of buildings, both large and small, built within a vari~ety of courts, among which they are dispersed along with pavilions, porticoes, and canals, and the detached buildings are connected together by means of galleries and covered passages. The tovt ensemble presents a most extraordi- nary appearance ; the roofs being tiled with yellow porcelain, give an eftect of burnished gold. Extensive gardens and plantations are annexed to the royal habitation, and tbe whole being enclosed within a substan- tial brick wall, it is more like a city than a palace. The population of Peking is supposed to be about two millions. t Nanking, the ancient capital of China, was once the most celebrated city in the empire, whether regard be had to its extent, its buildings, its manufactures, or the character of its inhabitants. It has again been ren- dered famous from its being the place where the linglish compelled the Chinese to submit to their terms of peace, in August, 1842. The area of Nanking, enclosed by walls, is much larger than that of Peking, but the present city only occupies one corner of the enclosure. Kcduced, however, as it is, it still continues to be one of the principal manulacturing towns of the empire. Its silks, cottons, and paper, are preferred to all others, and it is from here that the nankeen of commerce is brought. Learning also continues to tlourish, and more physicians are manufactured in Nanking than in any other city. Its principal and most celebrated building is a pagoda or octagonal tower, of nine stories high, ascended by 884 steps. The material is a tine white tile, which, being painted in various colors, has the appearance of porcelain, and all the parts are so neatly joined as to appear to form only one piece. The galleries are filled with images, and set round with bells, which tinkle in the wind, and on the top is a large pine-apple-shaped ornament, consisting, as the Chinese say, of solid gold. The population of Nanking numbers about half a million. J Canton (Kwang-choo) is situated on Choo-keang or Pearl river, 100 miles from the sea. It is a very an- cient city, and was, till within a few years, the sole emporium of European and American trade with China. Canton is built in the usual Chinese style, square and regular, surrounded by high walls, and pierced with gates. It is divided into the old and new cities by a transverse wall, but tbe suburbs are fully ns large as the enclosed parts. The factories of the i'oreign merchants are outside the walls, on the banks of the river. There are about 600 streets in Canton; few of the houses exhibit any splendor ; the dwellings of the poor are mis- erable and crowded, and even in the houses of the wealthy there is little comfort. The governor's palace is a spacious, but by no means elegant building. The other public buildings and temples are numerous. The population is estimated at 1.500,000. Many thousands of people live continually on the water, in a sort ot floating houses, ranged in lines like streets. Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo, Ning-po, and Sbanc-hai, the five principal porta of China, were opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of peace made with England in 1842 ASIA.— CHINA. 431 coasting-trade is conducted in junks, and about twenty of these strange-looking vessels, of large size, annually visit Singapore, Siam, Java, Borneo, &c., where several hundred thousand Chinese are located. Canton is still the principal seat of foreign commerce ; and the whole imports, exclusive of opium and treasure, are in value about $20,000,000 ; the exports, $25,000,000 ; and the tonnage inward 150,000 tons. The foreign trade at the other four ports is in value $6,000,000 imports, and $6,000,000 exports. The American imports into China are in value about $3,000,000 ; and their exports thence are $8,000,000. The total foreign trade with China is $60,000,000. The opium trade, that fearful traffic, which is still carried on, in spite of the Chinese laws, which make the introduction or use of opium by Chinese a crime punishable with death, commenced toward the close of the last century, when the exporta- tion from India to China amounted annually to 2,000 chests ; it now exceeds 45,000 chests, of the value of $25,000,000. By the use of this poisonous drug, grown in British India, and conveyed to the coasts of China under the protec- tion of the British flag, thousands of the unhappy Chinese are being rapidly destroyed, body and soul ; and a nation admirably adapted for the reception of Christianity, are prejudiced against its doctrines by the conduct of those who, under Providence, might have been the means of imparting to them the bles- sings of salvation. The opium traffic is also as impolitic as it is unholy ; for the four or five millions sterling now devoted to a vicious indulgence, might other- wise be appropriated, at least in part, to the purchase of foreign manufactures. Education. — Such is the estimation in which education is held in China, that all state employments are given by competition, as school and college prizes to the best scholars. Schools for youth are abundant in every part of the em- pire ; and education is so general, and its cost so reasonable, that reading and writing may be almost said to be universal. The schools established all over the empire are superintended by various officers appointed by government. In every district there is a sort of literary chancellor ; but early aspirants are ex- amined by superintendents, who make the circuit of their district twice a year for that purpose. To procure the highest state offices, an examination before the national college or Han-lin is necessary : but the very pinnacle of fame is only arrived at by being examined by the emperor himself. Every literary honor confers the title of mandarin. Memory is the chief object of admiration — the ability to repeat the greatest number of the wise sayings of the ancient sages. Religion. — There is no religion in China actually supported bv the state, and Yu, the doctrine of Confucius, is the only one countenanced by it. But there are two other sects ; Fo or Buddhism, and Taou, or that of the *' rational- ists," The first acknowledges a Supreme Being, and believes the emperor his sole vicegerent on earth. Heaven, earth, the elements, Confucius, gods of va- rious attributes, saints, the emperor, &c., are objects of worship ; the rites in performing which are watched over with the most jealous care by the Le-poo or board of rites. The doctrine of Confucius fills the world with genii, demons, and the spirits of deceased worthies, who are supposed to have each their sep- arate duties and influences assigned to them. Buddhism is the creed of the masses in China, and is supported by the mendicancy of its priests. The latter practise celibacy, dress in a similar manner to monks, and the devotees use holy water, and a rosary to keep account of their prayers. The professors of Taouism pretend to magic, alchemy, and to be possessed of the elixir of long life ; practise glaring impositions, and inculcate the most puerile superstitions. They encourage a belief in ghosts and evil spirits ; make use of spells and tal- ismans, lucky and unlucky birds, and a system of tricks called fung-shuey, by which they pretend to choos». lucky situations for building houses and tombs, and a hundred other fallacies, by which these impostors contrive to fill their purses. Much has been done by American missionaries, since China was 432 ASIA.— CHINA. opened to foreigners, to introduce Christianity, and more enlarged views of education and science. Government. — The government of China is theoretically a patriarchal des- potism. The emperor's will is law, and he is not responsible to any earthly tribunal. Practically, however, his power is comparatively circumscribed. In China everything is determined by custom, or by immemorial practice, from which it would be highly dangerous for even the emperor to depart. The Chi- nese is emphatically a government of precedent ; and his celestial majesty is, in reality, the creature of custom and etiquette. All employments are bestowed, according to fixed rules, on those who have obtained certificates of proficiency after passing their examinations. The penal laws of the empire are printed in a cheap form, and widely diffused; and one of the sixteen discourses annually read to the public, inculcates the propriety of every man making himself ac- quainted with them, and with the penalties consequent on their infraction. Although, therefore, the government of China be despotical in its form, and every device be employed to give to the emperor not merely a paternal, but a sacred character, he in fact governs according to long-established rules ; and with probably as little admixture of despoti.sm as is to be found in most govern- ments. The emperor is aided by a council of ministers, whom he may or may not consult. The executive is divided into boards or deputies of war, justice, finance, literature, &c. History. — Chinese tradition dates as far back as to B. C. 2204, about 140 years after the flood. Their first great emperor, Fohi, must, according to their statements, have been contemporary with Noah, and is said to have reigned 115 years. The emperor Yu or Yao, after the great inundation, devoted his life to draining off the waters, and reclaiming the land. Confucius, who died in the 73d year of his age, B. C. 479, wrote two histories, one the " Book of Records." or Shoo-king, and the other the Chuntsew, or history of his own times. The fabulous or traditional history ends B. C. 722, from which time there has been a credible history of China, which has been governed by successive dynasties: the Chow dynasty, of twenty sovereigns, lasted from B. C. 1001 to B. C. 286 : Tsin dynasty, two sovereigns, B. C. 246 to 210 ; Han dynasty, 24 sovereigns, B. C. 203 to A. D. 252; Tsin dynasty, 1 1 sovereigns, A. D. 255 to 419; Sung dynasty, 8 sovereigns, 420 to 477 ; Tse dynasty, 5 sovereigns, 480 to 499 ; Leang dynasty, 5 sovereigns, 502 to 552 ; Chin dynasty, 5 sovereigns, 557 to 582 ; Suy dynasty, 4 sovereigns, 590 to 617 ; Tang and other dynasties, about 20 sovereigns, from 619 to 960 ; Sung dynasty, 8 sovereigns, 960 to to 1265 ; Mongol dynasty, 9 sovereigns, 1279 to 1332; Ming dynasty, 6 sovereigns, 1368 to 1644; Taetsing, the founder of the present Tartar or Mantchu dynasty, dethroned Hwan-tsung, the last of the Ming dynasty, and eight sovereigns of the Tartar race have since reigned in succession. The Great Wall was finished B. C. 246 ; paper invented B. C. 180; compass invented B. C. 140; printing from blocks invented A. D. 220. Cotton was manufactured two centuries before the Christian era, and silk was used in the time of Confucius. Gunpowder, can- non, sugar, bell-making, porcelain, the smelting and combination of metals, were all known in China centuries before their introduction into Europe. A. D. 166, Marcus Antoninus sent an embassy to China, which then, and until the present Tartar usurpation in 1 644, communicated with all countries. Up to 1 842 the foreign trade with China was confined to Canton ; four ports in the north, Amoy, Foo-choo, Ning-po, and Shang-hai, are now open to foreign commerce, but there is little trade with any but the latter. Hostilities between England and China commenced in 1839 ; in July, 1840, the island of Chusan was captured by the British troops ; Canton was taken 25th May, 1841 ; and, after sixtecMi actions, the war was terminated by the storming of Chin-keang-foo, 21st July, 1842. In these actions the number of Chinese killed and wounded was esti- ASIA.— CHINA. 433 mated at 18,000 to 20,000 ; that of the whole British and Indian force was 69 killed and 451 wounded. The Chinese lost 2,118 pieces of ordnance. On the 11th August, 1842, when the British troops were preparing for the assault of Nanking, the Tartar government agreed to the terms of a treaty of peace, which included, among other stipulations, the payment of six millions of dollars for the opium delivered to the Canton authorities in 1839 ; three millions of dollars for the liquidation of the debts due by the Hong merchants of Canton to British merchants ; and twelve millions of dollars on account of the expenses of the war ; and the cession of the island of Hong-Kong for ever to the British gov- ernment. The treaty declared, that " British subjects, with their families and establishments, shall be allowed to reside, for the purpose of carrying on their mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint, at the cities and towns of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo, Ning-po, and Shang-hai ;" a privilege which was ex- tended by a supplementary treaty to other nations.* The treaty was ratified by the emperor of China at Peking, October 27, 1842, the island of Chusan being retained as a pledge by the English, until the indemnity money of twenty- one millions of dollars was paid, and the other parts of the treaty fulfilled. It was restored in 1846. In July, 1844, a treaty between China and the United States was negotiated, by the American commissioner, Hon. Caleb Cushing. This treaty embraced all the important stipulations of the two English treaties, and provided further for the erection of hospitals, chapels, and cemeteries, at the five consular ports, and the visits of ships-of-war to any part of the coast, and other privileges, which were also extended to all other nations. An insur- rection broke out in some of the Chinese provinces in 1851-'52, which at one period seriously threatened the permanency of the Mantchu dynasty ; but it was subsequently checked by the capture and execution of the leading rebel. Corea.^ — A remarkable peninsula, situated between the parallels of 34° and 44*^ north, and intermediate, as regards China and Japan, has a length from north to south of about 450 to 500 miles, a breadth from east to west of 250 to 300 miles, and a seacoast of about 1,500 miles. It is imperfectly known, but re- ported to be a beautiful, well-watered, fertile country, abounding in various use- ful products, and containing about 15,000,000 inhabitants. The government is despotic, and perfectly independent, although, on his accession, the king of Corea receives from the sovereign of China a nominal investiture. An annual fair is held in a desert tract, on the northern frontiers of Corea, and attended by both Chinese and Coreans, who, on its termination, return to their respective countries, and have no further intercourse during the year. The language is distinct from that of China. The people are celebrated for their learning, and are industrious, intelligent, polite, and friendly to foreigners. Hanching or King- ki-tao, the capital, is in 36*^ north latitude, 15° east longitude from Peking. It has a river communication with the sea, and is well adapted for commerce. * Of the five " consular ports" of China, Canton has been noticed on page 430, Amoy is situated on an island of the same name, in the province of Foo-kwn, in latitude 24° 32' north, and longitude 118° east. It has a re- markably fine harbor and bay, capable ofaflVirdin!; sale anchorage to one huiidrifd sail, the ontrniice to wliich is through a narrow passage, fortified on either side. The population of Amoy excerds 200,000, the greater portion of whom are occupied in the coasting trade. Foo-choo is the capital of the province of Foo- keen, and stands on the banks of the river Min, about 38 miles from the sea, in 26* north lalitiido, and 119° east longitude. The city lies on a plain, through which the river runs, and ranks among the finest cities in China, having wide thoroughfares, large shops, and spaoiou.? public buildings. The population, including the Buburi)S, is most dense, and is rated at about 700,000. The city of Ning-po lies in 29* 45' north latitude, and 121° 22' ea^t longitude ; it is situated on the bank of the river "Tahee. and in the province of Chr- kiang ; Ning- po is about twelve miles distant from the sea. beine in a westerly direction from the cluster of the Chusan islands. The city is five miles in circumference. The population is about half a million. Ningpo is a place of considerable native trade. Shano-hai i.s the most northerly and also important of the five jioits, I.ein" con- nected, by water communication alone, with nearly half of China. It is in the province of Keans-soo. is situ« ate on the right bank of the Woo-sung river, lies in 31° 25' north latitude, and 120° 32' ea^t longitude, being distant from Chusan about 100 miles. The city is surrounded by a wali about three miles and a quarter in circuit, which is not fortified In any manner. The city abounds in narrow, filthy streets or alleys, crowded with shop.^ and people actively enL'aged in business. The domestic commerce of Shang-hai is considerable, it being not uncommon for 3,000 vessi-Is and junks from all parts of China to be lying at one time in the river opposite to the city. The population of Shang-hai and ita immediate suburbs is about 200,000. 28 434 ASIA.— INDEPENDENT TARTARY. INDEPENDENT TARTARY. Independent Tartary,* or Western Turkestan, is bounded on the north by the territories of Russia in Asia, on the south by those of Persia and Afghanis- tan, on the east by the Chinese empire, and on the west by the Caspian sea and the river Ural, which forms part of the northern limit of the dominions of Russia in Europe. Its boundaries are very imperfectly defined, and its area can not therefore be accurately estimated ; but the region under review may be said to extend through sixteen degrees of latitude, or from SS'^ to 51° north, and from 6^° to 74° east longitude. Its superficial area is 843,600 square miles. Physical Aspect. — A large portion of this country consists of immense desert plains ; the basins of the Oxus or Amoo, and of the Syr or Sihoun, in the south, contain fine, fertile, and well-watered tracts, skirted by lofty mountains, which are intersected by numerous valleys ; but not unfrequently a rich plain is found surrounded by a desert and moving sands. The steppes consist princi- pally of an undulating surface, of a brownish yellow color in summer, divided by chains of hills, or gently-sloping eminences. The absence of wood, and the slight elevation of the surface, affords an extensive prospect, of which the char- acteristics are sterility, uniformity, and silence. A few thorny bushes scarcely break the monotony of these vast wastes, which are crossed by a number of streams generally fordable in summer. The cultivated spots near the towns, or on the banks of rivers, are merely small patches, rendered fertile by constant irrigation. Some of the deserts are of sand, others of thick clay, strewed with flints of different colors, but capable of being cultivated, if fresh water, which is only procurable from wells at a depth of fifty feet, could be more readily ob- tained. Mountains. — The Hindu Koosh range, which separates Independent Tar- tary from Persia and Afghanistan, has the loftiest mountains on the globe, the Kailas rising, it is estimated, to 29,000 or 30,000 feet above the level of the sea. These mountains have an inclined plane toward the plateau, or steppes of Tar- tary. The Bolor or Beloor Tagh, on the southeast, called by the Chinese the " Azure mountains," and also the " Shining mountains," from the shining quartz of which they are chiefly composed — are precipitous, of great extent, and covered with ever-during snow. Only two passes are known through them, those of Budakshan, and the source of the Syr river. The Asfera, Mussar or Gakehal mountains, running nearly east and west, and forming an irreg- fularly elevated table-land. The only communication between Kokand and Bokhara is by the pass of Khojuend, between the extremity of this range and the river Syr. From this table-land there are several latent ranges, one the Kara-tagh or " Black mountain," runs south and southwest for nearly 400 miles toward the Oxus. The Alatan or Kynder-tau, bounds Kokand, and the vale of the Syr to the northward, and runs 400 miles to the west, until lost in the desert of Aral. It is for the greater part covered perpetually with snow. Rivers, &c. — The two principal are the Oxus and the Syr. The Oxus has its source in Lake Sirikel, at an altitude of 15,000 feet in the Hindu-koosh mount- * Tartar is a generic appellation given for six centuries to the nomadic tribes of Northern and Middle Asia, as Scythian was formerly to difi'erciit erratic nations, whose precise origin was unknown, and as Indian is now to the various races of aborigines on this continent, between whom there is often little affinity in appearance, language, or customs. In conformity to custom, the word Tartary, or Turkestan, is retained to desigiiate a region but little known, coniparativciy valueless to Europe or Asia. Itwaa during the decline of the Roman jmpire that swarms of these nomadic tribes began permanently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and the first o1 these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast coun- try was the famous Genghis Khan, in 120G. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and allJJentral Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in a few reigns. Tim our, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and founded a dynasty in IndiB, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the eighteenth century. ASIA.— INDEPENDENT TARTART. 435 ains ; after several windings, and a course of 1,100 miles, it falls into the south- ern part of the sea of Aral. The Oxus receives many tributaries ; near Bok- hara it is 1,000 yards broad, and when swollen by the melting snow it expands to four miles. The Syr has its principal source in the Beloor or Gakchal mountains, and is joined by many minor streams, and after a course of 800 miles it disembogues into the sea of Aral. It flows for a large part of its extent through a bare, treeless, sandy waste, bounded for several miles on either side by thickets of reeds eighteen feet high, which in winter aflbrd shelter and fuel for the encampments of the Kerghiz ; the banks are alternately steep and level. This river was the northern limit of the marches of Alexander the Great. The sea of Aral, 170 miles long by 140 miles broad, is surrounded on the east and northwest by sandy hillocks and clayey plains ; on the northeast the banks are thirty toises above the water ; on the northwest are the bay and lakes of Koul- maghour ; on the west is the chain of Kara-ghoumbet hills, very steep on one side, but with a gentle slope on the other or land side, and giving rise to nume- rous small streams. Climate. — The climate of Turkestan. is severe, and partakes of the extremes of heat and cold. In the steppes the spring appears suddenly, and passes away rapidly; the summer is dry and burning ; the autumn rainy, gloomy, and short ; the winter long, dry, and constantly cold. In the more southern regions the air is dry, bracing, and salubrious. , Political Divisions. — Independent Tartary is divided politically into many petty Mohammedan states, subject to despotic chiefs, termed khans, sultans, beys, inaks, alaliks, and behadours. The khan has the power of life and death; the sultans are the relations of the khan, and exercise some influence ; the beys are hereditary, if they can maintain their right ; the behadours are celebrated for their courage in war, enterprising spirit, and wise counsels. The principal of the states of Tartary are, Turkmania (or Turkestan proper), Bokhara,* Khiva.f Khokand, Khunduz, Budakshan,| Hizar, Koolab, Durwaz, Shoognan, and Wuk- han. Every race or horde delights in pillage ; they associate in sufficient num- bers, armed and mounted, to plunder caravans however well-protected. Each able-bodied man having his own horse, large masses of horsemen can be brought into action by the more powerful chiefs, who are generally at war with each other. Chief Towns. — Bokhara, the capital of Tartary, is a large and wealthy town, with a population estimated at 100,000 to 250,000 within and without the walls. The city is well-built ; it abounds in roofed bazars, caravanseres for travellers, mosques, and colleges ; of the latter there are eighty, generally built of stone and lime, and containing each from 50 to 300 chambers. There are two pupils to each chamber, and they are supported by the endowed rents of lands and houses belonging to the several colleges, as it is a favorite exercise * The Bokhara or Balkh division correeponda to the western and larger division of the ancient kingdom of Bactria. is estimated to contain 60,000 square mile?, and ia a highly diversified region of mountains, hills, glens, valleys, and plains. The Usbecs, who are rigid Soonees of the Mohammedan faith, are the predominating race; the number of people, settled and nomadic, is supposed to be 1,500,000 to 2,000,000; and the military is variously stated at 30,000 to 100,000 men. tThe Khiva khanate is eaid to extend over an area 150 miles in length by 100 in breadth, lor a large part well-cultivated and intersected with cannls, coniUructed with much art for irrigation. Population, .100,000. Khiva is the granary of the wandering Kerghiz and Turcoman hordes. It is 300 miles from liokhara, the Caspian, and from the frontiers of Persia; and 600 from the Russian lines. The town Is surrounded by a ditch, clay wall, and rampart. The khan can brins; 40,000 horsemen into the field. JBudakshan, the eastern part of ancient Bartria. is one of the most moontainous countries of the world; it appears to correspond with the province of Bubacene, which was conquered by Alexander the Great, and ia represented by Curtius as unsurpassed for gold and precious stones. The chief has lO.COO matchlock men. Of the extent of this region, or of its characteristics, or population of the adjacent divi!>ion8 of Koondooz, Kokand, the desert of the Karakalpacks, the basin of the Syr, Uratippa, and Yar-ilak, or of the more northern territo- ries, we know nothing oertain. Russia is the only European state that po.'^sesBes any accurate data of thrf condition and resources of the whole country ; it has been supposed capable of being made a highway for the march of a Russian army from the Caspian, for the inva.«ion of Britieli India. Kven if Russia were not vul- nerable in Europe, it would be utterly impossible to convey an army, artillery, munitions of war, and pro- Tisions across such a country, independent of the hos'ility of numerous tribes who hate foreign intercourse, and whose plundering propensities no army could resist. 436 ASIA.— INDEPENDENT TARTART. of piety among wealthy Mussulmans to build and endow a college. Samarcand, once the capital of Independent Tartary, is about 112 miles east of Bokhara. When taken by Alexander, it had a wall eight and a half miles in circumference. When besieged by Ghengis Khan, the district had a wall wiih twelve gates of iron, each a league distant. Timour Beg made it the capital of his short-lived empire, and adorned it with many noble buildings ; but its glories passed away, and it became the haunt of the lion and the wolf. Since its occupation by Sheebannee Khan, the founder of the Usbec dynasty, great exertions have been made for its restoration, and it now contains about 60,000 inhabitants, and has some trade. Khiva, capital of the Khiva Khanate, and residence of the khan, is situated in an irrigated and fertile plain near the Oxus. The town is sur- rounded by a mud wall and wet ditch, and contains, within its suburbs, about 2,000 houses, built (most of them) of mud, the only stone buildings in the town being three mosques, a school, and a caravansery. The population is about 12,000. It is the largest slave mart in Turkestan. Other towns are Kurshee, with a population of 10,000 ; Balkh (the ancient Bactria), the birthplace of Zoroaster, and the seat of the patriarch of the Magian hierarchy ; Fyzabad, Kokan, Mar- ghilan, Tashkend, &c. Productive Resources. — The vegetable productions, which are the objects of culture in Tartary, do not materially differ from those of Europe. In the southern and milder tracts are raised wheat, barley, and millet ; while the north- ern districts scarcely yield any grain except oats. Horses are the most valua,- ble domestic animals in Tartary.* Camels of both species, and sheep, beeves, and goats, constitute the wealth of the wandering tribes. Manufactures. — Manufactures can not be said to have any national exist- ence in Tartary, though the Bokharians are distinguished for their fine cotton and silk stuffs, shawls, hats, and other articles of their produce. Commerce. — Bokhara is a great mart for Central Asia, and numerous fairs are held in the chief places. The imports are mostly woollen cloths, cottons, spices, indigo, tobacco, sugar, and tea. The exports are horses, sheep, furs, cotton, slaves, and gold. The precious metal is brought down by the Oxus and its tributaries, and is obtained in grains, and in leaves or scales, by washing the deposited sand and lime. The quantity obtainable is large, and seems to be capable of great extension. Caravans arrive at Bokhara from Persia, Cabul, Orenburg, and other places. The two annual caravans from Asiatic Russia (Orenburg), consist of 4,000 or 5,000 camels each, and complete the journey in three months. There is a very active and extensive commerce between China and Independent Tartary. Religion. — Two religions divide Tartary, and are professed with zeal through different portions. All the eastern regions acknowledge the Shaman doctrines, and the supremacy of the Grand Lama ; while the countries beyond the Araoo are devoted to the Mussulman creed. Population. — The population of Independent Tartary is supposed to be about 7,000,000. The Asiatic races, called Tartars by the Russians, are of a light olive or dirty white color, have the nose slightly flattened, cheek bones prominent, little beard on the chin, small eyes, frequently looking inward as those of the Chinese do. Ghengis Khan, at the head of the Mongols, subjugated the Tartars, and incorporated them with his army, who partially adopted the language (Turkish) of the conquered. From this mixture have sprung the Tur- coman, Kerghiz or Cossack, and other races. * The Turcomnn and his horse are seldom separated ; and not only in the fierce contests of war are the fleet- neas and strength of his stceii. his pride and dependence, but in contests of a very different nature. An nn- marricd girl, mounted on a fleet horse, is ' his way eiime 400 miles beyond the habitable limits, which brought him very nearly into the peo- graphit-al centre of the island. This he found occupied by an immense plain, covered with ridges of drifting ennd, often rising to the height of eighty or a hundred feet, and stretching away in either direction as far as the eye could reach. In isolated spots grew a few solitary tufts of grass, the necessary moisture for whose Bustenance was supplied by infrequent thunder showers. Permanent water there was none, and the sand was heated to such a degree, that a match dropjied upon it became instnntlv ignitt d. The thermometer on one occasion rose to 15;i^ in the coolest place to be found. In the midst of this sterile tract was a desert of still deeper gloom, which was traci^i lor a distance of eighty miles in one direction, and thirty-five miles in the other. Its surlnce vvas paved with a solid bed of dark ironstone, upon which the horses' hoofs rtmg as upon a metallic floor, but left not the least impression, and in which not the slightest trace of water or vegetatioa waa found. OCEANTCA.— AUSTRALASIA- 479 intellectual vigor. Owing to the dryness of the atmosphere, the absence of marshes, and of rank vegetation, those intermittent fevers and agues are utterly unknown, which " do so shake from their propriety" the settlers in most new countries ; and the inhabitants sleep in the open air with the most absolute impu- nity. The latitude of the colonies corresponds to that of Florida, the Carolinas, and Virginia, but the temperature and productions are varied more by position and elevation than by latitude. The daily range of the thermometer is greater than with us, but the annual range of the mean temperature is much less. Their seasons are the reverse of ours. Dog-days come at Christmas, and mid-winter in July. Population. — By the census of March, 1851, the population of Australia amounted to 332,000. The discovery of gold* has given a great impulse to emigration, so that the population at present numbers probably over half a million. t The proportion of adfllt males to females is about two to one. Political Divisions. — Those portions of Australia which have been settled by emigrants from Great Britain are comprised in three principal colonies, viz., New South Wales, situated upon the eastern shore ; Victoria, situated at the southeastern extremity of the island ; and South Australia, lying on the south- ern shore of the island, immediately west of Victoria. 1. New South Wales. — This is the parent-colony, and received its name from Captain Cook, from a fancied resemblance to the southern portion of South Wales of England. Its population in 1851 was 187,000. Among its productions are the cedar, mahogany, tulip-wood, rosewood, ironwood, light- wood, sassafras, corkwood, the Austrian palm, &c., all of which arrive at the greatest perfection. The soil also produces \viieat, Indian corn, barley, and the sweet-potato (some specimens of the latter weighing thirty pounds!); while arrow-root, cotton, cofTee, tobacco, sugar-cane, and guava, may be profitably grown. The southern portion of the colony consists principally ofland in pos- session of squatters, as they are termed, or proprietors of those immense herds of sheep and cattle, whose produce has till lately formed the staple export of Australia generally. The capital of New South Wales is Sydney.;}: 2. Victoria. — This colony was first settled in 1836, forming a part of New South Wales, but was cut ofT, and erected into a separate colony, in 1841. Its population in 1851 was 78,000. This has been by far the most flourishing of * Although gold has only so rficently been found in large quantities in Australia, rumori? of its existence have for several years been prevalent in the colony, and in 1847 specimens were displayed for exhibition. The tnatt'^r, however, was forgotten till Mr. Hargreiivee, in the sprini: of 1851, struck with the similarity of the soils in California and Australia, went out in search of gold, which he immediately discovered in the Bathurst district, about 120 miles northwest of Sydney, and westward of the Hlue mountains. More gold being soon after found in the neighboring creeks, the governor took possession of the whole in the name of the crown ; appointed a commissioner to grant licenses, and sent a small body of police to enforce his orders. The price of a license is £1 lUs. sterling a month, entitling the holder to about fifteen square feet to labor in. Shortly after, on the banks of the Turon, some miles further north, the celebrated Ophir diggings were discovered — and indeed along nearly the whole range of the Blue mountains gold is supposed to exist. It was at the Ophir diggings that a mass of gold, in a single piece, weighing 100 pounds, and sold for $20,000, was found accident- ally by a native black. About this time gold was tound in Inrge quantities in Victoria, at a place called Balla- rat, about fifty miles west of Port Philip bay, and shortly after a still more productive deposite at Mount Alexander, which, in its turn, has been eclipsed by a new field at Bendigo creek ; and no doubt many other gold-beds will be discovered. Indeed, an eminent English geologist estimates the gold-fiild of Port Philip alone to extend over 120,000 miles, and likely to give an unlimited supply. Prodigious as has been the yield of pure mi-tal hitherto, no quartz-crushing machinery has yet been introduced, though Sfveral companies are now forming in London, with a view of exporting all the latest improvements founded on Californian and Other experience, and it is anticipated that much larger quantities will then be produced. t The emigration to Australia, at the present time (1853), from England and the United States, is said to average about 1,000 daily. , J The position of Sydney, at the head of the magnificent harbor of Port Jackson, admirably adapts it for the centre of a commercial empire. Its haven, which is about 15 miles long, and in some places 3 miles broad, is completely land-locked. Along the water-side there are wharfs, stores, shipyards, mills manufactories, &.c. Sydney resemliles in its rapid growth some of our great western cities, as its population at the present moment can not be less' than between 70,000 and 80,000. Intense activity and enterprise mark its inhabitants. It is quite metropolitan in its character, having a magnificent government-house, abundant church accom- modations, a beautiful cathedral dedicated to the Roman catholic faith, well-endowed schools (more pa.-ticu- Inrly that of Sydney college), theatres, hotels, and a public pl<;asure-ground called Hyde Park — to say nothing of the jail. There are also many suburban villages, communicated with by means of stage-coaches and omni- buses. 480 OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASTA. the Australian colonies, and the richest deposites of gold have also been dis- covered here. The vine, olive, mulberry, and tobacco, all flourish well. Wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and maize, are the staple productions. Its ex- ports are principally live stock, salt provisions, skins, tallow, wool, timber, soap, leather, butter, cheese, &c., amounting in value to about $5,000,000 annually. Its capital is Melbourne.* 3. South Australia. — This important section of Australia was settled in 1835. It lies between 26° south latitude and the seacoast, and 132'^ and 141° east longitude, and occupies an area of 300,000 square miles. Though not a mountainous district, it has sufficient inequalities of surface to redeem it from the character of flat monotony. The general character of the country, unless in the great alluvial plains, which form its surface riches, is that of gently undu- lating ground, with forest glades and clumps. Thousands of acres have been broken up, from which it has not been found necessary to remove a single tree; and in other parts, where the wood was more abundant, the process of " gird- ling," or destroying the sap, was found sufficient for bringing the whole field into cultivation the first year, and removing one tree after another at the farm- ers' leisure. The climate is one of the most genial that is to be found, being a continued succession of spring and summer, for the so-called Avinter is without frost or snow, and the country is then clothed with verdure and the trees with foliage. There are no endemic diseases, fevers, or agues, and the dry, warm, elastic atmosphere is peculiarly favorable to asthmatic and pulmonary complaints. Wheat, barley, tobacco, the mulberry, and the vine, all thrive greatly : apples, pears, citron, figs, plums, peaches, almonds, oranges, medlars, pine-apples, ba- nanas, guavas, and watermelons are also produced. But the mineral wealth of South Australia is its most remarkable feature, and it is from this source that emigration on a large scale was first attracted to it. Precious stones, lead, and iron, are among its productions. But the copper-mines have proved the most prolific. It has suffered very severely, however, from speculations in copper mines, as many of them have proved unsuccessful. The discoveries of gold in the neighboring colony of Victoria, have likewise proved injurious to South Australia, drawing away a considerable share of its population. It is not known that any gold has been discovered in this colony. Its population in 1851 was 67,000. The capital is Adelaide,! lying on the Torrens river, about six miles from the east coast of St. Vincent's gulf. In addition to these colonies, an unsuccessful attempt was made in 1829 to found the colony of Western Australia or Swan river, on the western shore. There are said to be some 10,000 inhabitants in this unfortunate district. The name of Northern Australia has been vaguely bestowed upon the whole central and northern parts of the island ; but no permanent settlements have as yet been formed there. Government. — The elective franchise is vested in every male (unconvicted of crime) having a freehold estate worth $500, or occupying a house ^worth $50, or holding a pasture-license, after a six months' residence in all cases. The legislative council consists of a governor (nominated by the crown), and a * Melbocrne, nt the farther end of the land-locltcd bny of Port Philip, has a population approaching to 50,000, and is partly liuilt of brick and partly of granite. It has a courthouse, custom-house, two banks, cat- tle, hay, and cdrn markets, and episcopalian, presbyterian. Roman catholic, methodist, independent, and con- grpgationalhovises of worship. Steamboats ply daily to the neighboring ports, and at intervals to Sydney and Hobart Town. Across the safe and capacious bay is the rapidly rising town of Geelong, to which a eteamboat runs. t The eitu.ition of Adelaide is very beautiful ; the eastern terrace, which is the favorite spot for villa resi- dences, commands an extensive view of rich plains, backed by the Mount Lofty range. The city is sur- rounded by a park about 500 yards wide ; the streets are spacious, laid out at right angles, and varied by six 8(iunres, and other pieces of land reserved for ornamental purposes. There are several excellent public buildings and useful institutions. Population, about 10,000 The port of Adelaide is a secure but a barred harbor, six miles distant to which a railroad is being constructed Around Adelaide are scattered various vilbigea, with from 100 to 300 inb.nbilants, one of which, Klemzirg, a German settlement, is described as bein^ 80 purely national, that the inhabitants might have been supposed to have brought it over from Prussia. OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASIA. 481 number of members according to the population, two thirds of whom are electoral, and one third nominated by the governor or the home government. The coun- cil must meet at least once a year, and their duration of office is limited to five years. They are empowered to make laws " for the peace, welfare and good government" of the colonies, and to appropriate the revenues from taxes and rates. Every bill has to receive the governor's assent, and may be disallowed within two years by the sovereign. Perfect religious toleration is a fundamen- tal principal in these colonies, protestants and Roman catholics equally receiv- ing grants from the public revenues, while the title of the Roman catholic prelates is officially acknowledged in this part only of the British dominions. There are plenty of good free schools accessible to all, and it may be safely stated that these offshoots are already a quarter of a century ahead of the mother- country in those two essential requisites to a really free state. The press, too, is entirely unshackled, having no stamp, paper or advertisement duty, as in the old country — no censorship in the shape of tax. History. — The colonization of Australia by the British stands in close con- tact with the war which lost them the thirteen American colonies. The outlet for the banishment of their criminal population being closed, it became a prob- lem how to get rid of its annual accumulation of villany. Captain Cook had recently made some explorations in Australia, and it was finally resolved to make that island a penal colony. Accordingly, in the spring of 1787, a small fleet, under the command of Captain Charles Philip, afterward first governor, sailed, having on board 757 convicts — 565 male and 192 female — which num- ber, by the addition of officials, crew, and military guard, was augmented to 1,000 persons. The vessels anchored at Port Jackson, the harbor of Sydney, and thus the seeds of a future empire were planted in January, 1788. The colony at first was unsuccessful enough, and was more than once reduced to the verge of starvation, being dependent for food upon supplies from the parent- country. Of its moral and social state it is enough to state, that eighteen years after its first foundation the current coin of the capital was rum, and that of the births two thirds were illegitimate. In the meantime free settlers, under the liberal inducements held out by government, began to arrive in Australia. This voluntary immigration, with the introduction of flocks and herds (for which a large part of the land of Australia was peculiarly adapted), was destined to effect a great change in Australian society. The number of free immigrants soon greatly exceeded that of the convicts ; and of the latter not a few retrieved their character in the new circumstances in which they were placed.* The convicts now sent are all placed on Norfolk island,! situated about 900 miles northwest of Sydney, and the original settlement has passed through the second stage of its development, and from a penal settlement become a land of freemeQ. Van Diemen's Island or Tasmania. — This fine island is situated at the southeast extremity of Australia, from which it is separated by a channel 500 miles long by 150 broad, called Bass strait. It lies 41° 20' and 43° 40' south * During a period of forty-eipht ypare, the number of convicts sent to New South Wales was. of malrs^ 43,506, offrmalps. 6,791 : total, ."50,297. This is exclusive of convicts sent to Van Diemen's island, to which separfiti! traniiportation commenced in 1817. and from that year to 1837 the number of convicts sent to that island was, males, 24,785, females. 2,97-1 : total, 27.7.')9 : making a crand total deported to Australasia during the period, of males, 68,291, females, 9,765. Transportation to New South Wales ceased in the year 1840. There is probably not one convict in New South Wales at the present time. t Norfolk Island, the present penal scttlrmcnt of New South Wales and of Van Diemen's island, is in 39* south latituile, 168" east longitude, about five miles long by three miles broad, and with only one anchorage (Sydney bay) tolerably safe at some seasons. The surface resembles the sea in a gale of wind, being composed of long, narrow, and vry et<'ep ranges of hills, with diep gullies, which are as narrow at the bottom as the hills are at the top, so that there is but little level country. The soil, hkwever, is remarkably pood, and the celebrated pine (arnucaria exc.dsa) was found in great numbers when the British government first occupied the island, in 1790, as a place where food might be cultivated for the then famishing colony at Sydney, New South Wales. Some pines were 150 to 200 feet high, 28 to 30 teet ifi circumference, very etraight, and fre« from branches from 40 to 60 feet above the ground. 31 482 OCEAISTICA.— AUSTRALASIA- latitude, and 144^40' and 148^ 20'' east longitude. Its superficial area is about 24,000 square miles. The aspect of Tasmania, when viewed from the sea, is very picturesque, presenting a succession of lofty mountains, wooded to their very summits. The northern shores present a line of low sandy beaches, broken by rocky headlands, on which the surf breaks with great violence during the prevalence of northerly winds ; the other portions of the coast are mostly high and rocky, though abounding in safe harbors. The general face of the in- terior is mountainous, presenting a constant alternation of hill and dale, varied by lofty table-land, and extensive valleys and plains, which are in general thinly wooded and extremely fertile. The climate is salubrious, and not subject to extremes of heat and cold ; the atmosphere is pure, and the sky unclouded. Its staple products are wool, grain, cattle, sheep, oil, timber, and potash. The white population is about 70,000, of whom one fourth are convicts, under sen- tence of transportation. About two thirds of the people are engaged in agri- culture ; the remainder in commerce, arts, and manufactures. Hobart Town, the capital, is extensive, well laid out, and neatly built. It occupies a com- manding position on the left bank of the river Derwent, about twenty miles above its junction with the sea, at the head of a beautiful cove or bay, which affords good and secure anchorage for the largest fleet. The government is administered by a lieutenant-governor, assisted by an executive and legislative council. Its population is about 22,000. The honor of the discovery belongs to Tasman, the famous Dutch navigator, who visited its southern shores in 1642, and named it after Anthony Van Diemen, then governor-general of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies. Formal possession was taken of Tasmania by England in 1803, for the purpose of forming a penal settlement there. In 1813 merchant-vessels were allowed to trade to the ports of Tasmania ; in 1819 the settlement of free emigrants was sanctioned ; and in 1825 the island was sepa- rated from New South Wales, to which it had been attached, and formed into a distinct government. New Zealand, — This extensive and valuable group of islands is situated in the Southern Pacific ocean, between 34° and 48° south latitude, and 166° and 179° east longitude, about 1,200 miles southeast of New South Wales and Van Diemen's island, and 5,000 miles from the west coast of America. The three principal islands (Northern, Middle, and Southern) of the New Zealand group extend over a range of fourteen degrees. The area is estimated at 122,582 square miles. Physical Aspect. — A chain of lofty mountains, of which some peaks rise, it is estimated, 12,000 to 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, extends along the Middle island from south to north, and is continued to some extent through the Northen\ island, forming what is termed the " backbone" of the country, in connection with numerous subordinate ranges of hills. The whole mass is covered, for the greater part, to the verge of perpetual snow, with lofty timber and vegetation, intersected by various streams and cascades, presenting, from many points of view, a striking and grand panorama. Cook's straits separate the Northern from the Middle island. They abound in good harbors, but the weather is said to be tempestuous and uncertain. Cloudy bay is an arm of the sea, running like a broad river for many miles among the mountains, and con- necting the bay with Queen Charlotte's sound. Foveaux straits separate the Middle island from the Southern, sometimes called Stewart's island or New Leinster. Of the interior of the islands we as yet know comparatively little. The Hurunui plain, 25 miles long by 15 broad, containing 380 square miles, and jhat of Waianua, double the size, is so remarkably level, and hemmed in by hills and mountains, as to look like the dry bed of a lake. Grass, knee-deep, abounds everywhere on these plains, and there are very few swampy patches. OCEANIC^— AUSTRALASIA- 483 The soil is deep, of excellent quality, and ready for the plough. The country around, and to the northward, presents a succession of plain and mountain. The climate is constantly humid, but the temperature on the coasts is very equable. Population. — The number of British settlers, including some Americans, Germans, and French, in the three islands, is about 20,000 ; the natives are estimated at 120,000. They are of the Malay race, of a copper color, with massive features ; bold, manly, quickly educated, and capable of a high degree of civilization. They generally live in fortified villages, on high hills, which can be ascended only by narrow, steep, and winding paths. Religio.v. — The European population possess ministers and places of wor- ship, according to their different denominations. There are a number of mis- sionary stations ; and considierable has been done in the difl'usion of Christianity among the aborigines, who have abandoned the most revolting of their customs. Government. — The islands are divided into two separate provinces ; the Northern island is termed New Ulster, the Middle, New Munster. There is a lieutenant-governor over the latter residing at Wellington, and a governor-in- chief over the whole, who resides in the Northern island at Auckland,* and is aided by a general council, composed of persons nominated by the crown. The lieutenant-governor of New Munster has a local legislative council. History. — One of the islands was discovered by Tasman, the Dutch navi- gator, in 1642, who supposed the land he saw belonged to a great southern continent. Little more was known until Captain Cook, in 1769-'70, visited the east coast of the north island, and took nominal possession of the territory for his sovereign. After this period the islands were greatly resorted to by whaleships, and became a refuge for runaway-convicts from Australia. In 1814 Christian missionaries began to visit New Zealand, with a view to the conversion of a fine race of aborigines by whom they are inhabited. In 1839, the New Zealand Company commenced a systematic effort for the occupation of the island: the sovereignty of England was proclaimed in February, 1840, over the Northern island, and the whole territory is now claimed as an integral portion of the British empire. In 1848 there were on the New Zealand islands nine principal European settlements, besides smaller dependencies. The prin- cipal are Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, Russell, New Plymouth, Otago, and Akaroa. These settlements are scattered over a distance of 800 miles, sepa- rated from each other by wide intervals, and intercommunication, even for persons on horseback, exists only between three of the settlements. Ne'W Guinea. — This island lies between the equator and 10° south latitude, and 131° and 149*^ east longitude. It is separated from Australia on the south by Torres straits. It is of irregular form, indented with deep bays. Its super- ficial area is about 250,000 square miles. It is very mountainous, more par- ticularly about the northern coast. The interior is almost unknown, but the forests of palms and other lofty trees afford a proof of the fertility of the soil. The people are of the Papuan or Malaysian negro race, and are described as hideously ugly — with large eyes, flat noses, thin lips, woolly hair, and black, shiny skin ; by way of ornament, they pass bones or pieces of wood through the cartilage of the nose, and entangle their curly locks, like a mop, to an immense size — they build habitations, and wear wrappers around the waist. It is said that there are miserable Haraforos in the interior who live in trees, but who cultivate the ground, and bring their produce to the coast. The trade of the * Auckland, the capital of'New Zeal ind, is in latitude 36° 51' south, longitude 175° 45' east. The town is situ- ated on an undulating open space, about two and a half miles from the heads or entrance of the harbor. Over this plain there are to be seen at \r.ast twenty flat-topped craters of extinct volcanoes. The church is a conspic- uous object from the sea. Many of the houses are wrll-built, and the stores in Shortland-creacent are respect- Able. The population is about 3,500. The climate, soil, and harbor, are good. 484 OCEANICA.— AUSTRALASIA. coast is monopolized by the Ceramese (from Ceram, a neighboring island), who have inspired the natives with a hatred to all other foreigners ; and they obtain for a nominal price, massoy-bark, nutmegs, trepany, tortoise-shell, pearls, edible birds'-nests, birds-of-paradise, and other articles. The inhabitants of Borneo and Celebres often make inroads upon the people, and carry them off as slaves. New Hebrides. — The New Hebrides, or Archipelago of the Great Cyc- lades, are situated between 14° 10' and 20° south latitude, and were explored by Cook, in 1774, who gave them their name. They are generally mountain- ous, well-wooded, and watered. The largest. Terra del Espiritu Santo, was supposed, when discovered by Quires, in 1606, to be part of a great southern continent. It is 70 miles long by 40 miles broad, sloping on the north coast, but on the east side exceedingly high and mountainous : in many place the hills rise directly from the sea, clothed with verdure and forests ; the small islets skirting the coast are clothed as in other parts of Polynesia, with palmiferous vegetation. The large bay of St. Philip and St. Jago is in 14° 55'' south, and 167° 3' east. In many of the islands there are a fine race ; but at MallicoUo, they are described by Cook as the most ugly, ill-proportioned people he ever met with, having long heads, flat faces, and ape-like countenances. Pigs and poultry abound ; yams grow to a great size, and sometimes weigh fifty pounds. New Caledonia.— This island, lying between 19° 37' and 2^° 30' south latitude, and 163"^ 37' and 167° 14' east longitude, is 240 miles long by 30 miles broad ; in general it is mountainous, except to the northeast, and has a bleak and barren appearance, It is comparatively thickly inhabited by a people who live on vegetable food, fish, and birds ; quadrupeds, even dogs or cats, being unknown. The natives are affable, honest, and speak a language totally dissimilar from that of the other islands in the Pacific. Solomon Islands. — These islands lie between 5° and 1 0° south latitude and 155'-' and 160° east longitude, and are peopled by a black race, who go en- tirely naked, and live in a state of continual warfare. We know nothing of the country, which is covered with dense vegetation. Bougainville's islands belong to this group. New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, &c. — The extent of these groups is not known ; they lie between 2° and 6° south latitude, and probably contain an area of 10,000 square miles. They are low, thickly wooded, and peopled by a black, woolly-headed race, who move about in ca- noes ninety feet in length, formed out of a single tree. New Britain, about 280 miles long, by 8 to 30 miles broad, is of unsurpassed beauty. In shape it is an extended semicircle. The land rises with a gentle ascent, shaded by um- brageous forests, or small oases of palms, and other umbelliferous trees in groups. The shores are indented with small bays, with estuaries or creeks of fresh water. New Ireland is about 200 miles long, by 8 to 20 miles broad ; the centre, like New Britain, formed by a chain of mountains, evidently of vol- canic origin. It is prolific in its vegetable productions, and well-peopled. New Hanover is 28 miles long by 12 broad ; mountainous and well-wooded : it is separated from New Ireland by a strait six miles wide. The seas around are studded with islets. The Admiralty Islands, to the northwest of New Ireland, are clothed with luxuriant verdure, well-cultivated, and peopled by a fine race, who have advanced to a higher degree of civilization than their neighbors. OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA, 485 POLYNESIA. That large portion of the globe between the tropics of Cancer and of Capri- corn, or indeed it may be said for thirty degrees north and south of the equator (a distance of 3,600 miles), and from the meridian of Japan to that of California, is studded with islands of all sizes and shapes, some in groups, others isolated, some of volcanic origin, others of coralline formation, and yearly increased by the unseen but incessant labor of zoophiles ; all of singular beauty, clothed with the richest vegetation, in a generally tranquil ocean, with a warm yet salu- brious clime, and peopled by various races, most of them in a state of barbarism; among whom Christian missionaries are now, with zeal and success, pursuing their pious labors. The numerous islands embraced in this portion of the globe are mostly collected in groups, yet many are scattered and isolated in the vast expanse of ocean. The following classification includes them all : — The Bonin or Arzobispo islands ; the Ladrone or Marian islands ; the Caroline islands ; the Pelew islands ; the Fejee islands ; the Friendly islands ; Naviga- tor's or Samoa islands ; Cook's or the Hervey islands ; the Society and Geor- gian islands ; Pitcairn's island ; the Marquesas or Washington islands ; the Hawaiian or Sandwich islands; and the scattered and isolated islands. The Bonin Islands. — These are a group of ninety islands, lying between 24° and 3Qjp north latitude and 140^ and 150^ east longitude. On some of these Japanese and British subjects have settled, who carry on a contraband trade with Japan, or engage in the whale fishery. East of this group are scat- tered the islands of Magellan's Archipelago, and southeast are a number of volcanic islands. The Marian or Ladrones. — This group lies between 11° and 21° north latitude, upon the meridian of 140*^ east longitude. They are very numerous, and somewhat resemble the Philippine islands. They are of volcanic origin. The Caroline Islands. — These islands are about thirty in number, and lie between 6° and 10- north latitude and 136° and 156° east longitude. They are little known ; the country and the people are said to resemble the Philip- pines. The Pelew Islands. — These islands, about ten in number, are situated between 6° 54' and 8° 12' north latitude, and 134° 5' and 136° 40' east longi- tude. They are mountainous, with beautiful valleys and a fertile soil. The inhabitants are numerous, of a copper color, with long black soft hair. The Fejee Islands. — These islands are situated between 15® and 20*^ south latitude, and the meridian of 180° east longitude passes through the centre of the group. They consist of two large, two small, and fifteen smaller, besides numerous islets and coral rocks. The principal islands are inhabited by a race of negroes, resembling the Haraforos of Malaysia. The Friendly Islands. — These islands lie between 20° and 21° south latitude, are low, and highly-cultivated. Tongataboo, in 21° 9' south latitude, and 174° 46' west longitude, about 60 miles in circumference, level, and 70 to 80 feet above the sea, is the chief island, and thickly peopled. Almost every individual wants the little finger of one or of both hands, which indicates grief for some deceased person. Idolatry, human immolations, and cannibalism pre- vail. The Tonga islands present similar features to the preceding. 486 OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA. Navigators' Islands. — These islands lie northeast of the Fejee and the Friendly islands, between 160*^ and 170° west longitude. They are in some instances lofty, of great fertility, and populous ; the men are powerful and quar- relsome, the women graceful and profligate. The largest island of this group is 350 miles in circumference. Cook's or Hervey Islands. — This group lies to the eastward of the Friendly islands, between latitude 18° and 23° south; access to them is diffi- cult owing to coral reefs. They are highly cultivated ; in Roratonga, where there are 7,000 inhabitants, the greater number have embraced Christianity. The Society Islands. — The Society islands, so named by Captain Cook, in honor of the Royal Society, are an extensive group between 15° and 23° south latitude ; the scenery is described by Cook, Ellis, and others, as of the most magnificent description — a combination of land and water, precipices and plains, mountains and valleys — with a fertile soil and luxuriant vegetation, ma- tured by the genial heat of a tropical clime. A part of the Society islands are sometimes designated as the Georgian Islands, and were so named by Cap- tain Cook, in honor of George III., the patron of the expedition. The same features, in both the people and the physical aspect, characterize the islands. The Georgians include Tahiti or Otaheite, Eimeo, Tabuuemanu, Tetuoroa, Matea, and Meetia. The Society islands are, Huahine, Raiatea, Tahaa, Bora- bora, Maurua, Tubai, Moupiha, and Fenuarua. Tahiti or Otaheite^the princi- pal island and residence of the queen, lies in 17° 48^ south latitude, and 150° west longitude, is 120 miles in circumference, of a double peninsular shape, and appears like enchanted ground, from its singular wildness and beauty. The inhabitants are a fine race, generally above the middle stature, with bold and sometimes prominent features ; the facial angle frequently as perpendicular as in the European structure. The women are considered handsome, and have prepossessing manners. Tahiti has about 10,000 inhabitants, and the other islands of the group perhaps an equal number. In 1818, Pomare I. became a convert to Christianity, and established a constitutional government over the islands which still exists in a modified form. In 1840, the French government coveting the islands and desiring to make them colonial dependencies, com- menced their aggressions under a false pretence, and finally after much opposi- tion succeeded, and Queen Pomare is now a dependant of the French crown. Fitcairn's Island. — This island was peopled by the English seamen who mutinied in the British ship Bounty, Captain Bligh, and landed on this island with their Otaheitean wives. It is in 24° 5' south latitude, and 130° 25^ west longitude, about six miles long by three miles broad, with a rich soil and de- lightful climate. It has an " iron-boimd coast," and landing is difficult. John Adams, the leader of the mutineers, became a truly penitent Christian, and the patriarch of the little community, among whom he diflfused religion and moral- ity, which has been transmitted to the colony which he founded. The sabbath is strictly observed ; the islanders assemble every morning at sunrise, in their church, to pray, and their conduct has gained them the respect of every one who has visited the island. The Marquesas or Washington Islands. — This group lies between 8° and 10^ south latitude, and 139° and 140° west longitude. They have a bold and rugged aspect. The land is high, and of volcanic origin. The level districts yield, in abundance, tropical produce ; the inhabitants, of a briaht brown, like the natives of Malabar, exhibit perfect symmetry of form, with reg- ular features, fine black eyes, good teeth, and a frank and open countenance. OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA. 487 The Sandwich Islands.* — The Hawaiian or Sandwich islands are a splendid group lying in the North Pacific, and stretching from 18° 50' to 22° 20' north latitude, and 154° 53' to 163° 15' west longitude. The group con- sists of twelve islands, of which the following table gives the names, extent, and area of the more important ones : — IfLARDi. Length. Breadth. Square miles. IfLAHDa. Length. Breadth. Sq. milee. Hawaii 88 73 4,000 Molokai 40 7 190 Maui 48 30. 620 Oahu 46 25 530 Kahoolawe 11 8 60 Kauai 22 24 500 Lanai 17 9 100 Niihau 20 7 90 Bird island is a barren rock, visited by immense numbers of birds. Molokini, Lehua, and Kaula, are all rocky islets, visited by fishermen, and uninhabited. Physical Aspect. — These islands are, like most of the principal groups in the Pacific, of volcanic origin, their precipitous and towering cliffs sometimes overhanging the sea at a height of from 500 to 1,000 and even to 4,000 feet, here and there broken by wild ravines, down which mountain streams leap hundreds of feet, and are broken into spray before they reach the bottom. Hawaii, the largest of the group, presents some of the grandest scenery in the Pacific ; while the greatest volcano in the world, Kilauea, which is situated at a height of 10,000 feet above the sea, is in a state of constant activity. Mouna Loa and Mauna Kea, the two principal peaks of the island, reach a height of 14,000 feet, on the' side of the former of which the crater is situated. The crater is an immense basin, from one to two miles in diameter, seven in cir- cumference, and about 1,500 feet deep. Several extensive eruptions have occurred since the discovery of the islands, and the last, of February, 1852, poured id streams of lava down the mountain for thirty days, filling valleys 200 feet deep, and illuminating the sky so that at midnight books could be read at a distance of thirty or forty miles. The soil of the islands consists of decom- posed volcanic rocks, sand, mud, and ashes, which, to be made fertile, requires constant irrigation. Climate. — The climate is salubrious, and remarkably even. Situated in the midst of the Pacific, the heat of the sun is mitigated by the ocean breezes, and the shores on either side show but little difference in the temperature. On the highest mountains snow remains part of the year, and in a few situations throughout the whole. No snow falls at Oahu, but on the uplands of Kauai snow and hail sometimes occur. At Honolulu,! on Oahu, the range of the ther- mometer is about 12° per diem. The greatest degree of heat for twelve years, in the shade, was 90^, and 53° the coldest ; the mean about 73'^. Productive Resources. — The principal article of food is the kalo.X The banana, yam, sweet-potato, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, arrow-root, sugar-cane, straw- berry, raspberry, ohelo (a berry), and ohia (an apple), are plentiful. Many fruits and vegetables have been introduced, viz., melons, limes, oranges, guavas, pine- apples, grapes, peaches, figs, citrons, and tamarinds. On Maui potatoes are raised of a large size. Wheat is successfully grown in the islands. Coffee, cotton, indigo, mulberry, &c., are more or less raised, and require only culture and skill to make them valuable staples. * See map, on page 41. t Honolulu, the principal commercial port of the islands, is situated on tbe south side of Oahu, and con- tains about 6,000 to 8,000 inhabitants. It stands on a low, flat plain, behind which the hills rise to a consider- able height. The houses are generally low, one story high, anil built of adobes, or wet soil mixed with dry grass, and moulded into blocks eighteen inches or two leet long, n foot wide, and six to eight inches thick. There are several churches in the town, and periodicals in Hawaiian and English are publi-ihod here. The towns of Honolulu, and I.ahaina, on Maui, are visited by the whaling floets of the Pacitic for supplies, where they are furnished abundantly with fruit and vegetables. There is a tort nt Honolulu, furnislied with fifty- two gun-, commanding the channel and inner harbor. On Punch-Bowl hill, not far to the right, there is a battery of fourteen guns, at an elevation of 550 feet above the sta. Here are the governmrnthouscs, custom- house, and public buildings, which, with the Roman cathijlio cathedral, and some of the warehouseR, are built of coral rock. The position of the i-lands being nearly midway between the two conlin'^nts, Honolulu is des- tined to become the great entrepot between San Francisco, Oregon, and the Asiatic continent. J The kalo is a delicious esculent, which is prepared in various ways for food, the most common beinc in the form of poe ; the vegetable is boiled until it recembles a psBto. when it is eaten by dipping the forefinger into the dish, twirling it until covered with riiepoe, and thus conveying it to the mouth. 488 OCEANICA.— POLYNESIA. Population. — Captain Cook estimated the population at about 400,000, which was probably too large. The latest census gave about 90,000, or a little less than one fourth, showing a decrease of 75 per cent, in sixty years. There is no doubt that the race is much diminished, and fears are entertained that it will die out, though the reports for 1852 show a slight increase in the births over the deaths. The people are now fast approaching a position of civilized comfort and intelligence. History. — These islands were not certainly known to the civilized world until their discovery by Captain Cook. It is thought that some one of the early Spanish navigators may have become acquainted with them, but who or at what precise time is unknown. Lord Anson is also believed to have known of their existence ; but as he gave no description, it is universally conceded that the honor of discovery belongs to Captain Cook, who reached Kauai on the 19th of Janu- ary, 1778. After a short stay he sailed for the northwest coast of America, and returned on the 27th of November. On Sunday, February 14th, 1779, the fatal encounter occurred which deprived science and the world of the services of this distinguished man. At the time of Cook's visit, Kamehameha, a young man of humble origin, was just attracting notice by his achievements, and he so rapidly advanced as to become the master of Hawaii, and in a few years brought the whole group under his sway, and thus consolidated a government which had until then been divided between the rulers of the several islands. He was a firm friend of the white man, earnestly devoted to the progress of his people, and zealous in promoting their civilization. Had he thrown off his superstition, and Christianity been introduced, doubtless he would have advanced them fifty years in their progress. He died without any knowledge of Chris- tianity, on the 11th of May, 1819, and his son became king. March 30, 1820, the first family of missionaries landed on the islands, and began the work of civilizing and educating the people. They reduced the language to writing, established presses, schools, and churches, and after a period of only thirty- three years, as large a proportion of the people can read and write as in the United States. The political constitution of the islands has been undergoing a constant melioration since 1820. The tyranny and absolutism of the chiefs have given way to a constitution and code, which have been several times re- vised, and on the 8th of December, 1852, the latest revision was proclaimed to the people. It has been recognised as an independent power by the United States and the principal governments of Europe. The king (Kamehameha HI.) and chiefs have proposed to apply for admission into the American Union, as a guaranty against subjugation and oppression by the French. The Scattered Islands. — Scattered and isolated islands are found on almost every portion of the Pacific ocean. Their general character is the same as that of those already described. Among them may be named Bird's Isle, Necker, Basse Fran^aise, Gardner, Two Brothers' Rock, Maro Reef, Lay- san, Lisianski, Philadelphia, Pearl and Hermes Bank, Cure, Byers, Patro- cinio, Morell, Roco de Plata, Crespo, Roco de Oro of the Spaniards, Roco de Oro or Lot's Wife, Colunas, Ganges, Week's Reef, Krusenstern Rock (to the southwest of Laysan), Mellish Bank (north of Byers), Howland, Arthur, Ke- min's, Jervis, Birney, Phoenix, Sydney, Duke of York's, Duke of Clarence's, Solitaria, Danger or St. Bernardo, Duke Alexander I., Humphrey, Suvarof, Peregrino, Penrhyn, Woodstock, Caroline, New York, Starbuck, Volunteer, Maldon, Brook, Bunker, Christmas, Palmyra, Austral, Fanning, Walker's, Smith's, Oeno, Gambler, Elizabeth, Ducie's, Easter, Sala-y-Gomez, Waihou. APPENDIX A GENERAL VIEW OF ASTRONOMY. Amonq the different branches of science within the compass of human acquirements, few unite greater importance and utility than that wliich explains the phenomena of the earth ; or more pleasure than that which traces the evolutions of those immense orbs that decorate the heavens, and investigates the unerring laws by which they are regulated and governed. The origin of Astronomy commences its date with that of agriculture and society itself. It is, however, to the improvements of the immediately preceding and present age, that we are principally indebted for the high state of astronomical science we are enjoying. The first astronomer, so far as we know, who attempted to make a catalogue of the stars, was HiPP.\RCHUs, of Rhodes, who flourished about 120 years B. C. Having observed a new star which he had never seen before, he began to doubt whether there might not be changes occasionally taking place among these luminaries, and therefore commenced making a cata- logue of them, noting down the position and magnitude of each star, with the view, that if any new star should again appear, or any of those observed by him should increase or be diminished in magnitude, or totally disappear, such changes might be knoM'n to those who should live in future ages. This catalogue, which was handed down to us by Ptolemy, an ancient Egyptian astronomer, has been of special use to modern astronomers, both in deter- mining the precession of the equinoxes, and in proving that certain stars which then existed are no longer to be seen in the heavens ; thus indicating that changes and revolutions are taking place among the distant bodies of the universe. The catalogue of Hipparchus con- tained a description of the places of 1,026 stars. The Arabians are the next whom history represents as having attempted to form a descriptive catalogue of the stars. This was done by Ulug Beigh, the grandson of Tamerlane, from observations made at Samarcand, whose catalogue describes 1,022 stars. Tycho Brahe, the celebrated Danish astronomer, who lived in the sixteenth century, by means of the large and accurate instruments he invented, cata- logued 777 stars, considered to be superior in correctness to his predecessors. He was prompted to this by the appearance of a new star in Cassiopeia, in 1572, which shone with the brilliancy of Venus, and was visible at noonday. Bayer soon after published a catalogue of 1,160 stars, in which he introduced the practice of distinguishing the stars by the Greek alphabet All these catalogues preceded the invention of the telescope, and contained nearly all those which could be seen by the unassisted eye. After the telescope was invented Hebe- lius catalogued 1,888 stars, of which 1,553 were observed by himself, and their places com- puted for the year 1660. Modern astronomers catalogue many thousands of stars, beside nebulie, double, triple, and quadruple stars, (fee. Among the innumerable bodies that appear in the heavens the Sun claims our first con- sideration. To give the reader an idea of the magnitude of this immense body we observe, that if its centre coincided with the centre of the Earth, it would fill the whole orbit of the Moon, and its surface would extend as far again. Again, if we suppose the Earth to be repre- sented by a ball one inch in diameter, the Sun would be represented by a ball nine feet in diameter: or, the Sun is as large as 1,295,029 bodies of the size of the Earth. The Sun is situated near the centre of the orbits of all the planets, and revolves on its axis in 25 days, 14 hours, 8 minutes. This revolution is determined from the motion of certain spots on its surface, which first appear on its eastern extremity, then advance toward the middle, and at length on the western edge, where they disappear. When they have been absent nearly as long as they were visible, they reappear as at first, finishing tlieir entire circuit in 27 days, 12 hours, 20 minutes. The Earth moving in its orbit during the time, in the same direction, makes a return of a given spot of the Sun's surface longer than a revolution of that body upon its axis. To an observer placed on the Sun, all the planets and fixed stars will appear to revolve from east to west in 25^ of our days, nearly, exclusive of the motion which the planets have in their orbits. On the Earth, however, the phenomena are different. From this point of view the planets, instead of the regularity above noticed, will sometimes appear to move toward the east, at other times toward the west, and again to remain stationary. Let a body revolve in the circumference of a circle, and move through equal arcs in equal times, and let an eye in the plane of this circle view the" moving body from a position without the circle, it will readily be perceived that the motion will be neither direct nor uniform, but such as we have already stated. Hence these phenomena prove that the planets do not regard the Earth as their centre of revolution. 490 APPENDIX.— ASTRONOMY. * -..■■■•.;•••.■••■. \ \ -i*" .•■ / .-■ Tpti^is. (O '; ■•. ••. ". •. ••. \ ! : ■ I ' ;■!?'--. V '. '. • : • •. •. ■ ■ \i : • >- -=#il : T : *. ' • ; I * i '. ■ 31, •. '. -•' • • / .■ . • ' / 1* \ V v.. '■••—••..—•—•••'*' \ V \,. THE SOLAB STSTEU. Of all the planets Mercury is nearest to the Sun, and the least of those whose magnitudes are accurately known. Its periodical revolution round the Sun occupies 87 days, 23 hours, 15 minutes, 43 seconds. Its greatest elongation is 28 degrees, 20 minutes, and least 17 de- grees, 36 minutes. Its distance from the Sun is 35,933,620 miles, and its diameter 3,224 miles. It emits a brilliant white light, and twinkles like the fixed stars. Venus, the next planet in order, offers the same phenomena as Mercury, with this diflfer- ence, that its phases are much more sensible, its oscillations or elongations much more extensive, and their period more considerable. Her orbit including that of Mercury, her periodic time is therefore gi'eater. According to the latest and best observations it has a diameter of 7,164 miles, and performs a revolution round the Sun at the distance of 68,000,- 000 miles. The sidereal revolution of Venus round the Sun is 224 days, 16 hours, 49 minutes, 10 seconds. It revolves on its axis in 23 hours, 20 minutes. The mean length of its entire oscillation is 584 days. Here it may be asked, why Venus remains a longer time to the eastward or westward of the Sun than the whole time of her entire revolution ; but when we consider that the relative motion of Venus is greater than her absolute motion, be- cause while Venus is moving around the Sun the Earth is performing its motion around the Sun in the same way, the question is easily answered. The apparent diameter of Venus continually varies, which proves that her distance is va- riable also. Her distance from the Earth being the least at the moment of her transit over the Sun's disk, her apparent diameter will then be the greatest, and will decrease until she arrives at her superior conjunction, where her apparent diameter will be the least As she proceeds her apparent diameter inci-eases till she arrives at her inferior conjunction, where it is again the greatest. When viewed with a telescope, Venus exhibits all the phases of the Moon. Previous to the rising of the Sun in the morning, when she begins to disengage her- self from the Sun's rays, she is seen under the form of a crescent, at which time her apparent diameter is a maximum. The transits of Venus over the Stin's disk are among the most inter- esting phenomena in astronomy, not only from the rarity of their occurrence, but from the important determinations to which they lead. The next planet in the solar system is our own Earth, which revolves around the Sun in 866 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, at the distance of 96,000,000 miles from that luminary, and APPENDIX.— ASTRONOMY. 491 around its own axis in 24 hours. Its diameter is 7,912 miles. While the Earth is revolving around the Sun it is accompanied by the Moon, which moves around the earth in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, at the distance of 240,000 miles. The planet Mars is 4,189 miles in diameter, and revolves around the Sun in 686 days, 28 hours, 18 minutes, at the distance of 144,000,000 miles. He is remarkable for the red color of his light, the brightness of his polar regions, and the great number and variety of spots which mark his surface. • The planet Ceres, which is situated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, was discovered at Palermo, in Sicily, on the 1st of January, 1801. It is of a ruddy color, and appears about the size of a star of the eighth magnitude. Ceres performs her revolution around the Sun in 1,680 days, and her mean distance from that body is nearly 260,000,000 miles. The ob- servations which have been hitherto made upon this body, do not seem sufficiently correct to enable us to determine its magnitude with any degree of accuracy. The planet Pallas was discovered on the 28th of March, 1802. It is situated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, and is nearly of the same magnitude with Ceres, but of a less ruddy color. It is distinguished in a very remarkable manner from Ceres, and from all other primary planets, by the great inclination of its orbit. From the eccentricity of Pallas being greater than that of Ceres, or from a difference of position in the line of their apsides, while their mean distances are nearly equal, the orbits of these two planets mutually intersect each other ; a phenomenon altogether anomalous in the solar system. There are two other small planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, namely, Juno and Vista. The planet Jupiter is 89,170 miles in diameter. He turns around his axis in 9 hours, 65 minutes, 37 seconds, and performs his periodical revolution in 4,330 days, 14 hours, 39 minutes, at the distance of 490,000,000 miles. His form, like that of the Earth, is an oblate spheroid, the equatorial being to the polar diameter as 14 to 13. When Jupiter is viewed through a good telescope he is seen to be surrounded by belts, parallel to his equa- tor. Jupiter has four satellites accompanying him, which may in general be seen with a telescope which magnifies thirty times. The planet S.\turn is 79,042 miles in diameter, and revolves around the Sun in 10,746 days, 19 hours, 16 seconds, at the distance of 900,000,000 miles. He is distinguished from all the other planets by a double ring surrounding his body. This ring casts a deep shadow upon the planet, and appears more luminous than Saturn himself. He is surrounded also by seven satellites, so small, however, and so far distant from the Earth, as only to be seen by the aid of an excellent telescope. From the inequalities in the motion of Jupiter and Saturn, which could not be accoiinted for from the mutual action of these planets, it was inferred by astronomers that there existed another planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, by whose action these irregularities were pro- duced. This conjecture was confirmed by the discovery of Herschel, or Uranus, by Dr. Her- schel. This planet is situated at the distance of 1,800,000,000 miles from the Sun, and per- forms a revolution around that luminary in 83 years, 150 days, 18 hours. Its diameter is about 35,112 miles. It is accompanied by six satellites, all of which were discovered by Dr. Herschel. From the same inequalities above-mentioned, astronomers have concluded that another planet existed beyond Herschel, and the telescope has lately revealed the fact. The dimen- sions and distance from the Sun of this planet (Neptune) have not yet been satisfactorily determined, but the best estimates give the diameter at 42,000 miles, distance from the Sun, 2,854,000,000 miles, and revolution around it 164 years and 226 days. Fixed Stars. — From the most accurate observations, the whole diameter of the Earth's orbit, which may be put at 195,000,000 miles, as seen from the fixed stars, is found to dwindle into a point ; they must therefore be immensely distant from us. From this circum- stance, and that when examined with the most powerful telescopes, their disks appear but as luminous points, it is reasonably inferred that their magnitudes must be very great, and that they shine by their own, and not by reflected light. Whether they have planets revolving around them, as our Sun has, is a question that can not be satisfactorily answered. Analogy would lead us to suppose the affirmative. The mode of ascertaining the distance of the fixed stars is by calculating the angle, if any, at which they are seen at different periods of the year. If the bodies were near enough to appear to change place or direction, when the Earth is at two different points in its orbit, the angle would afford data upon which to calculate the distance of these bodies. For in- stance, the diameter of the Earth's orbit is 195,000,000 of miles. This immense distance is used as the base line, and an angle subtended from the star to this line would give a basis for calculation. In the month of June, a star that passes through the zenith of any place in north latitude will, in December, pass south of the zenith ; and a star that in December passes through the zenith, will, in June, pass to the north of it, if there be any sensible parallax. It is found that there is no parallax — that is, there is not the slightest variation in place in the fixed stars — the distance from the Earth being so great, that the diameter of the orbit (195,000,000 miles) is not sufficient to afford an angle, even of one second, fi'om which to 492 APPENDIX— ASTRONOMY. calculate. A parallax of one second determines the distance to be 212,000 times greater than from the Earth to the Sun ; so that if the angle subtended by the Earth's diameter, as seen from Sirius (considered the nearest of the fixed stars) was one second, its distance would not be less than 20,000,000,000,000 miles. It is the very least distance at which any of the fixed stars are placed from our globe ; but as there is no sensible parallax, their distance must be much greater. Suppose a cannon-ball to fly 500 miles an hour, it would require 4,595,000 years to reach the nearest star, if we place it at the distance stated. Dr. Robert Hook, of Gre- sham college, was one of the first to propose the parallax of the stars, and the first to attempt its solution. Wollaston has calculated, as Sir J. Herschel says, on grounds open to no objection, that the light of Sirius, as received by us, is to that of the Sun as 1 to 20,000,000,000,000. The Sun, therefore, to be no brighter than Sirius, would require to be removed 141,400 times it« actual distance. But the distance of Sirius is not so small as 200,000 times that of the Sun. Hence, the light of Sirius can not be so small as double that of the Sun ; consequently the splendor of that star must be greater than that of two Suns. The greater part of the fixed stars are collected into clusters, of which it requires a large magnifying power, with a great quantity of light, to be able to distinguish the stars sepa- rately. With a telescope of small magnifying power and light, these clusters appear like small whitish spots, and thence were called nebulce. With a more powerful one they become clusters of stars. Their number increases. When one nebula is resolved others present themselves, until the observer perceives that all these appearances must arise from the con- fined situation in which he himself is placed. There are some nebulse, however, that do not receive their light from stars. There is one in the middle of Orion's sword ; it contains only seven stars, the other part being a bright spot upon a dark ground, and appears like an opening into brighter regions beyond. The number of stars visible to the naked eye at any one time is about 1,000. Every improvement of the telescope brings to notice stars unknown before, hence we may conclude that there are no limits to their number. Dr. Herschel remarks that a nebula, whose light is milky, cannot be at a less distance than 120,000,000,000,000,000 miles ; so that a ray of light, which traverses the immense space between the Sun and Earth in 8 minutes 7^ seconds, would take 36,000 years at least to reach us from such a nebula. How sublime are the thoughts which the contemplation of such a stupendous machine excite in the mind. The Milky Way. — Sir William Herschel has made many observations on this region of the heavens. His instrument, or telescope, of twenty feet focal length, resolved all the whitish ap- pearance into stars, 50,000 of which, large enough to be distinctly numbered, he calculated to cross the field of vision every hour. " In the most crowded parts of the Milky Way," he says, "I have had fields of view that contained no fewer than 688 stars, and these continued for many minutes, so that in one quarter of an hour's time there passed no less than 116,000 stars through the field of view of my telescope." At another time no less than 258,000 stars passed before his view in 41 minutes. He calculated that his telescope reached into space 497 times the distance of Sirius, so that a range of stars containing 497, each behind the other as far as from the Earth to Sirius, was before his view. It is impossible to conceive of the distance at which these bodies are placed from us, or of the magnitudes of bodies seen at such distances. In the attempt to grasp them the mind is bewildered and lost Comets. — Besides the primary planets, and their satellites already described, there are, belonging to our system, other bodies called Comets ; these appear suddenly in the planetary regions, and again disappear. They move around the sun in elliptic orbita, but very eccentric, so that the comet is visible in a small part of it only. They are distinguished from other stars from their being attended with a long train of light, always opposite the sun, and which is of a fainter lustre the farther it is from the body. Hence comets are commonly divided into bearded, tailed and hairy. This division, however, relates not to different comets, but rather to the several appearances of the same comet Thus, when the comet is westward of the Sun, and moves from it, it is said to be bearded, because the tail precedes it in the form of a beai-d ; when the comet is west of the Sun, and approach- ing that luminary, it is said to be tailed, because the light or tail follows it Again, when the comet is in opposition to the sun, the train is hidden behind the body of the comet, ex- cept a small portion which gives it a hairy appearance. There have been various theories concerning the nature of these bodies, which it would be out of place here to repeat The safest method of obtaining the periodic times of the comets is to compare the elements of all those which have been computed, and when any are found to agree nearly, it may be concluded that they are the elements of the same comet EcLD'SES. — An eclipse of the Moon is evidently caused by the interposition of some opaque body, which deprives it of the light of the Sun; and it is equally evident that this opaque body is the Earth, as an eclipse of the Moon never happens but at the full Moon, or when the Moon is in opposition, at which time the Earth is between her and the Sun, and projects behind it relatively to the Sun a conical shadow, the axis of which is the straight line which joins the centres of the Sun and the Earth, and terminates in a point where the apparent diameters of these two bodies are equal Hence the cone of the terrestrial shadow is at least APPENDIX.— GEOLOGY. 493 three times the length of the Moon's distanoe from the Earth, and at the points, where it ia crossed by the Moon, it is more than double her diameter. Hence there would be a lunar eclipse at every full Moon, if the plane of the Moon's orbit coincided with the plane of the ecliptic. But these planes are inclined to each other at an angle of 5 degrees 17 minutes nearly, and from this inclination the Moon in opposition is often elevated above or depressed below the Earth's shadow, and does not ent«r it, except when it is in or near her nodes. If the whole of the disk is immersed in the shadow, the eclipse is total ; if only a portion of the disk be obscured it is partial. ^ The different eclipses of the ~~~-~~,..,/^'N Moon which may happen is ' ^— ^=-^ H ^ <^_^j^' H ^^^^^p H resent a section of the Earth's •J o o shadow, at the distance of the Moon from the Earth, and M the Moon. Now, if tbe full Moon happens as in position 1, the Moon will touch the Earth's shadow without entering it, hence there will be no eclipse. In position 2 a part of the Moon will pass through the Earth's shadow, and there will be a partial eclipse. In position 3 the whole Moon passes through the Earth's shadow, and there is a total elipse. If the Moon's centre passes through the centre of the shadow, the eclipse is central and total. Hence it is evident, that whether an eclipse will happen at full Moon, or not, depends upon the Moon's distance from the node at that time. An eclipse of the Sun is caused by the interposition of the Moon between the Sun and the Earth, or by the shadow of the Moon falling on the Earth ; for it is only at the time of new Moon, or when the Moon is in conjunction, that a solar eclipse can happen. The different eclipses of the Sun may be explained by a diagram similar to the above. There may be seven eclipses in a year, five of the Sun and two of the Moon, but there can be no more : there may be, however, only two eclipses in a year, both of the Sun ; this is the least number that can happen. GEOLOGY. This modern, but most interesting and noble branch of scientific inquiry, aims to make ua acquainted with the structure of the globe, the rocks of which it is composed, the order of their arrangement, their mineral and fossil treasures, their economical uses, and the vast and inconceivable forces which have been exerted in producing the present physical condition of the earth. These diversified investigations demand the most accurate and profound scientific attainments and skill — giving employment to the chemist, botanist, mineralogist^ naturalist, anatomist, and historian — the philosopher who measures the mechanical powers, the mete- orologist, who studies the various modifications which climatic influences produce on the earth's surface, and the astronomer, who weighs the spheres. There is scarcely a branch of knowledge which does not become tributary to the elucidation of geological facts, phenom- ena, or principles, so wide and diversified is the field. Geology as a distinct system of scientific research and discussion, had no existence until toward the close of the last century. Although various writers had occasionally noted iso- lated facts or curious phenomena, it was reserved to the close of the eighteenth century to give this department of inquiry a positive place in the labor of scientific men. At that time, Werner, a professor in the school of Mines, at Freyburg, Saxony, uniting the ardor of en- thusiasm with large attainments, went into the field, gathered up his facts, and founded thereon his doctrines of the earth. Taking the physical characteristics of his own country as a basis, he applied his reasoning to the surface of the whole earth. But the geological fea- tures of Saxony being different from those of other countries, the fame of the new professor and his doctrines attracted many observers and students to his school, and workers in this novel field began to multiply. Ilutton, a Scotch philosopher, convinced of the utter incon- sistency of the Wernerian, or, as it was called, the Neptun/in theory, published his own, founded on facts chiefly observed among the volcanic and wild mountain scenery of Scot- land and the neighboring islands. His theory, called the Plutonian or Volcanic, ascribed to igneous agency the phenomena of the earth, in opposition to the aqueous system of Werner. The discussion between the rival theorists and their disciples waxed warm, when, after some time, the importance of f.icts becoming constantly more obvious, the London Geological Society was formed in 1807, and the science has constantly progressed, until it has become, next to astronomy, the most splendid domain for research ana discovery of the present age. GEOLOGICAL DIAGRAM, ReDrPBentine the order in which the different strata lie upon each other; thU order is never inverted, although many (.una may be absent, and in some districts one of the lowest systems may be tound immediately below the surface. groups may OltGANlC KEMAINS. CHARACTER. SYSTEMS. USES IN THE ARTS. LOCALITIES. Man. Colossal Animals Proportion of existing species 49 por cent. The Mastodon. Proportion of existing species 18 per cent. Fresh-Water Shells. Mari'e Mammalia Proportion of existing species 3 per cent. PaloBotherium. Remains almost entirely Marine, Spongfcs, Corals, Mollusca, Crustacea, Reptiles. First Mammalia, Tortoises, Ammonites. Crustacea. Insects, Flying Lizards. The Iguanodon. Large Saurlans. " The Age of Reptiles." Saurians, The Chiotherium I Luxuriant Vegetation, Ferns, Palms, and other Gigantic Plants. Marine Shells and Plants. Lily Encrinite, Immense Shell- Fish. Zoophytes. Vertebrated Fish, Marine Plants, and Shells. Corals, Shell-Fish, Trilobites, Seaweeds. Polypi, Worms, and species of Molusca. Earth and Vege- table Deposite. Sand, Gravel, Clay Drift, Erratic Blocks. Crag, Marine Conglomerates. Limestones, Clay. Marine Marls, Crag Sandstone. Clay, Gypsum, Limestone. Chalk with and without flints, Marls, Green sand. Clay, Sand, with iron ore, ArgillaceouB Sandstone. Limestone, Limestone with Shales, Sec. Fine Sandstone, Magnesian Lime- stone. Coal-beds, and bandstone, with Ironstone, Clay, and impure Limestone. Millstone Grit, Sandstone. Mountain Limestone, or Sandstone. Sandstone. Conglomerates, Limestone. NO ORGANIC REMAINS. Sandstone and Slaty Limestone. Slate rocks and Limestone. Sandstone. Mica slate, and Quartz rocks. Gneiss, and Quartz rocks. ^^<-^vMmmmiEm^M ';^^^^§S^1?fo'?^^^£i^^ H4EWAE D-^A>tD,^TON |^ ^^^a^^fFFFtltW3= rSftSSES* S^Q^M^^^S: Various. Building, Paving, &c. Potteries, Agriculture, Building. Potteries, Models, Arcbj^cture. Building, and Road making, Agriculture, Manufactures. Potteries, Iron Manufac. Paving, &c. Building, Potteries, Architecture, Building. Architecture. Fuel, Gas, Building, Iron Manufac. Potteries, Various. Millstones, Paving, &c. Building, and various. Building, Paving, Architecture. Building, and various. Roofing, Paving, Statuary, ifec. Building, Ornaments. Various. Delta of the Mietifsippi, &.C. (ieneraL Apennines, Greece, Asia, France, Switzerland, Spain. America. London, Paris, Egypt, America. England. United States. England, France, Indi I. United States, England. England, Nova Scotia, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, &c. Pennsylvanis. Scotland, England. United States. Russia, England. N'i'w England, New York Island. Great Britain. APPENDIX— GEOLOGY. 495 For the present brief notice we have presented a columnar section of the earth, which will give the reader a bird's-eye view of the present state of geological knowledge. Various systems of classification have been proposed, but that which has become most general among geologists is, — 1, Primitive; 2, Transition; 3, Secondary; 4, Tertiary; 5, Diluvium ; 6, Allu- vium. These grand divisions are subdivided into many members of the series, which bear distinguishing features, whether of form, or the fossil remains imbedded in them. Granite, which underlies tlie whole, probably in every part of the globe, at a greater or less depth from the surface, is a rock composed of two or three minerals, mica, feldspar, and quartz — sometimes without mica, or that mineral replaced with something else, hornblende for exam- ple. It is more or less crystalline, or close and fine-grained, and is a very common and durable rock, used for building. It occurs extensively protruded at the surface, or raised to tall and precipitous mountain peaks, whose bare and rugged sides resist the changes of centuries. These mountains of granite are seen protruded up through beds of other rocks, which have evidently been deposited and stratified in still water — a proof that these mountains have been raised by volcanic forces, after tlie consolidation of the latter, which are inclined in po- sitions nearly or quite parallel to the face of the granite which supports them. Trap Rocks form a class of unstratified rocks, often of very considerable extent, which are bo called from a Swedish word trappa, a stair or step, on account of their terraced external form. Greenstone, basalt, phonolite, diorite, trachyte, (fee, are specific names, used to distinguish the varieties. The Palisades, which form the precipitous cliffs of the Hudson river for many- miles above IS'ew York city, are of the greenstone varieties. This rock runs south, through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and into Virginia, where it bears in a southwesterly direction. The same rock skirts the east side of the Bay of Fundy, with high mural cliffs of the same description. The basalt is columnar, and presents some of the most romantic and singular pictures of scenery in the world. The north part of Ireland is particularly remarkable for the " Giant's Causewaj"^," where the columns are composed of blocks having regular geomet- ric forms. The columns vary in the number of their angles, being from three to twelve, but usually from five to seven. They are composed of blocks, or joints, which vary likewise in length and diiun^'ter, but ranging between six and sixteen inches. These joints are concave on the upper, and convex on the under surface, fitting into each other firmly. There are some grand examples of the columnar basalt in Oregon, along the Columbia river, and neigh- boring trappean districts. VoLCAMC Rocks, such as lava, in its various forms, occur on or near the surface, in contact with active or extinct volcanoes, and are often an important index to the true character of a district where the fires have long ceased to burn. Gneiss, the second in ascending order, is usually found over the granite; and having the same mineral constitution, it is believed to be the consolidated sediment of broken down and disintegrated fragments of granite, deposited in the sea which covered them. This rock is a hard, tough, and very durable material for buildings, and is the rock of New York island, through which the Harlem tunnel is cut, and which "crops out" at so many localities on the island. It is stratified, and oftentimes singularly contorted, as though by lateral and per- pendicular pressure operating at the same time. Mica Schist or Mica Slate differs from gneiss in the absence of feldspar, the greater pre- dominance of mica, and the more perfect slaty structure. It passes gradually into gneiss. It is frequently found profusely studded with garnet and staurotide, two crystallized minerals which are freely distributed in the schist. This rock passes into clay slate and talcose slate. Primary Limestone, Quartz Rock, Clay Slate, and Roofing and Drawing Slate, occur more or less associated with the primary rocks, the latter becoming more decided in their character as we approach the — Silurian System of Murchison, or the Transition System of "Werner. The latter name was ^ given these rocks because in them occur the first evidences of organized bodies, such as sea- weeds, corals, shell-fish, worms, j3^fe^.3cpa^.,,g^i^^^tfe^tj3j^^ife^